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Introduction
Mental toughness in athletics is described as the ability to cope with the stress and
anxiety associated with a physical activity, and respond to such adversities with confidence,
resiliency, and loyalty to others (Jones, 2002). Athletes and coaches often refer to mental
toughness as the most important indicator of athletic success; without the ability to cope, reflect
resilience, display confidence and reliability to others, an athletes skills cannot be displayed
(Jones, 2002). The concept of mental toughness implies that behaviours are determined by ones
attitudes about the expected outcomes of their behaviours, the extent to which they want to
comply with or belong to a group of others, and their perceived ability to control their
behaviours. Similarly, the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) explains that behaviours are
determined by these three main tenets: attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural
control (PBC) (Armitage & Connor, 2001; Baban & Craciun, 2007). This paper reports the
findings of a self-change project that applied the TPB to develop mental toughness pertaining
specifically to running in order to reap the holistic health benefits of the activity. The below
sections provide a review of the methods used in the project including changes made since the
proposal, a presentation of the outcomes of the project including an analysis of the findings, a
conclusive commentary on the change process, and recommendations for future use. Due to the
personal nature of the self-change project, this report will feature first-person reflections.
Methods
Interventions
The proposed self-change project included a behaviour intervention (run-walk program), a
cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) intervention (thought change record), and an expressive arts
therapy (EAT) intervention. The behavioural intervention featured a modified version of the run-
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walk program designed by McNeill and the Sport Medicine Council of British Columbia
(SMCBC) (2012). The program consists of varied times of running and walking two days per
week for six weeks that increased in running overtime (see Appendix A). Wright, Basco, and
Thases (2006) thought change record was proposed as the CBT intervention that aimed to assist
in the reformulating of positive self-talk messages that challenge existing cognitive distortions
pertaining to running. The thought change record was intended to address attitudes and PBC
related to running. The EAT tool was proposed as an outlet for affective explorations to assist in
the development of self-efficacy as suggested by the work of Ansari and Lalani (2014). Based on
the intentions of self-efficacy building, I chose an arts medium that appealed to my interests and
strengths that could serve as a metaphorical affirmation for me during the change process. Using
acrylic paints and canvas, I designed a three-piece project of a tree (roots, trunk, and branches)
that I would complete in three stages (pre-program, mid-point, and post-program) (Appendix B).
Additionally, I intended to share my installations of this painting with others on social media to
utilize the support of subjective norms during my self-change project.
Assessments
Based on the assumption that positive self-schemas promote positive health-related
behaviours and overall wellness (Sheeran & Orbell, 2000), in addition to tracking running
distances, two main assessment tools were proposed pre and post-program: Wright et al.s (2006)
schema inventory and the Holistic Lifestyle Questionnaire (HLQ) (National Wellness Institute,
2014). I completed my pre-assessments on the same day that I began the EAT component of the
project and decided that in order to determine whether my sense of personal efficacy was
impacted by the engagement in a creative affective outlet, I needed to scale my perceived selfefficacy following my EAT activities. I administered a self-assessment of my self-efficacy
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specifically pertaining to running after I completed the first phase of the painting, and
subsequently following the remaining two installments (1 being low self-efficacy and 10 being
high self-efficacy). Similarly, after the first thought change record entry, I noticed that my ability
to challenge my negative thoughts contributed to my sense of control over my experiences while
running; if I could reverse my negative self-talk (associated with distorted cognitions), then I
would be mentally stronger and more able to attain my goal. Appropriately related to the TPB
model, I decided to scale my PBC before and after each run (1 being low perceived control and
10 being high perceived control). Therefore the final version of my self-change project report
featured the following assessments: a running distance, self-reported self-efficacy, self-reported
PBC, schema inventory (Wright et al., 2006), and HLQ (National Wellness Institute, 2014).
Outcomes
In response to a significant lack of self-efficacy pertaining to running, the proposed goal of
my self-change project was to change my attitude towards running so that I could benefit
physically, mentally, socially, and spiritually from the activity. I determined that if I was
mentally stronger, then my attitudes would be more positive and running would be more
beneficial. Therefore the associated sub-goals of my self-change project were as follows:
engagement in a run-walk program as a venue for holistic health practices, improvement of selfefficacy and personal compassion related to running through a creative outlet (as assessed by the
self-reported self-efficacy scaling following the EAT tool), improvement of PBC as a by-product
of CBT thought change techniques (as assessed by the self-reported PBC pre-and post-run),
positive changes in schematic presentation (i.e. the addition of a positive schema and/or the
removal of a negative schema (as assessed by Wright et al.s (2006) schema inventory), and
improvement in overall wellbeing (as assessed by the HQL (National Wellness Institute, 2014)).
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An analysis and commentary of the specific outcomes of the self-change project is provided
below with labeled subsections.
Running Distance
The modified McNeill and SMCBC (2012) run-walk program featured twelve sessions
with varying ratios of running and walking and intervals (see Appendix A). The objectives of the
McNeill and SMCBC (2012) run-walk program are to increase the number of running minutes,
and decrease the number of walking minutes strategically using intervallic sessions (McNeill &
SMCBC, 2012). The McNeill and SMCBC (2012) run-walk program does not focus on running
distance however in order for me to objectify my skill development and solidify my attitudes
towards the activity, I tracked my distances. My distances varied based on the ratio and interval
of each session, however I was able to increase my running distance throughout the program
(Figure 1).
Knowing that the structure of the McNeill and SMCBC (2012) run-walk program would
emit increased running distances overtime provided that I engage in the intervals, I was able to
use my tracked distances as evidence for self-efficacy. Because I began the self-change project
with the belief that I was unable to run outside of soccer, tracking increasing running distances
showed me that I could succeed in non-sport related running activity. Related to Azjen and
Fishbeins (1977) behaviour change model, tracking running distances allowed for a new belief
to be introduced into my existing running cognitive construct; this new belief stated I can run
____ number of minutes and then walk _____ number of minutes, for ____km which directly
challenged the existing belief that I can only run in soccer.
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Figure 1
Run Distances
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy is a self-judgment of ones overall ability to complete tasks (Jones, 2002).
Ansari and Lalani (2014) noted that self-efficacy is required to overcome the psychological
challenges associated with physical activities, such as running. According to Ansari and Lalani
(2014), releasing affective experiences associated with challenges (i.e. frustrations associated
with physical and psychological challenges) in a creative outlet allows for self-efficacious
development. To promote adaptive coping, emotional restoration, and motivation, as
recommended by Ansari and Lalani (2014), a three-part EAT project was completed and selfefficacy was scaled following each installment. My perspective on my overall ability to
overcome adversities improved with the completion of each component of the EAT project and
thus throughout the self-change project (Table 1). The practice of completing a painting project
was restorative, personally rewarding, and noticeably calming. I intended to use this project as an
emotional outlet for my self-change frustrations but also as a venue to display the
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accomplishments of completing each run. The choice to paint a tree was intentionally symbolic
of growth and development and served as a reminded that each run lays the necessary
groundwork for the next one; the first stage of the process established the roots, the second built
a strong trunk, and third offered branches for the leaves of success.
With the completion of each installment, I was reminded of the mini-successes I attained
(completing the first run, challenging cognitive distortions, and running further) and I was able to
share each piece with family and friends via social media for support. Integrating the
perspectives of others into my self-change project allowed me to take optimal advantage of
subjective norms. Knowing that social media commenters were most likely to share supportive
feedback regarding my change process and my artistic display, I was able to create a community
of motivators that I did not want to let down; their support motivated me to hold myself
accountable to this project. The self-reported efficacy ratings reflect my improved sense of selfability, support the use of EAT in health change projects and the channeling of subjective norms,
and contributed to a positive shift in my attitude towards running.
Table 1
Self-Efficacy Ratings
Date
June 7, 2015
June 24, 2015
July 15, 2015
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external barriers (Baban & Cracium, 2007). Prior to the commencement of the self-change
project, my PBC pertaining to running was low; I perceived the personal obstacles to success in
this realm as too great. My low PBC was maintained by negative self-talk, and past running
program failures. Following the completion of each run, I documented a significant negative
self-talk message, identified its associated cognitive distortion and created a healthier applicable
self-talk message (see Appendix C). Consequently, throughout the self-change project, my PBC
was reflected by the level of perceived success of the previous run and the perceived experience
of the current run (Figure 2). If I was able to effectively challenge my cognitive distortions
during the run and complete the run as planned, I ranked my PBC as higher. Additionally, if my
previous run was successful, as defined in the previous sentence, then my starting PBC (pre-run
scale) for the next run tended to be higher. An analysis of pre- and post-run PBC suggests that
PBC is positively and negatively influenced by internal experiences associated with the
execution of a behaviour. Negative labeling of an experience (i.e. this is brutal and I cant keep
going) led to a decrease or maintenance of the current level PBC, a shorter running distance,
and a decrease in overall perception of ability, as reflected in the pre-run scaling of the
subsequent run. Therefore, it can be concluded that PBC is influenced by the presence of
negative self-talk (i.e. the presence of cognitive distortions), and consequently the ability to meet
health change goals; when cognitions reflected healthy schematic representations (i.e. I can do
this), PBC increased, and running distances improved.
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Figure 2
PBC Pre- and Post-Run
Schema Inventory
Using the Wright et al. (2006) schema inventory, healthy and unhealthy schematic
representations were documented before and after the self-change project. Table 2 displays the
pre-program assessment of schematic representations. Related to my experiences with failed
running attempts, dysfunctional schemas that were noted included if I make a mistake, Ill lose
everything and I can never finish anything. Reflective of my anxious motivation to succeed, I
noted the dysfunctional schema if I choose to do something, I must succeed. Healthy schemas
that were particularly applicable to this self-change project included, if I work hard at
something, I can master it and I can learn from my mistakes and become a better person. The
post-program inventory (Table 3) reflects a positive shift in the cognitive structures I maintain
about myself. In addition to maintaining all of the previously noted healthy schemas, I
recognized an interest in being challenged. The experience of using therapeutic tools on myself
to overcome a challenge was physically and psychologically rewarding and therefore I was able
to integrate a new cognitive structure that reflects positive experiences with challenges.
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Table 3
Post-Program Schema Inventory
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Figure 4
HLQ Post-Program
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self-change project that my attitude towards running was preventing me from engaging in the
activity and my PBC was preventing me from succeeding with it. Baban and Craciun (2007)
noted that PBC is determined by perceived presence of absence of the internal and external
resources in order to gain control over ones behaviours. Baban and Craciun (2007) explained
that in order for the TPB to be predictive of health change behaviours, one must have access to
applicable resources and social support. The model of TPB worked for me because although my
attitude towards running was fairly poor, I knew that I had the tools to succeed (physical ability,
social support, CBT techniques, and an EAT outlet). Therefore in order to make a health change
program applicable to a client, suitability to a model should be determined. For example, if I
were to recreate this program for someone who is at high-risk for exposure to cyber-bullying or
health-damaging peer pressure, I may determine that the risks of using subjective norms as a
strategy for change, as with the TPB model, outweigh the potential benefits.
Regarding CBT Techniques
The theory of CBT states that cognitions work to control emotions and behaviours and
consequently, behaviours impact emotional and cognitive experiences (Wright et al., 2006). The
work of researchers such as Hatziegeogiadis and Biddle (2008) highlights the interdependent
nature of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours and suggests CBT interventions as logical and
appropriate for changing health-related behaviours. The empirical support for CBT thought
change techniques with athletes (Doyne et al., 1987; Sheeran & Orbell, 2000; Hatziegeogiadis &
Biddle, 2008) such as the one used in my self-change project further support CBT as an
interventional approach health change. Although I found the thought change record to be time
consuming, I cant deny how effective it was at helping me identify distorted thoughts and how
they negatively impacted my physical success. Wright et al. (2006) explain that exploring
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cognitive distortions and schematic representations are prerequisites of using the thought change
record. Although this technique was appropriate for my existing understanding of myself, it
might be more applicable to introduce health change behaviours at other stages of the theoretical
and therapeutic process. For example, it would also be appropriate to introduce a health change
program such as this one at the exploratory stages of cognitions, feelings, and actions. Instead of
a thought change record, tracking cognitions, affect, and behaviours during a physical activity
could be appropriate for gathering evidence for the challenging of negative self-talk.
Regarding EAT Techniques
Ansari and Lalani (2014) used EAT to help recovering athletes process their injuries,
engage in critical thinking, and express their affective experience in a creative manner to
promote emotional restoration, adaptive coping, and motivation to heal. Ansari and Lalani
(2014) recognized that the psychological experience of an injury can greatly impact the physical
healing of the injury itself but can also dictate future behaviours and was thus healing-oriented
and proactive in nature. Many recovering athletes experience negative self-talk that impedes
their athletic success and contributes to symptoms of anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic
stress (Ansari & Lalani, 2014). What I found to be interesting about the work of Ansari and
Lalani (2014) is that my previous failed attempts to engage in running produced similar
psychological experiences to that of an injured athlete and therefore integrating an EAT
component to this project allowed for healing to occur. Although I recognize that EAT
techniques catered to my existing healthy coping mechanisms, involving a self-care component
that aims to release the affective experiences and promote restoration is key to resilience and
necessary for the success of health change (Ansari & Lalani, 2014).
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References
Ansari, K., & Lalani, F. (2014). Expressive arts therapy as a psychological intervention
following sport injury. International Journal of Physical Education & Sports Science, 9,
31-57. Retrieved from http://www.usindh.edu.pk/shield/The-Shield-Vol-092014.pdf#page=37
Armitage, C. J., & Conner, M. (2001). Efficacy of the theory of planned behaviour: A
meta-analytic review. British Journal of Social Psychology, 40(4), 471-499. doi:
10.1348/014466601164939
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1977). Attitude-behavior relations: A theoretical analysis and review
of empirical research. Psychological Bulletin, 84(5), 888-918. doi: 10.1037/00332909.84.5.888
Baban, A., & Craciun, C. (2007). Changing health-risk behaviors: A review of theory and
evidence-based interventions in health psychology. Journal of Cognitive and Behavioral
Psychotherapies, 7(1), 45-67. doi: 10.4567/200705358004
Bodin, M., & Hartig, T. (2003). Does the outdoor environment matter for psychological
restoration gained through running?. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 4(2), 141-153.
doi: 10.1016/S1469-0292(01)00038-3
Doyne, E. J., Ossip-Klein, D. J., Bowman, E. D., Osborn, K. M., McDougall-Wilson, I. B., &
Neimeyer, R. A. (1987). Running versus weight lifting in the treatment of depression.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55(5), 748. doi: 10.1037/0022006X.55.5.748
Hatzigeorgiadis, A., & Biddle, S. J. H. (2008). Negative self-talk during sport performance:
Relationships with pre-competition anxiety and goal-performance discrepancies. Journal
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Dates
Sunday June 7,
2015
Monday June
8, 2015
Wednesday
June 10, 2015
Monday June
15, 2015
Thursday June
18, 2015
Monday June
22, 2015
Thursday June
24, 2015
Monday June
29, 2015
Thursday July
2, 2015
Monday July
6, 2015
Thursday July
8, 2015
Monday July
13, 2015
Wednesday
July 15, 2015
Activities
Post-Activities
Expressive arts therapy, holistic lifestyle questionnaire, schema
inventory
Session 1: Run 4 minutes, walk 2
Thought change record
minutes repeat 7 times (42 minutes)
Session 2: Run 4 minutes, walk 2
Thought change record
minutes repeat 8 times (48 minutes)
Session 3: Run 5 minutes, walk 1
Thought change record
minute repeat 7 times (42 minutes)
Session 4: Run 5 minutes, walk 1
Thought change record
minute repeat 8 times (48 minutes)
Session 5: Run 7 minutes, walk 2
Thought change record
minutes repeat 5 times (45 minutes)
Session 6: Run 7 minutes, walk 2
Thought change record
minutes repeat 6 times (54 times)
Expressive arts therapy
Session 7: Run 10 minutes, walk 1
Thought change record
minute repeat 4 times (44 minutes)
Session 8: Run 12 minutes, walk 1
Thought change record
minute repeat 4 times (52 minutes)
Session 9: Run 15 minutes, walk 1
Thought change record
minute repeat 3 times (48 minutes)
Session 10: Run 17 minutes, walk 1
Thought change record
minute repeat 3 times (54 minutes)
Session 11: Run 20 minutes, walk 1
Thought change record
minute repeat 2 times (41 minutes)
Session 12: Run 22 minutes, walk 1
Thought change record
minute repeat 2 times (46 minutes)
Expressive arts therapy
Holistic lifestyle
questionnaire
Schema inventory
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June 7, 2015