PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC)

Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Category B2

Sub Module 7.15 - Welding, Brazing, Soldering and Bonding

MODULE 7
Sub Module 7.15

WELDING, BRAZING, SOLDERING AND BONDING

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Contents
SOLDERING ----------------------------------------------------------------- 1
METHODS OF SOLDERING -------------------------------------------- 5
INSPECTION AND TESTING OF SOLDERED JOINTS-------- 11

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soldering, but these types of soldering are not usually

encountered in the general workshop.

SOLDERING
Soldering differs from welding in that it is done at considerably
lower temperatures so that the parent metals do not melt and
fuse together.

Soldering irons

The word solder does, in fact, come from the same stem as the
word solid (as does the American term, which is pronounced
sodder, for the same process).

A soldering iron consists essentially of a copper bit secured to

a holder, to which is fitted a heat-resistant handle. The bit varies
in weight, according to the nature of the work for which the iron
is intended. Normally for general workshop, bits of 4 ounce are
used and adequate for most purposes, but very small bits may
needed for ultra-light soldering in very confined positions. The
bit is the heat reservoir of the tool, and it must be large enough
to heat the job adequately never try to do sizeable job with a
small iron, the result is always disappointing, if not actually
unsatisfactory. The following types of solder iron are available.

General

Common

Soldering is a process of joining metals by flowing a low melting

point alloy termed solder, between the surfaces that are to be
joined. It is essentially an alloying process in which certain
elements in the solder combine with the metals of the joint, and
this is only possible if clean metal and clean molten solder are
brought into effective contact. A flux material which removes
oxide from the metal faces and facilitates the flow and adhesion
of the solder is therefore, and essential requirement for soft
soldering. The basic equipment required for normal soldering
operations is a soldering iron of suitable type and a source of
heat (these may be combined, as in the electric soldering iron),
solder of the correct composition for the job in hand and a
suitable flux-more elaborate equipment is needed for such
special applications of the process as sweating and dip

Tow typical forms of common soldering iron are the hatchet type
and straight type. The bits, which are renewable, are heated in
a fire or the flame of a brazing lamp.

Instead, a fusible and, usually, non-ferrous alloy (with a lower

melting point) is applied between the heated metals of the joint,
such that the fusible alloy forms a metallic bond with the parent
metals and, on cooling, creates a solid joint.

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Electric

Tinning

These tools are available in various sizes and shape with

heating elements suitable for most supply voltages. There are
two typical examples of electric soldering irons; one is intended
for worth work such as soldering small electrical connections,
while the other is suitable for general workshop use. The light
type may weight only a few ounces and have a pointed
cylindrical bit of 1/8 inch or 3/16 inch diameter, with a heater
element rated at as little as 20 watts for use on a 6-volt supply
other heaters are suitable for use on normal main-supply
voltages (200-250 volts). The larger types are effective
instruments for general soldering, work, with substantial bits and
heaters rated at up to 250 watts. These irons are, as a rule, only
available for use on normal main supply. Temperature control of
electric soldering irons is made possible by the incorporation of
heater switches. These are usually fitted in the flexible cable of
the tool, but many of the light types, which attain soldering heat
very rapidly, have thumb-type switches in the handles to ensure
that the iron is automatically switched off when not actually in
use MOX

Before an iron can be used for soldering, the contact surfaces

must be given a coating of tin or solder this process is called
tinning the iron, and is called out as follows:

The faces on the end of the copper bit are cleaned with
a file to remove all dirt, oxide and roughness.
The bit is heated to a temperature where it will just melt
solder flux is applied to the hot bit, and solder is rubbed
against it: the tin or solder will adhere to and leave a
smooth coating over the faces forming the point of the
bit.

This type of iron was originally introduced for outside use

where neither electric power nor other heating medium is
available. The copper bit incorporates a circular cavity in which
is placed a mox (Magnesium and Aluminium oxide) tablet is lit
by a special match, and in burning it raises the temperatures of
the bit to soldering heat. (The residue of the tablet must be
shaken out of the cavity before using the iron). There irons are
now rarely used.

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Precautions
The following precautions should be observed when using
soldering irons:

The ideal working temperature for the iron is just high

enough to melt the solder easily; overheating causing
chalkiness in solder and responsible for unsatisfactory
joints and it is also encourages the formation of oxide on
the bit, thus necessitating repeated cleaning and retinning.
Systematic use of the heater switch enables an electric
iron to be kept at optimum temperature, while frequent
alight reheating of a common iron is always preferable to
less frequent but more protracted re-heating.

When heating a common iron, always direct the flame of

the brazing lamp at the base of the bit, not at the point.

Avoid excessive use of soldering fluid or flux too much

flux tends to lower the temperature of the iron and also
promotes corrosion of the bit.

Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron.

They are very hot (about 400C) and will give you a
nasty burn.

Take great care to avoid touching the mains lead with

the tip of the iron.

The iron should have a heatproof lead for extra

protection. An ordinary plastic lead will melt immediately
if touched by a hot iron and there is a serious risk of
burns and electric shock.

Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not in

use.

Never put it down on your workbench, even for a

moment!

Work in a well-ventilated area.

The smoke formed as you melt solder is mostly from the

flux and quite irritating. Avoid breathing it by keeping you
head to the side of, not above, your work.

Wash your hands after using solder.

Solder contains lead, which is a poisonous metal.

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Solders
Any discussion of soldering techniques should include an
explanation of solder itself. Ordinary soft solder is a fusible alloy
consisting chiefly of tin and lead. It is used to join two or more
metals at temperatures below their melting point. In addition to
tin and lead, soft solders occasionally contain varying amounts
of antimony, bismuth, cadmium, or silver. These are added to
change the melting point or physical properties of the alloy.
Ordinary table salt has to be heated to 1,488F before it melts.
However, when a little water is added, it dissolves easily at
room temperature. The action of molten solder on a metal like
copper may be compared to the action of water on salt.

Temperature change does not affect the solder alloy. It

withstands stress and strains without damaging the joint.

An unsoldered connection eventually becomes loosened by

small movements caused by temperature variations and by the
gradual build-up of oxides on the metal surfaces. Solders
available in two forms i.e. stick solder with a separate flux used,
and solder in wire form having a rosin flux core. The standard
grades of soft solder are as follows.
Tinmans

The solder bonds the connection by dissolving a small amount

of the copper at temperatures quite below its melting point.
Thus, the soldering process involves a metal solvent action
between the solder and the metal being joined. A solder joint is
therefore chemical in nature rather than purely physical. The
bond is formed in part by chemical action and part by a physical
bond.
The properties of a solder joint are different from those of the
original solder. The solder is converted to a new and different
alloy through the solvent action. Two metals soldered together
behave like one solid metal. It is unlike two metals bolted, wired,
or otherwise physically attached. These types of connections
are still two pieces of metal. They are not even in direct contact
due to an insulating film of oxide on the surfaces of the metals.

This is a solder composed of 50% lead, 48% tin, and 2%

antimony; it is supplied in stick form. Tinmans solder liquefies at
227C and sets solid at 185C it is used for fine work and higher
grade general work.
Electricians
This solder is composed at 40% lead and 60% tin; it is supplied
in the form of resin-cored wire to eliminate any danger of
corrosive fluxes being used with it. Melting and solidifying points
approximate to those of tinmans solder.

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Lead/silver

Hard Soldering (Brazing and Silver Soldering)

This is an alloy of lead (97.5%) and silver (2.5%), which melts at

304C and solidifies at 183C. It retains its strength to a
considerable higher temperature than will lead/tin solder.
METHODS OF SOLDERING

Brazing, as the name implies, uses a Copper/Zinc (Brass) alloy,

as the filler metal (spelter) between the parent metals of the
joint. The degree of alloying will dictate the temperature at
which the process is done but the melting point of the brazing
alloys can be as high as 880C.

Soldering can be divided into two basic methods, one of which

uses higher temperature ranges than the other, but both of
which are conducted at temperatures below the melting points
of the parent metals of the intended joint.

Brazing is a process of joining in which, during, or after heating,

the molten filler metal is drawn into, or retained in, the space
between closely adjacent surfaces of the parts to be joined, by
capillary attraction.

The two basic methods of soldering are:

In general applications, workshops and small factories, a flame,

directed onto the joint area, are the source of heat. However, in
the more sophisticated applications, used in industry, heating
for hard soldering may be provided by a:

Hard Soldering: done at temperatures in excess of

500C and which include the processes of Brazing and
Silver Soldering
Soft Soldering: done at temperatures within the range
of 180C to 330C, which, consequently, create joints of
lower strength (but less expense) than those achieved
by the hard soldering methods.

Gas, oil or electrically heated, closed furnace

High-frequency (HF) induction coil.

Note: The hard soldering processes are, normally, beyond the

remit of the aircraft servicing technician, so only brief
consideration is given to them here, with more attention being
given to the soft soldering method.
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As with welding, it is necessary to employ the use of a flux

material to assist the fusion of the filler with the parent metals
and to prevent oxidation of the joint.
The flux mostly used for brazing processes is borax, which is
based on Sodium Borate powder, mixed with water, to a thin
paste before being applied, by brush or swab, to the site of the
joint. Other fluxes are also available where required.
Silver Soldering entails the use of a Copper/Zinc/Silver or
Nickel/Silver alloy as the joining metal and (again depending on
the alloy employed), can be done at temperatures of between
650C to 700C. Brass, copper, monel metal and stainless steel
are typical metals on which silver soldering processes can be
used.
Soft Soldering
Soft Soldering involves the use of a Lead/Tin alloy (with traces
of Bismuth and Antimony added when required) as the filler
metal, which melts at temperatures between approximately
180C to 330C, depending on the composition of the alloy. The
lower temperature requirement, of the soft soldering process,
allows the use of indirect heat.
In earlier times, the heat was provided by the application of an
implement with a wooden handle and a smooth, flat, base or
bit (originally made of iron). The iron was directly heated in a
flame, then quickly cleaned, before being applied to the solder

joint, where the transference of its heat would facilitate the

melting of the filler metal. This process possibly needed
repeating several times (as the iron tended to lose its heat fairly
quickly) before a large task could be completed.
It was found that copper is a better heat conductor than iron, is
less prone to corrosion and is, therefore, easier to keep clean.
Copper, consequently, became the metal most preferred for use
as the soldering bit, though the implement retained its name of
the soldering iron. While needing re-heating less frequently, it
remains necessary to regularly reheat the copper bit of the
directly heated soldering irons.
The advent of electrically heated (and thermostatically
controlled) soldering irons has overcome the re-heating
problem, associated with directly heated irons, and
consideration is given here only to the method of soft soldering
with the use of electrically (or indirectly) heated soldering irons.
While the method described is the most commonly used in
small workshops (or in DIY applications), there are, however,
three further methods which are used in industrial applications.
Those methods involve:

Applying a naked flame to the joint

Dip soldering
Heating by non-contact techniques.

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Using Indirectly Heated (Electric) Soldering Irons

Electric soldering irons are available in a variety of sizes and
weights with bits shaped to suit the particular application.
Typically, the 25 watt, electric soldering iron (refer to Fig. 1), is
widely used for making joints in electric circuitry. The heating
element contained in the barrel of the iron is supplied directly
from the mains electrical supply.

Rubber Grip

Protective
Shroud

Electric
Power
Lead

Larger, 40 watt (or as large as 125 watt) irons, with

proportionately larger bits, may be used when it is required to
create overlapping joints (lap joints) of sheet metals (though this
is a task, not normally done by aircraft maintenance
technicians).
Before any soldering operation is attempted, the joint surfaces
(and the soldering iron) must be properly prepared. It is of
paramount importance that the joint surfaces be absolutely free
of dirt and grease (and surface oxides), so that the solder will be
able to satisfactorily form intermetallic compounds and, thus,
bond completely with the parent metals.
To ensure this, the approved cleaning methods must be used
for the relevant metals (abrasives, etchants de-greasants etc.)
and, finally, an appropriate flux is applied to the cleaned
surfaces, to prevent oxidation at the joint and to assist in the
flow and fusion of the solder.
Note: Some solders have a flux included in their hollow core,
while others, require the application of a separate flux material.

Soldering Iron
Body
Copper Bit

Typical 25 Watt Electric Soldering Iron

Fig. 1

After the surfaces have been carefully prepared, the electric

soldering iron can be switched on and allowed to reach its
operating temperature. This is, usually, indicated by a small,
integral warning lamp but may be deduced by applying a piece
of solder to the bit and seeing the solder melt when the
temperature is adequate.

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The heated bit of the soldering iron must, next, be tinned. This
is achieved by, firstly, ensuring that the bit is thoroughly cleaned
then dipping the bit in flux (if a separate flux is being used) and
applying solder to the bit until a thin film of solder completely
covers the working area of the soldering bit. It is important that
the tinning of the bit is done correctly, otherwise problems will
be experienced with the soldering operation.
Each surface of the prepared joint must also be carefully tinned
(refer to Fig. 2) in a similar manner, so that a thin film of solder
covers the total area of the joint surfaces.
Care must be taken, when applying solder to the joint surfaces,
to ensure that it is as thin and as smooth as possible and that
the heat is maintained, to allow the inter-metallic compound
between the parent metal and the layer of solder to form.
This compound is an important factor and contributes greatly to
the strength of the joint, as it is, actually, stronger than the
solder.
When the two surfaces of the joint are correctly tinned, they are
placed together and the hot iron is applied to an outer surface of
the joint. The heat is transmitted through the metal and melts
the solder interfaces so that they fuse together and a typical
soldered lap joint (refer to Fig. 3) of the metals is completed.

Note: Even when making electrical connections, using soft

solder, a type of lap joint must be made, since an end-to-end
joint in wire would be impracticable.
Active and Passive Fluxes
Metal surfaces become more reactive to oxygen when they are
heated and, as previously discussed, to prevent this oxidation,
during the soldering process, a suitable flux is applied to the
surfaces being joined.
The flux should possess certain characteristics in that it:

Forms a liquid film over the joint and excludes the gases
in the atmosphere

Prevents any further oxidation during the heating cycle

Assists in dissolving the oxide film on the metal surface

and the solder

Is displaced from the joint by liquid filler metal.

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Direction of Soldering

Solder Stick

Copper Bit

G
Intermetallic
Compound

Parent Metal

oxide film on parent metal

flux solution above oxidised metal surface

boiling flux solution removing oxide film

bare metal in contact with fused flux

E
F

liquid solder
tin reacting with base metal to form

Solder
Parent Metal

Soldered Lap Joint

Fig. 3

Tinning the Joint Surface

Fig. 2
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Fluxes for soft soldering are often classified into two groups,
which are the:

Active group: which are corrosive or acid fluxes

Hydrochloric Acid (HCI): used in the raw state for pickling the
surfaces of the metal and rendering them clean. As a flux it is
extremely active and is suitable for soldering zinc and
galvanised mild steel

Passive group: which are non-corrosive fluxes.

Phosphoric Acid: used, primarily, on stainless steels.

The flux can be applied separately, or as a constituent within

the solder. Fluxes may take the form of a liquid, paste or solid,
and the application, for which they are being used, will govern
the type selected.
Active (corrosive) fluxes are used where conditions require a
rapidly working and highly active flux. The common active fluxes
are listed below.
WARNING: These fluxes can cause burns to flesh and clothing.
Protect the eyes with goggles and wear rubber gloves and
apron when using a corrosive flux.
Zinc Chloride (ZnCl): commonly called killed spirits. This used
on general sheet-metal work and may be obtained commercially
under its trade name of Bakers Soldering Fluid

Note: Flux residues of acid fluxes remain active after soldering

and will cause corrosion unless removed by thorough cleansing,
first in a weak solution of caustic soda - and then in water.
Passive (Non-Corrosive) fluxes are divided into three types,
which are:
Natural resin: dissolved in suitable organic solvents, it is the
closest approximation to a non-corrosive flux and is particularly
suitable for use in the electrical industry
Tallow: used by plumbers, for the jointing of lead sheet and
pipes. Similar to resin, it is only slightly active when heated to
the temperature of the soldering process
Olive Oil: used for soldering pewter items.

Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl): commonly called sal ammoniac.

This used, in block form, for cleaning the face of the soldering
bit before tinning, or in powdered form, with Zinc Chloride, for
tinning cast iron

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Flux Removal

INSPECTION AND TESTING OF SOLDERED JOINTS

It is essential that all flux residues be removed, since they can

present a corrosion hazard. The method of removal will be
determined by the type of flux used, but will entail the use of
one, or a combination of, the following:

The inspection of soldered joints is done mainly by visual

means, though, in some applications, tensile testing is
recommended.

A solution of caustic soda

A solution of sulphuric acid

A supply of warm water

Physical abrasion.

Electrical contacts, using soft soldering methods, may be tested

by gently pulling on the wires to confirm the security of the joint.
These joints may also be tested for electrical continuity and
resistance, using appropriate instruments.
Inspection of the completed soldered connections should
include the following:

Joints should be clean, smooth, bright and free from

sharp projections, and the wire easily discernible
through the solder.

As far as can be detected visually, the joint should be

filled with adhering solder.

Insulation should undamaged (i.e. not burned or affected

by solvent).

There should be no pitting, scale or other evidence of

poor workmanship.

Where electrical tests are specified, the results obtained

should be within the prescribe limits.

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Soldering of aluminium
Proprietary brands of cored wire solders are available, which
may be used for soldering aluminium and many aluminium
alloys, and a method of ultrasonic soldering may also be used.
The normal soldering technique is similar to that used with other
materials but, because of the materials high specific heat and
thermal conductivity, a greater heat input is required. An
advantage of these properties is that uneven expansion and
contraction are avoided, and heating of complex structures is
simpler than with the other materials. A soldering temperature of
2800C to 3700C is required, and may be obtained using a hand
iron, gas torch, furnace or induction coil. Solder should be
prepositioned or hand fed to the edge of the joint, and heat
applied adjacent to the joint to bring it quickly to the soldering
temperature, so that the solder melts by indirect heating. As
aluminium expands more than most materials, light jigging,
which will allow the parts to expand and contract, should be
used when necessary. A joint clearance of 0.05 mm to 0.1 mm
(0.002 inch to 0.004 inch) will allow the solder to fit the gap by
capillary action, and give maximum strength.

CAUTION
Pungent fumes are given off by the flux, and soldering should
be carried out in a well-ventilated working area.

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