EnglishLanguageandAppliedLinguistics

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MAAppliedLinguistics

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Sociolinguistics

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JonasRobertson

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Thefollowingquotationsmaybeseenasrepresentingarangeofopinioninadebateaboutthe
roleofEnglishasaninternationallanguage:

i)Englishisneutral...sincenoculturalrequirementsaretiedtothelearningofEnglish,youcan
learnitanduseitwithouthavingtosubscribetoanothersetofvalues[]Englishistheleast
localizedofallthelanguagesintheworldtoday.Spokenalmosteverywhereintheworldto
somedegree,andtiedtonoparticularsocial,political,economicorreligioussystem,ortoa
specificracialorculturalgroup,Englishbelongstoeveryoneortonoone,oritatleastisquite
oftenregardedashavingthisproperty.RonaldWardaugh(1987)LanguagesinCompetition:
Dominance,diversityanddecline.Blackwell

ii)EnglishisimperialistWhatisatstakewhenEnglishspreadsisnotmerelythesubstitutionor
displacementofonelanguagebyanotherbuttheimpositionofnewmentalstructuresthrough
English.Thisisinfactanintrinsicpartofmodernizationandnationbuilding,alogical
consequenceofELT.YettheimplicationsofthishavescarcelypenetratedintoELTresearchor
teachingmethodology.CrossculturalstudieshaveneverformedpartofthecoreofELTasan
academicdiscipline,norevenanyprincipledconsiderationofwhateducationalimplications
mightfollowfromanawarenessofthisaspectofEnglishlinguisticimperialism.Robert
Phillipson(1992)LinguisticImperialism.OUP

iii)Englishisdemocratictherehavebeencommentsmadeaboutotherstructuralaspects,too,
suchastheabsenceinEnglishgrammarofasystemofcodingsocialclassdifferences,which
makethelanguageappearmoredemocratictothosewhospeakalanguage(e.g.Javanese)that
doesexpressanintricatesystemofclassrelationships.DavidCrystal(1997)EnglishasaGlobal
Language.CUP

Whatisyouropinion?Discuss,withreferencetotherolesplayedbylanguageinthe
developmentandmaintenanceofsocietyandofculture.YoumayrefertoanynonEnglish
speakingsocietywithwhichyouarefamiliar,inordertoexemplifyyourpoints.

CONTENTS

1.
Introduction

2.
ConceptionsofEnglish

2.1.EnglishasaNeutralLanguage

2.2.EnglishasanImperialistLanguage

3.
HistoricalContext

3.1.TheAcquisitionofthePhilippines

3.2.TheIntroductionofEnglish

3.3.TheSpreadofEnglish

3.4.TheEarlyRoleofEnglishinthePhilippines

3.5.TheLaterRoleofEnglishinthePhilippines

4.Conclusion

5.WorksCited

AnUncertainInheritance:ExploringtheRoleofEnglishinthePhilippines

1.0.Introduction

SincethepositionofEnglishasagloballanguagehasbeenfirmlyestablished,the
questionhasarisenofwhatitsprimaryrolemightbe:somesuggestthatitissimplyaneutral
linguafranca
thatisbeingusedastheworkinglanguageofmanyinternationaldomains
(Bjrkman,2013:5).Morecontroversially,ithasbeenregardedasaforceofimperialismthat
intrudesonallthelanguagesitcomesintocontactwith(Phillipson,1992:7)inadistinctly
dominatingway.Inthisessay,IwillarguethatEnglishcannotbeseparatedfromtheculturaland
politicalthreadsfromwhichithasbeenwoven:teachingEnglishisneveraneutralact,butanact
thatisladenwithconsequencesforthesocietytowhichitisbeingintroduced.Toillustratethis
point,Iwilldiscussacountrywhichhasnowhadmorethan100yearsofcontactwithAmerican
English:thePhilippines.

2.0.ConceptionsofEnglish

AstheuseofEnglishincreasesthroughouttheworld,especiallyincountriesinwhich
someformofcolonizationhastakenplace,thereisagrowingawarenessthatweneedtoparse
outjust
what
effectsEnglishhasonanationssocioculturallandscape.Whilethereareawide
rangeofideasconcerningtherolethatEnglishplaysontheinternationalstage,twoofthem
encapsulatetheessenceofthevaryingarguments.First,thereistheideathatEnglishisneutral
thatitcarriesnosocioculturalbaggage,sotospeak,anddoesntposeathreattononnative
countries.Next,ithasbeencharacterizedasalanguageofimperialism,ofdominationand
control.Inthissection,Iwillbrieflyoutlinethejustificationsgivenforthesearguments,andtry
toexplaintheappealthateachhastoitsproponents.

2.1.EnglishasaNeutralLanguage

Tosaythatalanguageisneutralistosaythatitisdetachedfromrelationsofpower
betweenlanguageusersor..lackinganyassociationwithpoliticalideologies(Schulzke,2014:
227).Inotherwords,whenaneutrallanguageistransplantedtoanewterritoryandspread
amongstnewusers,thereisnoworrythatitiscarryingsomegerminalhintofamorepowerful
nationsethical,religious,economic,orpoliticalideals.Likewise,aneutrallanguagedoesnot
drawresourcesawayfromthelanguageofalesspowerfulgroup,nordoesitcreateanimbalance
betweenthosewhospeakthenewlyadoptedlanguageandthosewhodonot.
Forthemostpart,theerasofBritishandAmericancolonizationhavepassed,somany
scholarsworkonthepresumptionthatEnglishhasmovedintoapostimperialperiod.Now
thatithasbecomeagloballanguageandseemstobeunencumberedbysocial,cultural,or
politicalties,some(Lysandrou&Lysandrou,2003:221)suggestthatanycommunitycan
deployitwithoutriskofculturalcontaminationorfearofaninvasionoftheirprivacy.Inthis
view,Englishhaseffectivelyshedtheimperialisticskinwithinwhichitwasoncesheathed
whilethere
was
adangerthatthelanguagecouldtransmitamorepowerfulnationsideological
assumptionstoweakernations,thatdangerhaslargelybeensupplantedbythenumerousbenefits
thatEnglishoffersintheglobalmarketplace.
TothosewhopositanEnglishlanguagethatisneutralandnonthreatening,theprimary
meansbywhichitproliferatesisthroughindividualagency.AsSchulzke(2014:227)states
whensettingouttheideaofaneutralEnglish,NonEnglishspeakersspreadthelanguageby
choosingtouseEnglishbecauseitprovidesopportunitiesforsocialandeconomicmobility,
whileEnglishspeakersspreadthelanguagethroughimmigrationandtravel.Thus,ifEnglishis
neutral,thespeakershavenotbeen
forced
tolearnittheyhavetakenthattaskonoftheirown
accord,becauseofsomebenefitoradvantageitoffersthem.

2.2.EnglishasanImperialistLanguage

InRobertPhillipsons
LinguisticImperialism,
hesetsoutthecriteriabywhichwecan
judgewhetherornotalanguageisimperialistic.
ForPhillipson,Englishlinguisticimperialismisacaseinwhichthedominanceof
Englishisassertedandmaintainedbytheestablishmentandcontinuousreconstitutionof
structuralandculturalinequalitiesbetweenEnglishandotherlanguages(Phillipson,1992:47).
Inotherwords,itsacaseinwhichtheuseofEnglishoffersclearadvantagesovertheuseofa
countrysnativelanguage.Theseadvantagesmightbeeconomicinnature,ortheycouldbe
social/culturalnomatterwhatformtheytake,however,theendresultisthesame:thereisthe
continuedallocationofmorematerialresourcestoEnglishthantootherlanguages,andthe
greatestnumberofbenefitsaccruetothosewhohaveEnglishproficiency(47).
Thus,ifwewanttosaythatEnglishlinguisticimperialismhasoccurredinsomecountry,
thenweneedtoprovethatEnglishreceivesagreaterallocationofresourcesthannative
languagesinthatcountry,whetherthesebematerialresources(financialallocationsfor
educationalprograms,forexample),orcultural(attitudestowardsthelanguageandpedagogical
principles).Bothofthesehaveconcreteeffectsonthatcountryspeople.Inthecaseofmaterial
resources,forexample,thefundingofEnglishlearningprogramsmightcomeattheexpenseof
nativelanguagelearningprograms.IfEnglishprogramsreceivethegreatestamountoffunding,
thenthereisatacitacknowledgementthatnativelanguagesarenotasimportant,andare
thereforenotentitledtobeaswellfunded.Alternatively,iftheresourcesallocatedarelargely
cultural,appearingintheformofideasaboutorattitudestowardslanguage,thentheremightbea
belief(whetherconsciouslyexpressedornot)amongstmost

citizensthattheirnativelanguageis
inferiortoEnglish.TheendresultisthatEnglishisgivenmoreattentionand,again,more
funding.
WhendiscussingthewaysinwhichEnglishspreads,Widdowson(1997:136)remarks,
wecansaythatEnglishhasspread,likeagrowthorlikeaninfection,oralternativelythatsome
causativeforcewasbehindit,thatithas
been
spreadbysomeoutsideagencyorother.For
Phillipson,thelatterseemstobethecase.Ashenotes,thenorms,whethereconomic,military,

orlinguistic,aredictatedbythedominantCenterandhavebeeninternalizedbythoseinpowerin
thePeriphery(Phillipson,1992:52).Intheearlydaysofcolonialism,then,Englishisspreadby
akindofimpositionalforce(53).Notallscholarssubscribetothisidea,however.AsBernard
Spolsky(2004:90)states,thespreadofEnglishanditsdevelopmentasthefirstgenuineglobal
languageappearedtoresultratherfromitsbeinginplacetotakeadvantageofchangesinthe
worldlanguagesystemoverthepastcentury.Infact,SpolskyharshlycriticizesPhillipsons
conceptoflinguisticimperialism,callingitaconspiracytheory(80).InSpolskysview,the
spreadandsubsequentreinforcementofEnglishasagloballanguageisnottheresultofan
intentionalplotbyagentsintheCenter(thecountriesinwhichEnglishisspokennatively),but
insteadaproductofnatural,neutralforcesofsupplyanddemand,andaprocessthatcannot
easilybereversedorfurtheredbyanyonelanguagepolicy.
AkeyconcepttobeawareofinPhillipsonsworkisthatofthedifferentstagesof
linguisticimperialism.Inthefirststage,theelitesarethecolonizers,whethertheybe
governmentadministratorsorsettlers(Phillipson,1992:52).Intheneocolonialiststage,the
elitesaremostlyindigenousnativesofthecountryhowever,theytendtohavestronglinks
withtheCenter(52).Intheseeminglyfinalstage,theneoneocolonialiststage,interaction
betweentheCenterandthePeripherywilllargelybebymeansofinternationalcommunications.
Furthermore,therewillbeincreasedattemptsbytheCentertocontrolpeoplesconsciousness
bymeansofcommunicationstechnologyandculturalproducts(53).

3.0.HistoricalContext

Inthissection,IwillpresentthehistoricalcontextinwhichthegrowthofEnglish
occurredinthePhilippines.

3.1.TheAcquisitionofthePhilippines

AfterthedefeatoftheSpainin1898,theAmericangovernmenthadtoresolvejustwhat
todowiththePhilippines.Theyeventuallydecidedtotakeontheislandsandtoupliftand
civilizeandChristianizethenatives.Thecolonizationandsubsequenteducationofthe
PhilippineswasnottobeaccomplishedbybruteforcetheAmericanforceswouldtrytosway
themindsoftheFilipinopeoplewithakindofbenevolentassimilation(Thompson,2003:18).
AproclamationwrittenbyJacobSchurman,thediplomatchosentoheadthecommissionthat
wouldmakedecisionsconcerningthenewlyacquiredterritory,helpsilluminatetheUnited
Statesprogram:amongotherthings,itpromisedcivilrights,protectionfromexploitation,an
honestcivilservice,theeffectiveadministrationofjustice,theconstructionofpublicworks,
economicdevelopment,andeducation(Hendrickson,1967:409).

3.2.TheIntroductionofEnglish

Akeymethodbywhichtheaforementionedbenevolentassimilationwouldoccurwas
theteachingofEnglish.AsRafael(2015:284)states,Englishwasmeanttospeedup
pacification,drawingnativesclosertoAmericaninterestsandtherebyputtinganendtotheir
resistance.AtthetimethatAmericanforcesarrivedinthePhilippines,itwasacountrywherea
greatnumberofvernacularlanguagescouldbeheard(Northrup,2013:105).Bysomereports,
thereweremorethaneightylanguages,manyofwhichweremutuallyunintelligible(Rafael,
2015:284).Inordertobringtheislandstogether,theAmericansdecidedtoestablishEnglishas
themajorlanguageofeducation(Northrup,2013:105).
Englishwasbeingtaughtininformalcapacitiesin1898,andby1901,itwastheprimary
languageofinstructioninpublicschools(Sibayan,B.andGonzalez,A.,1996:139).Asforwho
wouldteachtheFilipinopeopletheAmericangovernmentsolvedthatproblembysimply
importingteachersfromtheUnitedStates.Thefirstshiploadofteachers,arrivingontheUS
ArmyTransport
Thomas
andthusgiventhenameThomasites,arrivedonAugust21,1901.
Theseteacherswererequiredtohaveproperqualifications,allofthemwerecollegegraduates,

andthemajorityofthemhadexperienceteaching(Thompson,2003:21).Overthenextfew
years,notonlywouldFilipinochildrenlearnthebasicsofgrammarandvocabulary,butthey
wouldbeintroducedtovariouselementsofAmericancultureaswell:schoolbandswouldplay
Souzamarchesandpatrioticanthems,studentswouldpracticeparliamentaryprocedureand
voting,andtheywouldlearnaboutbaseball(21).ThiscorrespondstoRobertPhillipsonsfirst
stageoflinguisticimperialism,thecolonialstage,inwhichthefledglingcolonyhasphysical
contactwiththenationthatrulesthem.ThiscontactallowedtheAmericanteacherstohavea
directinfluenceonthewaysinwhichyoungFilipinosperceivedtheircolonialmasters.The
educationprovidedwasnotsimplyaneutraltransmissionofinformation,butameansbywhich
teachersfostereduncriticalviewsofthebenevolenceoftheUnitedStates,trainingFilipinosto
blindlyembraceAmericanmodels(Rafael,2015:286).

3.3.TheSpreadofEnglish

Afteritsrapidintroductionandspreadthroughouttheislands,ittooklessthanfour
decadesforEnglishtobecomethemainlanguageofworkinthecontrollingdomainsoflanguage
..thoseofgovernmentadministration,legislation,thejudiciary,education,business,commerce
andindustry,scienceandtechnology,newspapers,andinternationalrelations(Sibayan,B.and
Gonzalez,A.,1996:139).Howdidsuchathoroughinundationoccur?Spainhadalsoattempted
toexpandtheuseofSpanishacrossthePhilippines,asfarbackas1863(Thompson,2003:16),
butbythetimethecountryhadfallenintoAmericanhands,only2%ofFilipinosspokeSpanish
(Gonzalez,1997:28).Thus,intentionalonewasntsufficientformakingalanguagestick.In
thecaseofthePhilippines,itappearsthatitwasthe
style
ofcolonialrulethatallowedforsucha
swiftandwidespreadexpansion.TheAmericanswentintothePhilippineswiththeintentionof
winningoverthepopulace,ofpeacefullyconvertingthemtotheAmericanwayoflife.The
ideaofbenevolentassimilationwasessentialtothesuccessofEnglishintheislands,precisely
becausetheFilipinosthemselvesbegantodesireandactivelyworktowardstheAmerican
Dream.

IfweacceptthatEnglishisaneutrallanguage,thenitsexpansioninthePhilippinescould
besimplywrittenoffastheresultofinevitableglobalforces(Pennycook,1994:10).Ifthis
werethecase,thebroadacceptanceofthelanguagebytheFilipinoswouldbeduetothe
perceivedbenefitsforinstance,thosewhoknewEnglishwellwereabletoacquirejobsas
teachersorclerksinthecountrysbuddingcivilservice(Sibayan,B.andGonzalez,A.,1996:
140).Ontheotherhand,ifweacceptthatEnglishisaforceofimperialism,thenitmightbe
believedthatthespreadofEnglishinthePhilippineswasacalculatedattemptbytheUnited
StatestoinculcatetheFilipinopeoplewithWesternvaluesandideals,whilestrippingthemof
theirownnativecustomsandtraditions.Infact,bothoftheseviewsseemtobeequallylimited.
TheUnitedStateswaslikelymotivatedbyaltruism,asevidencedbyPresidentMcKinleys
statementandJacobSchurmansproclamation,bothcitedabove.Despitethegoodintentionsof
Americanpolicymakers,though,anunhealthyreliancewouldcometoformbetweenthe
PhilippinesandtheUnitedStates,onethatwouldnotbeeasytodispensewith.Oneofthemajor
componentsofthisrelianceistheEnglishlanguagebycomingtodependonthisborrowed
language,thePhilippinesbecamedependenttooonforeigntheoriesandmethodsunderlying
theborrowedlanguage,thusresultinginaborrowedconsciousness(EnriquezandMarcelino,
1984:3).Becauselanguageisacentralthreadthatrunsthroughoutallofculture,law,
economics,andeducation,adependenceona
foreign
languagemightmeanthatallofthese
elements,soimportanttoapeoplesexperienceofboththemselvesandtheoutsideworld,are
mediated.

3.4.TheEarlyRoleofEnglishinthePhilippines

Inthefirst35yearsofcolonization,itbecamequitecleartotheFilipinopeoplethatthe
acquisitionanduseofEnglishwouldprovidethemwithbenefitstheirnativelanguagessimply
couldntmatch.DespitethefactthatsomeFilipinochildrenwerebornpoor,iftheystudiedwell

10

andlearnedEnglish,theywereabletogetjobsasteachersandcivilserviceemployees(Sibayan,
B.andGonzalez,A.,1996:140).Furthermore,manyofthemostintelligentyoungmenand
womeninthePhilippinesweregrantedscholarshipsandsentabroadtostudy(140).Whenthese
students,called
pensionados
,returnedtothePhilippines,theyoccupiedimportantpositionsin
thegovernmentserviceandintheprivatesector(140).
ThiseducationalsystemprovidedthemeansbywhichFilipinostudentswereselectedand
filtered.AsGonzalez(1989:118)notes,onecansaywithconfidencethattheelitesandleaders
ofthepreWorldWarIIgovernment,whoeventuallytookoverthereinsofgovernmentduring
theCommonwealthPeriod,wereproductsofthissystem.Throughthisinformalsystemof
selection,thepublicschoolsystem,thenewclassofeliteswascreated.Theyweretheoneswho
woulddirectlyinfluencethecultural,social,economic,andlegalworldofthePhilippinesasit
movedintoitspostcolonialperiod.The
pensionados
correspondtoPhillipsonssecondphaseof
imperialismthesenativecitizenshadstrongtiestotheCenter,andamajorityofthemhad
beeneducatedinCentercountriesand/orthroughthemediumoftheCenterlanguage,theold
coloniallanguage(Phillipson,1992:52).
InthefirstphaseofcolonialisminthePhilippines,thecolonizersthemselveswerethe
elitesthesoldiers,governmentworkers,teachers,andpolicymakerssentoverfromtheUnited
States.Afterthe
pensionados
returnedandrosetopositionsofprominence(Sibayan,B.and
Gonzalez,A.,1996:140),
they
becametheelite.Itwastheywhowereresponsibleforensuring
thecontinueddominanceoftheEnglishlanguage.Afterindependencewasfinallygrantedtothe
Philippinesin1946,mostofthecolonialadministratorsdeparted,andthereinswerehandedover
tonativeFilipinos.

3.5.TheLaterRoleofEnglishinthePhilippines

Inthenextphase,whichPhillipsoncallsneoneocolonialism,therelationshipbetween
theCenterandthePeripheryislargelycarriedoutbyinternationalcommunications.Controlis
notexertedinanydirectwaybythecolonialpower.Infact,asinthecaseofthePhilippines,the

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colonialpowermaybemostlyabsenthowever,thenormsandstandardsthatthedominant
nationbroughtinthefirststagesoftheircolonizationaremoreentrenchedthaneverbefore.In
1946,thePhilippinesachievedindependence.TwodecadesafterIndependence,Rafael(2015:
286)states,thecountrysdependenceonAmericahadintensified.NotonlydidFilipinos
continuetobesubservienttotheirformalcolonialmasters,butworse,theycravedtheir
subservience.
Whatshapedoesthissubserviencetake?Gonzales(1989:139)notes,Inthe
contemporaryacademicsituation,thestructure,ifnotthesubstance,oftheU.S.modelof
educationcontinuestodominate.Whendiscussingintellectualtopics,Filipinosfrequentlyfeel
morecomfortablespeakingandwritinginEnglish(149).Furthermore,topassthroughthehigher
educationsysteminthePhilippines,competenceinEnglish,especiallyinthespecialacademic
registers,isabsolutelynecessary(Sibayan,B.andGonzalez,A.,1996:155).Thisfactfitsinto
Phillipsonsdescription(1992:57)ofthethirdphaseoflinguisticimperialism,the
neoneocolonialphase.Ashenotes,linguisticimperialismcanbesaidtobeinplaceifthe
Centrelanguageisalwaysused,andPeripherylanguagesarenotaccordedenoughresourcesto
developsothatthesamefunctionscouldbeperformedinthem.Clearly,Englishoccupiesarole
thatthenationallanguageofthePhilippines,Filipino,cannotfill.ThisisnotbecauseFilipinois
incapable
ofperformingthefunctionsrequiredinacademic/intellectualdiscussion,butbecause
Filipinoisnotdevelopedinitswrittenformsothatabodyofintellectualizedmaterialsmaybe
availableasaworkinglanguage(Sibayan,B.andGonzalez,A.,1996:168).Inotherwords,
adequateresourceshavenotbeenprovidedforthepurposeofintellectualizingtheFilipinos
nativelanguage,becauseEnglishisalreadyseenassufficient.Becauseofthisfact,English
continuestobethelanguageofprosperityandsocialmobility(160).AslongasEnglishoccupies
acentralroleintheeducationoftheFilipinopeople,theywillrelyonitforsuccess,andthere
willbeanindestructibletiethatbindsthemtotheformercolonialpower,theUnitedStates.
AnotherdomaininwhichEnglishoccupiesanimportantroleistheworkforceofthe
Philippines.IfaFilipinowishestojoinaprofessionthatrequireshighereducation,suchas
medicine,engineering,law,orcivilservice,theyarerequiredtotakethelicensingexaminations
inEnglish(154155).Iftheyreachasupervisoryormanagementposition,alltechnical

12

literaturereading,allboardmeetings,allnegotationsaredoneinEnglish.Manualsarein
English,instructionsareinEnglish(155).Thus,Englishcarriesmuchmoreprestigethan
Filipino,anditisonlythroughlearningEnglishthateconomicprosperitycanbeachieved(160).
Finally,EnglishplaysanimportantroleinthecultureofthePhilippines.Phillipson(1992:61)
suggeststhattheCenterculturalproductsserveasmodelsfortheperiphery,andmanyaspects
oflocalculturalcreativityandsocialinventiveness,evolvedovercenturies,arethrowninto
confusionordestroyed.InthePhilippines,thiscanbeseeninliterature:practicallynolocalor
nativeconventionscanbeseeninFilipinonovels,forFilipinoswriteusingAmericanand
Britishmodelsofliterature(Sibayan,B.andGonzalez,A.,1996:157).
ThenationallanguageofthePhilippinesisthustacitlyunderstoodtobealanguagein
whichtheactivities
most
importantforupwardmobilitycannotbecarriedout.Whiletheremay
beasenseofnationalpridewithregardstotheirlanguage,theremustalsobethesensethatits
incomplete,thatitsdeficientandinferiorwhencomparedtoEnglish.Onceagain,thisisnot
becauseFilipinoisincapableofexpressionintherealmsofeducationandbusiness,butbecause
ithasnotbeengivenadequateresources.InthePhilippines,Englishhascausedaprocessof
displacement,andanditisoccupyingspacethatotherlanguagescouldfillbybeingthekey
external
link,inpolitics,commerce,science,technology,militaryalliances,entertainment,and
tourism(Phillipson,1992:30).
However,someholdthestancethatEnglishisanecessarycomponentofglobalization,
andthatalackofEnglishsignifiesadisengagementwithinternationalaffairs.Duetothe
growingimportanceofworldEnglishinbusiness,politics,science,andevenentertainment,
thereisthefeelingthatnoindividualnonEnglishspeakingcountry,whateveritspasthistoryor
presentposition,canaffordtorelysolelyonitsownnativelanguage..fortodosowouldbe
tantamounttopromotingselfexclusionfromworldaffairsratherinclusionandinvolvment
(Lysandrou&Lysandrou,2003:209210).WhiletherelianceofthePhilippinesonEnglishfor
intranationaladvancementisworrisome,thealternativealsoseemstobeproblematic:anew
educationalprogramthatremovedthefocusfromEnglishandsetitontheFilipinolanguage
couldbequitedeleterious.

13

4.0.Conclusion

ThePhilippineswasgrantedsovereigntyin1945,andthelastAmericanmilitarybase
closedonNovember24,1992,but,asPhillipson(1992:153)notes,thestructuresandattitudes
imposedbytheAmericanshavelargelyremainedinforce.Englishistheprimarycarrierof
thosestructuresandattitudes,anditisthemeansbywhichtheyareperpetuated,
generationtogeneration.InthePhilippines,Phillipsonsnotionoflinguisticimperialismseems
tobeevident,buttherearesomecomplications.Firstofall,whilePhillipsonstheoryisuseful
forelucidatingwhathashappenedandwhatcontinuestohappenintheaffectednations,there
dontseemtobeanyclearsolutionsEnglishcanbedeemphasized,butmanycountriesthat
currentlyhaveEnglishlearningprogramsinplacedontseeanybenefitinsuchamove.For
them,thedangersinherentinembracingEnglishmaybeoutweighedbythecostsinvolved
shouldtheynotdeployittoasameansofcommunicatingwiththewiderworld(Lysandrou&
Lysandrou,2003:227).Itssimplynot
practical
todispensewiththeEnglishlanguage,and
doingsocouldstripanationofitsabilitytocontendwithEnglishspeakingcountriesinamore
bilateralmanner.Second,justbecauseacountryreceivedEnglishduringcolonization,andjust
becauseEnglishwasusedasatooltoassertthehegemonyofamoredominant,Westernnation,
doesnotnecessarilymeanthatitwillcontinuetoperformthesefunctionsinapostcolonial
period.AsSpolskynotes,itiscolonialrulethatproducesinequalityimperialism,notlinguistic
imperialism,isthecentralissuethatwemustcontendwith(Spolsky,2004:8485).
Consequently,oncethecolonialperiodhaspassed,thereisthepossibilityforthenationto
employthelanguageforothermeans,usesthatbenefititselfratherthantheformercolonizing
power.Schulzke(2014:226227)addressesthispossibilitywhenhestatesthatlanguagesare
malleable.Languagesareopentoreconstructionfromtheinsideasuserstransformtheir
languagestoarticulatedifferentinterestsandidentities.InthePhilippines,forexample,thereis
acodeswitchingvarietycalledTaglish,withwhichFilipinosalternatebetweenTagalog
(officiallycalled
Filipino
)andEnglish.SomescholarssuggestthatTaglishbrokethespellthat
EnglishhadcastoverFilipinos(Thompson,2003:258)bysteadilymovingintodomainsthat
hadoncebeenoccupiedsolelybyEnglish.TaglishisawayforFilipinostorapidlyswitch

14

betweenstreetTagalogandthemoreintellectualizedEnglish,anditillustrateshowaformer
coloniallanguagecanberepurposedfornonnativespeakers.
AlthoughEnglishbeganinthePhilippinesasaproductofcolonialism,andalthoughit
stillcausesdependenceonWesternproductsandstructuresduetoitsuseinbusiness,higher
education,andinternationalrelations(Northrup,2013:106),thereisatleastthepossibilityof
severingthetiesandmovingfullyintoapostimperialera.DoesthismeanthatEnglishwillbe
discarded?Probablynot,butit
does
meanthatEnglishcanbecomeatoolforthepeopleofthe
Philippines,ratherthananencumbrance.

5.0.WorksCited

Bjrkman,Beyza(2013)
EnglishasanAcademicLinguaFranca:AnInvestigationofForm
andCommunicativeEffectiveness
.Hawthorne,NY,USA:WalterdeGruyter,2013.

Enriquez,V.G.andMarcelino,E.P.(1984)
NeocolonialPoliticsandtheLanguageStrugglein
thePhilippines
.QuezonCity:PhilippinePsychologyResearchHouse.

Gonzalez,Andrew(1989)TheWesternImpactonPhilippinoHigherEducation.In
From
DependencetoAutonomy
.EditedbyPhilipG.AltbachandViswanathanSelvaratnam.
Norwell,MA:KluwerAcademicPublishers,pp.117142.

Gonzalez,Andrew(1997)ThehistoryofEnglishinthePhilippines.In
EnglishIsanAsian
Language:ThePhilippinecontext
.
EditedbyMa.LourdesS.Bautista.Manila:TheMacquarie
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