Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Institutions
Management
Eighth Edition
Anthony Saunders
John M. Schiff Professor of Finance
Salomon Center
Stern School of Business
New York University
Marcia Millon Cornett
Professor of Finance
Bentley University
Mc
Graw
Hill
Education
Contents
PART ONE
INTRODUCTION
Chapter One
Why Are Financial Institutions
Special? 2
Introduction 2
Financial Institutions' Specialness 4
FIs Function as Brokers 5
FIs Function as Asset Transformers 5
Information Costs 6
Liquidity and Price Risk 7
Other Special Services 8
Other Aspects of Specialness 8
The Transmission of Monetary Policy 8
Credit Allocation 9
Intergenerational Wealth Transfers or Time
Intermediation 9
Payment Services 9
Denomination Intermediation 10
Specialness and Regulation 10
Safety and Soundness Regulation 11
Monetary Policy Regulation 13
Credit Allocation Regulation 13
Consumer Protection Regulation 13
Investor Protection Regulation 14
Entry Regulation 14
The Changing Dynamics of Specialness 15
Trends in the United States 15
Global Trends 20
Appendix 1A
The Financial Crisis: The Failure of Financial
Services Institution Specialness
(www.mhhe.com/saunders8e)
Appendix IB
Monetary Policy Tools
(www.mhhe.com/saunders8e)
Chapter Two
Financial Services: Depository
Institutions 25
Introduction 25
Commercial Banks 27
Size, Structure, and Composition of the Industry 28
Balance Sheet and Recent Trends 32
xvi Contents
Size, Structure, and Composition of the
Industry 86
Balance Sheet and Recent Trends 96
Recent Trends 96
Balance Sheet 99
Regulation 101
Global Issues 104
Chapter Five
Financial Services: Mutual Funds
and Hedge Funds 111
Introduction 111
Size, Structure, and Composition of the Mutual
Fund Industry 112
Historical Trends 112
Different Types of Mutual Funds 115
Mutual Fund Objectives 119
Investor Returns from Mutual Fund Ownership 122
Mutual Fund Costs 125
Balance Sheet and Recent Trends for the Mutual
Fund Industry 128
Money Market Funds 128
Long-Term Funds 130
Regulation of Mutual Funds 131
Global Issues in the Mutual Fund Industry 134
Hedge Funds 136
Types of Hedge Funds 138
Fees on Hedge Funds 142
Offshore Hedge Funds 143
Regulation of Hedge Funds 143
Chapter Six
Financial Services: Insurance
148
Introduction 148
Life Insurance 149
S:ze, Sfrwcfwre, and OomposftWM off/# Wwsfry 149
BaWce 5&eef and Recent Trends 253
Regulation 156
Property-Casualty Insurance 157
S;'zf, Sfrwcfwre, and Conzposz'tzon of f/ze Tndwsfn/ 157
Bo/a;zce 5/zeef and Kecenf Trends 159
Regz/Wz'orz 168
Global Issues 168
Chapter Seven
Risks of Financial Institutions
Introduction 173
Interest Rate Risk 174
Credit Risk 176
173
195
196
Introduction 196
The Level and Movement of Interest Rates 197
The Repricing Model 199
Rate-Sensitive Assets 201
Rate-Sensitive Liabilities 202
Equal Changes in Rates on RSAs and RSLs 204
Unequal Changes in Rates on RSAs and RSLs 205
Weaknesses of the Repricing Model 208
Market Value Effects 208
Ooeraggregafzon 209
The Problem of Runoffs 209
Cash Flows from Off-Balance-Sheet Activities 210
Appendix 8A
The Maturity Model
(www.mhhe.com/saunders8e)
Appendix 8B
Term Structure of Interest Rates 219
Chapter Nine
Interest Rate Risk II
226
Introduction 226
Duration: A Simple Introduction 227
A General Formula for Duration 229
The Duration of Interest-Bearing Bonds 231
TTze Duration of Zcro-OoupoH Bo/zds 233
TTze DwrafioM of Congo/ Bonds (Pi'rpcfwf/cs,) 233
Features of Duration 234
Duration and Maturity 234
Duration and Yield 235
Duration and Coupon Interest 235
The Economic Meaning of Duration 236
SenzzannzW Coupon Bonds 240
Duration and Interest Rate Risk 241
Duration and Interest Rate Risk Management
on a Single Security 241
Contents xvii
Duration and Interest Rate Risk Management on the
Whole Balance Sheet of an FI 244
Immunization and Regulatory
Considerations 251
Difficulties in Applying the Duration
Model 252
Duration Matching Can Be Costly 252
Immunization Is a Dynamic Problem 252
Large Interest Rate Changes and Convexity 253
Appendix 9A
The Basics of Bond Valuation
(www.mhhe.com/saunders8e)
Appendix 9B
Incorporating Convexity into the Duration
Model 264
Chapter Ten
Credit Risk: Individual Loan Risk
274
Introduction 274
Credit Quality Problems 276
Types of Loans 278
Commercial and Industrial Loans 278
Real Estate Loans 280
Individual (Consumer) Loans 282
Other Loans 284
Calculating the Return on a Loan 284
The Contractually Promised Return on a Loan 284
The Expected Return on a Loan 288
Retail versus Wholesale Credit Decisions 289
ReM 289
Wholesale 289
Measurement of Credit Risk 291
Default Risk Models 292
Qualitative Models 292
Quantitative Models 294
Newer Models of Credit Risk Measurement
and Pricing 298
Appendix 10A
Credit Analysis
(www.mhhe.com/saunders8e)
Appendix 10B
Black-Scholes Option Pricing Model
(www.mhhe.com/saunders8e)
Chapter Eleven
Credit Risk: Loan Portfolio
and Concentration Risk 326
Introduction 326
Simple Models of Loan Concentration Risk
326
383
Introduction 383
Foreign Exchange Rates and Transactions 383
Foreign Exchange Rates 383
Foreign Exchange Transactions 384
Sources of Foreign Exchange Risk Exposure 387
Foreign Exchange Rate Volatility and FX Exposure 389
Foreign Currency Trading 390
FX Trading Activities 391
Foreign Asset and Liability Positions 392
The Return and Risk of Foreign Investments 393
Risk and Hedging 395
Multicurrency Foreign Asset-Liability Positions 399
xviii Contents
Interaction of Interest Rates, Inflation,
and Exchange Rates 400
Purchasing Power Parity 401
Interest Rate Parity Theorem 402
Chapter Fourteen
Sovereign Risk 412
Introduction 412
Credit Risk versus Sovereign Risk 416
Debt Repudiation versus Debt
Rescheduling 416
Country Risk Evaluation 418
Outside Evaluation Models 418
Internal Evaluation Models 420
Using Market Data to Measure Risk: The Secondary
Market for LDC and Emerging Market Debt 429
Appendix 14A
Mechanisms for Dealing with Sovereign Risk
Exposure
(www.rnhhe.com/saunders8e)
Chapter Fifteen
Market Risk 438
Introduction 438
Calculating Market Risk Exposure 440
The Risk Metrics Model 441
The Market Risk of Fixed-Income Securities 442
Foreign Exchange 445
Equities 446
Portfolio Aggregation 447
Historic (Back Simulation) Approach 450
The Historic (Back Simulation) Model versus
RiskMetrics 453
The Monte Carlo Simulation Approach 454
Expected Shortfall 458
Regulatory Models: The BIS Standardized
Framework 461
Partial Risk Factor Approach 461
Fuller Risk Factor Approach 462
The BIS Regulations and Large-Bank Internal
Models 465
Chapter Sixteen
Off-Balance-Sheet Risk
474
Introduction 474
Off-Balance-Sheet Activities and FI
Solvency 475
Contents xix
PART THREE
MANAGING RISK
537
Chapter Eighteen
Liability and Liquidity Management
538
Introduction 538
Liquid Asset Management 538
Monetary Policy Implementation Reasons 539
Taxation Reasons 539
The Composition of the Liquid Asset
Portfolio 540
Return-Risk Trade-Off for Liquid Assets 541
The Liquid Asset Reserve Management Problem for U.S.
Depository Institutions 541
Undershooting/Overshooting of the Reserve
Target 545
Managing Liquid Assets Other than Cash 549
Liability Management 550
Funding Risk and Cost 551
Choice of Liability Structure 552
Demand Deposits 552
Interest-Bearing Checking (NOW) Accounts 553
Passbook Savings 554
Money Market Deposit Accounts (MMDAs) 554
Retail Time Deposits and CDs 555
Wholesale CDs 556
Federal Funds 557
Repurchase Agreements (RPs) 558
Other Borrowings 558
Liquidity and Liability Structures for U.S.
Depository Institutions 560
Liability and Liquidity Risk Management
in Insurance Companies 562
Liability and Liquidity Risk Management
in Other Financial Institutions 562
Appendix ISA
Federal Reserve Requirement Accounting
(www.mhhe.com/saunders8e)
Appendix 18B
Bankers' Acceptances and Commercial Paper as
Sources of Financing
(www.mhhe.com/saunders8e)
Chapter Nineteen
Deposit Insurance and Other
Liability Guarantees 568
Introduction 568
Bank and Thrift Guaranty Funds 569
605
Introduction 605
Capital and Insolvency Risk 606
Capital 606
The Market Value of Capital 607
The Book Value of Capital 608
The Discrepancy between the Market and Book Values
of Equity 609
Arguments against Market Value Accounting 609
Capital Adequacy in the Commercial Banking
and Thrift Industry 611
Capital 617
Credit Risk-Adjusted Assets 618
Calculating Risk-Based Capital Ratios 618
Capital Requirements for Other Financial
Institutions 636
Securities Firms 636
Life Insurance 636
Property-Casualty Insurance 638
xx Contents
Appendix 20A
Internal Ratings-Based Approach to Measuring
Credit Risk-Adjusted Assets 648
Appendix 20B
Methodology Used to Determine G-SIBs'
Capital Surcharge
(www.mhhe.com/saunders8e)
Chapter Twenty-One
Product and Geographic Expansion
651
Introduction 651
Product Diversification 652
Segmentation in the U.S. Financial Services
Industry 653
Commercial and Investment Banking Activities 653
Banking and Insurance 656
Commercial Banking and Commerce 657
Nonbank Financial Service Firms and Banking 658
Nonbank Financial Service Firms and Commerce 660
Activity Restrictions in the United States versus
Other Countries 660
Issues Involved in the Diversification of Product
Offerings 661
Safety and Soundness Concerns 661
Economies of Scale and Scope 663
Conflicts of Interest 664
Deposit Insurance 665
Regulatory Oversight 666
Competition 666
Domestic Geographic Expansion 668
Regulatory Factors Affecting Geographic
Expansion 669
Insurance Companies 669
Thrifts 669
Commercial Banks 669
Cost and Revenue Synergies Affecting
Domestic Geographic Expansion by Merger
and Acquisition 672
Cost Synergies 673
Revenue Synergies 674
Merger Guidelines for Acceptability 674
Other Market- and Firm-Specific Factors Affecting
Domestic Geographic Expansion Decisions 677
Global and International Expansions 678
U.S. Banks Abroad 679
Foreign Banks in the United States 682
Advantages and Disadvantages of International
Expansion 684
Advantages 684
Disadvantages 685
Appendix 21A
EU and G-10 Countries: Regulatory Treatment of
the Mixing of Banking, Securities, and Insurance
Activities and the Mixing of Banking and
Commerce
(www.mhhe.com/saunders8e)
Chapter Twenty-Two
Futures and Forwards
691
Introduction 691
Forward and Futures Contracts 693
Spot Contracts 693
Forward Contracts 693
Futures Contracts 694
Forward Contracts and Hedging Interest Rate
Risk 695
Hedging Interest Rate Risk with Futures
Contracts 697
Microhedging 697
Macrohedging 697
Routine Hedging versus Selective Hedging 698
Macrohedging with Futures 698
The Problem of Basis Risk 706
Hedging Foreign Exchange Risk 708
Forwards 708
Futures 708
Estimating the Hedge Ratio 712
Hedging Credit Risk with Futures
and Forwards 715
Credit Forward Contracts and Credit Risk
Hedging 716
Futures Contracts and Catastrophe Risk 718
Regulation of Derivative Securities 718
Appendix 22A
Microhedging with Futures
(www.mhhe.com/saunders8e)
Chapter Twenty-Three
Options, Caps, Floors, and Collars
728
Introduction 728
Basic Features of Options 728
Buying a Call Option on a Bond 729
Writing a Call Option on a Bond 730
Buying a Put Option on a Bond 731
Writing a Put Option on a Bond 731
Writing versus Buying Options 732
Economic Reasonsfor Not Writing Options 732
Regulatory Reasons 734
Futures versus Options Hedging 734
Contents xxi
The Mechanics of Hedging a Bond or
Bond Portfolio 735
Hedging with Bond Options Using the Binomial
Model 736
Actual Bond Options 740
Using Options to Hedge Interest Rate Risk
on the Balance Sheet 742
Using Options to Hedge Foreign Exchange
Risk 747
Hedging Credit Risk with Options 748
Hedging Catastrophe Risk with Call
Spread Options 749
Caps, Floors, and Collars 750
Caps 751
Floors 754
Collars 755
Caps, Floors, Collars, and Credit Risk 758
Appendix 23A
Microhedging with Options
(www.mhhe.com/saunders8e)
Chapter Twenty-Four
Swaps 766
Introduction 766
Swap Markets 767
Interest Rate Swaps 768
Realized Cash Flows on an Interest Rate Swap 772
Macrohedging with Swaps 773
Currency Swaps 776
Fixed-Fixed Currency Swaps 776
Fixed-Floating Currency Swaps 778
Credit Swaps 779
Total Return Swaps 781
Pure Credit Swaps 783
CDS Indexes 783
Swaps and Credit Risk Concerns 784
Netting and Swaps 786
Payment Flows Are Interest and Not Principal 786
Standby Letters of Credit 786
Appendix 24A
Setting Rates on an Interest Rate Swap 792
Chapter Twenty-Five
Loan Sales 796
Introduction 796
The Bank Loan Sales Market 797
Definition of a Loan Sale 797
Types of Loan Sales 797
Types of Loan Sales Contracts 799
806
807
807
809
Chapter Twenty-Six
Securitization 812
Introduction 812
Mechanisms Used to Convert On-Balance-Sheet
Assets to a Securitized Asset 813
The Pass-Through Security 816
GNMA 817
FNMA 817
FHLMC 818
The Incentives and Mechanics of Pass-Through
Security Creation 818
Prepayment Risk on Pass-Through Securities 824
Prepayment Models 828
Government Sponsorship and Oversight of FNMA
and Freddie Mac 836
The Collateralized Mortgage Obligation
(CMO) 838
Creation of CMOs 839
Class A, B, and C Bond Buyers 841
Other CMO Classes 841
The Mortgage-Backed Bond (MBB) or
Covered Bond 842
Innovations in Securitization 844
Mortgage Pass-Through Strips 844
Securitization of Other Assets 847
Can All Assets Be Securitized? 848
Appendix 26A
Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac Balance
Sheets
(www.mhhe.com/saunders8e)
INDEX
856