Experiment 7.2 HEAT-TRANSTER COEFFICIENTS IN CIRCULAR TUBES. When a fluid, which flows through a duct, 1s at a temperature different from that of the walls of the duct, heat is transferred between the containing walls and the fluld. Such heat transfer takes place at the solid-fluid interface. This flow of heat can be expressed as being proportional to the product of a characteristic area for the system and ‘a characteristic temperature-difference for the system’. The propor~ tonality factor is known as the "heat-transfer coefficient." It 1s, ‘evident that the magnitude and nature of the “heat-transfer coefficient” are directly related to the definitions of the characteristic area and characteristic temperature-difference. For the fully developed and steady flow of fluids through clrcular tubes of uniform cross-section, the "heat-transfer coefficient” {s a function of the diameter and length of the tube and the density, viscosity, heat capacity, thermal conduc~ tivity and average velocity of the fluid. To illustrate the interrela~ tionship between these variables and their subsequent relationship to the “heat-transfer coefficient," the rate at which heat {s transferred ‘will be measured when water flows through steam-jacketed, circular tubes of different diameters. Theory For circular tubes of uniform cross-section, which are completely {filled with a flowing flufd, the characteristic, area Is defined as the ‘wetted surface through which the heat 1s transferred: viz. , 2eRL where: R = tube radius L = tube length = 3.14159. ‘pind, R.B., Stewart, W.E, and Lightfoot, E.N., "Transport Phenomena,” John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York (1960) , The characteristic temperature-difference can be defined in a number of ways?, but is preferably defined as the logarithmic-mean where: J, = time-averaged, initial bulk-temperature of fluid = time-averaged, final bulk-temperature of fluid Ty 7 Wall temperature adjacent to fluid of bulk temperature Ty Tyg Wall temperature adjacent to fluid of bulk temperature T,, For steady flow, the rate of heat transfer 1s given by pct am 6, Ty where: heat capacity of fluid & <> = tme-averaged, average velocity p = fluld density ‘The "heat-transfer coefficient” based on the logarithmic-mean temperature-difference, hy, is then given by ye tee). eb \pird, R.B., Stewart, W.E. and Lightfoot, E.N., op. cit, p. 39. 89‘The rate of heat transfer can also be evaluated from the heat flux at the wetted surface of the tube If the temperature gradient in the flowing fluid can be determined at the solid-fluid interface. This can be done in principle" and it results, for the steady and fully de- veloped flow of fluids where forced convection’ exists, that Ny, = Nu,,(Re, Pr, Br, L/D) (raz) where: 8 I/[k(Ee-T,,) 4) + Brinkman number D = tube diameter k= thermal conductivity of fluid Nu,,, = (hy,D)/k ; Nusselt number P= (6) ul/e; Prandtl number Re = (9D <@>)/u 5 Reynolds number b= Guid viscosity It was here assumed that the fluid properties are constant over the temperature range involved. The energy generated by viscous dissi- pation 1s usually small and the Brinkman number becomes unimportant, ‘Therefore Ean. 7.a-2 will be of the form Nu, = Nuy, (Re, Pr, 1/D) (es) ‘When the temperature gradient in the fluid 1s known, the exact fune~ tonal form of Eqn. 7.a-3 can be determined, Exact solutions have been obtained for laminar flow, where the velocity profile is parabolic, for conditions of both constant temperature and constant heat-flux at ‘pied, R.B., Stewart, W.E. and Lightfoot, E.N., op- cit. pp. 396-399. 2 Ihid., pp. 291-297. 90 the solid-fluid interface’. In each of these solutions the dimension- Jess, indepondent variables given in Eqn. 7.23 appear in combined formas the single, dimensionless, independent variable, [(Re Pr D}/L] «In particular, a limiting, exact form of Ean. 7, a-3 for conditions of constant temperature at the interface and short tube-lengths or high flow-rates is? Nujq = 162 ((Re Pr) /1)/? (a4) Because of the complicated nature of the temperature distribution in. turbulent flow’, which In tum requires a knowledge of the rate of momentum transfer at the solid~fluld interface, a precise, functional form of Eqn. 7-3 cannot be determined in the same, exact manner as for laminar flow. It has been possible, however, to predict the Jocal Nusselt number, Nu,,. ‘, a8 a function of the independent variables given in Eqn. 7.2-3 ina semitheoretical manner. For highly turbulent flow, Re > 10,000, the function is indicated to be of the form* Nuygg a" Re” Pr he (70-5) "Bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E. and Lightfoot, E.N., op. o! pp. 292-297, 361-362, 404-405, Bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E. and Lightfoot, E.N., "Notes fon Transport Phenomena," John Wiley and Sons, Inc.» New York (1958), pp. 151-154. "Bird, RB.) Stewart, W.E. and Lightfoot, E.N., op. elt. Bgn. 13. 2-23, p. 405. bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E, and Lightfoot, E.N., op, pp. 375-384, “Ibid. p. 398. “Thid., pp. 402-404. owhere a!, b! and c' are constants The "heat-transfer coefficlent" based on the logarithmic~mean temperature-difference and that based on the local temperature- Gifference approach a common value as the tube length increases! Hence, it ts expected that the Nusselt numbers, Nu, and Nuj.o, are affected similarly by the Reynolds and Prandtl numbers. For wide temperature-ranges, where forced convection still prevails, the varla~ tion in viscosity can become Important and the fluid viscosity at the interface temperature is usually introduced into Eqn. 7.a~ |. In prac= teal situations, conditions of constant temperature and constant heat~ ‘lux are not too different from each other and the functional forms of Eqn. 7.a-3 are expected to be similar. Therefore, for the laminar flow of Newtonian fluids, Eqn. 7.a~3 obtains the form Nu, = af Re Pe DI/1Ptw/n,)° (T.a-6a) hare a, b, © = constants iy = fluid viscosity at the temperature of the solié-fluid interface and for the turbulent flow of Newtonian flulds, Eqn. 7.2-3 obtains the form Nu, 2 at Re” Pr (w/n,) (7.2-6b) where d’ is a constant. Apparatus ‘The apparatus consists of 1) five tube-in-shell heat-exhangers ‘equipped with coppar-constantan thermocouples to measure the inlet and outlet steam and water temperatures as well as the temperatures Iatrd, ReB., Stewart, W.E. and Lightfoot, E.N., op-cit Example 13.1-1, pp. 394-396 and Problem 13.1, , pp. 423-424, 9 con the outside walls of the tubes: 2) precision, portable potentio~ meter; 3) source of clean, warm, soft water; 4) source of low- prossure steam; 5) platform scales; 6) stop clock: 7) welghing container; 8) auxiliary piping and pumping equipment. [Atypical apparatus 1s shown in Figure 7.a-1. The construction details of the tube-in-shell heat-exchanger are shown in Figure 7.a-2 and the piping diagram {s shown In Figure 7.2-3. Procedure 1, Locate and determine the action of all the valves and become familiar with the operation of the equipment. 2. Purge the water lines and the tubes of the heat-exchangers of air as follows: &. Open valves V-2A, V-2B, V-2C, V-2D and ¥-2E and let the water flow through all lines. b. When there is no more air remaining in the lines, close valves V-2A, V-20, ¥-20, V-2D and ¥-2E while the water source is still turned on. cc. Turn off the water source, 3, Clear the steam line of condensate before passing steam into the equipment. 4, Standardize and balance the precision, portable potentiometer. S 5. Operate elther heat-exchanger A, B; O, D or as follows: A. Open etther valve V-2A, V-28, V-20, V-2D"or V-2E and Jet the water flow through the exchanger. >. Completely open either valve V-IA, V-1B, V-1C, V-1D or V-1E and then correspondingly open either valve V-3A, V-3B, V-3C, V-3D or V-3E to allow steam to enter the shell of the exchanger. Control the steam pressure in the exchanger by means of either valve V-3A, V~3B, V3, V-3D or V-3E. 93Legend for Figure 1, Portable, millivelt potentiometer. 2. Water-inlet manifold 3. Steam-inlet manifold fitted with a screwed-strainer steam-filter. 4. Water-outlet manifold. \ bee 5. Condensate-outlet manifold fitted with an-impuldl steam-trap. 6. Insulated, tube-In-shell heat-exchangers with steam gauges attached to access boxes. Heat-Exchanger Specifications ‘Tube Dimensions inside Outside Diameter, Diameter, Length, Tube Location inches inches inches, x Top 0. 1425 0.190 a a Next to-top 0. 1862 0.250 al eb Middle 0.314 0.374 4 a Nextto-bottom 0. 4325 0.501 a AC Bottom 0. 788 0.874 a ‘Tubes are fabricated from copper Shells have a two-inch inside-diameter 7. Thermocouple selector switches. 8 |-02 eanBy.Sonar UYBSSNVYL LV3H JO WVYOVIG ONidid 4n0 Ni aim wis WV3. ¢-0) esnbly o =o Ben ee UBONVHOXS _ ¥_USONVHOX3, BOIS LNOUS HaEWVHO Aun wvais TW Bent (v) sagoud ¥BLNO NO SIIsNOOOWYSHL gNODOWHSHL —elll amo Pen uBLvM, wvals Z-py aanb4 YSONVHOXS LVSH T13HS-NI =-3eNL YO4S STIVL3d NOILONYLSNODSuggested Experimental Work ‘e. Shut down the operation of the exchanger by first. closing either valve Y-3A, V-3B, V-3C, V-3D or V-3E. Shortly thereafter close either valve V-2A, V-2B, V-2C, V-2 or V-2E and then close either valve V-1A, V-1B,, V-1G, V-1D or VIE, shell of an exchanger unless there 1s water passing (Never allow steam to enter the through the tube of the exchanger. The valves on all the hheat exchangers are to be closed except those on the exchanger which {s engaged. Always completely shut down one heat exchanger before starting the operation of another.) Determine the heat fluxes at various flow rates as follows: 3 fa, Adjust the flow rate of the water through the tube of the exchanger to the desired level. b, Adjust the steam pt jure in the shell of the exchanger to the lowest level that will give only a elight temperatura difference (no more than three or four degrees Fahrenheit) between the inlet and outlet steam temperatures. cc. Regulate the conditions of operation so that the increase In bulk temperature will be no more (and preferably less) than about $0 degrees Fahrenheit as the water passes through the exchanger. 4, When the temperature of the water leaving the exchanger attains a constant value, measure the inlet and outlet steam and water temperatures as well as the average temperature of the outer wall of the tube. fe. Determine the flow rate of the water by collecting and * ‘weighing the discharge from the test section. Determine the heat fluxes and thermal driving-forces in the heat exchangers at different flow-rates for Reynolds numbers 98 ‘greater than 10, 000, (it is suggested that the first measure ments be made at the highest Reynolds number attainable in each exchanger and that subsequent measurements be made at Reynolds-number intervals of 10, 000. ft ts further sug- gested that numerous measurements be made with heat ex- changers A, B and C and that one measurement each be made with exchangers D and E .) Determine the heat fluxes and thermal driving-forces in the heat exchangers for Reynolds numbers in the laminar and trans ition regions. (It is suggested that these measurements be made somewhat with heat exchanger D and primarily with exchanger E-) Measure the mass flow-rates of water through the heat ‘exchangers for the same flow-rates at which the heat fluxes and thermal driving-forces were measured. 99rexeyn z INET BUX S Br BOX T BORO T ‘ Tat wee oT a aw way soz"o 1a¢°0 182"0 121-0 Tw/w8 ‘pms BurMoL 30 Asysuap = J igi sesjodpiuso ‘pin Guyenory 70 Aypsoospa = 1 298/41 ‘PINE Bupmoy} jo ayei-moy} sseu paBeieac-—auity 2 56 oft ozz 182 o1xs9"z 01x 62-2 1 x OnE 2 EX 622 ee OUTIL _ Suggested Dats Record te So an gaara ease af a, material of which tube 1s constructed 5 ‘b. tube length available for heat transfer €. inside diameter of tube 7 ds outeide diameter of tube 53 2, Temperature Measurements ie a. inlet steam temperature J6 WORRTASTEO Tor b. outlet steam temperature cc. inlet water temperature Dee ‘aaroot8n, aBeieay ls [E Ie 4d. outlet water temperature le 8 ie fe. average, outside-wall temperature of tube & IE 3. Flow-rate Measurements : a a. weighing container's weight aad RE b. weight of weighing container plus water oem & a F ©. collection time a 5 ; ; Fe Suggested Report items P e Bg IS 1. Tabulate, in summary form, the heat capacity, density, ye RE cores viscosity of water as a function of eee REE fee eitntons of tattabont fn Bea ; ‘ plot the “hest-transfercosttictent,"” hj,» versus the g graph paper (place all curves on one page): Lo . plot the Nusselt munber, Nu, , versus Reynolds number, = Re on logarithmic oraph papers Fo c. plot the ratio of Nusselt number to Reynolds number, 3 Ny/Re™, versus tho Prandtl minber on loarithnie graph paper. For conditions of laminar flo% ‘a. plot the "heat-transfer coefficient” versus average velocity tonfor each tube on logarithmic graph paper ( place all curves ‘on one page): b. plot the Nusselt number versus the product of the Reynolds number, Prandtl number and length-to- diameter ratio, [(Re Pr D}/L] , on logarithmic graph paper. 4. Plot the" j-factor jy 7 (Mu, /(Re PH°)] versus the Reynolds number on for heat transfer. Ix 2-cyele, logarithmic graph paper. Also plot the curves given by Bird, Stewart and Lightfoot? for smooth tubes. On the same graph plot the “friction factor." £ , as £/2 versus the Reynolds number for turbulent flow through smooth tubes. fas obtained from accepted correlations’. Suggested Calculations 1. Calculate the "heat transfer coefficient" based on the logarithmic~mean temperature-difforence and assume that the temperature at the solid-fluid interface 1s the same as that on the outer wall of the tube. Evaluate the physical properties of the water at the arithmetic-average bulk-temperature, (Ty t Tye - Calculate the average velocity and the Reynolds, Prandtl and Nusselt numbers for each of the flow rates Investigated. Evaluate the physical properties of the water at the arithmetic average bulk-temperatura, Determine the slopes of the following plots: Yaird, R.B., Stewart, W.E. and Lightfoot, E.N., op cit, pe 401 py Fig. 13.21, p. 400. “Ibid, Fig. 62-2, p. 186. 102 “heat-transfer coefficient” versus average velocity: b. Musselt number versus Reynolds number: €. ratto of the Nusselt number to Reynolds number versus Prandtl! number: 4, Nusselt number versus product of Reynolds number, Prandtl number and Jength-to-diameter ratio. Calculate the viscosity ratio, w/u,,. based on the arithmetic~ mean bulk-temperature of the water and the temperature at the temperature at the solid-fluid interface and assume that the temperature at the solid-flutd interface is the same as that on the outer wall of the tube. 5. Calculate the Brinkman aumber and evaluate the physical properties of the water at the arithmetic~average bulk= temperature ested Discussion Questions 1, How do the results obteined in this experiment compare with accepted correlations! ? 2, How greatly will the “heat-transfer coefficient" for water, based on the logarithmio-mean temperature-difference, vary with respect to temperature? Illustrate your discussion with calculations. 5. What restrictions are there on the use of the correlations obtained in this experiment? 4, Was {t justifiable to eliminate the Brinkman number from Eqn. T.ar2? Explain in detail. 5. The viscosity-correction term was not used in the correlation of the data in this experiment. Analyze the data and explain Why this factor was not investigated. When would you expect ‘oird, R.B., Stewart, W.E. and Lightfoot, E.N., of pp. 399-402. 103that this factor could be investigated with reliability? Why, for the steady and fully developed flow of flutds, ts the "heat-transfer coefficient" dependent upon the length-to- diameter ratio of the tube whereas the "friction factor" is independent of this ratio under the same flow conditions? 7. Why, for heat-exchanger design, might one not be interested in Reynolds numbers greater than 100, 000! ? 8. Prove that if the temperature ratio, (1) -F.I/ITya-Tya) + {s between 0.5 and 2.0, then the arithmetic-mean temperature~ difference, (T,-T,), may be substituted for the logarithmic mean temperature-difference, (1,7), » with a maximum error of four percent. 9. Under what conditions will the temperature rise, (Fyg7Ty)) » Inoreace as the flow rate through the tube of the heat exchanger increases? 10, Show that the tollowing expressions for the "J-factor' for heat uansfer are equivalent: (arta) 7b) (arte) 11, A slight, empirical modification* of the Blastus formula is ‘Bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E, and Lightfoot, E.N., op. cit, Fig. 13,2-1, p. 400. *Bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E, and Lightfoot, E.N., "Notes on ‘Transport Phenomena," John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York (1958), Eqn. 13.2-15, p. 225. 104 12. 13, 4, 15. 16, ‘Bird, R.B. (7.08) which very nearly relates the "friction factor" to the Reynolds number over a Reynolds-number range of from 5% 10° to 2x10. Show that the accepted form of Ean, 7, a~3 for well- developed, turbulent flow! can be rearranged to show that ~t a2 ‘Would the approximate relationship shown in Question 12 4 be expected to hold for commercially rough-walled pipe? Why? ‘Why are the heat exchangers, used in this experiment, placed on a slight slope rather than in a horizontal plane? What type of steam trap 1s found on the equipment used in this experiment? Why is it not necessary to have a bleed for non-condensable gases on the heat exchangers when this type of steam trap is used? When Is it necessary to provide fora bleed for non-condensable gases on a heat exchsnger? Many of the exact and semiempirical solutions expressed by 3 involve the boundary condition wherein the heat flux at the solid-fluid interface 1s constant. For what practical Eqn. 7. conditions of host exchange does this condition exist or nearly exist? : ‘The caloulations of the "heat-trensfer coefficient" were based fon the temperatures of the outer walls of the tubes in the heat exchangers rather than the temperatures at the solid~flutd Interface. Actually, an “overall heat-transfer coefficient was calculated rather than a "he: I-transfer coefficient" for the fluid alone. If defined on a local basis, these two Stewart, W.E. and Lightfoot, E.N., op. ait. Bgn. 13,2-16, p. 399. 105coefficients are interrelated as follows!: » oe" |B (2-9) ‘,toe | 1 _ Di Tay DoDD) D, = inside diameter of tube Dp = outside diameter of tube hy, je" local heattransfer coefficient” based on the inside diameter of the tube k,, = thermal conductivity of tube wall ‘overall heat-transfer coefficient” based on the inside diameter of the tube. Estimate, with the ald of Eqn. 7.a-9, the error incurred by calculating the "heat-transfer coefficient" in the manner done {in this experiment. (Note that the coefficients based on logartthmic-mean temperature-differences are not exactly interrelated by Ean. 7-0-9.) 17, How much does the Reynolds number change between the inlet and outlet of the heat exchanger? Illustrate with calculations. 18, The thermocouple leads to the outer surfaces of the inner tubes, of the heat exchangers consist of No. 30, A.W.G. wire (copper and constantan). Discuss the error that might be incurred in the measurement of the temperatures of the outer surfaces of the tubes, Illustrate your discussion with calculations. ‘Bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E. and Lightfoot, E.N., op. elt, Example 9. 6-1, pp. 286-288 and p, 393. *[hid., Example 9. 7-1, pp. 290-291. 106 Experiment 6.0 HEATING LIQUIDS IN TANK STORAGE The macroscopic balances for constant composition and non= tsothermal conditions! give a complete inventory of all items involved in an overall mass, momentum and energy balance for systems in which, the composition does not change. Engineering problems may be set up and solved without the use of such summarizing relationships; however, these balances give a systematic compilation of the terms involved. Further, and what may be more important, these relationships readily Indicate those terms which are neglected in the analysis of a problem. To illustrate the application of these balances and to demonstrate the Limitations of the assumptions made fn their analysis, the rate at which an Inventory of liquid, which ts stored in a tank, can be heated by dif- ferent matheds will he investigated. Theory ‘A quid, which is either already In @ storage tank or 1s being fed {nto @ storage tank, can be heated either by transferring heat to an agitated or non-agitated system by means of heating coils in ora heat~ Ing Jacket around the tank, or by passing the liquid from an agitated or non-agitated system through an external heat-exchanger and back into the tank. In most processes involving thermal-onergy transfer the major energy items are the thermal energies. In these non-Isothermal operations the changes in the potential and kinetic energies and the rate of work involved are assumed to be of minor influence as far as the temperature is concerned, For such situations the macroscopic, non-{sothermal energy-balence reduces to ‘Bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E. and Lightfoot, B.N., "Transport Phenomena," John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York (1960), pp. 209-211, 456-463. 107EXPERIMENTS IN TRANSPORT PHENOMENA E. J. CROSBY Department of Chemical Engineering ‘The University of Wisconsin John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York + London PREFACE, ‘When the Department of Chemical Engineering at Te University of Wisconsin decided to introduce a theory course in transport phenom- ena into the undergraduate curriculum, {t also decided to establish a ‘concomitant laboratory course which, among other things, would aid in the understanding of the physical aspects of this subject. This book 1s a direct result of the development of such a laboratory course. However, not all of the laboratory work included in this course Ls pre= sented here. Experiments dealing with thermodynamic phenomena are carrled out prior to those dealing with transport phenomena. It Is not Intended that the treatment of certain material which has heretofore been restricted to the classical unit-operations laboratory will, tn any way, detract from but will, in fact, augment that labora- tory. This will allow the untt~operations laboratory more opportunity to deal with realistic situations rather than the more restricted and Adealized situations usually considered. It's logical that there should be a close tle between these exper!= ‘ments in transport phenomena and the contents of the theory course as Presented here at The University of Wisconsin. Therefore, the primary reference to be used with this book {s TRANSPORT PHENOMENA by R. B. Bird, W. E. Stewart and E.N, Lightfoot, published by John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. The majority of the material on the following pages has been pre~ pared during the past twolve months and has been presented for one ot ‘two semesters in thé laboratory course which preceded the present one. ‘This could not have been accomplished without the contributions of many Individuals, The assistance of the following persons is grate- fully acknowledged: Professor R. A, Ragatz, Chairman, of the Depart- ent of Chemical Engineering, for bearing the admintstrative responsi bilities connected. with the development of a new laboratory course over iL