Professional Documents
Culture Documents
LEVEL 111
NOT MEASUlcERIENT
SENSITII'E
25 Januarv 1991
SUPERSEDING
MILSI7D-410D
23 JULY 1974
MILITARY STANDARD
NONDESTRUClTVi? TESTING PERSONNEL QUALIFICATION AND
CERTIFICATION
AMSC N/A
AREA NDTI
F O R E W O R D
1. This military standard is approved for use by all Departments and Agencies of the
Department of Defense.
2. Beneficial comments (recommendations, additions, deletions) and any pertinent
MILSTD-4IOE
CONTENTS
PAGE
PARAGRAPH
1.
1.1
1.2
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.3
1.4
SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Applicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Common methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Levels of qualification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Levels of certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
APPLTCABLE DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Non-Government publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Order of precedence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Certifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Closed book examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Contracting agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Documented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Employer
............................... 3
Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
General examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Indication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Instructor . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
On-the-job
. . training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Organ~zatlon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Outside agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Practical examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Prime contractor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Product form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Qualification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Specific examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Test samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Training ......................................... 4
;
iii
MILSTD-310E
CONTENTS
PARAGRAPH
PAGE
4.
4.1
4.1.1
4.1.2
4.1.3
4.1.4
4.1.5
4.1.6
4.1.7
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
GENERAL F?EQUlREMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Certification procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Levels of qualification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Perso'nnel
. . duties and responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tralnrng program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Experience requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examination practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Records and documentation administrative practices .....
Recertification requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Outside agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.
5.1
5.1.1
5.1.2
5.1.3
5.1.4
5.1.5
5.2
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4
5.3
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.4
5.4.1
5.4.2
5.4.3
5.4.4
5.4.4.1
5.4.4.2
5.4.4.3
5.4.5
5.4.6
5.4.7
5.5
5.6
5.6.1
DETAILED REQtJIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Levels of qualification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Trainee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Level I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Level I1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Jnstructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Level
. .ID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Specialist personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Exams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Minimum required training hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Previous training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Previous experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Equivalent
. . experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Exam~natlons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Physical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Specific . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Practical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Level l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Level II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
LevelIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Administxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Re-examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Designation of instructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
MILSTD-410E
CONTENTS
PARAGRAPH
Loss of certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reinstatement of certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recertification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
13
14
NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Level1 Special .....................................
Intended Use .......................................
Subject tenn (key word) listing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Changes from previous issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
14
14
14
15
1. SCOPE
1.1 Pumose. This standard establishes the minimum requirements for the qualification
and certification for personnel involved in the application of nondestructive inspection
WI) or nondestructive testing (NDT) personnel. These requirements include training,
experience and examination.
1.2 ~oplicability.This standard applies to personnel using NDI or NDT methods to
accept materials, products, subsystems, components or systems for the Government,
prime contractors or subcontractors. It also applies to those individuals directly
responsible for the technical adequacy of the NDI and NDT methods used as well as
those providing the technical training or supervision for NDI or NDT personnel. This
standard is not intended to apply to individuals with administrative authority only over
the above identified personnel or to research personnel developing technology for use
by qualified and certified NDI or NDT personnel.
1.2.1 Common methods. This standard contains detailed requirements for the
applicable training, experience, and examination for the following methods:
Liquid penetrant
Magnetic particle
Mdy current
Ultrasonic
Radiography
Acoustic emission
Neutron radiography
(pr)
m)
m
(RT)
(AE)
(NRT)
1.2.2 Other methods. This standard may apply to other NDI or NDT methods such as
leak testing. thermography, holography, computed tomography. or any other method
that can determine the acceptability or suitability for intended service of a material,
part, component, subsystem, or.system without impairment of the intended function.
The requirements for personnel training, experience, and examination for these other
methods shall be as established by the contracting agency and shall be in accordance
with the guidelines established for the methods listed in 1.2.1.
1.3 Levels of
are:
Trainee
Level I
Level I1
hstructor
Level III
1.4 Levels of certification. The levels requiring certification in accordance with this
standard are:
Level I
Level I1
Level Lll
2. APPUCABLE DOCUMENTS
2.1 Non-Government ~ublications.The following documents form a part of this
document to the extent specified herein. Unless otherwise specified, the issues of the
documents which are DoD adopted are those listed in the issue of-the DODISS cited in
the solicitation. Unless otherwise specified, the issues of documents not listed in the
DODISS are the issues of the documents cited in the solicitation (see 6.2).
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR NONDBTRUCTIVE TESTING
ASNT-CP-189 - ASNT Standard for Qualification and Certification of Nondestructive
Testing Personnel
AShT Recommended Practice No. ShT-TC-1A
Certification in Nondestructive Testing
- Personnel Qualification
and
3.2 Certification. A written statement by an employer that an individual has met the
applicable requirements of this standard.
3.3 Certifier. A designated representative of the employer with the responsibility and
authority to document that an individual meets the applicable'requirements of this
standard.
3.4 Closed book examination. An examination administered without access to
reference material except that provided with or in the examination. Questions utilizing
such reference material shall require understanding of the information contained
therein rather than mere location.
4 . GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
shall develop and maintain a procedure for the qualification and certification of their
NDI or NDT personnel. This procedure shall be in accordance with the requirements
of this standard. The procedure shall be available for review by the organization's
customers. The procedure, as a minimum, shall include:
4 . l . i Levels of aualification. This shall include identification of the levels of
qualification covered by the procedure. The organization may add any additional
levels that are appropriate; however, in no manner can the organization eliminate or
reduce minimum requirements of this standard in its qualification and certification
procedure.
4.1.2 Personnel duties and responsibilities. This shall include the identification of the
duties and responsibilities for the different levels of qualification.
4.1.3 Trainine Droeram. This shall include-outlines of the instruction provided by the
organization as well a s sources of outside training utilized by the organization.
4.1.4 Exoerience reauirements. This shall include the techniques within the method and
the minimum amount of time for each technique.
4.1.5 Examination oractices. This shall include the designation of the individuals or
organizations that will perform the examinations as well as the number of questions.
and the specific types of physical tests to be used.
4.1.6 Records and documentation administrative oractices. This shall include the
description of the details to be recorded for each certified individual and identification
of the individuals responsible for developing, administering, and maintaining the
employer's certification program.
4.1.7 Recertification requirements. This shall include the employer's requirements for
recertification of personnel. It shall also include the requirements for the loss and
r&nstatement of certification.
4.2 Personnel. Personnel (Government. prime contractor, subcontractor, outside
agency, etc.) performing, specifying, reviewing, monitoring, supervising, or evaluating .
NDI or NDT functions for the purpose of accepting items for the Government shall be
qualified to the appropriate requirements of this standard. Personnel performing
specialized NDI or NDT, such a s ultrasonic thickness gauging or e l e d & l conductivity
tests, with equipment designed for and limited to such usage and that produces clearly
recognizable output for both acceptable and unacceptable conditions, do not require
qualification to this standard.
4.3 Methods. For the common methods listed in paragraph 1.2.1 of this standard, the
requirements for training, experience and examination are detailed in section 5 of this
standard. These requirements, as well as those requirements contained in the two
publications referenced in paragraph 2.1, shall serve as guidelines for those methods
not listed in paragraph 1.2.1.
.,
5.1.4 In~rrucror. Lnstructors shall have the skills and kn~wledgeto plan, organize, and
present classroom, laboratory, or on-the-job training programs of instruction, in
accordance with approved course outlines, in the method for which appointed. The
individual shall be familiar with the codes, standards, and other contractual documents
that control the method , a s utilized by the employer.
C/O*
5.1.5 Level
5I'4LC
JD. Level III individuals shall have the skills and knowledge to interpret
codes, standards. and other contractual documents that control the method as utilized
by the employer; select the method and technique for a specific inspection; and
prepare and verify the adequacy of procedures. Only individuals certified to Level I
II
shall have the authority to approve procedures for technical adequacy in the method to
which they are certified. The individual shall also'have general knowledge of all other
NDI or NDT methods utilized by the employer. The individual shall be capable of
conducting or directing the training and examination of personnel in the method
certified. The individual shall nor conduct NDI or NDT for the acceptance of parts
unless the demonstration of proficiency in this capability was included in the practical
examination upon which, in part, the certification is based.
5.2 Training. Candidates for certification as Level I or Level II shall complete
sufficient organized training to become familiar with the principles and practices of the
applicable test method and techniques. The training shall be conducted in accordance
with a detailed course outline approved by a Level El. The training shall cover basic
principles, products, equipment, operating procedures and techniques, and the
applicable specifications, codes and instructions used by the employer. The
supplements to SNT-TC-IA may be used to develop the training outlines. Subjects
not covered in the instruction shall not appear on the training outline. The training
outlines shall include the list of references from which the training material is derived.
5.2.3 Minimum required trainine hours. The minimum training hours for Levels I and
In are given in table I for a variety of NDIMDT methods. The minimum training hours
for those methods not covered by table I shall b e as determined by the Level III and
agreed upon by the facility's customer. There are no additional training requirements
to transition from Level II to Level ID nor can an individual have sufficient training to
allow certification to Level IU without prior certification as a Level 11 or performance
equivalent to a Level II.
RIILST?)-4 IOE
CONDITION
~
[I1
I21
I31
Penetrant
16
Magnetic particle
12
20
Eddy current
12
40
52
Ultrasonics
40
40
80
Radiography
40
40
80
Acoustic Emission
40
40
80
Neutron radiography
28
40
68
[I ] k v e l I
[2] Level 11, with prior Level I Certification
131 Level 11, no prior Level I Certification
5.2.4 Previous training. Training obtained from a prior employer must be documented
and verified by the previous employer in order to be accepted by the current employer.
For personnel credited with training from a prior employer or those not certified within
6 months of their training, refresher training must be provided. The refresher training
shall cover the following subjects with the depth of coverage of each subject
determined by the Level III responsible for the employer's certification program:
practical experience to assure that they are capable of performing the duties of the
level for which certification is sought. The minimum requirements for Levels I, II and
Dl are given in Table II.
TABLE II. h4NMUvl EXPERIENCE REQUIREh4ENTS
,
CONDITION
PI
PI
[I1
[21
Penetrant
130 hrs
270 hrs
400 hrs
4 yrs
2 yrs
Magnetic particle
130 hrs
400 hrs
530 hrs
4 yrs
2 yrs
1 Yr
Eddy current
130 hrs
1200 hrs
1330 hrs
4 yrs
2 yrs
1 yr
Ultrasonics
400 hrs
1200 hrs
1600 hrs
4 yrs
2 yrs
1 yi
Radiography
400 hrs
1200 hrs
1600 hrs
4 yrs
2 yrs
1 Yr
Acoustic Emission
400 hrs
1200 hrs
1600 hrs
4 yrs
2 yrs
1 Yr
2400 hrs
3200 hrs
4 yrs
2 yrs
1 yr
METHOD
[51
[61
5.4 Examinations. The examinations to verify the physical and technical qualifications
of candidate personnel shall consist of a physical examination. a general examination,
a specific examination, and a practical examination. The requirements for the physical
examinations; the questions utilized for the general and specific examinations and the
checklist for the practical examination shall be available for review by the facility's
customers. If the actual test questions given during certification examinations are not
kept in each certified individual's records, then the listing of questions from which
examinations are derived shall be available for review by the facility's customers. The
questions shall be made available to certification candidates only during administration
of the examinations.
5.4.1 Phvsical. The physical examination shall assure that the applicants near vision
and color perception meet the following requirements. Near vision tests shall be
administered annually and color perception tests shall be administered prior to
certification or recertification. These tests shall be administered by an individual
approved by the Level III responsible for the maintenance of the certification program
or by the outside agency utilized for the examination of personnel:
Near vision - Jaeger #I test chart at not less than 12 inches, or equivalent with one
eye, either natural or corrected.
Color oerception - Distinguish and differentiate between the colors used in the methad
for which certification is sought.
5.4.2 General. The general examination for all levels shall be a closed book
5.4.3 Suecific. The specific examination for all levels shall be a closed book
examination and shall cover the specifications, codes, equipment, operating procedures,
and test techniques the candidate may use in the performance of his duties. A
minimum of 30 questions shall be used for the specific examination at each level.
5.4.4 Practical. The practical examination shall consist of a demonstration of
method to examine at least one test sample for each technique to b e used and
document the results. The test samples shall be representative of the products to be
encountered by the candidate in the performance of his duties. The checklist shall
address proficiency in the use of the procedures and equipment or materials,
adherence to procedural details and the documentation of the results. If the Level I
candidate is to accept products, then the checklist shall also include proficiency in the
interpretation and evaluation of indications.
5.4.4.2 Level Il. The candidate shall demonstrate proficiency by using the appropriate
method to examine a t least one test sample for each technique. The candidate shall
interpret, evaluate and document the results of the examination of the test samples.
At least two test samples shall be evaluated for each method. The test samples shall
be representative of the products to be encountered by the candidate in the
performance of his duties. The checklist shall include proficiency in the use of the
procedures and equipment or materials. adherence to procedural details, and the
accuracy and completeness of interpretations and evaluations of indications.
5.4.4.3 Level. III. The candidate shall demonstrate proficiency by preparing an
5.4.5 Administration. A Level HI, knowledgeable and familiar with the specifications,
standards, codes, techniques and products associated with the employer, and certified
Level III in the method for which the examinations are given, shall be responsible for
the administration of all qualification examinations. The administration and grading of
those examinations using multiple choice or truelfalse type questions can be delegated
by the.level III. If an outside agency is used to provide this function, then the
employer shall assure that the individual who performs the administration of the
examinations is fully qualified. In no case can an examination be administered by
one's self or by a subordinate.
5.4.6 Grading. The candidate for certification must achieve a minimum grade of 70%
on the general and specific qualification examinations. The candidate must detect all
discontinuities or conditions specified by the Level HI during the practical examination
and achieve a minimum score of 70% on the remainder of the practical examination.
The candidate must have an average score of no less than 80% in order to be eligible
for certification. All examination scores shall be of equal weight in determining the
average score.
5.4.7 Re-examination. Candidates failing any examination (general, specific or
practical) shall receive additional training or wait at least 30 days before attempting
re-examination. The additional training shall be documented and shall address those
areas found deficient in the candidate's skills or knowledge. The re-examination shall
not utilize the same questions or specimens that were used in the initial examination.
5.6 Certification. Personnel who have demonstrated that they possess the appropriate
g. Experience history, both with current and previous employers, sufficient to justify
satisfaction of experience requirements for certification.
h. Results of physical examinations.
i. Extent and documentation of formal education.
5.6.2 Loss of certification. Certification may expire, be suspended or be revoked.
Certification shall expire when employment is terminated or when the cenification
interval has lapsed with no recertification attempted. Certification shall be suspended
when the periodic physical examination is overdue, the individual does not perform in
the method certified for at least 12 consecutive months, or the individual's
performance is found to be deficient in any manner. Certification shall be revoked
when the individual does not perform in the method certified for at least 24
consecutive months or the individuals conduct is found to be unethical or incompetent.
5.6.3 Reinstatement of certification. Certifications which have been suspended may be
reinstated when the cause for suspension has been corrected and the correction verified
by the employer. Certifications that have expired or been revoked may not be
reinstated except by recertification.
ur
6.2 Intended use. When invoked in a Request for Proposal (RFP),lnvitation for Bid
of other similar document, the contracting agency should request that a copy of
the offeror's existing qualification/certification procedure for NDI o r NDT personnel be
included with the technical proposal. If the offeror has no existing procedure or if the
existing procedure does not comply with this standard, then the contracting agency
should request that the offeror's approach for establishing a procedure that complies
with this standard b e included in the technical proposal. In addition, if the contacting
agency intends that personnel using methods other than those listed in paragraph 1.2.1
be qualified and certified to this standard, then details on the offeror's approach to
conducting such an effort should be requested as part of the technical proposal.
m),
6.4 Chanees from orevious issue. Marginal notations are not used in this revision to
identify changes with respect to the previous issue due to the extensiveness of the
changes.
Custodians:
Army.- MR
Navy - AS
Air Force - 11
Reviewer Activities:
Army - AR
Preparing Activity:
Air Force
- I1
INTERNATIONAL
STANDARD
First edition
1992-05-15
Reierencc number
is0 9712:1992(E)
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD
I S 0 97121992(E)
Non-destructive testing
personnel
a) eddy-current testing;
b) liquid-penetrant testing;
d) radiographic testing;
3.2 qualilication: A demonstration of the knowledge. skill. training and experience required to
property perform NDT tasks.
e) ultrasonic testing.
3.3
c) magnetic testing;
L,;Cp
3.4
J\ 3.5 naUonal ceNfying body: The agency that administers procedures for certification of NOT personnel in accordance with the requirements of this
lnternational Standard.
,,,,/ \*
&'
r2
Abbreviations
qualifying body: A competent organizalion. independent of the employer or responsible agency,
authorized by the national certifying body to prepare
and administer examinations to qualify NOT personnel.
3.6
f 3
CF
Liquid penetrant
Magnetic
Radiography
PT
MT
RT
RS
MG
RI
Ultrasonic
Nondestructive
testing
French
Couranls de
Foucault
Ressuage
Magnetoscopie
Rayonnements
Ionisants
UT
US Ultrasons
NOT END Essais non
destructifs
3.7
employer or responslble agency: The organization lor which the candidate works on a regular
basis.
3.8
NOTE 1
3.9
'TE 2
3.10 NDT training: A process o l instruction in theory and practice in the NDT methods in which certification is being sought, which may take the form of
training courses to an approved syllabus in addition
to periods of practical work under qualified supervision but shall not include the use of specimens
used in practical examinations.
3.11 experience: The period during which the candidale performed the specific NDT method as his
main activity under qualified supervision. inciuding
personal application ofthe NDT method to materials,
parts or structures but not including tests performed
during training courses.
3.12 NDT method: The application of a physical
principle in nondestructive testing (for example:
ultrasonic testing).
3.13 NDT technique: A specific way of utilizing an
NDT method (for example: immersion ultrasonlc
testing).
3.14 NDT procedure: An orderly sequence of ~ l e s
which describe in detailed terms where, how and in
.fhich sequence an NDT method should be applied
,o a product.
3.15 NDT inshuctions: A written document detailing
the.precise steps to be lollowed in testing in accordance with an NDT procedure.
3.19
&
3.17
4 Levels of c o m p e t e n c e
4.1
Classification
4.3
NDT level 2
4.4
NDT level 3
An individual certified to NDT level 3 shall be capable of assuming full responsibility for a test facility
and stall; establishing techniques and procedures;
interpreting codes, standards. specifications and
procedures; and designating the particular test
methods, techniques and procedures to be used.
The individual shall have the competence to interpret and evaluate results in anordance with existing codes. standards and specifications: have a
sulficient practical background in applicable materials. labrication and product technology to select
methods and establish techniques and to assist in
establishing acceptance criteria where none are
olherwise available: have general familiarity with
other NDT methods; and have the ability to train
level I and level 2 personnel.
5
5.1
G e n e r a l principles of certification
Administration
0) 5.2
(/
Composition
Responsibilities
:ng and experience needed to eslablish the el,w,lity o f (he candidate, but shall not be directly iniolved in the certification procedure itself.
The employer or responsible agency shall be fully
responsible for all t11at concerns the authorization to
operate and the validity of the results of NDT operations.
If the individual is self-employed, or introduces himself* he shall assume all responsibilites deskribed
for the employer or responsible agency.
5.4
Examination c e n t r e s
NDT method
1
1
Eddy-current testing
Liquid-penetrant testing
1
1
40
l6
Radiographic testing
Ultrasonic tesliog
80
40
Magnetic testing
+._
40
80
40
80
6.3.2
6
6.1
Taking into account the scientific and technical potential of candidates for level 3 certification. it i s
considered that preparation for qualification could
be done in dilierent ways: by taking training courses.
attending conrerences o r seminan such as organized by industrial or independent associations, and
studying books. periodicals and other specialized
printed matter. No training hours have therefore
been specified in table 1, although references cited
in annex B do suggest course content and duration.
General
6.2
Level 3
Education
6.4
6.3 T r a i n i n g
6.4.1
Experience
Levels 1 and 2
Table 2
Table 3
NDT method
Experience
(months)
NOTES
1 Work experience in months Is based on a nomlnal
40 hlweek (175 h/month). When an lndivldual Is workIng more lhan 40 hlweek. helshe may be credited wilh
experience based on the total hours. but helshe shall
be required lo produce evidence of this experience.
I
I
Direct access lo
level 3 by a now
ceriilied -&rator
wilh experience
euuivalent to level
2 For level 2 certification, lhe.intent of lhls International Standard is lhat work experience consists of
time accrued as a level I . If the individual Is being
qualified directly to level 2, wilh no time at level 1. the
experience shall consist of the sum of the periods r e
quired for level 1 and level 2
Graduate of a
four-year accredited science or engineering college
or university
. pro.
gramme
Suacessful wmpletion of at least
two years of engineering or xience study at an
amedited college.
university or technical school
3 Credit for work experience may be gained simultaneously in two or more of the NDT melhods covered
by this International Standard, with the reduction i n
total required experience as follows:
I
I
6.4.2
I No degree
48
No degree
I
I
Level 3
6.5. V l s l o n requirements
7
7.1
Examinations
Examination content
-2
Administration o f examinations
8.1
Administration
Based o n the results of the qualification examinalions, the national certifying body, directly or
through its authorized qualifying bodies, shall announce the certification. and issue cerlificates
and/or corresponding wallet cards.
8.2
9
9.1
Certiflcates a n d wallet c a r d s
9.2
Zertificates and corresponding wallet cards shall
bear:
a) the name of the individual certified;
Renewal
10
The national certifying body or its authorized quatiwing bodies shall keep
9.3
Recertification
Files
a) an updated list of all Individuals certified. classified a m r d i n g to level. test melhod and industrial
sector;
b) an individual file for each lndividual certified and
for each individual whose certification has been
withdrawn, containing
I)application forms.
Individual liles shall be kept under suitable conditions of safely and discretion for a period at least
equal to the total of the initial period of validity plus
the renewal period.
Annex A
(normative)
Administration of examinations
A.l
A.l.l
Table A.l
Qualification examination
Number of questions
The qualification examination administered under
this International Standard shall include a general
examination and a specific examination for each
level of competence. Each examination shall mnsist
of a written parl and a pradlcal part The pradlcal
parl shall be of sullicient duration, complexity and
smpe to verify adequately the candidate's ability to
apply the NDT method to real test situations.
A.1.2
NDT method
Examination content
of
basic-knowledge
questions valid at the date of examination. The candidate shall be required, as a minimum, to give anto the fixed number Of multiple-choice
questions shown in tableA.1.
The practical test in the general examinalion is to
verify the candidate's ability to make the required
settings and operate the test equipment properly in
order to obtain satisfactory results and correctly interpret these results. The candidate shall therefore
be required to demonstrate this ability. with mmments; using the means of verification>vailable for
each test method. such as calibration blocks,
Image-quality, indicators and magnetic-field lndifalOE.
"OTE 6
Eddycurrent testing
30
30
Liquidpenelrant testing
30
30
Magnetic testing
30
30
Radiographic testing
40
40
Ultrasonic testing
40
40
Specific examlnation
The written test in the general examination shall include only questions selected from the national cer-
collection
Level 2
A.1.22
body's
Level 1
'
The written test in the specific examination shall include only questions selected from the national certifying body's current mllection related to all
industrial sectors or from the mllection of specific
questions maintained by an authorized qualifying
body related to the industrial sector concerned.
During the specific examination. the candidate shall
to a fixed number of
be required to give
questions. as defined in tableA.2. including
multiple-choice questions. calculations. written procedures and questions on codes, standards and
specilications.
~ h , practical test inthe specific examination is to
verify the
ability to perlorm testing of
prescribed components relating to the industrial
sector concerned, and to record and analyse the
resultant information to the degree required, accurding to specific testing instructions or specifications. and to the NDT level being sought.
The specimens used for the practical test shall be
Selected from a ml~ection
of representative specimens chosen b~the national certifying body or by its
authorized qualifying body.
For level 2. the candidate shall be required to demonstrate the ability to prepare written instructions for
level 1 personnel.
If the practical test in the specific examination covers two o r more industrial sectors, the number of
specimens to be tested shall be increased proportionally to examine the candidate's competence
in each of the industrial sectors concerned.
Table A.2
NDT method
Level 1
Level 2
Eddy-current testing
15
15
Liquid-penetrant testing
20
15
Magnetic testing
20
15
Radiographic testing
20
20
Ultrasonic testing
20
20
A.1.4
A.1.3
Conduct of examinations
Grading
/(
Table A.3
/c,
I
Level
Weighting factor
General
Speciflc
Written
Practical
Written
Practical
0.2 to 0.4
0.2 to 0.4
0.2 to 0.4
0.2 to 0.4
0.2 to 0.4
0.2 lo 0,4
0.2 to 0.4
0.2 to 0.4
A candidate failing for reasons of unethical behaviour shall wait at least 12 months before reapplying.
A candidate who fails to obtain the pass grade for
the whole examination may take one. and only one.
retest in a maximum o f two parts. provided the
minimum percentage (70%) was obtained i n each
A2
A.21
E x a m i n a t i o n s f o r level 3
A.2.1.2
Specilic examlnation
Examination content
A.2.2
Conduct of examinations
..
of the examination by a weighting factor to be selected from tableA.4. The total of the selected
weighting factors shall equal 1.00.
Table A.4
Annex B
(informative)
Technical knowledge of NDT personnel
6.1
General
8.2
.'
References
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
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Liquid Penetrant testing is a quick and reliable nondestructive test method used for detecting various
types of discontinuities which are opened to the surface of a material or part.
During normal operation, critical components of aircraft engines, airframes, missiles, space vehicles,
nuclear reactors, and other modern machinery, are often subjected to extreme loads and vibrations. In
time, these extreme loads and vibrations may cause a component to develop an intemption in its normal
physical structure or configuration. This is called a DISCONTINUITY.. Although the discontinuity may not
affect the usefulness of a part when it occurs, or even alter the parts appearance to the naked eye (since
the discontinuity may be minute) repeated stresses or overloading may eventually cause that part to fail. It
can be seen therefore, that detection of small discontinuities before they progress into a DEFECT, which
is detrimental to part serviceability, is of vital importance to prevent loss of equipment and personnel.
Failure of the part may cause one of the following:
$-~)s&~2 P-0
1 ._Maior Repair: "Down %me" for major repair caused by part failure is expensive inc_;u) &&&
,A
, (2
terms %st
time.
2. Lpss of Eclui~meG:Total loss of equipment due to part failure is expensive in terms of
lost time and equipment.
\o\\,2 .
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3. Loss of Personnel: Total loss of the equipment may result in the loss of operating
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personnel.
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Note: This is only a partial listing. A listing of all discontinuities caused by metal and non-metallic material
preparation, material forming, and material processing would be too unwieldy for this study guide.
Penetrant inspection can be used w$h reliable accuracy on the following nonabsorbent materials:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Aluminum
Magnesium
Brass
Copper
Titanium
Bronze
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Cast lmn
Stainless Steel
Non-Magnetic Alloys
Ceramics
..
Hard Rubber
Plastic
Caution: As some plastics, rubber, and synthetic products may be affected by oil, tests should be made
before penetrant inspecting such materials to avoid damaging the part under test.
\
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The basic principle of penetrant inspection is capillary action. Capillary action is the action by which the
surface of a liquid, where it is in contact with a solid, is elevated or depressa The materials, processes,
and procedures used in liquid penetrant testing are all designed to facilitate capillarity and to make the
results of such action visible and capable of interpretation.
The forces of capillarity, or capillary action, may be obsewed when a plastic straw is inserted into a glass of
water. When the straw is inserted, the water molecules enter the straw and begin to attract other nearby
molecules, pulling them up the straw by cohesion. This process continues as the water rises higher and
higher. The water continues to rise until the pull of the surface tension is equalized. Cohesive forces
prevent the water from falling back down the straw. Capillary action as applied in n O n d e S t ~ ~ ttesting
i ~ e is
somewhat more complex, since various surface conditions hindering or assisting the action are
encountered. Liquid penetrants in nondestructive testing have low tension and high capillarity. Capillary
action is illustrated in Figure 1-1.
$6
WATER LEVEL IN STRAW
WATER LEV!.IN GLASS
(_I*
The basic objective of liquid penetrant inspection is to increase the visible contrast between the
discontinuity and its background. This is done by treating the whole object with an appropriag searching
liquid of high mobility and penetrating power (which enters the surface opening of the discontinuity), and
then encouraging the liquid to emerge from the discontinuity to reveal the flaw pattern to the inspecting
personnel under daylight conditions (visible dye penetrants) or, when exposed to black light (fluorescent
penetrants).
.-
There are several methods by which the basic principles of penetrant inspection can be administered. -In
each method, however, there are certain general procedures which must be followed.
GENERAL PROCEDURES FOR PENETRANT INSPECTION
The following are general procedures for penetrant inspection:
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6. Penetrant Removal: Penetrant shall be removed from the surface of the part under test
Fgure 13
7. Developer Application: Developer shall be applied to the part under test as appropriate
to the process being used and the configuration of the part under test. Sufficient dwell
time shall be allowed for optimum results. Figure 1-4.
3
i
I
8. Inspection Interpretation: The part shall be inspected and the discontinuity interpreted
t
9. Post-Cleaning: The developer shall be removed after inspection interpretation and
prior to returning the part to service.
,
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PT Ill BASIC
TABLE 1
ASME CODE CLASSIFICATION OF LIQUID PENETRANT METHODS AND TYPES
METHOD A -FLUORESCENT PENETRANTS
Type 1 Water Washable Penetrant (Procedure A-1)
Dry, Wet, or Nonaqueous Developer
Type 2 Post-emulsifiable Penetrant (Procedure A-2)
Lipophilic or Hydrophilic Emu!sifier
Dry, Wet, or Nonaqueous Developer
Type 3 Solvent Removable Penetrant (Procedure A-3)
Solvent Rernover/Cleaner
Dry. Wet, or Nonaqueous Developer
METHOD 8--VISIBLE PENETRANTS
Type 1 Water Washable Penetrant (Procedure B-1)
Wet or Nonaqueous Developer
Type 2 Post-emulsifiable Penetrant (Procedure B-2)
Lipophilic or Hydrophilic Emulsifier
Wet or Nonaqueous Developer
Type 3 Solvent Removable Penetrant (Procedure 8-3)
Solvent RemoverICleaner
Wet or Nonaqueous Developer
PT Ill BASIC
TABLE 1.a
MIL STD 6866 CLASSIFICATIONOF LIQUID PENETRANT METHODS AND TYPES
TYPE
Type I
Type II
Type Ill
Fluorescent Dye
Visible Dye
Dual mode (visible and fluorescent dye)
METHOD
Method A
Method B
Method C
Method D
Water-washable
Post emulsifiable, lipophilic
Solvent removable
Post emulsifiable, hydorphilic
SENSITIVITY
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Level 4
Low
Medium
High
Ultrahigh
DEVELOPERS
Form a
Form b
Form c
Form d
Form e
Dry powder
Water soluble
Water suspendable
Nonaquesous
Specific application
SOLVENT REMOVERS
Class (1)
Hologenated
Non-halogenated
Class (2)
Class (3)
Specific application
--
d-i
->-,.
ard chrom!es.
-.of. discontinuities.
range
water.
5. Process is easily adaptable to a large volume
of small parts.
surfaces.
washing.
'
usefulness of penetrant.
PT Ill BASIC
1-
3.
y7
1
penetrants.
4.
5.
?j ,I/
The part is contaminated with acid or other chemicals that will harm'water-washable
6.
detected.
Examining parts which may have discontinuities contaminated with in-sewice soils.
7.
8.
9.
d@+4{
'IJ
/--
h---
ADVANTAGES
1. Fluorescence used in this p w s s is more
PT Ill BASIC
2.
DISADVANTAGES
on large parts.
2. Process can be used when water-rinsing
+-
The lowest sensitivity is sufficient to detect the discontinuities inherent to the part.
2.
3.
4.
Surfaces are very rough (i.e., sand castings, rough weldments, pitted areas).
5.
6.
7.
PT Ill BASIC
DISADVANTAGES
discontinuities.
range of discontinuities.
4. Penetrant used can be easily washed off
with water.
ch-omtes.
4. Process is not reliable on anodized surfaces.
of penetrant.
emulsifier, and a dry, wet or non-aqueous developer. The materials used in this process are very similar to
that described for Method A, Type II process, however, the eenetrants are not self-emulsifiable. An
emulsifier is applied over the penetrant to make it water washable.
Method 8, Type 2 lnspection process is generally used when:
1.
2.
3.
The part is contaminated with acid or other chemicals that will harm waterwashable penetrants.
4.
5.
Examining parts which may have discontinuities that are contaminated with inservice soils.
6.
DISADVANTAGES
- -
penetrant remover (solvent) and a dry, wet or non-aqueous developer. The penetrant is not waterwashable but is removed instead with the penetrant remover.
Method 8, Type 3 lnspection Process is generally used when:
1.
2.
on large parts.
2. Process can be used when water-rinsing
DISADVANTAGES
1. Use of solvent to remove penetrant
As shown in the previous paragraphs, the test method is dependent upon the materials used. It should
be obvious that in order to achieve the desired results.the proper selection and use of materials is of vital
importance , and mandatory that the written procedure be followed to the letter.
INSPECTION BOOT11
ULTRA VIOLET
LIGHTS
N0TE:WHEN THE EQUIPMENT IS USED FOR A TYPE 2 INSPECTION PROCESS, THE EXTRA TANK
(SHOWN BY THE DASHED LINES) WlLL BE USED FOR M E PENETRANT. IN M I S EVENT, THE TANK
IDENTIFIED ABOVE AS THE PENETRANT TANK WlLL BE USED FOR M E EMULSIFIER. WHEN THIS
EQUIPMENT IS USED FOR THE TYPE 1. PROCESS, THE ADDITIONAL TANK IS NOT REQUIRED.
PT Ill BASIC
14
2.
3.
4.
BRUSH A N D WIPES
PENETRANT
CLEAN
PORTABLE FLUORESCENT DYE PENETRANT KITS. Portable Fluorescent Dye Penetrant Kits are
available for field inspection. A typical Fluorescent Dye Penetrant Inspection Kit is illustrated in Figure 3.
A FLUORESCENT DYE PENETRANT KIT usually contains:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
PENETRANT
DEVELOPEfi
PT Ill BASIC
PORTABLE
BLACK L I G H T
In summary, let's consider the advantages and limitations of the liquid penetrant test method
ADVANTAGES OF PENETRANT TESTING
Materials are relatively inexpensive
Some methods are relatively fast
Sensitive: can detect discontinuities .001" or greater.
Versatile: can be used on any non-porous, non-absorbent material.
LIMITATIONS OF PENETRANTTESTING
Some methods are time consuming and therefore expensive.
Can only detect discontinuities open to the surface.
/
LEARNING MODULE 4
INTERPRETATION AND EVALUATION OF INDICATIONS
This learning module describes the interpretation and evaluation phases of NDT, discontinuity
characteristics. and the classifications of indications and discontinuities.
THE INSPECTOWEXAMINER'
Since correct evaluation of a discontinuity depends on accurate interpretation the inspector is the key in
the inspection process. The success and reliability of any NDT depends upon the thoroughness with
which the inspector conducts the examination from the initial step all the way through to the final
interpretationof the indications. The inspector must carefully follow the procedure, search out indications
and then decide the seriousness of discontinuities found to determine the disposition of parts according
to the severity of the flaw indications. Remember poor processing can be worse than no inspection,
because, if improper processing yields no indications for the inspector to interpret the part would be
considered acceptable whether it is or not. In some cases, the inspector may perform only the inspection
phase of the process. At other times, the inspector may perform all phases of the process. In either case,
the success and reliability of the inspection depends on the thoroughness of the inspector, and proper
f-
- . . ..
TERMINOLOGY
. .
Quite often inspectors will confuse the various terms used and will use them incorredly. Therefore, it is
important that the inspector have a clear understanding of the terms relating to liquid penetrant testing.
INDICATION: a response, or evidence of a response, that requires interpretationto determine its
significance.
DISCONTINUITY: a broad term relating to a condition that is foreign to the normal structure of a material. A
discontinuity may or may not be detrimental to the intended service life of a part and must therefore be
evaluated.
HelMer Associates, lnc
PTMcd4 O 1989
DEFECT: a term applied to a discontinuity which may be detrimental to the intended service life of a part,
and exceeds the limits of the applicable acceptance criteria.
INTERPRETATION: the action performed by the inspector in determining the cause of an indication.
EVALUATION: the action performed by the inspector in comparing the magnitude and severity of an
indication to a predetermined acceptance criteria in order to determine acceptance or rejection of the part.
RECOGNrrlON OF TYPES OF INDICATIONS
it must be recognized that all indications are not caused by discontinuities. Some indications are the result
of faulty processing of the part, while other indications are the result of part design. The penetrant
inspector must be able to recognize the various indications that might appear. Penetrant indicationswill
fall into one of three categories:
1.
False Indications
2.
Nonrelevant Indications
3.
Usually there are specik differences between all three and a well-trained inspector should be able to
determine into which of the three categories an indication is to be classified. Qualified inspectors, using
acceptable procedures and codes, can usually determine the cause and category of the penetrant
indication.
FALSE INDICATIONS
A properly cleaned part would show only a very faint, or no pink background if visible penetrants were
used, or only very faint, or no areas of background fluorescence when fluorescent penetrants are used.
False indications due to incomplete washing are usually easy to identify, since the penetrant will be in
broad areas rather than in the sharp patterns found in the true indications.
The danger of poorly cleaned parts, which produce the false indications, lies in the fact that there may be
actual discontinuities in the improperly cleaned areas which would be masked by the false indications. If
false indications interfere with interpretation of true indications found on the parts complete reprocessing
of the parts would be required.
NON-RELEVANT INDICATIONS
Non-relevant indications are true indications produced by uncontrolledtest conditions. However, the
conditions causing them are present by design or accident, or other features of the part having no relation
to the damaging flaws being sought. The term signifies that such an indication has no relation to
discontinuities that might constitute defects.
NON-RELEVANT INDICATIONS DUET0 FILLETS, THREADS, AND KEYWAYS: Sharpfillets, threads,
and keyways will often retain penetrant at their base and produce indications despite a good removal
f'-
technique. This is particularly tiue when post emulsified penetrants are employed. Because heat-treating
or fatigue cracks often do m
very carefully.
NON-RELEVANT INDIGATTONS DUE TO PRESS-FIT: Anotherwndition which may create nokrelevant
indications is when parts are press-fitted into each other. if a wheel is press-fitted onto a shaft, penetrant
will show an indicationat the fit line. This is perfectly normal since the two parts are not welded together.
The only problem with such indications is that penetrant from the press fit may bleed out and mask a true
. . dis~ontinuity.
CWUliUOW: Where penetrant bleed out may mask discontinuities on press-fit parts, the time between
application of developer and inspection should be held to a minimum to prevent excessive bleed out.
TRUE INDICATIONS
The last classification of indications is the group of which we are most interested and is called the true
indication which is caused by a discontinuity.
True indications can be further classified into four major groups. They are: inherent, primary processing,
secondary processing, and service discontinuities. These are covered in detail in another module.
Three basic questions must be answered to facilitate proper interpretation of the flaw indications:
1.
2.
3.
What effect will this discontinuity have on the anticipated service of the part?
NOTE: The answers to the first two questions are the prime responsibility of the inspector. The answer to
the third question, unless specific acceptance criteria are specified, usually requires special assistance.
SPECIFIC TYPES OF DlSCONTlNUrflES
Generally speaking, we can divide discontinuities into five basic types. These are:
Fine, Tight Surface Cracks. Such cracks may be shallow or deep, but their most
signifmnt characteristics is their very small and tigM surface opening. Deep
cracks of this type, once well penetrated, may provide a reservoir of penetrant, and
2.
3.
4.
5.
There are five basic types of indications which may be seen by the inspector. These indication types
caused by the discontinuities listed in the above paragraph are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
Rounded indications
4.
5.
It is possible to examine an indication of a discontinuity and determine its cause as well as its extent. such
an appraisal can be made if something is known about the manufacturing processes or the operational use
to which the part has been subjected. The extent of the indications, or acurmulation of penetrant, will
show the extent of the discontinuity.
The vividness of the visible dye penetrant on the contrasting white developer or the brilliance of the
fluorescent dye penetrant will give some indication of the discontinuity's depth. Deekdiscontinuities will
hold penetrant and therefore, will be broader and more brilliant. Very fine discontinufies can hold only
small amounts of penetrant and will therefore appear as fine lines.
In many instances, more accurate flaw evaluation may be obtained by removing the indications and
reapplying nonaqueous wet developer so that the rate and amount of penetrant bleed out can be closely
f!
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/-
,
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ROUNDED INDICATIONS
Rounded indications generally indicate porosity caused by gas holes or pin holes or a generally porous
material depending on the extent of the indication. Deep crater cracks in welds frequently show up as
rounded indications, since there is a large amount of dye penetrant entrapped.
The indications may appear rounded because of the volume of penetrant entrapped, ailhough the actual
defects may be irregular in outline.
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ROURDED IRDlCATlOMS
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SHALL DOT IRDIEATlOMS
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LEARNING MODULE 1
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
PRlNClPLES OF MAGNETISM
In order to understand how and why a magnetic particle test works it is necessary to understand the
principles of magnetism.
HORSESHOE MAGNET
in figure 1-1. It will attract magnetic materials to its ends where a leakage field occurs. These ends are
commonly called "north" and "south" poles, indicated by N and S on the diagram. There will be no
attraction except at these poles. Magnetic flux lines, or lines of force flow from the north to the south pole
as long as they are external to the magnet. Since these lines of force always form a complete circuit, they
also pass through the iron or steel of which the magnet is made. Note thatwithin the magnet the lines are
Ifthe ends of the horseshoe magnet are bent so that they are close together, as shown in figure 1-2, the
ends will sti!l attract magnetic materials. However, ifthe ends of the magnet zre benl closer together, and
the two poles completely fused or welded into a ring as shown in figure 1-3, the magnet will no longer
attract or hold magnetic materials because there is no longer a leakage field. The magnetic field remains as
shown by the arrows, but without poles there is no attraction. Such a piece is said to have a circular field,
or to be circularly magnetized, because the magnetic lines of force are circular.
MT MOD 1
Any crack in the fused magnet or cicularly magnetized part which crosses the magnetic flux lines will
immediately create noflh and south poles on either side of the crack. (see figure 1-4). This will lorce some
01 the rnagnetic flux (lines ol force) out of the metal path and is referred to as lluxleakage. Magnetic
materials or particles will be attracted by the pole created by the crack, forming an indication of the
discontinuity in the metal part. This is the principle whereby rnagnetic particle indications are formed by
means of circular magnetization.
BAR MAGNET
1-5. The bar magnet has poles at either end and magnetic lines of force flowing through the length of it.
Magnetic particles will be attracted only to the poles. Such a piece is said to have a longitudinal field, or to
be longitudinally magnetized.
831Magnet
MT M O D 1
- -
A slot or discontinuity in the bar magnet which crosses the magnetic flux lines will create north and south
poles on either side ol the discontinuity (see tigure 1-6). These poles will attract magnetic parlicles. In a
similar manner, if the discontinuity is a crack even though it is very fine, it will still create magnetic poles as
indicated in figure 1-7. These poles will also attract magnetic particles. The strength of these poles wiil be
a function of the number of flux lines, the depth of the crack and the width of the air gap at the surface.
The greater the pole strength, the greater the leakage field. The strength of this leakage field determines
the number of magnetic parlicles which will be gathered to form indications: strong indications at strong
fields, or large discontinuities, and weak indications at weak fields of small discontinuities.
MAGNETIC PARTICLES
-7
TMAGNETIC
PARTICLES
CRACK
'
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
All materials read to a magnetic field in one of three ways. They are. therefore, classilied as diamagnetic,
. paramagnetic, or ferromagnetic. When made into a rod, a diamagnetic material is repelled by a magnetic
field and will align itself at right angles to the field. When a paramagnetic or a lerromagnetic material is
made into a rod, it will be attracted by a magnetic field and will align itself parallel to the field.
1.
Diamagnet~cmmaleria!s have permeabilities slightly less than unity. Bismuth has the iowest
permeability known (.9998).Other diama~neticmaterials are phosphorus, antimony, flint glass, and
mercuky. Such materials are usually consideredto be nonmagnetic.
2.
Paramagnetic materials have permeabilities greater than unity. Those whose permeablities are
only slightly grealer than unity such as platimum (1.00002), are called paramagnetic and are usually
considered to be nonmagnetic.
3.
Ferromagnetic materials have permeabililies great than unity and are usually Considered to be
magnetic. Ferromagnetic materials are iron, nickel, cobalt, and many alloys such as permalloy, alnico,
permivar, elc. Usually materials wiih permeabilities of 1.1000 or greater aree referred lo as lerromagnelic.
Low
High
Smaller grain size; the structure is more complex for added strenth
Low Carbon
Figure 1-8
ATOM ARRANGEMENT
Hiah Carbon
Figure 1-9
When a magnetizing lorce is applied to low carbon content steel, the aloms align easily.
F i g u r e 1-10
More magnetizing force is required to align the atoms of high carbon steel into magnetic domains. As
illustrated in figure 1- 9, the atom directions are more disarranged than low carbon content in figurel-8
magnetizing
force
F i g u r e 1-11
When the magnetizing force is removed from low carbon content steel, most of the atoms return to their
normal orientation (figure 1-8), leaving little magnetism. High carbon content steel is different. Because it
is much harder to align the atoms; when the magnetizing force is removed many atoms will stay aligned
and the material will retain a greater amount of magnetism as shown in figure 1-12.
Figure 1 - 1 2
1. Low permeability
..
2. High retentivity
1. High permeability
2. Low retentivity
/-
PROPERTY
LOW CARBON
HIGH CARBON
Permeability
High
Low
Reluctance
Low
High
Relentivily
Low
High
Residual Field
Low
High
Coercive Force
Low
High
MOD 2
Although different types of magnetizing current can be used in magnetic particle inspection only one
type is generally best suited for each type of inspection to be performed.
Alternating current (AC) is used for the detection of surface discontinuities only, due to the skin
affect.
Direct current (DC) or Halfwave direct current (HWDC) is used for detection of either surface or
subsurface discontinuities.
Regardless of the type of current used for magnetization, the magnetic field created in the test part will be
either a circular field or a longitudinal field.
CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION. Circular magnetizationderives its name from the fact that a circular
magnetic fiekl atways surrounds a conductor such as a wire or a bar carrying an electric current (see figure
. 2-1). The direction of the magnetic lines of force (magnetic field) is always at right angles to the direction of
the magnetizingcurrent. An easy way to remember the direction of magnetic lines of force around a
conductor is to imagine that you are grasping the conductor with your hand so that the extended thumb
points parallel to the electric current flow. The fingers then point in the direction of the magnetic lines of
force. Conversely, if the fingers point in the direction of current flow, the extended thumb points in the
f
.
F i g u r e 2-
Since a magnetic part is in eHect a large conductor, electric current passing through this part creates a
magnetic field in the same manner as with a small conductor (see figure 2-2). The magnetic lines of force
are at right angles to the direction of the current as before. This type of mangetization is called circular
mangetization because the lines of force, which represent the direction of the magnetic field, are circular
within the part. The strength of the magnetic field is dependent upon the current passing through the
conductor.
F i g u r e 2-
CONTACT P L A T E7
On parts that are hollow or tubelike, the inside surfaces are as important to inspect as the outside. When
such parts are circularly magnetized by passing the magnetizing current through the part, the magnetic
field on the inside surface is negligible. Since there is a magnetic field surrounding the conductor of an
electric current it is possible to induce a satisfactory magnetic field by placing the part on a copper bar or
other conductor. This situation is illustrated in figures 2-4 and 2-5. Passing current through the bar
induces a magnetic field on both the inside and outside surfaces.
Figure 2- 5
LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIZATION. Electric current can also be used to create a longitudinal magnetic
field in a piece of magnetic material. The nature and direction of this field is the result of the field around
the conductor which forms the turns of the coil. Application of the rule of the thumb to the conductor at
any point in the coil illustrated in figure 2-6 will show that the field within the coil is lengthwise as indicated.
F A G N E T I C FIELD
Figure 2- 6
WIRE COIL
When a part made of magnetic material is placed inside a coil as shown in figure 2-7, the magnetic lines of
force created by the magnetizing current concentrate themselves in the part and induce a longitudinal
mangetic field. Inspection of a cylindrical part with longitudinal magnetizationis shown in figure2-18. If
there is a transverse discontinuity in the part, such as that in the illustration, small magnetic poles are
formed on either side of the crack. These poles will attract magnetic particles, forming an indication of the
discontinuity. Compare figure 2-8 with figure 2-3 and note that in both cases a magnetic field has been
induced in the part which is at right angles to the defect. This is the most desirable condition for reliable
inspection. The strength of the magnetic field within a coil is dependent upon the current flowing through
the coil, the number of turns in the coil, and the diameter of the coil.
,-WIRE
LM,*GNETIZING
Figure 2-17
COIL
CURRENT
Figure 2- 8
MAGNETIZING CURRENT
7
INDUCED CURRENT MAGNETIZING. When a direct current in a circuit is instantly cut off, the field
surrounding the conductor collapses, or falls rapidly to zero. The rapid change of field tends to generate a
voltage (and current) which is opposite in direction to that which had been established in the circuit. When
ferromagnetic material is under the influence of such a collapsingfield, the effect is greatly increased.
Under certain conditions the rapid collapse of the field can generate very high currents inside
ferromagnetic material, and the phenomenon can be made useful in some magnetizing problems. An
extremely useful application of a collapsing field method fo magnetization has been developed for the
magnetizing of ring-shaped parts such as bearing races, without the need to make direct contact with the
surface of the part. Regardless of the type of magnetizing current employed, whether DC, AC or halfwave, the induced current method is usually faster and more satisfactory than the contact method. Only
one operation is required and the possibility of damaging the part due to arcing is completely eliminated
since no external contacts are made on the part.
burning or damage to the equipment if allowed to flow for any appreciable length of time. In practice, the
magnetizing current is normally on foronly afractiin of a second at a time. All that is required is that a
sufficient number of magnetic particles are in the zone and free to move while the magnetiiing current
flows. The bath ingredients are so selected and formulated that the particles can and do move through
the film of liquid on the surface of the part and form strong, readable indications. The viscosity of the bath
and the bath concentration are important, since anything that tends to reduce the number of available
particles or to slow their movement tends to reduce the build-up of indications.
RESIDUAL MRF1OD. The residual method is a method of inspection in which magnetic particles are
applied to parts after the parts have been magnetized. The residual method is used only when parts are
magnetized with DC and the parts have sufficient retentivity to form adequate magnetic particle indications
at discontinuities.
Usually the use of the residual method is limited to the search for discontinuities which
WET METHOD ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS. As is true of every process, the wet method has both
good points as well as less favorable characterisitics. The more important good points of the wet method,
which constilute the reason for its extensive use, as well as the less attractive characteristics are tabulated
as follows:
b.
c.
It quickly and thoroughly covers all surfaces of irregularly-shaped parts, large or small, with
d.
magnetic particles.
It is the fastest and most thorough method for testing large numbers of small parts.
e.
f.
9.
h.
i.
j.
It is not usually capable of finding defects lying wholly below the surface if more than a few
k.
I.
rn
Fluorescent magnetic particles used in suspension in liquids have the same unfavorable characteristics
which go with the usual wet visible method techniques. There is the additional requirement for a source of
black-light, and an inspection area from which the white light can be excluded. Experience has shown that
these added special requirements are more than justified by the gains in reliability and sensitivity.
GENERAL. The dry powder method is primarily used for the inspection of welds and castings where the
detection of defects lying at or very close to the surface is considered important. The particles used in the
dry method are provided in the form of a powder. They are available in red, black, yellow and gray colors.
The magnetic properties, particle size and shape, and coating method are similar in all colors making the
particles equally efficient. The choice of powder is then determined primarily by which powder will give the
best contrast and visibility on the parts being inspected and the degree of sensitivity desired.
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS. The dry powder method has good points and less favorable
characteristics. These advantages and disadvantages which may influence its use for a specific
application are summarized in the following list:
Excellent for locating defects wholly below the surface and deeper than a few
thousandths of an inch.
Easy to use for large objects with portable equipment.
Easy to use for field inspection with portable equipment.
Good mobility when used with alternating current (AC) or half-wave direct current
(HWDC).
Not as messy as the wet method.
Equipment may be less expensive.
Not as sensitive as the wet method for very fine and shallow cracks.
Not easy to cover all surfaces properly, especially of irregularly-shaped or large parts.
Slower than the wet method for large numbers of small parts.
Not readily usable for the short, timed shot technique of the continuous method.
Difficult to adapt to a mechanized test system.
GENERAL. Considerations involved in the selection of magnetic particle inspection equipment include
the type of magnetizing current and the location and nature of inspection. Magnetic particle inspection
equipment serves two basic purposes, which dictate requirements for the size, shape and functions.
These two purposes are to provide convenient means for accomplishing proper magnetization and to
make possible, rapid inspection of parts, with assurance that the inspection results will be reliable and
reproducible.
STATIONARY EQUIPMENT. A typical stationary horizontal wet magnetic particle inspection unit of
intermediate size is shown below. The unit has two contact heads for either direct contact or central
conductor, circular magnetization using a copper rod between the heads or a cable connected to a
contact block between the heads. Units contain a coil used for longitudinal magnetization. The coil and
one contact head are movable on rails. The other contact head is iiied; the contact plate on it, being air
cylinder operated, provides a means for clamping the part. The unit has a self-contained power supply
with all the necessary electrical controls. Magnetiuing currents are usually three phase full-wave DC or AC
depending upon usage requirements. The units are made in several different sizesto accomodate
different length parts and with various maximum output currents. A full length tank with pump, agitation
and circulating system for wet inspection media is located beneath the head and coil mounting rails. A
hand hose with nozzle is provided for applying the bath. On special units automatic bath application
facilities are provided.
This unit is used tor the wet method with either the visible or the fluorescent magnetic particles. The unit
is equipped with a black light seen mounted on the back rail, and a hood and wrtains which may be drawn
to exclude white light when the fluorescent particles are used in the wet suspension.
Direct current up to 6,000 amperes, derived from full wave rectified three phase AC, is delivered to the
adjustable contact heads, for circular magnetization. A built-in coil is provided for longitudinal magnetization. This unit is equipped with the infinitely variable current control by means of a saturable core reactor,
and also with the self-regulating current control.
A great number of variations of these typical magnetizing units is available. These variations are in size, in
current output and kinds of current, in the methods of current control, and in numerous types of fittings to
expedite magnetization of odd-shaped parts. In addition there are many accessories, such as contact
pads, automatic bath applicators, contact clamps, leech contacts, steady-rest for heavy shafts, prod
contacts. special shaped coils, powder guns, etc.
MOBILE EQUIPMENT A versatile mobile inspection unit is shown below. These units are available in
several sizes ranging from 2000 to 6000 amperes of AC and HWDC oulputs. The units have remote control current out-put, ONIOFF and MAGlDEMAG controls which permit one-man operation at the site of the
inspection. The units are used with either rigid or cable wrapped coils for longitudinal magnetization and
demagnetization. Cables connected to a part or passing through it are used for circular magnetization or
demagnetization. Mobile units can be easily moved to any inspection site where suitable line input
voltages and current capacity are available.
MOI7 7
\'
,q'
PORTABLE EQUIPMENT
units have both AC and HWDC outputs and must be used with a portable coil or cable wrapped coils to Ion
gitudinally magnetize, or with prods or clamps for circular magnetization. The units usually have a remote
ONlOFF control permitting a one-man operation for many applications. They can be used wherever an
adequate 115 volt AC power source is available.
MAGNETIC YOKES
Magnetic yokes are small and easily portable. They are very easy to use and are
adequate when testing small castings or machined parts for surface cracks and for weld inspection. They
induce a strong magnetic field into that portion of a part that lies between the poles or legs of the yoke.
The induced field flows from one leg of the yoke to the other in an orientation as shown below and yokes
and probes are available with either fixed or articulated legs, also shown below. Yokes are available for
operation from a 115 volt, 60 hertz AC outlet, and some are equipped with a rectifier so HWDC may be
used. A permanent magnet yoke is also available, permitting inspections to be performed without the use
of electric current.
NON-RELEVANT INDICATIONS
NATURE AND TYPE. It is possible to magnetize parts of certain shapes in such a way that magnetic
leakage fields are created even though there is no discontinuity in the metal at the point. Such indications
are sometimes called erroneous indictions or false indications. They should be called "non-relevant
indications" since they are actually caused by distortion of the magnetic field. They are real indications but
since there is no interruption in the metal they do not affect the usefulnessof the part. It is important that
the operator know how and why these non-relevant indications are formed and where to look for them on
the parts being inspected.
EXAMPLES OF NON-RELEVANT INDICATIONS
MAGNETIC WRITING. This is a condition caused by a piece of steel wbbing against another piece of steel
which has been magnetized. Since either or both pieces contains some residual magnetism the rubbing
or touching creates magnetic poles at the points of contact. These local magnetic poles are usually in the
form of a line or scrawl and for this reason the effect is referred to as magnetic writing.
COLD WORKING. Cold working consists of changing the size or shape of a metal part without raising its
temperature before working. When a bent nail is straightened by a carpenterwith a hammer the nail is
being cold worked. Cold working usually causes a change in the permeability of the metal where the
change in size or shape occurs. The boundary of the area of changed permeability may attract magnetic
particles when the part is magnetized.
HARD OR SOFT SPOTS. If there are areas of the part which have a different degree of hardness than the
remainder of the part these areas will usually have a different pemteabirQ. When a part w l h such areas of
different permeability is inspected with magnetic particle inspection, the boundaries of the areas may
create local leakage fields and altract magnetic particles to form indications.
BOUNDARIES OF HEATTREATED SECTIONS. Heat treating a part mnsists of heating it to a high
temperalure and then cooling it under controlled conditions. The cooling may be relativity rapid or it may
be done quite slowly, depending upon the characteristics of the metal which are desired. It is possible to
increase or decrease the hardness or the grain size of the metal by varying the temperature and the rate of
cooling. On a cold chisel the point is hardened to cut better and to hold an edge. The head of the chisel,
which is the end struck by the hammer, is kept softer than the cutting edge solhat il won't shatter and
break. The edge of the hardened zone frequently creates a leakage field when the chisel is inspected
with magnetic particle inspection.
MOD 2
..
ABRUPT CHANGES OF SECTION. Where there are abrupt changes in section thickness of a magnetized
part, the magnetic field may be said to expand from the smaller section to the larger. Frequently
thiscreates local poles due to magnetic field leakage or distortion. These leakage fields will attract
magnetic particles thereby creating an indication. The non-relevant indication will usually be "fuzzy" like an
indication which is produced by a discontinuity beneath the surface.
INTERPRETATION AND ELIMINATION OF NON-RELEVANT INDICATIONS,
INTERPRETATION. It may at first appear to the operator that some types of non-relevant indications
discussed and illustrated in the preceeding material would be difficult to recognize and interpret. For
example, the non-relevant indications shown in figures 9-5 and 9-6 may look like indications of subsurface
discontinuities. However, there are several characteristics of non-relevant indications which will enable
the operator to recognize them in the example cited and under most other conditions. These characterisitics of non-relevant indications are:
a.
On all similar parts, given the same magnetizing technique, the indications will occur in
the same location and will have identical patterns. This condition is not usually encountered when dealing with real subsurface defects.
b.
c.
The indications are usually "fuzzy" ratherthan sharp and well defined.
d.
the surface by a realtively strong magnetic leakage field. The line of particles is sharper and well defined
and there is a noticeable "build-up" of the particles. This build-up consists of a slight mound or pile of
MOD 2
15
particles which on deep surface cracks is sometimes high enough above the surface of the part to cast a
shadow. If such an indication is wiped o f f the discontinuity can usually be seen.
Ifthe indication is caused by a discontinuity below the surface it will be a broad fuzzy looking accumulation
of particles rather than being sharp and well defined. The particles in such an indication are less tightly
held to the surface because the leakage field is weaker.
EVALUATING THE INDICATION.
After the indication has been formed and has been interpreted, it must be evaluated. It is necessary for
the operator to decide whether that indication in that particular location on that particular part will affect the
usefulness of the part.
Evaluation is the determination of whether the part can be used in spite of the indication, whether the
cause of the indication can be removed without affecting the strength of the part, or whether th epart must
be scrapped.
As a guide, the following basic considerations may be used in conjunction with the operatoh knowledge
and experience to help in the evaluation of indications.
a.
A discontinuity of any kind lying at the surface is more likely to be harmful than a
discontinuity of the same size and shape which lies below the surface
b.
Any discontinuity having a principal dimension or a principal plane which lies at right
angles or at a considerable angle to the direction of principal stress, whether the discon
tinuity is surface or subsurface is more likely to be harmfulthan a discontinuity of the
same size, location and shape lying parallel to the stress.
c.
Any discontinuity which occurs in an area of high stress must be more carefully con
sidered than a discontinuity of the same size and shape in an area where the stress is low.
d.
Discontinuities which are sharp, such as grinding cracks or fatigue cracks, are severe
stress-raisers and are more harmful in any location than rounded discontinuities such as
scratches.
e.
Any discontinuity which occurs in a location close to a keyway or fillet must be considered
to be more harmful than a discontinuity of the same size and shape which occurs away
form such a location.
LEARNING MODULE 9
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
INTERPRETATION AND EVALUATION
In order to properly and accurately interpret and evaluate magnetic particle indications the magnetic
particle inspector must understand certain definitions which are used in connection with this inspection
method. Since these terms are used frequently in this learning module, the inspector must fully
understand the meaning of each of the following.
INDICATION. In magnetic particle inspection an indication is an accumulationof magnetic particles being
held by a magnetic leakage field to the surface of a part. The indication may be caused by a discontinuity
or it may be caused by some other condition that produces a leakage field.
DISCONTINUITY. A discontinuity is an interruption in the normal physical structure or configuration of a
part. These discontinuities may be cracks, laps in the metal, folds, seams, inclusions, porosity, and similar
conditions. A discontinuity may be very fine or it may be quite large; it will generally be a definite
separation or void in the metal. The word "Discontinuity covers the condition before it is determined
whether it is a defect or not. The cause of magnetic particle indications is usually a discontinuity - whether
physical or magnetic. And if we exclude those discontinuities that are present by design and consider
only those present in the metal by accident or as the result of some manufacturing process, these may still
not make the part defective in the sense that t s service performance will be affected unfavorably. we
come, therefore, to the conclusion that a discontinuity is not necessarily a defect.
It is a defect only when it will interfere with the performance of the part or material in its intended service.
So we should be careful to refer to a discontinuity as a defect only when it makes the specific part in which
... . it
. occurs unsuitable for the purpose for which it was designed and manufactured.
P
Magnetic particle inspection can be divided into these three basic steps:
a. Producing an indications on a part.
b. Interpreting the indication.
c. Evaluating the indication.
PRODUCING AN INDICATION
In order to produce a proper indication on a part it is necessary to have some knowledge of the principles
of magnetism, the materials used in inspection, and the technique employed. Since these subjects have
been covered in previous learning modules observance of the procedural steps outlined should insure
that a proper indication is produced.
INTERPRETINGM E INDICATION
Aiter the indication is created, it is necessary to interpret that indication. Interpretation is the deciding of
what caused that indication, what magnetic disturbance has attracted the particles in the particular pattern
found on the part. If the operator knows something about metal processing, it is possible to determine
from the appearance and location of an indication the cause of the indication.
NON-RELEVANT INDICATIONS
NATURE AND TYPE
It is possible to magnetize parts of certain shapes in such a way that magnetic leakage fields are created
even though there is no discontinuity in the metal at the point. Such indications are sometimes called
erroneous indications or false indications. They should be called "non-relevant indications" since they are
actually caused by distortion of the magnetic field. They are real indications but since there is no
interruption in the metal they do not affect the usefulness of the part. It is important that the operator know
how and why these non-relevant indications are formed and where to look for them on the parts being
inspected.
NOTFFThe use of fluorescent magnetic particles on parts with non-relevant indications is recommended
since they emphasize the contrast between the particle build-up at a relevant discontinuity and that due to
the non-relevant field.
..
.-...
Non-relevant indications are divided into the following five classes depending upon their cause:
a. Magnetic writing.
b. Cold working.
c. Hard or soft spots.
MAGNmC WRITING
This is a condition caused by a piece of steel Nbbing against another piece of steel which has been
g touching
magnetized. Since either or both pieces contains some residual magnetism the ~ b b i n or
creates magnelic poles at the points of contact. These local magnetic poles are usually in the form of a
line or scrawl and for this reason the effect is referred to as magnelic writing. In figure 9-1 the part in the
top view is magnetized wilh a circular field. If another part made of magnetic material is ~ b b e against
d
or.
comes into contact with the magnetized part, as in the second view, a weak field will be induced into the
smaller part. Afler the smaller part has been removed the circular field in the original part will be altered or
distorted to some extent as shown in the bottom view. Since there is no force to change the direction of
the altered field, there will be some leakage at the point of distortionwhich will attract magnetic particles.
COLD WORKING. Cold working consists of changing the size or shape of a metal part without raising its
temperature before working. When a bent nail is straightened by a carpenterwith a hammer the nail is
being cold worked. Cold working usually causes a change in the permeability of the metal where the
change in size or shape occurs. The boundary of the area of changed permeability may attract magnetic
particles when the part is magnetized.
HARD OR SOFT SPOTS
If there are areas of the part which have a different degree of hardness than the remainder of the part
these areas will usually have a different permeability. When a part with such areas of different permeability
is inspected with magnetic particle inspection, the boundaries of the areas may create local leakage fields
and attract magnetic particles to form indications.
BOUNDARIES OF HEATTREATED SECTIONS
Heat treating a part consists of heating it to a high temperature and then cooling it under controlled
conditions. The cooling may be relativity rapid or it may be done quite slowly, depending upon the
characteristics of the metal which are desired. It is possible to increase or decrease the hardness or the
grain size of the metal by varying the temperature and the rate of cooling. On a cold chisel the point is
hardened to cut better and to hold an edge. The head of the chisel, which is the end struck by the
hammer, is kept softer than the cutting edge so that it won't shatter and break. The edge of the hardened
zone frequently creates a leakage field when the chisel is inspected with magnetic particle inspection.
ABRUPT CHANGES OF SECTION
Where there are abrupt changes in section thickness of a magnetized part, the magnetic field may be said
to expand from the smaller section to the larger. Frequentlythis creates local poles due to magnetic field
leakage or distortion. If a part as shown in figure 4 2 is magnetized in a coil, poles are set up at each end
and some leakage occurs at A and B. also, the change of section at C is quite abrupt and there may be a
leakage
across this angle as shown. These leakage fields will attract magnetic particles thereby creating an
.-indication. The indications formed at A and B are usually very easily interpreted; that at C may be more
difficult to recognize as being non-relevant. If the indication is continuous around the shaft it should be
suspected as being caused by the shape of the part ratherthan by a discontinuity. The non-relevant
indication at C will usually be "fuzzy" like an indication which is produced by a discontinuity beneath the
surface. If there is a crack ordiscontinuity in that area it will usually produce an indication which is sharper
and it probably will not run completely around the part.
FKGURE 9-2
On parts with keyways a circular magnetic fieki can also set up non-relevant indications as in figure 9-3.
Particle accumulations may occur at A where there are leakage fields. A keyway on the inside of a hollow
shaft may also create indications on the outside as indicated at area B in figure 9-4. Here the magnetic
field is forced out of the part by the thinner section at the keyway.
The gear and spline shown in figure 9-5 were magnetized circularly by passing current through a central
conductor. The reduced cross section created by the spline ways constricts the magnetic lines of force
and some of them break the surface on the outside diameter. Particles gather where the magnetic lines of
force break through the surface thereby creating indications.
Fgure 4 5 Gear and Shaft Showing Non-relevant lndicalions Due to Internal Splines
Figure 9-6 shows a non-relevant indication on the under side of a bolt head. The indication here is caused
by&e slot in the head.
Figure 9-6 Non-relevant indications under head, created by slot on top of head
On all similar parts, given the same rnagnefiing technique, the indicationswill occur in the
same location and will have identical patterns.
b.
c.
The indications are usually "fuzzy" rather than sharp and well defined.
d.
to determine whether the non-relevant indication was caused by an abrupt change of section before
reinspecting.
The proper procedure is to demagnetize and reinspect using a lower value of magnetizing current,
repeating the operation with still lower current if necessary until the non-relevant indications disappear.
Care must be taken not to reduce the current below the value required to produce indications of all actual
discontinuities. Where there are abrupt changes of section two inspections may be required: one at a
fairly low amperage to inspect only the areas at the change in section, the other at a higher current value to
inspect the remainder of the part.
Hellier Associates, lnc.
MTModS
01989
A discontinuity of any kind lying at the surface is more likely to be harmful than a
discontinuity of the same size and shape which lies below the surface.
b.
..
Any discontinuity having a principal dimension or a principal plane which lies at right
angles or at a considerable angle to the direction of principal stress, whether the
discontinuity is surface or sub-surface is more likely to be harmfulthan a discontinuity of
the same size, location and shape lying parallel to the stress.
c.
Any discontinuity which occurs in an area of high stress must be more carefully
considered than a discontinuity of the same sue and shape in an area where the stress is
low.
d.
Discontinuitieswhich are sharp, such as grinding cracks or fatigue cracks, are severe
stress-raisers and are more harmful in any location than munded discontinuities such as
scratches.
e.
Any discontinuity which occurs in a location close to a keyway or fillet must be considered
to be more harmful than a discontinuity of the same size and shape which occurs away
form such a location.
R T LESSON 100
INTROI?UCTION
T O RADIOGRAPHY
. .
Radiography is an important part of the inspection and development process within
industry.
It is used to check structural materials, castings and weld integrity in the construction of . .
buildings, power stations, pressure vessels, pipelines, bridges and oil drilling platforms. It
is also used in the routine inspection of materials and component parts for the
airrrafrlaerospace, automotive, and shipbuildingindusnies.
. Radiography is recognized by various organizations thfoughout the world as a reliable nondestructive inspection technique for revealing hidden defects that might lead to failure in
se~ce.
...<
ADVANTAGES OF RADIOGRAPHY
.
, -
. .
I)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
L ?a
c f l 4
LIMITATIONS OF RAIIIOGRAPW
RadiographiciDspection has s e v d inhumtlimhtions:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
IQ erod)
Radiopphy uses X or
&&on
to produce an image on a f i l m
MAKING A RADIOGRAPH
Beam of radiation
Film in a caswttc
. .
~ hcomponent
t
to be tested orinpxted is placed betweenaliadiation s o m and a speiAIY
prepared film Precautions are taken to wure that unauthorized persons are kept away from the
area to.preventU n I l M a r y exposnre to radiation.
When the equipment is operated some radiation penetrates the component and is recorded on the
film.After cxposnre the film is p
e in a darkmom m M o p the image.
RT LESSON 101
-.
.,-
:.'
'
1)
2)
3)
&
planets orii~ting-the
sun.
.
I
..
s!
..
..
~ ;.'''.~ Atd.l&-of&atomisthe-'Z'.Y
~ ~ ; ~ ~ h : ' .
bulk or 'nude& which is positively
. .
, .,..
.,.: . charged Whirling around
..
. . - ...........
'. - n u c l e u s i. nthep ~ ~ ...
i m ~ ~
.
.
.
.
.
.
,
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
::"
.:
.
.
4
d
&
&
&
*
.
*
&
are
&
&
~
Y
Y
.
"-;i>:... ...
.
.. . . . ...,
-. . --...?,. ..
.. ... . , ;:jr;.;
'charged
!'> -.:...;; . ': .: ,
.. . . . ->c.
:.
....
.
.
.
..
..
' .
..
,,
Prolon +vc
Prolor6
Eloarnil-vc
charge
charge
.
The nucleus itselfis
made up of two types
of paaicles of
appro-Y
equal
mass: 'protons'
which are positively
charged and
'neutrons' which
cany no charge.
Thechemicalpro~ofatomsarc~odbythenumbaofelectronsindx:outn:shelL
A . t m of a particuk clementhave a fixed andequal nambcrofelectrons and protons Mdanormal
ciratmma The numbm of protons in the n u d w of aparthhclanent is known as tfie
atomic number of the clrmcnt
...
MASS NUMBER
("A" number)
_ -,.
2 Neutrons
13 Protons
14 Neufrons
00
00
Hydrogen
Helium
1proton + 0 neutrons
Mass number = 1
2 p ~ t o nt
s 2 neutrons
Mass number = 4
13protons t 14neutrons
Hydrogen
Helium
AlmDinium
ISOTOPES
The atoms of each elemerit kiitain aJe6nite number of protons but may have a different
number of neutrons. The& atoms are called 'isotopes' and are given an identifying number
related to the weight of the nucIeus. Such atoms have the same chemical properties, but
have different weights and radiation properties.
The three different isotopes of hydrogen are an example. These isotopes are chemically
identical but are written:
.:
...
Cobalt 60
3)
Iridium 192
1P2Ir
77
.Th& arc isot~pcswfiich;givt off some form of ionizing radiatioa In the process they
may themscva be mnsfhmd into otfierelements by lmingpartides.fromthtnuclcus.
1sornpcs chat have a @eat& number of neutrons than pmmns in tfie n&cIeusan said to be
'unsta&'. Unstable isotopes try to s t a b i i themselves spontaneously by a nnmba.of
diffwprocesses:
1)
2)
by s p W g neutrons into anew proton plos an electron, which fIies off at hi&
speed.
TYPES OF RADIATION
- . Dlning the radioactive decay process, caused by the splitting of the neutrons, radiation is
released in three different forms:
- '
1)
2)
3)
alphapdcles (a)
betaparticles (p)
gamma rays (Y)
Alpha particles - are 2 neutrons and 2 protons (helium nucleus) bound together to
behave as one fundamental particle. Alpha particles are emitted from heavy nuclei
containing a large number of nucleons (neutrons and protons) such as Americium 241, an
anificial elment
Beta particles - arc high speed elecEons which are emitted from the nucleus. Beta
particles are emitted dlning the decay of Iridium 192 and Cobalt 60.
Gmitna rays are electromagneticradiations (as are radio waves and Light waves)
that are emitted from the nucleus. After the emisdon of alpha and beta particles, the
nucleus can re-adjustits ehergy still fkther by the emission of gamma rays. This emission
does not ftnther change the element These gamtna rays are used for radiography.
1)
2)
'~$ble~ents&bcmaderadi~by~adngthrmina~e~d~onina
ndearreactor, shieldtd by specially designed aaxssholes. Nentrons originating
f h m the mxta are used to irradiate thcsestable clancats. Examples of
mdioisotopes prodnced by this m&od am cobalt60 from cobaIt59, iridium 192
fromiridium 191,'and thulium 170f r o m t h h 169.
RT LESSON 102
'RADIATION SAFETY
DANGERS OF IONIZLNG RADIATION
It is vital thatpeople who use and operate X-ray and gamma-ray equipment obsave the
proper safety standards. Radiation may damage your health and shorten your Iife. Your .
safety is of utmost importance.
ffie bl&)
However. X-raysarid gamma rays used for industrialpurposes cannot make a room or an object or
the air radioactivt. When m s u r e is over the radiomhed o b i a i s hamless and can be
approached and handled dsafety. A m e y met& n k bc t b d after each expasme to ensure
that the sourceis safe to approach.
...
Employers and employees are rcqkedto do aIl t h i s rmsonably praaicablc m restrict the
extent to which people an:exposed to ionizing radiations.
?he unit of mdiation dosc is the REM Forpractical~nrposcs
when measming X and
gamma &on
the rem can bc considered to be apvahu to the RAD or the Rocntgeo
j-j
\
-:
MEASURING RADIATION
~adiationdoseratr:ismwsm?edwidi.'.
.:
aradiationmetcrorm o n k S o q ' ...
. . ..
.. .
typesuseGdga:m~tnbcstodetcct
gamma or X-rayi o n i d o n and m
battayoperatcd. 'Ihtrcadontscalc
i s i n r ~ ~ t g u i s p e r h o n r, .a n d ~ t g e 'n s ..
:.. . .
per hour. .
'
Thtaccnmnlatedwllo'lebody
dose of ionizingradiation
I X W ~ V Cby
~ rnonimnd
pmsoPQM)nnel
must not ex&
125 remiper calendar quarter
or 5remiper year.
. - _ -._
PERSONAL PROTECTION
To ensure that you are efEectivelyproteaed from ionidngradiaton ahd that the ma%imum
dose rates are not wrceedwi, statutory @tiom
appIy to aU industrial radiographic
options.
These legularions are cantakedinthe Ccde of Federal Regulations and State Regulations.
This is the most important item of eqnipmcnt far yoar safety and protection. .Thesnrvcy
nebx is a dclicatc inshmnmt usually calibrated in milliroentnens
..
- per
- hour (mdhr).
~ndicationofthe dose ratcisdirect-it is used to:
1)
AUDIBLE ALARM D O S l M E T m
Theseinstrwnentsindicatethcprcse~xof~onbyanaudibIehignaL
w a n d e r
and Wter thanthc smvey m e and an designed to be canid on your paw& They
. gi~cwamiogofhighdoselatc~~mustbenvirdrcdondrtrSngchewhokpaiodof
ps@leep~sure.l k y m p a r t i c n l a r y v a h a b I e w h e n u S i n g X - ~ ~ y m ~ ~ o n
eqmp~becaasefheZrgiwaaimmtdiaawamiog.
kisdtotesttheuuits~~y
tbensmtthatthtyanmgoodworIdngorder,andthatthe~~~icatestht~~~of
. ionizingradiatioa
Regulations require you to wear a H.mbadge so that thc amount of radiation you are
exposed to is documented Thc f%n badge consists of a photomphic film in a special
holder, which you should attach to your trousers belt or to the outside of your normal
clothing.
FROM
R(CWBTAWINWW ~OPEM
QIP
mhLORPLLSIXCLSE
OWVESLSBETA6HIEU)l
RU8
Atthccndofthcase~thcfilmkpnxxssedandassesscdtod~ethcamo~of
radiation received. The film badge pmvidcr a -record
of your dose. Your
p a x d radiation dose noprdis kzpt by yonr cmploya. Yon may ask to see it at any
misonable time.
~ ~ ~ 6 ~ n a , ) m a y b e n s e d ~ o f a f i l m b a a g e t o m a &
your personal dose. A TLZ) is a phosphor in a solid cyrstd shactnre that, when cxpostdto
lonizlngradiationsbncs~~ergy.
W h W h e n h e a t c d t h c ~ i s n l ~ i n & e f o r m o-f.
Wwhich is p e o n a l to tkc exposing radiation.
..
,--.%
Always wear your film badge or TLD on the outside of your normal clothing, at the fmnt
of your body.
- . .- ^
If you remove your coat or coverall when wotking,.make sare that you W e r the film
- badge to either your shirt or tronsem.
Dating "offwork" paiods keep your film badge away fium high tcmperahncs, such as hot
pipes andradiators. Protea it frompssibIe ch*
attadc,and do not keep it near
luminous articles sach as alarm docks,watches, compasses,and mdhtion sources.
:p-
'00
POCKET DOSIMETER
ALARMJNG DOSIMETER
.-
It must be
'[
chccked b e f q and afteruse by the raaiographer at each site. A record of these checks
shouId be kept showing details of any defects, and the action taken to remedy them. In the
case of ga& expos& devices, a &ey meter must be used during the exinination.
This will aIso confirm that the survey meter is wod6.u~.Ifthe survey meter pives
- no
reading, check with another survey &w.Report a~unwual
readi;lgs.
0'
GENERAL PROTECTION
Everybody in the area w h & - i o ~ ~ is
~ being
o n usedmust be protected fiom
radiation. In a prmauent instalIation shielding is provided by an enclosure of thick walls.
On sites where it is not reasonably practicable to provide walled enclosures alternative
protection must be ananged
Distance is an effeclive protection from radiation. ?he greater the distance from the source,
the lower the radiation level will be. For example, at Mice the distance fiom the source,
the radiation level wilI be a quarter of its original level. Thisfollows the inverse square
law.
. -
BARRIERS
. -
-.
TOmake sure that otherpeopl'oii the site are adequately protected you must set up a
suitabIy marked area, to keep out a l l except authorized persons
If for good reason this barrier is not set up at the 2 mWhr dose rate boundary it must be so
indicated and explained on the daily repod
-
RADIOGRAPHIC PERSONNEL
- . _ - --
The Radiation Safety Officer is usually a supervisor appointed by the Licensee who .
has the knowledge of, responsibility for, and authoriey to enfom appropriate radiation
protection rules, standanls, and practices on behalf of the liceme.
- The Radioeraoher is an individual who perfom or who, in attendance at the site
where the &tion exposure device or sealed source is being used, personally supervises
radiographic operations and who is responsible to the licensee for assuring compliance with.
the re-dati~niand conditions of the license.
The Radiographer's Assistant & an individual who, under the personal supervision
of a radiographer, rises radiographic wgosme devices, sealed sources or related handling
tools, or radiation survey instruments in radiography.
STORING AND TRANSPORTING SOURCES
When a sourceis not in usc or in transit.you must cnsunthat it is kept in a secure storaEe
a m . Ihestorage area m& be ~ d et r h c ~ ~ ofoan nddperson,
who keeps a
record of thc utilization of somces, and who has castody of the keys.
Waming notices mnst be fixed to the ootdde of the storage area. Tne notices mast include
the internationally agreed symbol for ionizing radiation.
L.
EAUTIDN
-
W D E[AT110N
*
AREA
n
..
TRANSPORTING A SOURCE
1)
2)
3)
Note: you should chcck that every sealed source containeryou receive k marked with a
proper labelb h @ t n g the cu~otdarts,
anda "RodiwaivekiA.iataial"label.
.-
LESSON 103
l.,-RT A .
X-RAY EQUIPMENT
THE NATURE O F X-RAYS
X-rays
Light rays
Ilis this cbaracttaistic thaf forms the basis of the a b i i of X-lays to penetrate solid
matexiak.
PRODUCTION
X-RAYS
l-7
Whm electrons travelling at bigh speed collide wit&rnattcrin any form, heat and X-rays are
produced. To do this the following are nccdcd:
I)
2)
3)
This is done within the modem X-ray tube - a glass or ceramic tube or envelope in which a
vacuum has been produced- Two e l d e s are placed inside the tube: an anode or
positive electrode and a cathode or negative electrode. These are connected to e l e a r i d
circuits with a Iow voltage and a u m ~flow
t on the cathode side and a high voltage induced
into the anode by a transformer. Electrons are produced by:
Heating the &ent of the cathode with an decwic current libxxtes the electrons.
Increasing the cunrent raises the temperam
of the ilamentand hence increases
the number of electrans liberated.
Electrons
Cathode
2)
&ode
a beam of electrons
Electrons
Cathode
3)
h d e
The electrons arc stopped by ailowingthrm m hit the target hon the an&
Whcn the
cleumns are brought to an abmpt halt by the target Eacc a BnalI amomof their energy
(about1percent)isnalizedasX~ays.Thercmainiog99percentisdissipatedasheat
CONTROL PANEL
All the controls necessary for the 6puadon of the X-ray tube head are collected together in
a control box or in an operating paneL
-.
MiIIiammctcrtokdimemk~
Kilovoltage control to aZtapeeetratingpowaof racktion.
Rilovoltagc metawhi& may also indicate the line voItagc
T iwith automatic wtposm\: met
Red light tube head on orX-rays on. Green light - tube head off orX-rays ofi
Hellier, Inc.
or light wmnings.
o about
~ to begin', or 'exposmeon'.
Thuc
(---I
.-.
TUBE HEAD
,. -
The x-ray tube is enclosed in a metal cannister, connected to gcounci, and f i e d with an
insulating liquid (oil) or gas. It also houses a aansformer, supplying high and low voltage,
and a cooling system (as a lot of heat is generated). The tube head provides shielding
against unwanted radiation.
.X-rays emerge from a window made from a material which allows the passage of most of.
the radiation Some windows on low kiIovoltage units are made of BeryLIium which has a
low rate of absorption of X-rays.
- A red light may be incorporated in the head which flashes a warning when X-rays are
W i g generated
...
o$
'
VYl
The X-ray tube is made of a toughened glass such as pVrex. It is shielded to restrict the
escape of radiation and contains an anode and a cathode seaIed in a vacuum
The calho& is connected to the ncguivcpole of the high voltage circuit At the end of the
tube there is a fiIament madcof tungsten as it ha5.a high melting point
~ hnumber
c
of electrons c&tted depends on the Wqemimereached by the filament on the
cathode, when it is heated by the eI&c ammt Varying the cumnt varies the
The elecrron beam of negativeIy charged electronsi s accelerated towards the anode by
appIying a very high voItagc to the cathode. This voltage is rimmedin kilovolts 0.
The tube c m t from the cathode to the anode is low and is measured in x d J i a n ~
(dl.
The impact ofdeamns on the target faceof the anode generafesxgys. Theinteaityo
the X-rays emitted by the Eube are in proportion to the tube current
b m i%
shown. X-rays are hawever ememrned
in all directions
kilovoltage
Hellier, Inc.
RT Lesson 103
routine
work
inches
maximum
thickness
inches
r~aximum
thickness
inches
RT LESSON 104
GAMMA RAY-SOURCES AND EQUIPMENT
ADVANTAGES OF GAMMA-RAY EQUIPMENT
ww
1)
Portability gammaradiography is
paaiahdy Snitable for use on site
locations, becansc it is portable and
requires no power supply or cooling
system.
3)
--
2)
Accessibility - gamma-ray
source containas are
genaallysmallandcanbe
takEninto places which are
lnacccssibleto X-ray
@p-t
SmaIf source-to-film distance a gamma-ray somce is suitable where a small sourceto-filmdistance is necessary, such as when radiographing weMs on small diameterpipes.
Hellier,
- IIC.
~n
High penetrating power some gamma-ray sources have a very high energy
(penetrating power) which makes it possible to reduce the time of l e exposure, and obtain
satisfactory radiographs of verymetal components.
1)
2)
The quality of the radiograph cannot be readily controlled as it can with X-rays.
The gamma-ray wavelength caonot be altexed using the same isotop~
3)
Gamma rays give a higher energy r a w o n than X-rays, with less contrasting
images. This makes the radiographs more difficult to interpret
.
4)
The activity of some radioactive isotopes with a shoa haJf-life decreases quickly in
a short time. It is therefore necessary to periodically replace thc source.
5)
EXPOSURE DEVICES
The gamma-ray source is eontainedinside a radiation shield known as an exposure device.
Each type of radiogmphic
- - exposure device has a source holder and is fiped with an
arrangement for exposing the source when required.
Exposure devices used for site indusb3 radiography fall ioto two geneml categories:
shutter tweand umiection me. There are manv variations of each. Radiomnhm must
..
ensure &I they &-familiar&h any special f&es of h e equipment to be-usad
Employers are responsible for providing traiaing in the use of this equipment
- -
1)
Front shutter
The radiation beam is exposed by raising theh n t shutter. These containers are
mggcd,rcliab1e and s u i t a b 1 e f o r r m o s t ~ otedniqoes,
n
exceptpipewelds.
2)
Rotating shutter
In this type the s
o
w is exposod by rotating the shntttr by hand, or by ranotc
cable o p d o a When s o m of high adivity are used the shutter should be
o p t e d by remote w n t d
Care must be taken to ensure that the source is exposed away frorn the radiographer.
Rotating shutter type devices are us& for radiography of pipe and other applications
qujring a directiondl exposure.
Control Cable
/
Projector
Exnose
8----
Scurce
1)
2)
ThqymnstwmrafilmbadgeorTIl)torccordthe~tion&s~dved,
Rtcords ofpefional dose must be mainrainedby the anpIoyer.
3)
73ey mnst war a direct rcadingpockct dosimeter to snpp1&ent the film badge or
'ILD for personal monitodng.
-2
C
Establisl> ~ e s t r i c t e dArea
5)
6)
They must use a qxkymeter to checkthe level of radiation at regular intervals, and
at source contajnm after every exposure.
Hellier, Inc.
RT LESSON 105
Most Nms used for radiography have emulsion on both sides, however, films with emulsion on
only one side are availble. Single-sided &requires much longer exposure times than doublesided films.
.
<
1.
The super-marum which is a thin layex of clear hardened gelatin which protects the
underlying emukion from damage during normal handling. (a)
2.
The &ion
which is sensitive to X-rays, b r a y s , light, heat, pressure and some
chemicals. The mulsion consistsof a large nnmbw of minute grains of silver *bromide
(silver halide) embedded in a supportingmedium of gelatin. When radiation strikes the
emulsion a change takes place kihe physical stTuctme of the grains.
effed:is called
' which is invisible.untilthe filmis chemically p~~
@)
3.
4.
?he base which is a ce11ulose tciacate or polyster such as 'Esta~'which forms a tough,
transparent, but flexible base. (d)
&\"@
protective coating (a)
, -53
THELATENTIMAGE
.
RcMive
speed
Relative
expo-
d-- -gcain
(mediumhigh speed)
The nature of the emnIsion, and the onxxssin~of the film. moduces a 'imkiness'
in the imam=
"
which is the random clnmphg of G s i l v a ~&IS. The &a t.t&i&b.d @VQbromide
the less graininess t h a t will be in the image. The grain s i z is dated m the smsitivirv ofthe film
to radiati0~& d y , fine grain is associatedw& slow speed films. and
g
& wibhip$
-films.
~
6
i
FILM CASSETTES
Fdm cassettes can be flexible, &-h*d
or rigid The flexible cassette is made fmrn strong, vinyl
and is used extensively for site radiography because it can be readily adapted to various shapes and
sections, such as pipework and circumference welds. There are two designs:
1)
2)
3)
Semi-rigid cassettes
Theseconsistof a cardboardfront and back hinged together with flaps on the inside that are
folded ovetthe filmto pmduce aligkt-tigfitmvclope. Although not as flexible as the
previously desuibed cassettes they can be formed around a large -ex
pipe or casting.
4)
Rigid cassettes
T~.CFC
con& of a thin albminiuinot had plastic front andbackwiih a felt prcssmr:pad
attachedta thehideof th'ebackto'keepthcfiImandscrceztmdkces ininbmtecontact
Thcsc a m used when farming tfie film.mundthe part is not nqoinxl.
Hellier, Inc.
RTLesson IOS
F.,.3
.:.<..
:..-...
INTENSIFYING SCREENS
The d e w of photographic effect of X-rays and gamma rays depends on the amount of radiation
enerm that is absorbed by the sensitized C O ~ M ~of: the f i This is about 1 per cent for radiation
and
of m7&um penebrating power. The remaining % per cent of radiation pass&through the fh
is not used. To overcome this. the film mav be sandwiched between two intensWnt!
- - meens. .
Under the action of X-rays and gamma
these screens either emit electrons (lead screens) or
fluoresce (fluorescent screens) which results in an e m photographic effect upon the film emulsion
layers. Intimate contact between the f h and the screens is necessary to obtain sharp images.
rays
There are three main types of screen in general use: lead foil, salt or fluorescent and fluorometallic.
LEAD FOE SCREENS
These are used extensively for industrial radiography. The intensifying effect is caused by the
liberation of electrons fium the lead foil under the excitation of radhion. These electrons strike the
film creating and intensification of the photographic action in the emulsion of the film. This
intensifying actions results in a reduction in exposure t h up to 75 per cent ?he lead screens also
absorb the low energy smaer &tion resnlting in improved contfdst
Narmally two lead screeos are nsed. The thickness of the front screen mustbe matched to the
M e s s of the radiation used Thisis to allow the primary radiation m pass throur31, while
stouuing as much as ~ossib1eof the secondanr radiation k .
which h&i a Ionm&veheth
The front screen is usually 0.005" thick, and the rear screen about 0.10" thick. It is however
possibIe to use two screens of the same thickness.
Lead i u t a s i f y k g scnens arc not particulariy effective w i t .x-ray equipment below about 120 kV.
'
'
1)
2)
screens giving Figh intensification (rapid or high speed screens) made of larger salt
crystaIs.
Thtscnensandthcfilmarcthen
p W in a mml or plastic c8ssette.or
film holdex. so that thcv arc in
Salt screens shouId be examined frequently to ensorc tfiat they are &txh mdust and dia. They
can be cleaned with a sIightly soapy sponge, or wad of cotton wool, applied gently until all traces
of dirt have been removed. At no time shonld thc sponge or cotton wool be wet enougfi to allow
b p s of water to fall on the scrceps.
over once with a iwistcneddmp cloth wad. Dry with
a clean so& cloth f k e from loose fibres.
Hellier, Inc.
RT
T~.v.vnn7nF
FLUOROMETALLIC SCREENS
-..
These meens are a combination of &&I& screen and the salr screen giving the elecmn emission
effect and the fluorescent effect They consist of pairs of s m m s made up of flexible or mrd
support thin lead foil layer of fine grain fluorescent salt They are normally used with fine grain,
high conblast direct type fikn giving an i n t d c a t i o n which can reduce the exposure by a s much
as nine times, yet without losing too much sensitivityof flaw detection They are made in different
grades to suit different X-ray and gamma-ray energies.
Their use is largely confined to routine inspection when speed of exposure is essential but when
. ordinary salt ScTeens would give too great a loss in critical inspection.
JZmosurewithout screens
Exposure with srreens
The graph shows the intemiEcatibn factor with the kilovoItageused for salt and lead screens.
..
~ellier,Inc.
R T T ~ r m n1 n F
..
RT LESSON 106
PRODUCING THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE
IMAGE FORMATION
A radiopph is a shadow picture of a component which has been placed between an X-ray tube,or
a gamma-ray source and the film. The appearance of the shadow picture produced is influenced by
the relafive positions to each other of the items in the diagram
It is imp0rc1.1~
that i n d m radiographm are f a d i a r with the geometricalprinciples of image
formation. Because X-rays and gammarayshavdin straight lines like rays of E a t , the shadow
or image foxmation they produce is easia to wcplain in tams of light as shown in the diagrams.
If a beam of light firoma fh&@t shines through a hole in a card onto an object placed between
the card and a screen,then aprimary shadow image of the o b j a wilI be formed on the s a e u ~
This primary shadow is r c f d to as the umbra.
T3e sharpness of the shadow image of the object depends on the items in the diagram.
.
- ..
..
Ethcseitems or factors are not correctthe wnbra will bG surroundedby a secondary shadow
refened to as the penambra, The width ofthc nmXnalW o w is n : f d to as g e o d e
~ ~ t ~ h a r p(Ug.
m s If the width of thc pea&
shadow docr not exceed 0.020.. the image
will. appear sharp to the unaided eyc In practice, since the source always has sorne dimension
there will always be sorne peII~bra1
shadow.
1)
2)
Ensnre thc d
3)
~nsartthe&possib~e~Ct~~somccandthe~(~)
SOURCE-TO-FILM DISTANCE
The distance betweenthe sornrr.ar focal pint and the film is known as the s ~ m t o - f i l m
distancc Kthe s o m is moved farther away from the film the amoont of shadow ovcdap
- or
puuunbra is nduoed. t h d y pmkcing a sl'larper image.
When the sourceis close to the screen
or 6lm it produces alarge penumbral
shadow, resulting in an unsharp image.
&
<
1.
This is always calculated as the distance berwmthe s o w side of the object aridthe film It is
essential that the image of any discontinuitiespresent in the objectshould be as sharp as possible.
A space b e ~ e the
n objea and the film.should be avoided as this has an adverse effect upon the
sharpness of the irnage.
2)
3)
d.
The size ofthe peuumbm (Ug)can be CaICnlatedfromthediagram using the following formula:
u g = fxd
D
TYPE OF SOURCE
The rype of source used, ie. Iridium 192 or Cobalt 60, wiU determine the energy (penetrating
power) of the radiation. Since S e r g y o f a m of source remains constant the only way- .
To change the energy used is to change &e ty@of so&.
ACTIVITY OF SOURCE
The activity of the source in Curies govems the inteusity of the r a w o n emitted and it cannot be
varied. 'Ihe intensity of ~adiatiouis proportional to the d e strengthof a source and will affect the
exposure time required to produce aradiograph oE a given dMsity. That is, radiographs of equal
density would be produced if the s a m specimen is radiographed with a 50 Curie source with an
exposure of two minutes and with a 100 Curie source with an exposun: of one minute.
It is esse;ltial that the s o w decay chart be availabIe as the exposure rime must be adjusted as the
activity of the source'decreases thpugh decay.
OTHER FACTORS
C o n s i d d o n of other factors such as source-to-film distance, film-type,intensyfing screens, and
processing would be the same as4&scu.sed with an x-ray exposure.
M for a given
s or
2.
3.
Trialandemx:althougIrthis~odkoftcnnse&,itisnsnalIyvaywastefuIandcostly
..
both in teams of time and tilm. This method of demmmng an exposure is not
recommended except in u n d W.
. - .%
;
INCHES OF STEEL
,
/
- -
RT LESSON 107
After exposing the film to radiation rhe hlm must be processed (developed) to make the latent
image visible. This is carried out in a darkroom under subdued light (safelight) of a color and
intensity that will not affect the film.
High quality results depend upon deanIiness, the quality and concentration of the processing
solutions and the c o w combination of temperatme, time and agitation.
There are two main methods of pmxssing, manual and automatic, which incolporate the essential
steps oE
/lAex& wrc 4
b
.
+,!$I ;ki.
development
-5'r'q
s i l v r ~J t ; l - ' + @ ~ g
@ washing
(Jdrying
---"
ep e\
6%
i'&b-d"k~?
MANUAL PROCESSING
The filmsare suspendedvertically in the tanks on suitable hangers or clips so that s e v d films can
be processed together. The operator agitates the films and transfers thuniium one tank to another.
PREPARING
n o d y 6SF (2O0C).
Check that the darkroomis seam, the white light off and a n d m safety Light on.
Undo the 41
of the cassette carefully.
W~thdrawthe film.and screensfrom the
cassette, slowly, to <void excess friction.
Remove the lead d place them on
one side. Handle the film by one comer
or by the edges and not by the emulsion
RIGID CASSETTES
surface.
Radiographic films are sensitiveto pressme, acashg, kinking and friction. Friction may produce
an clectdcal dkharge known as 'static' which causes marldngs on the film.
Aaach the film to the hanger, asming that the clips hold it m t l y and GY
on the hanger.
-.
Whcn the film is pnxxssed,it is i m m d in each of the tanksfor artcommended period of time.
A timer.isused to control the time.
i-
Film processing comprises five stages which are numbered in the iUustradon.
.
..
-.
1)
',
3)
4)
2)
5)
'Ihn&erthcfilmfromthe~~
tankand place in a drying cabiiet for
approximately.twenty minutes, or .
nnriIit is dry. Do not placc wet films
over or near films already drying. Do
not place films too close together as
hey may touch and stick togethir as
they dry.
AUTOMATIC PROCES
This allows radiographic films to be processed and dried automatically, without constant operator
attention It is quicker than manud pnx~ssingand can be kept working for 24 hours a day if
require&.
.
-.
OncetheiiImhas beenfedinto.tht
processor, it is tcansprted at constant
speed through developer, fuccr, wash
and drying sections by three racks of
mllers immersed in deep tanks.
g-*
presenttheiihtothe5nreadm.
CAUSE
AR'I?FACI'
L,/
REMEDY
-
Insufiicient protection
of film fmm radiation
in storage or in transport
Back scatter
Use adequate
backing sheet
during exposures
&>,&FA
1) Do not over-stock
-$43
fim t r y t o m
film a t h i .about
thteemonths
2)Storeinacooldry
P9
C
-~*-gt
conditions
",
,
\
\9
.&
I '
bf,
o@
I/
&Y
b/
>/-
0-
ARTIFACT
CAUSE
REMEDY
Excessive exposure to
safelight, or faulty safelighting
charge
cause&&
p f i g film out of package
W~thdrawfilm slowly
from packet
tfao
. ,
E'"
@'
Handle carefully.
Avoid buckling or
bending hlm
Avoid 'czimpii or
kinking fiIm while
hmdhg. This fault is
more likely with large
filmsor whith long
lengths of film
expoSnE
marks, often s m u n d e d by
lighter areas
weId surface
As above. This is a
fairly rare fault
rigidcassettes
preferably, or pIace
themcarefully on
envelapcpackedfilm,
Avoid overtightening
securingstraps
.-*:x,
.;.,:...j
.-
- . . -.
MIS-HANDLING 'JXEFILM AND FAULTY DARKROOM EQUIPMENT - CONTINUED
ARTIFACT
CAUSE
REMEDY
Light or discololned
streaks along film, usually
on one side only
F
^
,.
Gght spots as h
PeriodicalIy
thoroughly clean all
hangers and clips
Developer splashedprior to
processin& Bad darkroom
iayont a d gross ~ e s s n e s s
Irisplashes
As above
Warmsplashes Iffilmis
developedimmktely these
may not show. If left for some
time they may bc d&
As above
distrlcalsh a b o r n
ARTIFACT
CAUSE
REMEDY
Attempted impdon in
front of safelight during
development Incorrect
safelighting
Use timeand'
I""-veil
temperature method of
development Do not
' h e l o p by
inrpecrion'
--
'
Solarisation: partjalor
complete rev& to a
positive instead of a
negative image
2 9
d).A
s ' YVF
I) Check safelamps
to:
"
e/\
--
3'
4-
2)
Makesure white
Iight is off
2) White light
1) Lack ofagitation
1) Asitate adequateIy
as recommended
2) Overshortdevelopment
in wann soIutions
3) Attanpfingto
over-sure
conpeaate
by under
development
3) 'Developmeat
inspCCtion1is bad
by
pmctice. Conect
expm.timc and
always qroixss
stan*
-P
Flow marks, bromide
sfmamers, dark areas
Lack of agitationcausing
nnevcn development, dae
to rclease of by-products in
developmentprocess
properly. ie,
10-15seconds on hrst
immersion and
5-10 seconds in each
subsequent minute
Undeveloped, unfixed or
unwashed area at top edge
offilm
Hellier. Inc.
RcpI&tanksas
WP&~
....
FAULT
-CAUSE
llFMEDY
Gmss temperature
diaFerence bween
various processing
solutions
Mainrain solutions
at recommended
temperatures. This .
fault is rare with most
modern Nms
1) Contamina~onof
developer by fixer or
vice versa
1) Discard
rinse or stop
2) ~nade~uatk
bath
%. .
contaminated
developer
water is i s g ,
or renew stop
bath more often
3) Makeacid
fixer bath
-
REMEDY
1) Use wetting-agent
bath to promote
~ v wa g
2) Do notput wet
films above dry or
nearly dry films in
drying cabinet
CAUSE
AR.TFACI'
--
- -
/
Patches of density change
usndlIy darkerand in
central area of film
( 2 2
/y
,$'j\
\
'
Hellier, Inc.
RT
T-evnn
ln7
d i.
$\
,,(
60
4m
Designation: E 748 - 90
I. Scope
I. I Purpose-A practice lo be employed for the radiographic examination of materials and components with
thermal neutrons is outlined herein. It is intended as a guide
for the production of neutron radiographs that possess
consistent quality chancteristics, as well as aiding the user to
consider the applicability of thermal neutron radiology
(radiology, radiographic, and related terms are defined in
Terminology E 1316). Stitemens concerning preferred pnct i e are provided without a discussion of the technical
background far the preference. The nffenary technial
background can be found in Refs (1-24).~
I 2 Limirafiom-Acceptance standards have not been
established for any material or production process. Adherence to the practice .will, however, produce reproducible
rsults that could serve as standards. Neutron radiography,
whether performed by means of a racror, an acceferator,
subcritical assembly, or radioactive saurc+ will be consistent
in sensitivity and resolution only if the consistency of all
details of the technique, such as neutron saurce, collimation.
gmmefq film, ctc., is maintained through the practices.
These practices are limited to the use of photographic or
radiographic film in combination with conversion screens for
image remrding; other imaging systems arc available. Emphasis is placed on the use of nuclear reactor neutron
SQUTCIS
L .3 Inierprelafion and Acceprance Standnrds-Interprewlion and acceptance standards are not covered by these
practices. Designation of accept-reject standards is iecognirred to be within the cognizance of product specifications.
1.4 Safay Prarfices-General problems of personnel proteaibn against neutron and anociated radiation peculiar to
the neutron radiologic prare discussed in 15.1. For
further information on this important as*
of neutron
radiology, refer to current documents of the National Committee on Radiation Protection and Measuremen& the
Federal Register, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
the U.S. Department of Energy, the National Bureau of
'
Standards, and to applicible state and l a d codes.
1.5 Orher Aspecls offhe Neutron Radiographic PracessFor many important aspects of neutron radiography such as
technique, files, viewing of radiographs. storage of radio-
'
2.1 A S T M Srandards:
E 94 Guide for Radiographic Tening'
E 543 Practice for Evaluating Agencies that Perform
Nondertructive Testing3
E 545 Method for Lktermining' Image Quality in Direct
Thermal Neutron Radiographic Examination"
E 1316 Terminology for Nondeitructive Examinations"
2 2 ASNT Srandard:
SNT-TC-IA Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualification and Cerlificationi
3. Signifiance and Use
3.1 This practice includes typ& of materials to be examined, neutron radiographic examination techniques, neutron
production and collimation methods, radiographic film, and
convener meen selection. Within the p m m state of the
neutron radiologic a this practice is genelally applicable to
specific material combinations, processes, and techniques.
4. Neutron Radiography
4.1 The hfe~lrod-Neutron radiography is basically similar to X radiography in that both techniques employ
radiation beam intensity modulation by an object to image
macroscopic object derails. X rays or gamma rays are
replaced by neutrons as the penetrating radiation in a
through-transmission examination. Since the absorption
characterinin of matter for X rays and neutrons differ
'Annual Bad < ! l ' . t T . WSmndord~.Vol 01.03.
'Anil;lblc from lhc Arncriun k c t y lor Nondcnmnivr Tci~ing. 171 1
Adinslc I-lnr P.O. b
x 18518. Calurnhur. 01-153223-11518.
'-
I
Maderalor
Anerlure
Gamma
cay
Fillel
FIG.
' --i
ot ~ , ~ ~ D, , t ~ ~
@vevg
Obiecl
Neutron
Beam
5. Neutron Sources
5.1 General-The thermal neutron beam may be obdried from a nuclear reactor, a subxitical asembly, a
radioactive neutron source, or an accelerator. Neutron
radiography has been achieved successfully with a l l four
sources. In all cases the initial neutrons generated possess
high energies and must be reduced in energy (moderated) to
be useful for thermal neutron radiography. This may be
achieved by surrounding the source with light materials such
as water, oil, plastic, paracf~n,beryllium, or graphite. The
preferred moderator will be dependent on the constraints
dictated by the energy of the primary neutrons, which will in
turn be dictated by neutron beam parameters such as
thermal neutron yield requirements, cadmium ratio, and
beam gamma ray contamination. The characteristics of a
particular system for a given application are left for the seller
and the buyer of the service to decide. This is an easier task
in the erase of neutron radiography than that of X radiography. Characteristics and capabilities of each trpe of source
are referenced in the References section. A comparison of
s o u r m is shown in Table 1.
5.2 Nuclear Reaclors-Nuclear reactors are the prererred
thermal neutron source in general, since high neutron fluxes
are available and exposures can be made in a relati\'ely short
TABLE 1 Cornoarisan of
Type 01 Sam%
Nudear readw
S~bcntml
assrmMy
Aoceleratm
lO5lto l V
lo' to 1@
l@ to l@
lo' to l~l'
Radiwatw
UWIJCLemlrZ
excclbt
&turn
paoc lo m e d ~ n
opaaucn ml pcrtable
TABLE 2
SOV~CC
TYW
~Sources
~ ~ t Employed
i ~ e lor Thermal Neulron Radiography
1i.n)
60 days
"OPo-ae
lo.")
2"Am-Be
(=."I
138 days
458 yea's
163 days
2.65 years
251c(
11l.n)
SPonlanMuS lissl~n
Commmls'
Iiail.Llle
"'Sb-Qe
219~m.212
Cm.Be
lne table
ol Diameler 0
Moderator
Film
Diverging
Gamma Ray
Neutron
Filler
FIG. 2
Object
Beam
Pinhole Catlimatar
9. Masking
9.1 General-In general, masking is not ofien used in
thermal neutron radiology. Where it is desirable to reduce
scatter or to reduce unusual contrasts, the choice of masking
materials should be made carefully. Materials that scatter
readily, such as those containing hydrogen or materials that
emit radiation that may be readily detected, for example, as
indium, dysprosium, or cadmium, should be avoided or used
with exceptional care. Lithium-containing materials may be
useful for masking purposes. Background fogging may result
from the 470 keV gamma ray from boron.
10. Effect or Materials Surrounding Objwl and Cassette
10.1 Backscarrer-As in the case of X radiography, effects
of back-scattered radiation. for example, from walls, etc., can
be reduced by masking the radiation beam to the smallest
practical exposure area. Effects of backscatter can be determined by placing a neutron-absorbing marker of a material
such as gadolinium and a gamma-absorbing marker of a
material such as lead on the back of the exposure cassette. IT
problems with backscatter are shown, one should minimize
Neutron Radiography
14.1 General-This section provides a categorization of
applications according to the characteristics of the object
being examined. The following paragraphs provide a general
list of four separate categories for which thermal neutron
radiographic examination is particularly useful. Additional
details concerning neutron attenuation are discussed in
Appendix XI.
14.2 Derccrio~r a[ Similar Densir)! hfarerials-Thermal
neutron ndiognphy can oNer advantages in c a w of objects
~ t ior Objects
~ ~ t and
i 13sposurc
~ ~
i\lalerials
15.1 Obj~,c[s-Cenain objccts pl3ctd i n the neutron beam
may be activated, depending upon the incident neutron
energy, intensity and exposurc time, and the material activation cross section and half-life. Therefore, objects under
examination may become radioactive. In extreme cases this
could produce lilm fogging, thereby reducing contrast. Safety
is a nrong consideration; radiation monitoring of objects
should be performed after each exposure. Objects that
exhibit a radiation level too high for handling should be set
aside to allow the radiation to decay to acceptable levelk In
practice, since neutron exposure times are normally short, a
short decay period will usually be satisfactory.
15.2 Casselles-Radiographic cassettes containing materials such as aluminum and steel can become activated,
padcularly on multiple exposures. Monitoring of radiation
to determine safe handling levels can alleviate safety problems and minimize film fogging. Activated cassettes, screens,
and objects should be kept away from unexposed film.
Converted X-radiography cvsettes are virtually worthless for
high-resolution industrial neutron radiography. Vacuum
cassettes should be employed whenever poaible to maintain
the film and convener foil in intimate contact during the
exposure. This holds for both the direct and indirect
methods.
15.3 Coiisersion Screens-Conversion screens used for
direct exposure methods are usually chosen for low activation properties. Conversion meen materials such as
gadolinium, boron, or lithium seldom cause problems.
However, conversion screens for the indirect exposure
method are chosen for high-activation potential. Therefore,
exposed and activated screens such as indium, dysprosium,
rhodium, or gold should be handled with care. Screens
should be handled with gloves or tongs and should be moved
in a shield. High-radiation exposures to the fingers are a
potential hazard. A cassette will shield much of the beti
radiation emitted by the commonly used indirect exposure
converter screens. Conversion screens should normally be
allowed at leas a three half-life decay period before reuse to
prevent double exposures.
15. ~
16. Keywords
T A B L E X1.l
0 0 5 5 Sedion (barns)'
Eiwoenl
~ l o m i cNO.
symba(
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
H
He
20
Ca
21 '
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
Sc
Ti
V
33
34
Ar,
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
8,
Li
Be
a
C
N
0
F
Nc
Na
Mg
Al
Si
P
S
Cl
A
K
Cr
Mn
Fe
M
Nt
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
se
Kr
Rb
Sr
Y
Zr
~b
MO
Tc
Ru
~h
PO
Aq
Cd
I"
Sn
Sb
Te
I
Xe
cs
scanenng
38.0
0.8
1.4
6.14
3.6
4.75
10.6
3.76
4 .o
2.42
32
3.42
1.49
2.2
.5.0
0.98
16.0
0.6
1.5
32
24.0
4.0
4.93
3.8
2.1
10.9
6.7
17.3
7.9
42
6.5
7.5
7
10.0
6.1
7.5
6.2
10.1
7.60
6.40
5.0
5.8
5.0
7.5
5.0
5.1
6.2
5.7
2.2
4.0
4.2
5.5
3.6
4.30
7.0
~bwxplian
0.332
0.0
70.7
0.0092
759
0.W3
1.85
0.00
0.010
0.04
0.530
0.053
0230
0.16
0.18
0.52
33.2
0.678
2.10
0.44
26.5
6.1
5.04
3.1
13.3
2.55
37.2
4.43
3.8
1.1
2.9
2.3
4.3
11.7
6.8
25
0.37
1.21
1.28
0.185
1.15
2.7
22.0
2.56
150
6.9
63.6
2450
193.5
0.625
5.4
4.7
6.2
24.5
29.0
lhw Anenualii
hff-'.on-'
9"
9"
335
0.76
99.4
0.535
9as
5 a
5 s
0.095
0.150
0.104
0.122
0.183
0.052
5 s
9az
0.047
0.0849
1.69
0.n
0.702
056
122
1.14
4.W
1.99
0.99
0.35
0.48
0.44
0.52
0.797
027
9"
0.071
0203
0.330
0279
0.341
0.54
demilymknawn
0.723
11.3
0.77
4.10
113.4
7.50
0.171
'0.36
0.30
0.23
gas
0.306
Etnnen~
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
Ba
La
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
Conlinucd
Crassna'%
(barnslo
Scatler,n9
No,
85
T A B L E X1.1
Nd
Rn
8.1
9.3
4.7
3.3
160
...
Srn
Eu
8.0
cc
Pr
...
Gd
...
Tb
Oy
20.2
100
9.4
11.0
12.2
25
8
8
6.2
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
HI
Ta
Re
0s
Ir
Pl
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
PO
At
Rn
Fr
Ra
AC
TI,
Pa
5
11.4
15.2 ( a h )
14
112
9.3
20
9.8
11.4
9
...
...
...
...
...
...
12.7
...
9.0
Np
Pu
...
...
1.2
9.0
0.63
11.5
50.5
60
58W
4600
49 WO
25.5
930
66.5
162
103
38.6
77
102
21
18.5
88
15.3
426
10.0
98.8
375
3.4
0.170
0.033
...
...
...
...
130
510
7.40
15W ( f a )
7.68
9 W (fks'osion)
160 (nrsion)
Linear Anenualcon
Coellicien,, ern-,
0.143
0.49
0.154
0.412
1.68
density unxnown
179
95.3
1497
1.446
36.1
2.43
5.68
3.83
1.50
2.85
5.3
1.5
1.49
6.60
2.17
30.9
1.40
6.39
16.1
0.46
0381
026
..
...
density u n b w n
g=
densityunknawn
1.69
density unkrour.
0.60
W.4
0.788
densify unkwr*
7.96
and several rare earths means that these materials can readil!
be shadowed with neutrons even when they are combined ir
a n assembly with some high atomic weight material such a:
steel, lead, bismuth, o r depleted uranium. Although thl
heavy material would make X radiography difficult, neutrol
radiography should yield a succasful inspection. Further, th
diKerences in slou, neutron attenuation ohen found betwec:
neighboring materials in the periodic table offer a n a d \ w
tage for neutron radiologic discrimination between material
that have similar X-ray artenuation characteristics.
X1.2 This advantage is illustrated in Fig. X l . l in whit
the mass attenuation coefficients pJp are plotted as
function of atomic number o f the attenuating element fi
both X rays (about 120 kVp energy) and slow neutron
There are many apparent attenuation differences. T h e
ficient plp is normally used in attenuation calculations in (1
exponential relationship
0
FIG. XI.?
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
ATOMK
100
ABSORPTIO.
NUMBER
Calculated Themal Nwlron and 100 & 500 KEV X-Ray Linear AHenuation Coefficients as a Fundion of Atomic Number
/,lo
= p-~w~e~ox
.=
90
ATOMIC NUMBER
Approximate Mass Anmuation Coeffiaents as a Function of Atomic Number
FIG. X1.2
80
(1)
ere:
ratio of emergent radiation intensity to the intensity
incident on a material,
= linear attenuation coefiicient,
= density, and
= thickness.
Po, = 40,
0,)
where:
P = number of nuclei per cm3 o i attenuating material,
(2)
I.,
a,""
-1,.
01NI.'10".1WI
*.".I_
m,."l*F,,,,.WUI.U."rEIn
.,'1II1*",ru.c+tr.ic.u.
c0,,w,,0 UYO( ,*IU",.OII,LO*I*,rn'",
r.. ' C . C l U 1 . 3 .
*I1CILi(
@
'. ' "
".,lxtl"C.
.",U'"*<rn"'<".".
FIG. X1.3
..Y,m*UOnUI..",$.
<,I
I,,"
.#.n"rn.'"olwi<lr8w, lo 0I.tDl.Oi.
M U ~.0,,"0,^U
"A,?"
*.".L
U u U l l .
"Uannr.l~l*;i
,mu,-
a, = total
A'o
A
where:
p = linear auenuation coefficient, cm-I,
p = material density, grn.cm-',
N = Avogadro's number = 6.023 x 10'' a1oms.g-mol-'.
a = total cross section, cm', and
A = gram atomic weight of material.
X2.2 If on the other hand, the material under cxarnination contains se\ceral elements, or is in the form o i a
compound, then the linear attenuation coefficient is as
iollows:
where:
)1
where:
p = 0.9 l g.crn-'.
N = 6.023 x 10" atonis,g-mol-I,
A4 = 14.0268 g.
- Thickness measurement
- Discontinuity detection
- Material properties
Ultrasonic Signal Terminology
Indication: displayed s i p d
Advantages
- deep penetration
- portable equipment
- pulse echo testing requires access to only one side of test object
- accurate for thickness measurement and discontinuity location
- permits volumehic examination
- suitable for go / no-go testing: audio and visual alarms
- no known hazards
Limitations
SOUND
- Mass:
- solids
- liquids
- gases
- sonic wavelength
GENERATION OF SOUND
.
.
.
An ultrasonic transducer is the link between the instrument and the test object
Operates on piezoelecnic principle
Damping
Block
!;:
>;
i/i
i
$
ii
I
Electrodes
Wear
Plate
Types of Transducers
- delay line: high resolution for near surface flaw detection, plus thickness
gauging on thin materials
-paintbrush: long, rectangular active area, usually made from a "mosaic" of
crystals, for rapid scanning of large surfaces
TimelDistance Relationships
............3..................................
i
..............>.............:..............:
............. :..............:..............:..............:............. .............:..............:..............i:..............:..............:
' Ti. ......"!..............................:........ :
............. ...........:....
i
i
-'
i
.
.
.L
70
3".
. . . . . .............
. . . .'..............
. . . . '.
5.. ..........:............
.
.
:............ :..............
:
........................:..............6............!..............j
1.............i..............1........... i
40
.... ..".'"............:..............:i..............:..-.........i.............i'."........ ........:.............. ...........:
1............'..............'..............!.............. -I :. ...........:................... :............"!
20 i... ..........i..............'..............:.............. ...... .............! ............:............ ..... :..............:
j
I/..'..........!
.............:..............:...-.........:..............'
.......... ..............'..............
"
.L
f.
i"""
.
.
i
.L
IIIII~IIII~IIII~IIII
I I ~ I ~ ~ I I I ~ I I I I ~ I I I I ~
- velocity
- frequency
- wavelength
Velocity is defined as the speed of sound
- i.e., the number of complete waves that pass a given point in one second
- a wave is generated from one full cycle of transducer vibration
- frequency depends on the number of cycles per second
- frequency units
- Hertz (Hz): cycles per second
- also defined as the distance sound travels within the duration of one complete
cycle
IV.
REFLECTION PRINCIPLES
Acoustic impehnce is the opposition that a material offers to the passage of sound
.
.
The greater the acoustic impedance difference, the greater the percentage of
reflection
Echo performance also affected by size, shape, orientation, and texture and
thickness of reflector
Sound can be absorbed and scattered as it mvels b u g h a given material
V.
Coupling Technique
Thru-transmissiontechnique
Pulse-cclm technique
Coupling
Liquid couplant is needed to exclude air and act as medium for hansmitting
ultrasound into test material because:
Couplant considerations:
-Wetting ability
- Viscosity
- Should not damage test material
- Ease of removal
Typical couplants:
-water
- oil
- cellulose and water mixture
- grease
- portability
-allows the transducer to be moved by hand over complex part geometries
SEARCH
IBI
COUPLANT
TEST
Immersion testing technique: transducer and test object are immersed in water
- Advantages of immersion
- uniform coupling
Surface Condition
Wave Motion
Longitudinal waves
Transverse waves
Rayleigh waves
Plate waves
1-25
/
1
- A-scan
- horizontal scale: distance I time
VI.
TEST INSTRUMENTS
Introduction
- Clock initiates the chain of events that results in one complete cycle of an
ultrasonic test
Display:
Sweep generator
Pulser
Receiver
Amplifier
- The end of the near field (and the beginnjmg of the far field) is called the
- As the waves progress outward from the transducer, they interfere with
each other
Laws of Distance
- Infinite reflectors
-- intercepts the entire sound bearn
- Small reflectors
- intercept only a portion of the sound bearn
(2)
(4)
(5)
XI.
Straight beam transducers are only effective for detecting flaws parallel to the test surface
Angle beams are required for detecting flaws obliquely oriented to the test surface
Angle beams are produced in the test material using the principle of refraction
Refraction is the bending of a sound beam when it passes through an interface between two
materials of different velocity
1-44
Mode Conversion
:Mode Converted
Refraction
- When a sound beam passes at an angle other than perpendicular to the interface,
between two materials of different acoustic velocity, a change in beam direction
called refraction occurs
:Mode Converted
Shear Beam
Snell's Law defines the relationships between incident and refracted sound beams:
Sjn (Incident) Sin (Refracted)
Velocity (Incident)
Velocity (Refracted)
Critical Angles
: Mode Converted
: Beam
- The second critical angle is the incident angle that causes the refracted
shear wave to be refracted 90 degrees
I Mode Converted
: Surface Waves
Overview
Summarv of the Eddy Current Test Process
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
2.
' d)(i
f l
4
-
,,
3.
4.
5.
Magnetism
A magnet's force field can be visualized as a number of closed loops
-
the lines of force flow from the north to the south pole around the
outside of a magnet; and from the south to the north pole within the
magnet
Flux density is the number of flux lines per unit area perpendicular
to direction of flow
Flux density is greatest within the core of a magnet and at the poles
Flux Field
Electromagnetic Principles
The Induction Process
1.
2.
3.
Electromagnetism occurs.
-
3.
Since the flux is varying the most through 00,1800, and 3600;
and varying the least through 900 and 1800, the back voltage is
900 out of phase with the coil current and flux.
4.
Since the back voltage is 900 out of phase with the coil current,
it will oppose changes in the coil current.
5.
6.
Due to Lenz's Law, the secondary flux will be opposite in polarity to the
primary flux.
the secondary flux will therefore cancel some of the primary flux.
when the coil is moved toward a more conductive portion of the test
material test coil inductive reactance decreases
Electromagnetism
Self Induction
Inductive Reactance
When more flux lines cut across more coil turns per unit time,
inductive reactance increases
X ~ = 2 n f L
Lenz's Law
the direction of an induced current will be such that its own
magnetic field will o
d the induced
current
The frequency of the eddy currents alternating in the test material depends on the
test instrument's ac frequency generator
2.
The current in the coil develops a magnetic field around the coil (the
primary flux)
the primary flux induces a back voltage into the coil, causing
inductive reactance
3.
The primary flux also induces a voltage into the test material,
causing eddy currents to circulate
5.
The eddy currents generate a magnetic field of their own (called the
secondary flux)
- which reacts with the primary field that the coil is generating
4.
Flow Patterns
Skin Effect
-
-.
Phase Lag
Eddy currents experience a linear phase lag with depth
as depth increases, eddy current activity is progressively
delayed
phase lag in the test material proceeds at the rate of one radian
(57.3") per standard depth of penetration
Test Output
During an eddy current test, a primary circuit (the test coil) induces
eddy currents into a secondary circuit (the test material)
The test material behaves the same as a single turn secondary coil
21
Impedance
The voltage across the coil's resistance is in phase with the current
The induced back voltage is 90 degrees out of phase with the current
Signal Analysis
Lift-Off Curves
The zero conductivity point, also called the coil in air or empty coil
point is typically located at a position of low resistance, but high
inductive reactance
Resi s t a n c e
This is the impedance point for a coil whose flux is not near any
conductive material
Res i s t a n c e
The more conductive the test material, the greater the cancellation of
primary flux
In addition, since the coil and test material are mutually coupled, the
test material acts as a load on the coil and the effective resistance of
the coil changes
I
Resistance
Conductivity Curve
d
U
Rir Point
t
i
v
8
R
8
a
C
t
a
Resistance
$
U
R i r Point
t
I
R
e
a
C
t
a
n
C
Resistance
Coil Diameter
Thickness Curves
-
L"r=
.
- .,
Resistance
Test Variables
a
In that only test frequency and coiI design are selectable, these two
are the primary controls over test performance
2. Geometry
J
3. Permeability
!
,
Conductivitv
:,-:
.::;.<
;
~L-
2.
3.
4.
- 5.
6.
Geometry
1.
2.
3.
4.
Coil couvling. When distance between the test coil and test
material varies, the intensity of the flux field induced in the
test material likewise varies
The spacing between a surface coil and the test material is
called "lift-off'
The spacing between either an internal coil or encircling coil
and concentrically positioned test material is caIIed "fill
factor" Coupling effectiveness between inner diameter probes
and the inner wall of the tube is calculated as fill factor
Lift-off is useful for measuring the thickness of paint or other
nonconductive coatings on the surface of a metal
Lift-off can also be used to measure the thickness of
nonconductive materials, as long as such materials are placed
on a conductive surface
Fill factor deflections can indicate material variations such as
wall thickness changes or ovality conditions
Fill factor is calculated from the following formula:
rC
~ 5 ; e
s~c..y-o...<a_J
5=1==__
7!
fiw
/'
~4~ii
Permeability
C o m p l e t e d H y s t e r e s i s Loop
B
Residual
Magnetism
Saturation
TEST EOUIPMENT
Instrument Overview
1.
2.
Coils
I.
2.
..
Configurations
Surface Coils are built into probe type housings for scanning
material surfaces
Wide surface coils permit rapid scanning and deeper penetration, but
cannot pinpoint the-location of small discontinuities
They are useful for conductivity testing because they tend to
average out localized conductivity variations along material
surfaces
Narrow coils are preferred for detecting and pinpointing the location
of small surface discontinuities
Because of their smaller diameter electromagnetic fields,
narrow coils are less susceptible to edge effect
normally used for production testing of rods, wire, bar stock, pipes
and tubing
..
"Spinning coils", which are actually surface coils that revolve around
cylindrical test material, are employed when identification of circumferential location is required in encircling coil applications
Internal Coils pass through the cores of pipes and tubes, and are
normally employed for in-service inspection
Like encircling coils, standard bobbin-wound internal coils inspect
the entire circumference of the test object at one time
but cannot pinpoint the exact location of a discontinuity along.
the circumference
..
..
\Reflection coils employs two coils on the same side of the test object
c
Display
p'.
a,"
\,\-
!
I
LEAK TESTING
Defiaai.tion - NDT method used:
1) for the detection and location of leaks
and 2) for the measurement of fluid leakage
in either pressurized or evacuated systems
or components
Leak - the physical hole that exists not the
quantity of fluid passing through the hole
Types of leaks:
1) real leaks - localized leak such as a hole
2) virtual leak -gradual desorption of gases
from surfaces or escape of gases from nearly
sealed components within a vacuum system
Mean Free Path - the average distance that a
molecule travels between successive collisions
with the other molecules in the gas phase
1 to 10-4
10-1 to 10-6
10-1 to 10-5
Mass spectrometer
10-3 to 10-5
10-3 to 10-10
Advantages
relatively simple, rapid and inexpensive
fairly sensitive technique
location of exit points of leaks very
accurate
in immersion technique, entire
pressurized component can be inspected
simultaneously on exposed surfaces
visible to the examiner
large .leaks can be detected first and
sealed or repaired, then smaller leaks
can be detected with more refined
testing apparatus
required level of operator training and
skill is minimal
Disadvantages
contamination of test spechan surfaces
improper temperature of part surface
contamination or foaming test liquids
improper viscosity of test liquids
excessive vacuum over surface of test
liquid
R- 12
R-22
Dichlorodifluoromethane
CC12F2
Monochlorodifluoromethane CHClF2
JO
,.%~QL Yeal-01
ap!rrv 'A uo!oas 'apo3 las=A ainnaJd pue Ja[!og 3 l . q ~ ~
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poll la^ I S ~ jo
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p u 'anb!uq~a~
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uo!varuruI 1'i:'I
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'(S/,!JJ.ed 9-01
x I ) S / ~ U I ~ .5U- 0~ ~Ix~ 1 s! poqlatu lsai s!q1 30j Kl!~!l!suas
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poqlaw lsal s!qJ, 1 ' 1
sdo3S '1
411)
FIG. 2
FIG. 1
Vacuum
Box
8. Immersion Technique
8.1 Applicafion-This technique is applicable to test specimens whose physical size allows immersion in a container of
fluid when the test specimen can be sealed prior to the test.
8.2 Techniquesjbr Creasing Pressure D~rerenfialr
8.2.1 Pressurizcllion of Terr SpecimenSeal components
and apply an elevated pressure, or if accessible, increase the
internal pressure for test purposes.
8.2.2 Elevased-Temperasure Tesf Fluid-Heat
the test
fluid to a temperature not exceeding the maximum rated
temperature of the test specimen. This will cause expansion
of the gas inside the test specimen, creating a pressure
differential. This technique is usually limited to use on very
small parts.
8.2.3 Vacuum Technique-Immerse the test specimen in
the test fluid and then place the test fluid container in the
vacuum chamber. Reduce the pressure in the chamber to a
point that does not allow the test fluid to boil, thus creating a
presure differential. This technique is normally used on very
small parts.
8.3 Test Fluids Used in Immersiorl Technique-The following test fluids mav be used. orovided thev are not
d e m m e n ~ lo
l the component being'tested:
8.3.1 Wafer-Should be treated with a wetting agent up
to % by volume to reduce surface tension and promote
bubble gowth.
8.3.2 Mefhyl Alcohol (Teclinical Grade). Undilufed-Not
suitable for the heated-bath technique or the vacuum technique.
8.3.3 Ethylene Glj~col(Technical Grade), Undiluted.
8.3.4 Mineral Oil-Degreasing of the test specimens may
be necessary. This is the most suitable fluid for the vacuum
technique.
8.3.5 Fl~ioracarbo~is
or Glj~ccrfn-Ruorocarbons are nor
11.1 bubble leak resting; film solution leak test; immersion leak test; leak testing; vacuum box leak testing
T w Amer~canSmrly tor Tesl,ng an0 IAalerfiJlrIJhcr noposn.on nupenmg 11s *Jlldfly ot a n / p l e n l ngatr S e n e a .o cannecr.on
wnh any .lcm mnl.oncd .n lhsr rieoaard Urcn 01 Inn rtandara ale erpesrty aavaw lnal dererm rwl on 01 the talo!ly 01 an, such
me rrsX 01 mlr~ngemenlor sucn rqhlr. ore cnllretf I e s r own reSpn%b Icy
plmt n(mlz.
d STb
Designation: E 427
- 94
I. Scope
1.1 This practice covers procedures for testing and locating the sources of gas leaking af the rate of I x lo-'
Standard cm3/s ( I x lo-' Pa m3/s). The tcsf may he
conducted on any device or component across which a
pressure differential of halogen tracer gas may be created.
'
'
ni
rr4nprov=l
4. Summary or l'racticc
4.1 Section 1.6 of NASA's Loukugc T~~srinl:
Hundhook'
will be of value lo somc users in determining which leak test
method lo use. Section I I of the .4SAfT T<,.~iili,r:
Ifand/~o~ik
:,
t4clnod C
Hologcn
-.
--b
2
.
Method C
'90-
Close-filling Cover
Pressurizing Cann
(If Requiredl
tMinirnum
FIG. 3 A
Plug Valve
I
Clearance
O p e n l o g In Tape
Tape O v e r G a p B e l w e e o
TWO ~ l a n g e s
Pipe
Flong~
FIG. 38
3.5 A l m . r r l r t r
o..,rr
scrceo
FIG. 4
Accumutotian
Leak Test
DEVICE
kyessurizing
Method
1-
'
Connection
5. Personnel Qualification
5.1 It is recommended that personnel performing leak
testing attend a dedicated training coune on the subject and
pass a written e\amination. The training course should be
7. Interferences
7.1 .4r1i1o.~plreric
Hulu,q~~tis--When direct probing (Methods A and B) is used to locate leaks, the leak detector probe
is drawing in air from the atmosphere. If the atmosphere is
contaminated with halogen to a degree that produces a
noticeable indication on the detector, the detection of
halogen from leaks becomes much more difficult. Significant
atmospheric conramination with halogen' is defined as the
level where the detector response, when the probe is moved
from zero-halogen air to test-area atmosphere, exceeds that
expected from the s m a l l a leak to be detected. For reliable
testing, atmospheric halogen must be kept well below this
level.
7.2 Halogens Ourgassed jrom Absorben1 MaterialsWhen leak testing is done in enclosures which prevent
atmospheric conramination from interfering with the test
(Methods A, B, and C), halogen absorbxi in various nonmetallic materials (such as rubber or plastics) may be released in
the enclosure. If the amount released starts to approach the
amount from the leak in the same period of time, then a
reliable leak test becomes more difficult. The amount of such
materials in the enclosure, o r their exposure to halogen must
then be reduced to obtain a meaningful test
7.3 Pressurizing wiih Tesr Gas-In order to evaluate
leakage accurately, the test gas in all paris of the device must
contain subnantially the same amount of tracer gas. When
the device contains air prior to the introduction oftest gas, or
when an inen gas and a tracer gas are added sepmely, this
may not be true. Devices in which the effective diameter and
length are not greatly different (such as tanks) may be tested
satisfactorily by simply adding tracer gas. However, when
long or restricted systems are to be tested, more uniform
tracer distribution will be obtained by lint evacuating to a
few tom, and then filling with the test gas. The latter must be
premixed if not 100 percent tracer.
8. Apparatus
8.1 Hologerl Leak Defector-To perform leak tests as
specified in this standard, the leak detector should meet the
following minimum requirements
8.1.1 Scnsor-Alkali-ion diode or electron capture.
8.1.2 Rcadoltr-Panel instrument or digital readout.
8.1.3 Ra~lge(Linear)-l x 104 to I x
Std cml/s ( 1
x lo-' to I X lO-'"a
m3/s) full scale.
8.1.4 Response Tinie-3 s or less.
8.1.5 S~obilifyof Zero and Sensirivirp-A maximum
variation of 21 5 percent of full scale on most sensitive nnge
while probe is in pure air; a maximum variation of 2 5
;,
9. Material
9.1 Tesr G a r
9.1.1 Tesr-Gas Requtreme~irs-To be satisfactory, the test
gas should be nontoxic, nonflammable, not detrimental to
common materials, inexpensive, and have a response factor
of one. R-12 (dichlorodifluoromethane, CCI,F,) and R-22
(monochlordfluoromethane, CHClF,) have these characteristics. R-12 is commonly used unless the higher pressure
of the more expensive R-22 is needed (130 psig versus 70
psig at 70 F). If the test specification allows leakage of f X
loe5 Std cm3/s (I x lo4 Pa m3/s) o r more, or iflarge vessels
are to be tested,oonsideratidn shouId be given to diluting the
tracer gas with nonhalogen gas such as dry air or nitrogen.
This will avoid operating in the nonlinear portion of the
sensor output, or in the case of large venels, save tracer-gas
expense. However, the balogen content of the qxdication
leak should remain compatible with the expeded level of
atmospheric halogen and the test method as outlined in
Seaion 4.
NOTE I-Whm a vcacl is not evacuated prior to adding t a t gsr, the
Lana is automatially d~lutedby I atm orair.
9.1.2 Producing Premixed Tesr Gas-If the volume of the
device or the quantity to be tested is small, premixed gases
can be conveniently obtained in cylinders. The user can also
mix gases by batch in the same way. Continuous mixing
using calibrated orifices is another simple and convenient
method when the test pressure does not exceed 50 percent of
the tracer gas pressure available (Note 2). Another method is
to pars the nonhalogen gas through the liquid tracer. This
produces test gas containing the maximum amount of tracer
gas.
NOTE2: Gution-Thc liquid tnccr gar supply should not be h a t e d
abve ambient tcmpenture.
9.2 Pure Air, Air J?om Which Halogens Have Been
Removed la a Level oJless Than 1 ppb (or Ofher Suirable
A'onhalogen Gas. Such as Nirrogen).
9.2.1 Requiremenrs:
9.2.1.1 Less than I ppb of halogen.
9.2.1.2 Less than 10 ppm of gases reactive with oxygen,
.uch as petroleum-base solvent vapors.
9.2.1.3 Dew point IB'F (IO'C) or more below ambient
temperature, and
9.2. I .4 SII;III ilc rcasonabl? frcc rrom rust. din, oil, etc.
9.2.2 I'rod~rc~ioitoj 1'11l.r' .-lil: 0). Otln,). Gus-Air or gas ol.
suitable purity, may be produced by first passing it through a
conventional filterdrier
activated charcoal.
(ir
10. Olibrntion
I I. I General Cansiderarions:
I 1.1.1 Tesr Speci/icarions-Use a testing specification
that includes the following:
11.1.1.1 The gas pressure on the high side ofthe device to
be tested; also on the low side if it need differ from
atmospheric.
11.1.1.2 The test gas composition, if there is need to
specify i t
11.1.1.3 The maximum allowable ieak rate in standard
cubic centimeters per second.
11.1.1.4 Whether the leak rate is for each leak or for total
leakage of the device, and
11.1.1.5 if an 'each leak" spedfication, whether or not
areas other than seams, joints, and fittings need to be tested.
11.1.2 Safe1.v Factor-Where
feasible, ascertain that a
reasonable safety factor has been allowed between the actual
operational requirements of the device, and the maximum
specified for testing Experience indicates that a factor of at
least 10 should be used when possible. For example, if a
maximum total leak rate for satisfactory operation of a
Pa m3/s), the test
device is 5 x 10" Std cm3/s (5 x
requirement should be 5 x
Std cm3/s (I x
Pa
mvs) or less.
11.1.3 Tesl Pressure-Test the device at or above its
operating pressure and with the pressure drop in the normal
direction, where practical. Take precautions so that the
device will not fail during pressurization, or that the operator
is protected from the consequences of a failure.
11.1.4 Disposition or Recovery of Tesr Gas-Do
not
dump test gas into the test area if further testing is planned.
Either vent it outdoors or recover for reuse if the volume to
be used makes this wonhwhile.
1 1.1.5 Derrimenral Effecrs o j R-12 and R-22 Tracer
Gases-These gases are quite inert, and seldom cause any
problem with most materials, patticularly when used in
gaseous form for leak testing and then removed. Test gas
should not be left in the device unless it h d q and sealed, as
most halogens in the presence 01.moisture acccleratc corrosion over a period of time. When tiicrc is a question as to the
compatibility of the tracer with a particular malerial, an
authority on the latter should be consulted. This is panicularly true when the material may be subject to chloride stress
corrosion under conditions of use.
I 1.1.6 Correlario~io j TCSI-GosL<,akagc ~eirhOrlrcr Gascs
or Liqlrids a1 Di//i'~-cvir O[~e,zlri~~g
I ~ r r s s ~ ~ r r s - 4 i v the
en
normal variation in leak geometry. accurate correlation is an
impossibility. However, if a safety factor of ten or more is
allowed (see 1 1.1.2) adequate correlation for gas leakage
within these limits can usuall!. be obtained by assuming
V ~ K O U Sflow and using the following relation:
Q2 = Q,(N/KI)[P?2- /',')/(PI1 - P3')1
where:
Q,
= test leakage.
Q,
= operational leakage.
= viscosity of test gas (Note 4).
I\'Z
= viscosity of operational gas (Note 4).
N,
p,, P I = absolute pressures on high and low sides at test,
and
P,, P3 = absolute pressures on high and low sides in operation.
Experience has shown that, at the same pressures, gar leaks
Std cm3/s ( 1 x will not show visible
smaller than I x
leakage of a liquid, such as water, that evaporates fairly
rapidly. For slowly evaporating liquids such as lubricating
oil, the gas leak should be another order of magnitude
smaller, 1 x lod Std cm3/s.*
NOTE3-Viwosity difiercnm between gasa is a rcladvely minor
cITcci and u n bc igno~dif daircd.
11.2 Method A (See 2.3 and Fig. I):
11.2.1 Appararw
11.2.1 .I Test specification.
11.2.1.2 Halogen leak detector; standard probe type.
11.2.1.3 Halogen leak standard, upper 9/10 of scale to
include halogen content of maximum leak in accordance
with the specification, with response factor correction.
11.2.1.4 Test gas, at or above specification pressure.
11.2.1.5 Pressure gages, valves and piping for introducing
test gas, and if required, vacuum pump for evacuating
device.
11.2.1.6 Pure-air supply, if not part of halogen leak
detector.
11.2.1.7 Test booth or other atmospheric contamination
control, if shown to be necessary by 11.2.2.
11.2.2 Procedure:
11.2.2.1 Set the halogen leak standard at the maximum
halogen content of the specification leak. Exanrple: if the
maximum leak rate is 1 x lom4Std cm3/s (I x lo-' Pa m3/s)
and the test gas is I percent R-12 in air. set the standard at I
X lo4 x .O1 = I x lo4 Std crn3/s (I X lo-' Pa m3/s).
11.2.2.2 Stan the pure-air supply and adjust to flow in
excess of that of the leakdetector probe, couple the probe
loosely to the supply, so that air is not forced into the
detector.
'Sanlclcr. U. I.. and blollcr. T . W.. "Fluid Flaw Convcrrian in k 3 L s and
Gpillrria." I'acorrn Sy!ttpri,,n! Tronronionr. 1956. p. 29. Alu, Gcncnl E l c n k
Ca. Kcpan R56GL261.
11.2.2.3 Svan tile detector. warm up and adjust in accorinstructions Tor detection of
dance with the nru~~uCdcturci's
leaks of size of I 1.2.2.1, using the "Manual Zero" mode.
11.2.2.4 Remove the probe from the pure-air supply to
the test area, and note the reading, and also minimum and
maximum readings for a period or I min.
11.2.2.5 Rezero the instrument. place the probe on the
leak standard, and note the reading.
Nore 4-ll neccrwv to obtain a rwmnahlc inslrumcnt denemion in
11.2.2.4 and lI.Z.Z.5. relurn the p r a k lo lhc pure-air supply. adjun i l ~ c
-nnge' control and rczcro il ncccswry.
11.2.2.6 IT 11.2.2.4 is larger than 11.2.2.5. or if the I-min
variation is more than 30 percent of 11.2.2.5. lake steps to
reduce the atmospheric halogen content of the test area
before proceeding with the leak test.
11.2.2.7 If the "automatic zero" mode is to be used.
increase the sensitivity by a factor of three.
11.2.2.8 Evacuate (if required) and apply test gas to the
device at the specified pressure.
11.2.2.9 Probe areas suspected of leaking. Hold the probe
on or not more than 0.2 in. (5 mm) from the surface of the
device, and move not faster than I .O i n . 1 ~(30 mm/s). If leaks
are located which cause a "reject" indication when the probe
is held 0.2 in. ( 5 mm) from the apparent leak source, repair
all such leaks before making final acceptance test. If a
marginal indication is observed while detecting in uautomatic zero" mode, reduce the sensitivity by a factor of rhree,
switch to the 'manual zero" mode and compare the leak
reading on the leak standard and on the device.
11.2.2.10 Maintain an orderly procedure in probing the
required areas, preferably identifying them as tested, and
plainly indicating points of leakage.
11.2.2.1 1 At the completion of the tesf evacuate or purge,
or both, the test gas from the device.
11.2.2.12 Write the test report, or athenvise indicate test
results as required.
1 1.3 Merhod B (See 4.4 and Fig. 2):
11.3.1 Apparafw-Same as for Mehod A (see 11.2)
except 11.2.1.2, halogen leak detector to be proportioning
probe type.
11.3.2 Procedure-Same as for Method A except as follows:
11.3.2.1 Use a self-contained pure-air supply. Activate by
closing the probe tip valve tightly, which sends 100 percent
pure air to the sensor.
11.3.2.2 in 11.2.2.4. open the probe value wide (about
two turns), which sends 100 percent atmospheric sample to
the sensor.
11.3.2.3 If the conditions of 11.2.2.6 are met, proceed
with the test. If not. partially close the probe valve until they
are. However. do not reduce the valve ouenine below the
~ o i n at
t which the resuonse to the leak standard is reduced
30 percent.
11.4 hferliod C (See 4.5 and Fig. 3):
1 1.4.1 Apparalw:
11.4.1.1 Test specification.
11.4.1.2 Purge the sample detect and calibrate unit
(PSDC), Fig. 3A, plus the shroud to fit the device under test
(the upper 9/10 of halogen leak standard scale shall include
halogen content of maximum leak in accordance with the
speciliotion, with response factor correction).
lo
be luk-lesled must be
the lest repon (Fig. 6). or otherwise indicate the results or the
test as required.
12. Keyords
HALOGENLfiAKTESTREPORT
Tester
Tesl witnessed by
TeslW per ASTM Sld.
Oevicelested
No. accepled
Mar. kakuge, acn?(lledpa. x 10 Sld, cm31s
TOM -a
eachwlleakage
Device evacualed belae chaiging
II evawaled, pessuie
T
Test pessure
psg
Tesl gas:
I _ Tram:
- g a s
Atmospheric h&gm equivaienl
x 10
Leak Denectw SeMl No.
Leak Standard S e a No.
FIG. 6
..
Dale al Test
NO.
J n e h r . w n Soc,c!y i m Tallog and Malcrrsls lanes ncposllmrespMmng Ihv a l d i f 01 any wren1 r ~ g n :arrcncdm cmnmlao
any ncm mcnlsonw in rncs s t m a d U s m a1 l h n slamiad z e w a d y Z O d r s M lnal aclcrm n.?l,oo 01 ine ,~l,dby 01 on, swn
palcnl r,ghlr and the r d r ~ol mlr ngcmcnl d s w h ngnlr am eNlrely tiwr a n rcspwibla,
ant,
This slmdard is subjecl lo revision e( any lime by lhe mpmsible lachnicalmmhee wd mosl be reviewed every live y e u s and
Nnol rwised, &her reappoved or wahdrawn Your m m m m s ere imiled &her lor revision 01l h k srandard or lor sddifiwldmdards
&shooM be addrerred lo ASTM Headquarrers. Your mmmems will receive carefulm i d e r a l i o n a1 a meeling o( Lhe rerpwr;lble
IRhnM emmillee, which you may Mend. H you feel the1 yaur m m M s have md received a lab hearing you should make your
view known lo <heASTM CNnmineo on Standards. 1916 Race St.. Philadelphia, PA 19103.
451b
Designation: E 499
- 94
I . Scope
1.1 These test methods cover procedures for testing and
louting the sources of gas leaking at the rate of I x
standard cm3/s) or greater. The test may
P a m3/s (1 %
be conducted on any device or component across which a
pressure differential of helium or other suitable tracer gas
may be created, and on which the emuent side ofthe leak to
be tested is accwible for probing with the mass spectrometer
sampling probe.
1.2 Two test methods are described:
1.2.1 Tesr Merhod A-Direct probing, and
1.22 Tesr Merhod B-Accumulation.
1.3 This standard does nor purport ro address ihe sa/cry
concerns, $any, associared,n~irhirs tise. I r is [he responsibility o/ rhe user ofrhis standard ro esrablish uppropriare
saJery and health pracrices and derermine rhe applicabiliry of
reguiafory limirarionsprior lo use.
2. Referenced Documents
2.1 ASTM Srandard:
E 1316 Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations3
2.2 Other Documens:
SNT-TC-1A Recommended Practice for Personnel Qualification and Certification in Nondestructive Testing4
ANSIjASNT CP-189 ASNT Standard for Qualification
and Certification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel4
3. Terminology
3.1 Dejinilions-For definitions of terms used in this
standard, see Terminology E 1316, Section E.
andb book'
'nae
5. Personnel Qualification
5.1 It is recommended that personnel performing leak
testing
a dedicated uaining course on the subject and
pass a written examination. The training courje should be
appropriate for NDT level I1 qualification according to
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A of the American
Society
NondeStrucrive
Or
Standard
CP-189
4m E 499
6. Significance and Use
6.1 Test Method A is frequently
to test large systems
and complex piping installations that can be tilled with a
trace gas. Helium is nomally used. ~h~ test method is used
to locate leaks but cannot be used to quantify except for
approximation. Care must be taken to provide sufficient
ventilation to prevent increasing the helium background at
the test site. Resulu are limited by the helium background
and the percentage of the leaking trace gas wptured by the
probe.
6.2 Test Method B is used to increase the concentration of
trace gas coming through the leak by capturing it within a n
enclosure until the signal above the helium background can
be detected. By introducing a calibrated leak into the same
volume for a recorded time interval, leak rates can be
measured.
7. Interferences
7.1 Almospheric Heliltm-The
Trap
Rovgh Pump
Pump
FIG. 1
Method A
,n<
Rough Pump
the Lcakrge
Helium
9"
Probe
I-
Dctecror
Prerruri2ini)
Connection
when an inert gas and a tracer gas are added separately, this
may not be true. D e v i w in which the effective diameter and
length are not greatly different (such as tanks) may be tested
satisfactorily by simply adding tracer gas. However, when
long or restricted systems are to be tested, more uniform
tracer distribution will be obtained by fim evacuating to less
than 100 Pa (a few tom), and then filling with the test gas.
The latter must be premixed if not 100 % tracer.
7.4 Dirt and Liquih-As the orifice in the detector probe
is very small, the pa- being tested should be clean and dry
to avoid plugging. Reference should be frequently made to a
standard leak to ascertain that this has not happened.
8. Apparatus
8.1 Helium Leak Defecfor, equipped with atmospheric
detector probe. To perform tests as specified in this standard,
the detector should be adjusted for testing with helium and
should have the following minimum features:
8.1.1 Sensor Mass Analyzer.
8.1.2 Readour, analog or digital.
8.1.3 Range (linear)-A
signal equivalent to 1 x lo-'
Pa.m3/s (1 x
standard cm3/s) or larger must be
detectable.
8.1.4 Response lime, 3 s or less.
u.!iil
: I ~ , , I Ilrss
, c ~r.,l,cns,ve
&35. such 2s
air.
66P 3
rlSb
Designation:
E 1 6 0 3 - 94
1. Scope
2. Referenced Documents
2.1 ASTM Srandard:
1994.
4.2 7'c~rA,i~ri~od
A-This test method is used to helium
leak test objects that are capable of being evacuated to a
reasonable test pressure by the LD pumps during an acceptable length of lime (Fig. 1). miis requires that the object be
clean and dry. Auxiliary vacuum pumps having greater
capacity than those in the LD may be used in conjunction
with them. The leak test sensitivity will be reduced under
these conditions.
4.3 Tesr Merhod B-This test method is used to leak test
equipmenl that can provide its own vacuum (that is,
equipment that has a built-in pumping system) at least to a
level of a few hundred pascals (a few torr) or lower. Refer to
Fig. 2.
4.4 Tesr Merhod C-When a vacuum system is capable of
producing internal pressures of less than 2 x 105 Pa (2 x
104 ton) in the presence of leaks,these leaks may be located
and evaluated by the use of either a residual gas analyzer
(RGA) or by using the specVometer tube and controls from a
conventional MSLD, provided that the leakage is within the
sensitivity range of the RGA or MSLD under the conditions
existing in the vacuum system. Refer to Fig. 3.
5. Personnel QualiIiuGon
5.1 It is recommended that personnel performing leak
testing attend a dedicated training m u m on the subject and
pass a written examination. The training course should be
appropriate for NDT Level I1 qualification in accordance
with Recommended Practice SNT-TC-1A or ANSIIASNT
Standard CP-189.
6. Significance nnd Use
6.1 Tesl Merhod A-This test method is the most frequently used in leak testing components. Testing of components is correlated to a standard leak, and the actual leak rate
is measured. Acceptance is based on the maximum system
allowable leakage. For most produetion needs, acceptance is
based on acceptance of pans leaking less than an eslabliihed
leakage rate, which will ensure safe performance over the
------
m e t
canpanont
Enclosure (Hood)
I
I
_yTaat
-...-----
I
I
I
I
'
FIG. 1
Test Meihad A
Toat Encloauro ( I l o d l
- - - - - - - -6-- - - - 1
I
I
I
1
r
I
Toat
compncnt
I---
-----I
II
1
(
nigh
Vacuum Pump
I
1
I
I
I
I
~~~~~~Q
-I - - - - - J
FIG. 2
Test Method B
------I
I
I
I
rest
camponent
'I
I
I
6 Teat e n c l a a u r a (flood)
sigh vacvvm P m p
LEAK TESl7NG OF
COMWNENIS/SYSTEMS USING THE LD
8. Apparatus
8.1 Leak Derecror, having a minimum deteciable lcak rate
as required by the test sensitivity.
8.2 A t ~ ~ i l i a Pumps,
r!~
capable of evacuating the object to
be tested lo a low enough pressure that the LD may be
connected.
8.3 Suirable Connecror and Valves, to connect to the LD
test port. Compression fitting and metal tubing should be
used in oreference to a vacuum h o w
8.4 ~iandardLcaks of Borh Capsrile o p e (Containing 11s
Own Ifeliutn Stipply) and Capillary Type, an actual leak that
is used to simulate the reaction of the test system to a helium
leak. The leak rate of the standard lcak used for the system
calibration shall be equal to or lrss then one half of the
acceptance level (maximum permissible leakage rate). Temperature correction of the permeation capsule-type swndard
~
7. interferences
7.1 Series leaks with an unpumped volume between them
present a difficult if not impossible problem in helium leak
testing. Although the &atrace gas enten the first leak readily
enough since the pressure difference of helium across the first
leak is approximately one atmosphere. it may take many
Calibration Setup w i t h a
capillary
CL
manual.
9.3 Disconnect tile capsule standard leak from the LD
and connect the test system to the LD.
Calibration S e t u p
with a
Capsule CL
9. Instrument Cdibration
9.1 Attach the capsule leak to the LD and tune the LD to
achieve the desired sensitivity scale in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions. Allow sufficient time for the
flow rate from the capsule leak to equilibrate. The permeation-type capsule leak should be stored with the shutoff
valve (if present) open, and the leak should be allowed to
equilibrate to ambient temperature for several hours. Capillary-type capsule leaks should be stored with the shutoff
valve closed to prevent unwanted decay of the reservoir
pressure.
where:
CL,. = temperature-corrected standard leak rate,
.-
Steady S t a t e value
---
MSLD
I/;;
I
Background
level
'c
Sr
T e s t Time
x = o
r;
11. Apparatus
11.1 Helium LD-Same
15. Apparatus
15.1 RGA or lCfSLD and Cottlrols. tunable to the tnce
gas.
apparatus as Section 8.
LL
20. Keywords
20.1 helium leak test; helium mass spectrometer leak test;
hood leak test; leak testing; mass spectrometer leak test
Ths nK1ric.w W r y lor Testing and Malerials lakes m p a r h ~ q c I i n gthe validi7y dany w e n 1 righls asserted in mnnedion
wifh any i(Mt memiaoed in lhb standad. US- d l h b slandard are eqxdy advised lhal delenniMiion ol the validify d any such
wen(righls, and ihe rirk d i n f r i m olslhh rigMs, are direly their avn respnsibil#y.
Thb slandard is sobjeQ 10 revision al any W-9 by ihe respririMe l & n b l m m i n e e andmusl be revwew live yesrs and
fndrrnired, ei7herresppro"edorwilhd-.
Y o u r c ~ m w m a r e i n u ~ e d ~ I ~ ~ r ~
and shooM ba a d d w lo ASTM Hea+&es.
Ywr cMmwm wiilreccire M u 1 m M e ( a l i o n a1 a meeling d lhe r s s p ~ ~ i b l e
l&nW m m e e . Which you may anand. H you lee1 lhal your mmmnls have nd mceh'ed a fair hearing you shwld make your
views kMwn lo Uw ASTM Commnec an Si&s.
1916 Race Si. Philad#@ia. PA 19103.
THERMOGRAPHY
Introduction
.
.
.
all methods in which heat sensing devices are used to measure temperature variations in
components, structures, systems or physical processes
used for detection of subsurface flaws or voids, provided depth of flaw is not large
compared to its diameter
can inspect complex shapes or assemblies of similar or dissimilar materials
need only one side accessibility
visible
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
.
.
.
involves the measurement or mapping of surface temperatures when heat flows from, to or
through a test object
thennograph - map of isotherms or contours of equal temperatures, over a test surface
examples of detectable changes - heat leaking out of a component causes a hot spot on the
part surface or unbonded area on a component which so uniformly heated will produce a
hot spot since the heat does not flow to the substructure compared to the normal area
the larger the imperfection and the closer it is to the surface, the greater the temperature
Merentid
.
.
heat flows from hot to cold within an object by conduction and between an object and its
surroundings by conduction, convection and radiation
electromagnetic radiation is emitted from a heated body when electrons within the body
change to a lower energy state. Both the intensity and the wavelength of the radiation
depend on the temperature of the surface atoms or molecules
.
.
variations in emissivity change the power of the radiation emitted at given temperature and
thus affect infr-dlwl.temperature measurements
Surface Preparation
e
surface condition can affect test results i.e. roughness, cleanliness, foreign materials,
uniformity and condition of paint or other surface coatings
.
.
.
Inspection Equipment
.
.
Temperature sensors used in thermal inspection can be separated into two categories:
noncontact temperature sensors (used for thermography) and contact temperatures sensors
Noncontact sensors depend on the thermally generated electromagnetic radiation from the
surface of the test object This energy is typically in the infrared region
TYPES OF NONCONTACT SENSORS
A.
.
.
.
3) the& wave interferometer systems - use modulated laser excitation with rapid
phase and amplitude sensing that can be scanned across a surface to produce an
image
system senses the interaction between the thermal waves of the laser and the
thermal variations from coating defects and thickness variations
.
.
.
Both radiometers and pyrometers are low cost devices that can be, used for long
term monitoring of processes
Contact Temperature Sensors - include material coating an thermoelectric devices
advanta~es- usually low in cost
disadvantages - provides qualitative temperature measurements which can show
small changes in temperatures and coatings can change the thermal characteristics of
the past surface
.
.
.
.
organic compound that emit visible light wwhh excited by ultraviolet light.
brightness of phosphorus inversely proportional with temperature over a range
from room temperature to - 400' C (750" F)
some can change as much as 25% / "C or 14% 1 "F
other coatings - heat sensitive paints, therrnochromic compounds, heat sensitive
papers, meltable frosts and waxlike substances can indicate surface temperatures.
C. Thermoelectric devices
Thermocouples -
Thermopiles -
Thermistors -
Acoustic emission
Reprinted from ResearchlDwelooment. May 1971, Volume 22, Number 5. oases 20-24
Acoustic emission
-.
Does metal 'shriek' when it's under stress or strain?
Indeed it does. . . and instruments and methods have been developed
to 'listen in' on materials and predict failures before they occur
President, ~ u n e G nR e e a r d ~ o r ~ a r a t i b n
and A. S. Tetelrnan
Digital printer
bo \
or computer
cL
2
Reamplifier
Transducer
Alarm
AJ
Fig. 1. Simplified block diagram of acoustic emission
system. Sensing transducer in contact with structure
being investigated converts low-level stress waves to
electrical signals that are amplified, filtered and processed in varietv of wan.
ing [he microscopic proccsscs o i iatiguc, slress corrosion cracking and composite failure. Malcrials such as
steel, titanium, aluminum. concrete, woad aod fiber
reinforced resins have been investigated.
How It Works
Acoustic emissions are the impulsively generated
small amplitude elastic stress wavcs created by deformations in a material. T h e rapid release of kinetic
energy from the deformation mechanism propagates
elaslic waves from the source, and these arc detected
as small displacements on the surface of the specimen.
The emissions indicate the onset and continuation o f
deformation and may be used to locate the source of
deformation through Lriaugulation techniques.
A particular feaNre which makes acoustic emission
analysis a most useful tool for the study of the behavior o f materials is that the pattern of emission u
determined by the lime distribution of the impulsive
deformations that occur within the material. Coosequently, the study of local defects can be carried out
without prior knowledge of their location, o r even
existence. In addition. emission data dscribe the volumetric deformation p r o c m not adquately available from surface phenomena (such as strain), thus
permining a mom comprehensive insight into the
deformation p r o e s e s (such as plastic flow, fracture
and phase transformations) that occur.
The application o f acoustic emission technology
involves a f f i n g the senson to the article under i n v s ligation; the detected emissions are then amplified,
selectively filtered. and conditioned, and then counted
either on a periodic basis, as a rate of emission, o r as a
cumulative total. Typically. inflection points in the
data curves obtained through either counting method
are used to determim such items as the onset o f
plasticity a n d l o r crack growth, continuatioo of slow
o r stable crack gmwth. and .the transition to unstable
crack growth. Emission signals are frquently also
recorded on magnetic tape for post-test analysis.
Figure 1 is a simplified block diagram showing the
detector in cootad with a strudurc. T h e sensing
transducer is normally constructed from a piaoelectric crystal that converts low level s t r w waves in the
structure to electrical signals that are amplified, band
pars filtered and processed in a variety of ways. T h e
signals are usually transient in nature and tend to ring
the detection transducer a t resonana. This rrcults in
an electrical signal that is a damped sinusoid with a
carrier frequency strongly dependent on the traosducer characteristics.
In many cases the signals are counted with a digital
counter. This count is converted to a dc voltage and
displayed on an x-y recorder. The digital counting
technique has other advantages in the event one
wishes to process the data with a digital computer.
The use of several acoustic emission channels on a
large structure can be used lo triangulate to a source
and thereby locate a flawed area. This is accomplished
in much the same manner as louting sources o f
earthquakes.
.+Applications
Strain
Fig. 2. Acoustic emission rate data observed fmm metal specimen pulled in tension. Note that emission rate is maximum
near yield strength and decreases in workhardening range.
Renure
Fig. 3. Typical summation of acoustic emission curves o h
tained from identical pressure vessels with different initial
flaw sizes. Slopes increase rapidly prior to failure. Data can
be used to predict failures before they occur.
k e e p growing
~ i g . 5 . Summation of awustic emission signals a s function of area of hydmgen-induced cracking for several
values of stress intensity factor K.
The role or dissolved hydrogen in promoling (r;lclure or high strength stecl components has been the
object o f numerous investications.
The acoustic emission resulting from the initiation of microcracks and
crack propagation can be easily recorded, and a quantitative relationship has been established between the
acoustic emission data and the amount of crack area
generated.
Figure 5 shows the rclationshi~between the summation of acoustic emissions present as a function of
the amount of hydropen-induced crack extension in a
cathodically chirgedTspecimen of 4340 steel. Note
that the number of counts present for a given amount
o f crack area swept out is strongly dependent on the
stress intensity factor K present at the crack tip.
Acoustic emission testing can thus be used to continuously monitor slow crack growth in cadmium
plated steel fasteners, and predict when a bolt is
approaching failure (when K -tKJ.
Mevuring coating thickness. There are many coating processes for protecting materials from erosion o r
corrosion under dilierent environmental conditions.
Anodizing is used by the aluminum industry. Thermal
oxidation can occur when materials such as titanium
alloys are subjected to high temperatures in the presence of oxygen. Both of these processes result in the
formation of brittle coat on the surface of the material. When the materials are deformed, the resulting
microcracks generated in this coating give rise to
acoustic emission signals that can he easily recorded.
A technique has been developed for measuring anod ' i coating thickness. It involves recording the total
number of counts for a given pressure from clamped
diaphragm specimens of thin aluminum with varying
anodized coating thickness.
Experiments have been performed recently on diaphragm specimens of 6 A I 4 V titanium alloy subjectcd to IS00 F in air, for different lengths of time.
The diaphragm specimens were clamped at the edges
and subject2 to ;n increasing hydro&tic pnsrure>n
one side, while acoustic emissions were recorded from
the opposite s i d e The summation of acoustic emission
counts were recorded up to 3M)O psi on each specim e n The total number of counts observed from each
was plotted as a function of the time of exposure of
each diaphragm to the 1500 F environment These
data. are presented in Fig. 6. Note that the longer
exposure results in a higher number of wunts to the
maximum prusure. Since the oxide coating thickness
is proportional to some function of the time of exposure, a test of this type can be used to determine the
average wating thickness. The 3000 psi was not sufficient lo plastically deform the diaphragm to such an
extent that a noticeable dimpling occurred. It was
determined that a few hundred psi was sufficient to
distinguish t h e difference between specimens; thus, a
device can be envisioned that would pressurize a given
area on a sheet specimen and provide a measure of the
wating thickness in a nondes&ctive manner.
Delcctinc
- hich
- temuenture failure. Many measurement techniques such as strain gaging, holography
and eddy currents, require access to the surface o f the
material. at o r adjacent to the area to be measured.
Thus, certain limitations are present when high temperature closed environmental conditions are present.
On the other hand, acoustic emission signals generated in materials will propagate for large distands
Future Applications
All materials and structures contain defects of one
sort or another. 'Generally, these defects wuse no
reduction in the strength of a part. However, if the
defects reach a certain range o f size, they become
dangerous and can cause a substantial reduction in
strength. AET offers the possibility of detecting these
cracks before they reach this critical size range.
TO understand how this is accomplished, it is necessary to digress a bit and consider the mechanics of
crack growth. Briefly, a crack of length o residing in
10
Crack ini!ia$ion
conaant
dirplocemcnt
Holding
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and failure
,
a i n =85 db
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= 1W-300 KHz
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transducer
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that is spotane-
t'
Source Mechanisms
Sources of acoustic emission include many different
mechanisms of deformation and fracture Earthquakes and
rockbursts in mines are the largest naturally occurringemir
sion sources. Sources that haw been i d e n a d in metals
include crack gmvth, moving dislocltions, slip, hvinning,
grain boundary sliding and the fracture and demhesion of
inclusions. In composite materials, sources indude mahir
cracking and the debonding and fracture of fibers. These
mechanisms typify the classical response of matelials to applied load.
Other mechanisms fall \\<thin the definition and are detectable with acoustic emission equipment. These include
leaks and cavitation; friction (as in rotating bearings); the
realignment or gravth of mag~leticdomains (Barkhausen effect); liquefaction and solidilic;ition; and solid-solid phase
trdnsfont~ations.Son~etimestliese s o u m s are &led sccorldanj sources or pselldo s o ~ ~ r cto
c sdistinguish them front
the classic acoustic ernission due to mechanical deformation
of stressed materials. A unified e~planationof the sources or
acoustic emission does not ~t exist. Neitlter does a complete analytical description of tlte stress wale energy in h e
vicinih of nn acoustic emissioti source. Hmwver, encouraging pro~rcsshas been ~ n a d ei n rl~esehvo ke\. resesrch areas.
di5 h ! i k&\a
h&ec+ecS LJ
Amustic emission differs from most other nondem~ctive 4
methods in tw significant respects. Fi.the ene that is
detected is released from within the test obi& S e r tfian
being supplied by the nondestructiw met!&, as in ultrasonics o r radiography. Second, the acoustic emission
method is capable of detecting the d y ~ m i pnxerses
c
associated with the d
dation of stmctud integrity. Crack fj
and plastic eformahon an: major s o u r n of acouz- 4
h m m i o n . Latent drswnhnuities that enkrge under load
G E F a z i v e sources of acoustic emission by virlue of their
size. location or orientation are also t h e most likely to be significant in t e q of structural integrity.
Usually, certain areas within a structural system will de\dop local instabilities long before the structure fails. These
instabilities result in minute dynamic movements such as
plastic defonnation, slip o r crdck initiation and propagation.
Although the s t r e s ~ e s 7 i T : a ~ a l I , ~ % a ~well
b e below the
elastic design limit, the regtoion near a crack tip may undergo
plastic delbniGtGn as ;I resr~ltof high l w d l stresses. In this
situntion, t l ~ epropag;tting disco~ltinuitl/acts as a source of
stress waws ind l ~ c o ~ n eans active acoustic emission
Sotlice.
+cornustic elnissiuo csaivlit~ation is no~tdirectiond. Most
acoustic emission sources appear to functio~ias point source
emitters that r.idi;ttc
wauefmnts. Often.
a sei~sorlwittrd int
of anacoustic
etniszion source c;111drtect tlle resulting acoustic emission.
&
$ " .
.-
Tlie acoustic emission ~iiethodoKers the followi~igit(lvai~tages over other nondestructive testing methods:
in
that it provides a response to discontinui~gmwthunder an imposed structural stress; static discontinuities
will not Renerate amustic emission sippals.
2. ~mustkemissiona n detect and ev&ate the signil,.
u n c e ofdiscontinuities throughout an entire structure
during a single test.
3. Since only limited access is required, discontinuities
may be detected that are inaccessible to the more tnditional nondestructive methods.
4. Vessels and other pressure systems can often be requali6ed during an in-5e~c-cinspection that r e q u i r e
little o r no downtime
, 5. ?he acoustic emission method may be used to p s n t
c
c a t a s t q h i c failure of systems with unlolown discuntinuities. and to limit the maximum pressure during
containment system tests.
'
/.y57?
TESTING113
Application of Acoustic
Emission Tests
A classilication of the runctionnl categories of amustic
emission applications is given belo\":
1. mechanical pmperty testing and characterization;
2 ~reseg.9
pmol tezting;
3. in-%,*
(requalifiution) testing;
4. qn-linh~onitoEng;
5. in-process weld
.,. monitoring;
-,
,
6. m!l%id?ignature
anabis;
Zleak detection and-l--%o<-and
-&
8. geological a=.
'4y'<~?
Amustic emission is a wave ohenomenon and acoustic
.
Emlnlon R e y x x u e Amplitude
High mength
High main rate
LOW temperature
AZ!imtrow
Nonhomogeneity
Thitk smiom
Brittle failure [cleavage)
Material containing dixonunuities
Manemitic phaw rransformations
Crack propagation
Casl materials
Large grain size
Mechanically induced
LOW mength
FROM IPANNER
High temperature
tsotropy
Homogeoeity
Thin senions
Ductile failure (shear)
Material withwt dixoncjnuiries
Diffusion-controlledphase transformations
Plastic deformation
Wrwghr materials
Small grain size
Thermally induced twinning
Testing of Composites
Amustic emission nionitoring of fiber reinforced c n m p s ite materials has proven quite effecthe when compared wvitll
other nondestructive testing methods. H-r.
attenuation
of the amustie emission signals in fiber reinforced materials
presents unique problems. ENediw acoustic emission monitoring of fiber reinforced components requires much doser
sensor spacings than would be the case with a metal mmponent of similar size and configuration. With the proper number and location of sensors, monitoring of composite structures has p m n higbly effective for detecting and locating
areas of fiber b k g e , d e l a m i n a t i o ~and other types of
s h u d degradation.
t-
Successful Applications
..
~.
..
Selection
P~~E!~!/fiers
and Frequency.
The preamplifier must be located J o s e to the sensor. Of-
..
~~
. ..
FIGURE
1.
YMOFS
M E N AMPIIFIEG
W~TH
FIUERI
MEAIuREMENI
C\RCUIT~
om
SrORhGE
YREEN
MIA
BUFFEFS
MY'thY
MlCllOCOMRmR
V
ORRIJOR
'
i
,
System Mainframe
The first elements in the mainframe are the main amplifiers and thmholds, which are adjusted to determine the test
sensitiviv. Main amplifier gains in the range of 20 to 60 dB
are most commonly used. Thereafter, the available processin depends on the size and cost of the G e m . In a small
portafle instrument. acoustic emission events or threshold
crossings may simply be counted and the count then converted to an analo voltage for plotting on a chart recorder.
In more a d v a n 2 hardware systems, pnnisions may be
made for energy or amplitude measurement, spatial filtering, time gating and automatic alarms.
Microcornputen in Acoustic
Emission Test Systems
Signal Processing and Displays
Nearly all modem acuusiic emission Nstems use micmmmputen in various configurations. as determined by the
l
system size and performance requirements. In e ~ i c a implementations, each acoustic emission signal is meamred by
hardware circuits and the measured parameters are passed
through the central microcomputer to a disk fie of signal
descriptions. The customary signal description includes the
threshold crossing counts, amplitude, duration, rise time
and often the energy of the signal, along with its time of occurrence and the values of slowly changing variables such a?
load and background noise l e d .
During or after data recurding, the mtem exiracts.data
for graphic displays and hardcopy report. Common displays
include history plots of acoustic emission versus time or
load, distribution functions, cmqlots of one signal descriptor against another and source location plots. Installed systems of this t y p range in size from 4 to 128 channels.
IbIACOUSTIC EMISSION
TESTING
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FUNDAMENTALS OF
ACOUST~CEMISSION TESTING! 1 7
i'r~-,enIive llle;~s~~r<~s
CII:II,
ti<~c~~ss:tt~
to ])rovidc sr!r[icivti[
c:lect~ic:~l
or ;icotbstioil ir'<~l:tti<)~i
to ;tcl;ic?.ceSfecti\c a a i ~ t s t i ~
etnission irio~iitorinfi.
\';iriot~sprwtrcl~trrsI r ; ~ \ r licc-1111sed to re(liicc lire cfr~cts
of l>;tckgro~~nd
iroise sottrces. In~.lrxledalrlong tlrcse are ineclr;i~ricidand amr~sticisol;~tiul~;
elect~icalisulatio~~;
electronic filtering within the acoustic eliiission system: nilxlificatio~rsto the iiiecl~i~~riwl
or li!dr:rrtlic 1o;rditrg process;
special sensor cunfi~uratiotisto co~itlolelectronic gates for
noise blocking; and statistically l~.uedelectronic currnterIneasures includi~rgautorurrelatic~nilrd cross mrrelatioti.
Corollary
that colitest. Btlt actuiilly. K~iscr'sidc:~;il)plies 1110ref~x~idamentally to stress in a 111:iterili. hiolcriols entit a,ily itnrlcl:
rrr~pircrdenle(lssfrer.7 is the root principle to wnsider. Evaluated point-hyimi~it tllro~tglithe threedi~nensionalstress
field witliin the structure. this principle h;u wider truth than
the statemelit that structures enlit only under unprecedented load. Pmided that tlie microstnictr~rehas not been
altered between loadings. the Kaiser principle 1119 men
have the universal \.alidi? that the Kaiser eKwt evidently
lacks. at l w t for acthe deformation and discontinuity
growth.
In composite materials. an important acoustic emission
mechanism is friction b e b e e n free surfaces in damaeed
rrgions. Frictional acoustic emission is also p b s e d fGm
fatigue cracks in metals. Such source mechanisms contnvene both the Kaiser eKect and the Kaiser princi~le,but
they can be important for p r a c t i d detection of damage and
discontinuitia.
Overview of Acoustic
Emission Methodology
. ?hir Nonderrrudice Testing Handbmk volume contains
detailed descriptions of acoustic eminion sou-,
a rich
topic that involves the sciences of material, deformation
fracture Another topic appwing in this ,,lume is the
subject ofwax: propagation, the pmcerr
shaper the signal and brings the information from source to sensor. Attenuation d the wave d d e n n i n u .i d e t d h f i i t y and
therefore be considered when placing sensors; howledge of
the wave> velocity is a h needed for precise source lacation.
These are uncontrolled factors that must be avessed for
,a
tested,
Measurement and ana+& of the acoufic
signals is another major component of tile tecllno\ogy -red
this
Acoustic emission
from
defornation
may be so rare that a single detectedevent
is enough to wanant rejeaion of the object under test. Or.
they may be so frequent that the
acorntic signal is
continuous. Compoundin interpretation difliculties are amplitudes of the reive% signals that range mer
five orders of magnitude. T h e time diflerenes used to
l o u t e acoustic emission sources range from less than a
microsffond to liundreds of milliseconds. In addition to
handling all of these variables. an acoustic emission system
should allow any of several techniques for reducing background noise and spurious sigoals that orten interfere
acoustic emission measurements.
Tile acoustic emission t e c l w o l ~cwmprises
~
a
of
ranee
VISUAL TESTING
1
INTRODUCTION
The oldest and most commonly used NDE method is Visual Testing (VT).
It may also be the least understood and least effectively used of all methods.
.
There is a difference between just looking at an object and really seeing it
through a trained eye. VT may be defined as "an examination of an object using
the naked eye, alone or in conjunction with various magnifying devices,
without changing, altering, or destroying the object being examined."
In VT the most important tools are the ones you were born with, your
eyes. Visual acuity is of prime importance to the visual examiner. According
to recent stati~tics, at least fifty percent of the American population over
twenty years of age are required to wear some type of corrective lenses.
However, in the early stages of eyesight failure, either many persons are not
aware that they need corrective lenses or they just do not wear them.
As with any sensitive tool, the most important tools in visual
examination must b e checked for accuracy at regular-intervals to ensure that
they remain accurate and sensitive. Most standards require that visual
examiners have annual eye examinations to check:
Near vision acuity,
Far vision acuity, and
Color perception.
Although the eyes are the most important tool, in many situations they
are not sensitive enough, not accurate enough, or cannot get to the area to be
examined. In those cases, the use of optical aids is necessary in order to
complete the visual examination.
2 BASIC PROCEDURE
1.
2.
3.
Prepare Surface
Assure adequate illumination
Observe
5.
6.
2.1
The examiner
The test object
Illumination of the test object
Optical aids
Mechanical aids (measuring devices)
Recording method
Examiner
Jest Obiect
The test object's size, shape, and surface condition are important in
determining what optical aids and mechanical tools need to be used to
complete the examination, and what illumination will be required. Some of the
test object factors to be considered include the following:
'., . . .
'.
..
.. . :
.. ..
.... .
.. . ..
..
. ..
. . ... ..
Illumination
2.3
..
Qotical Aids
2.4.2
fvlaanifiers. Magnifiers are used as an aid in almost every type .of . .
VT: to b'rjng - out:sinalt details .and .for close 'ex.amiriati.on of discontinu[ties. :The..
magnifiers most commonly used in visual examinations include t i & fbllowing:
..'
Mechanical Aids
2.5
2.5.1
.2.5.2
Vernier Caiioers. Vernier calipers are more precise measuring
devices than rules because they allow measurements to the thousandth of an
inch. Vernier calipers .are available i n standard lengths from 6 inches to 48
inches (see figure
5).
'
..
2.5.3
Dial lndicatina Calioers. Dial indicating calipers are very similar
to the vernier calipers, have gradations on the bar and a dial indicator is used
6) to indicate the precision
rather than the vernier plate (see figure
measurement (thousandth of an inch).
2.5.4
Micrometers. Micrometers allow the examiner to obtain
measurements within 0.0005 inch with an accuracy of 0.0001 inch.
Micrometers are available in a variety of types and sizes, to enable the
examiner to make OD or length measurements, ID measurements. or depth
measurements. Figure 7 illustrates a standard micrometer.
2.5.5
Dial Indicators. Dial indicators are the most commonly used
measuring devices for VT examinations. The dial indicator is an instrument
consisting of graduated dial, an indication hand, a contact point attached to a
spindle, and an amplifying mechanism. The dials, which are graduated"to
indicate at least 0.001 inch, are generally used with a base stand having an
adjustable arm or a magnetic base stand with an adjustable post and arm (see
figure
8).
2.5.6
Combination S a w . The combination square set consists of a
blade (a 12-inch steel rule), and ttiree interchangeable heads: a square head, a
center head, and a protractor head. W h e n equipped with the square head, the
tool can be used as a depth gage, a height gage, or a scribing gage, and also for
checking if surfaces are plumb andlor square. When equipped with the center
head, it is useful i n locating the center of round stock; when equipped with
the protractor head, it becomes a bevel protractor and permits measurement
of angles. Figure 9 illustrates a combination square set.
B r e a d Pitch Gaaez. Thread pitch gages are used to determine the
2.5.7
number of threads per inch and the thread pitch on screws, bolts, nuts, pipe,
and other threaded parts (see figure 10). The teeth on the various leaves of
the thread pitch gage, which correspond to the standard thread forms, are used
like a profile gage.
Thickness Gases. Thickness gages such as bevel protractors are
used for gaging clearance between objects such as bearing clearance, gear
play, pipe-pipe flange clearance, or gaging narrow slots. Commonly called
feeler gages, they are available in sets that contain leaves ranging in
thickness from 0.0015 to 0.200 inch.
2.5.8 .
3 CONCLUSION
In summary, VT is the oldest, the first recorded, and the most commonly
used NDE method. It requires a high degree of training and skill on the part of
the visual examiner and should always precede any other NDE method to be
applied.
Simplicity
Speed
Low cost (usually)
Extensive training usually not necessary
Minimal equipment needed
Can be performed while specimen is in use
3.2 Limitations
Only surface conditions can be detected or measured
Poor or variable resolution of eye
Fatigue
Distractions
Some equipment is expensive
/
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Figure
1.
.,6,
c)
8L
./
\
LL
BORESCOPE
RUBBEREYECUP
STEEL SHEATH
DIRECTION OF VIEW
FIELDS OF VIEW
FORE-OBLIQUE
FIBERSCOPE
\\+
+"Y
'i . > 9
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. . . . . . .
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,
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Figure
13
foot
Figure
3.
1-
. . , . . . .
..
Figure
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..
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INSIDE MEASL'=EMEN
MEASURING LENGTH OF
SHOULDER CW TURNED
RlER LOCK
.. '
GRADUATED BAR
VERNIER R A T E
ADJUSTAELE JAW
Figure
5.
Vernier Caliper
INSIDE
MEASURING
CONTACTS
A
DEPTH ROD
c.
ADJUSTING
BEZEL CLAMP
MEASURING
CONTACTS
OUTSIDE
MEASUREMENT
Figure
INSIDE
MEASUREMENT
6.
DEPTH
MUSUREMEN1
Outside Micrometer
Figure
7.
Micrometer
Figure
8.
Dial Indicator
LOCATINGCENTER .
OF ROUND WORKPIECE
PROTRACTOR HEAD
Figure
9.
GAGING INTERNALTHREAD
Figure
. .
Figure
11.
Levels
Figure
Figure
13.
Figure
14.
118" Mismatch
Internal Misalignn
Fit-Up or Alignment
A.
Figure
C H A P T E R 7: C O M P A R I S O N A N D S E L E C T I O N O F N D T P R O C E S S E S
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraph
Page
.....................
.............
..........
GENERAL
METHOD IDENTIFICATION
NDT DISCONTINUITY SELECTION
DISCONTINUITY CATEGORIES
DISCONTINUITY CHARACTERISTICS AND
METALLURGICAL ANALYSIS
NDT METHODS APPLICATION AND LIMITATIONS
BURST
COLD SHUTS
FILLET CRACKS (BOLTS)
GRINDING CRACKS
CONVOLUTION CRACKS
HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE CRACKING
HEAT-TREAT CRACKS
SURFACE SHRINK CRACKS
THREADCRACKS
TUBING CRACKS
HYDROGENFLAKE
HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT
INCLUSIONS
INCLUSIONS
LACK OF PENETRATION
LAMINATIONS
LAPS AND SEAMS
LAPS AND SEAMS
MICROSHRINKAGE
GAS POROSITY
UNFUSED POROSITY
STRESS CORROSION
HYDRAULIC TUBING
MANDREL DRAG
SEMICONDUCTORS
HOT TEARS
INTERGRANULAR CORROSION
............
............
...
......................
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..............
................
..............
.........
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................
............
....................
......................
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...................
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..................
................
................
...............
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..................
....................
...........
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure
7-1
7-2
7-3
7-4
7-5
7-6
7-7
7-8
7-9
7-10
7-11
7-12
7-13
7-14
7-15
7-16
7-17
7-18
7-19
7-20
7-21
7-22
7-23
7-24
7-25
7-26
7-27
7-28
7-29
7-30
7-31
7-32
...
...............
...................
.................
..................
................
...............
..............
.............
...........
......
...........
.........
.............
..............
.............
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...........
..........
..............
.....
....
.............
..............
............
............
...........
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............
...............
.........
7-3
7-4
7-4
7-4
I
.a
7-5
7-9
7-11
7-13
7-15
7-18
7-20
7-22
7-25
7-27
7-29
7-32
7-34
7-36
7-38
1-40
7-43
7-45
7-47
7-49
7-52
7-54
7-56
7-57
7-59
7-61
7-64
7-66
GENERAL
*uities, and lists the NDT methods that may be employed to detect each
type of discontinuity.
m e relationship between the various NDT methods and their capabilities
and limitations when applied to the detection of a specific discontinuity is
shown. Such variables as type of discontinuity (inherent, process, or
service), manufacturing processes (heat treating, machining, welding,
grinding, or plating), and limitations (metallurgical, structural, or processing) also he@ in determining the sequence of testing and the ultimate
selection of one test method over another.
701
METHOD IDENTIFICATION
Figures 7-1 through 7-5 illustrate five NDT methods. Each illustration
shows the three elements involved in all five tests, the different methods in
each test category, and tasks that may be accomplished .with a specific
method.
ELEMENT
PROCEDURE
TASK
-
The discontinuities that are discussed in paragraphs 706 through 732 are
only some of the many hundreds that are associated with the various
products of today's industry.' During the selection of discontinuities for
inclusion in this chapter, only those discontinuities which would not be
radically changed under different conditions of design, configuration,
standards, and environment were chosen.
'
ELEMENT
TASK
1
DRY VISIBLE
TESTING
PERSONNEL
=-t
EIY
AND NEAR-SURFACE
DISCONTINUITIES
TECHNIQUES
WET VISIBLE
TESTING
EQUIPMENT
WET FLUORESCENT
TESTING
Figure 7-2.
ELEMENT
PROCEDURE
PROCEDURE
PERSONNEL
DETERMINE
THRU TRANSMISSION
SPECIALIZED
APPLICATIONS
PROCEDURE
PERSONNEL
a
El-'
TECHNIQUES
EQUIPMENT
Figure 7-4.
TASK
ELEMENT
PROCEDURE
TASK
DETECT
DISCONTINUITIES
TECHNIQUES
X-RAY
TESTINGFILM
DETERMINE
BOND
EQUIPMENT
SPECIALIZED
APPLICATIONS
DISCONTINUITY CATEGORIES
Inherent Discontinuities
2.
a.
Wrought. Inherent wrought discontinuities cover those discontinuities which are related to the melting and original solidification of the metal or ingot.
b.
Processing Discontinuities
3.
Service Discontinuities
DISCONTINUITY
ANALYSLS
CHARACTERISTICS AND
METALLURGICAL
705
1.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Photo (micrograph
discontinuity).
e.
andlor
of
the
Just as the structural application within the article varies, the allowable
discontinuity size will vary depending on the configuration and method of
manufacture. For example, a die forging that ;has large masses of material
and extremely thin web sections WOUIC not require the same level of
acceptance over the entire forging. 'Re forging can be zoned for rigid
..-r..
.I
...L-..-
+ha ~ t n % n + ~ .1-rn'lml
---
L:-h--
--.a
7---
:
:
J
,.
The nondestructive testing specialist must also select the method which
will satisfy the design objective of the specific article and not assume that
all NDT methods can produce the same reliability for the same type of
discontinuity.
2.
b.
c.
Accessibility of article
d.
e.
Equipment available
f.
Cost.
A planned analysis of the task must be made for each article requiring NDT
testing.
The NDT methods G t e d for each discontinuity in paragraphs 706 through
732 are in order of preference for that particular discontinuity. However,
when reviewing the discussions, it should be kept in mind that rapidly
developing new techniques in the NDT field may alter the order of test
preference.
3.
Limitations
The limitations applicable to the various NDT methods will.vary with the
applicable standard, the material, and the service environment. Limitations not only affect the NDT method but, in many cases, &o affect the
structural reliability of the test article. For these reasons, limitations that
are listed for one discontinuity may also be applicable to other discontinuities under slightly different conditions of material or environment. In
addition, the many combinations of environment, location, material, and
test capability do not permit mentioning all limitations that may be
associated with the problems of locating a specific discontinuity. The
intent of this chapter is fulfilled if you are made aware of the many factors
that influence the selection of a valid NDT method.
7-7
706
BURST
1.
Categorx. Processing
2.
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
5.
Metallurgical Analysis
a.
b.
c.
Bursts are often large and are very seldom healed during
subsequent working.
b.
.(2)
(3)
(4)
..,,. . '..
. ,:
..
Figure 7-6.
Burst Discontinuities
c.
(1)
(2)
Results are
evaluation.
limited
surface
d.
e.
1.
Category. Inherent
2.
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
Metallurgical Analysis
Cold shuts are produced during casting of molten metal. They may result
from splashing, surging, interrupted pouring, or the meeting of two
streams of metal coming from different directions. Cold shuts are also
caused by the solidification of one surface before other metal flows over it,
the presence of interposing surface films on cold, sluggish metal, or any
factor that prevents fusion where two surfaces meet. Cold shuts are more
prevalent in castings formed in a mold having several sprues or gates.
A SURFACE COLDSHUT
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
b.
e.
(2)
(3)
708
d.
e.
1.
Category. Service
2.
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
Surface. Located a t the junction of the fillet with the shank of the bolt
and progressing inward. (See Figure 7-8.)
C. CROSSSECTIONAL AREA OF
FATIGUE CRACK I N FILLET SHOWING
TANGENCY POINT IN RADIUS
Metallurgical Analysis
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
*.
(2)
A wide selection of transducers and equipment enable onthespot evaluation for fillet crack.
(3)
(4)
Ultrasonic equipment has extreme sensitivity, and established standards should be used to give reproducible and
' reliable results.
Normally
used
troubleshooting.
during
inservice
overhaul
or
(2)
(3)
(4)
Structural damage may result f k m exposure of highstrength steels t o paint strippers, alkaline mating
removers, deoxidizer solutions, etc.
(5)
II
(2)
(3)
(4)
i
!
709
GRINDING CRACKS
1.
Category. Processing
2.
3.
. Discontinuity Characteristics
surface.' Very shallow and sharp a t the root. Similar t o heat-treat crack
and usually, but not always, occur in groups. Grinding cracks generaus
occur a t right angles to the direction of grinding. They are found in highlj
heat-treated articles, chrome plated, case hardened, and ceramic materials
that are subjected to grinding operations. (See Figure 7-9.)
I
I
4.
Metallurgical Analysis
b.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(1)
(2)
(3)
c.
d.
!
i
I
i
e.
710
CONVOLUTION CRACKS
1.
Category. Processing
2.
Material. Nonferrous
3.
Discontinuity characteristics
Metallurgical Analysis
The rough "orange peel" effect of convolution cracks is the result of either
a forming operation that stretches the material or from chemical attack
such as pickling treatment. The roughened surface contains small pits that
form stress risers. S-dbsequent service application (vibration and flexing)
may introduce stresses that a c t on these pits and form fatigue cracks as
shown in Figure 7-10.
5.
(2)
(3)
(4)
C.
A WPlCALCONVOLUTlON DUCTING
b.
711
c.
d.
e.
Not
.
applicable.
Materid
1.
2.
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
Surface. Often quite deep and very tight. Usually run parallel with the
weld in the heat-affected zone of the weldment. (See Figure 7-11.)
4.
hietallurgical Analysis
(2)
(3)
b.
(1)
(2)
(3)
c.
d.
e.
712
(1)
(2)
(3)
HEAT-TREAT CRACKS
1.
Category. Processing
2.
Material
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
Surface. Usually deep and forked. Seldom follow a definite pattern and
can be in any direction on the part. Originate in areas with rapid change of
material thickness, sharp machining marks, fillets, nicks, and discontinuities that have been exposed to the surface of the material. (See
Figure 7-12.)
7-21
Metallurgical Analysis
During the heating and cooling process, localized stresses may be set Up by
unequal heating or cooling, restricted movement of the article, or unequal
:rosssectional thickness. These stresses may exceed the tensile strength
of the material causing it to rupture. Where built-in stress risers occur
(keyways or grooves) additional cracks may develop.
5.
b.
(2)
(3)
(4)
Metallurgical structure of age-hardenable and heattreatable stainless steels (17.4, 17.7, and 431) may
produce nonrelevant indications.
(1)
(2)
(3)
c.
d.
e.
713
1.
2.
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
Surface. Situated on the face of the weld, fusion zone, and base metal.
Range in size from very small, tight, and shallow, to open and deep.
Cracks may run parallel or transverse to the direction of welding. (See
Figure 7-13.)
4.
Metallurgical Analysis
Surface shrink cracks are generally the result of improper heat application,
either in heating or welding of the article. Heating or cooling in a
Iocalized area may set up stresses that exceed the tensile strength of the
material causing the material t o crack. Restriction of the movement
(contraction or expansion) of the material during heating, cooling, or
welding may also set up excessive stresses.
5.
'a.
(2)
(3)
Assemblies that are joined by bolting, riveting, intermittent welding, or press fittings will retain the penetrant,
which will seep out after developing and mask the
adjoining surfaces.
(4)
(1)
(2)
(3)
c.
(2)..
d.
e.
I
I
714
THREAD CRACKS
1.
Category. Service
2.
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
!
11
8
Metallurgical Analysis
Fatigue failures of this type are not uncommon. High cyclic stresses
resulting from vibration and/or flexing act on the stress risers created by
the thread roots to produce cracks. Fatigue cracks may start as fine
submicroscopic discontinuities or cracks and propagate in the direction of
applied stresses.
Fluorescent
penetrant
nonfluorescent.
is
recommended
over
(2)
(3)
b.
(2)
(3)
'
c.
d.
e.
715
TUBING CRACKS
1.
Category. Inherent
2.
Material. Nonferrous
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
Metallurgical Analysis
2.
C. MICROGRAPH OF (Bl
b.
c.
Insufficient heating rate to the annealing temperature with possible cracking occurring in the 1200-1400F (645-760C) range.
5.
b.
(1)
(2)
Tube diameters below 1 inch (2.54 cm) and wall thicknesses less than 0.150 inch (3.8 mm) are well within
equipment capability.
(3)
(2)
(3)
Ultrasonic
limitationri.
(4)
transducers
have
varying
temperature
c.
d.
e.
16
HYDROGEN FLAKE
1.
Category. Processing
2.
Material. Ferrous
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
Metallurgical Analysis
b.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(2)
Figure 7-16.
(3)
(4)
Where the general direction of a discontinuity is questionable, it may be necessary to magnetize in two or more
directions.
'
c.
d.
e.
HYDRQGEN EMBRITTLEMENT
Category. Processing and Service
Material. Ferrous
Discontinuity Characteristics
:ace. Small, nondimensional (interface) with no orientation or direction.
nd in highly heat-treated material that was subjected to pickling and/or
ing or in material exposed t o free hydrogen. (See Figure 7-17.)
Metallurgical Analysis
.ations such a s electroplating or pickling and cleaning prior t o electrong generate hydrogen at the surface of the material. This hydrogen
trates the surface of the material creating immediate or delayed
ittlement and cracking.
NDT Methods Application and Limitations
a.
(1)
(2)
(3)
B. HYDROGEN
EMBRtlTLEMENT UNDER
CHROME PLATE
Figure 7-17.
C.
HYDROGEN E M B R l l T L E M E N T PROPAGATED
M R O U G H CHROME PLATE
(4)
(5)
718
b.
c.
d.
e.
INCLUSIONS
1.
2.
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
I
I
1
iI
Metallurgical Analysis
A METALLIC INCLUSIONS
B. INCLUSIONSTRAPPED I N WELD
(2)
(3)
b.
c.
(2)
(2)
Confined t o machined weldments where the discontinuities are surface or near surface.
(3)
(4)
e.
119
1.
Category. Processing
2.
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
1:
.' <.
!
I
Inclusions
INCLUSIONS
Subsurface (original bar) or surface (after machining). There are two types:
one is nonmetallic with long straight lines parallel to flow lines and quite
7-37
tightly adherent. Often short and likely to occur in groups. The other type
is nonplastic, appearing as a comparatively large mass not parallel t o flow
lines. Found in forged, extmded, and rolled material. (See Figure 7-19.)
C. MICROGRAPH OF TYPICAL
INCLUSIONS
INCLUSION
is continuities
Metallurgical Analysis
5.
a.
b.
c.
d.
(2)
(3)
(4)
The direction of the ultrasonic beam should be perpendicular to the direction of the grain flow whenever possible.
(1)
(2)
(2)
(3)
(4)
'
e.
720
LACK OF PENETRATION
1.
Category. Processing
2.
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
8. INADEQUATE
ROOT PENETRATION OF
BUTT W E L D E O T U B E
4.
Metallurgical Analysis
Caused by root face of joint not reaching fusion temperature tjefore weld
metal was deposited. Also caused by fast welding rate, too large a welding
rod, or too cold a bead.
5.
b.
c.
d.
(2)
(3)
(4)
(1)
(2)
(3)
Normally used to determine lack of penetration in nonferrous welded pipe and tubing.
(2)
(2)
e.
721
(1)
(2)
(3)
LAMINATIONS
1.
Catezory. Inherent
2.
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
Surface and internal. Flat, extremely thin, generally aligned parallel t o the
work surface of the material. May contain a thin film of oxide between the
(See
surfaces.
Found in forged, extruded, and roIled material.
Figure 7-21.)
4.
;vietallurgical Analysis
5.
(1)
(2)
C.
6. LAMINATION IN TITANIUM S H E R
SURFACE ORIENTATION
(3)
(4)
Through transmission and reflection techniques are applicable for very thin sections.
!
b.
c.
(2)
(3)
(1)
722
1.
2.
3.
(2)
(3)
d.
e.
Discontinuity Characteristics
Surface. Wavy lines, often quite deep and sometimes very tight, appearing
as hairline cracks. Found in rolled threads in the minor pitch, and major
diameter of the thread, and in direction of rolling. (See Figure 7-22.)
4.
Metallurgical Analysis
a.
(1)
b.
723
(2)
(3)
Foreign material may not only interfere with the penetration of the penetrant into the discontinuity but may
cause an accumulation of penetrant in a nondefective
area.
(4)
Surface of threads may be smeared due to rolling operation, thereby sealing off laps and seams.
(5)
(2)
Nonrekevant
threads.
(3)
magnetic
indications may
result
from
c.
d.
e.
1.
Category. Processing
2.
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
a.
Lap Surface.
Wavy lines -usually not very pronounced or
tightly adherent since they usually enter the surface a t a small
6. MICROGRAPH OF A LAP
4.
Metallurgical Analysis
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Magnetic buildup a t laps and seams is very small. Therefore a magnetizing current greater than that used for the
detection of cracks is necesssry.
(5)
b.
c.
d.
e.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Normally used
machining.
to
test wrought
material prior
to
(2)
(3)
(2)
724
MICROSHRINKAGE
1.
Category. Processing
2.
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
Internal. Small filamentary voids in the grain boundaries appear a s concentrated porosity in cross section. (See Figure 7-24.)
4.
Metallurgical Analysis
b.
(1)
(2)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
c.
d.
e.
725
GAS POROSITY
1.
Category. Processing
2.
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
Metallurgical Analysis
b.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(2)
Surface finish and grain size will affect the validity of the
test results.
A TYPICAL SURFACE P O R O S I N
EXTENT OF P O R O S I N
d.
(2)
e.
(2)
is
(3)
726
UNFUSED POROSITY
1.
Category. Processing
2.
Material. Aluminum
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
Internal. Wafer-thin fissures aligned parallel with the grain flow. Found in
wrought aluminum that has been rolled, forged, or extruded. (See
Figure 7-26.)
4.
Metallurgical Analysis
5.
(1)
(2)
(3)
UNFUSED POROSIW
C. WPICALUNFUSED POROSITY
b.
(4)
(5)
Method of manufacture and subsequent article configuration will determine the orientation of the unfused porosity
to the material surface.
(2)
(3)
727
c.
d.
e.
STRESS CORROSION
1.
Categorx. Service
2.
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
Surface. Range from shallow to very deep, and usually follow the grain
flow of the material; however, transverse cracks are also possible. (See
Figure 7-27.)
4.
Metallurgical Analysis
5.
(3)
(4)
Service articles may contain moisture within the discontinuity which will dilute, contaminate, and invalidate
results if the moisture is not removed.
b.
c.
728
/I
d.
e.
'
HYDRAULIC TUBING
1.
2.
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
Surface and internal. Range in size from short to long, shallow to very
tight and deep. Usually they will be found in the direction of the grain flow
with the exception of stress corrosion, which has no direction. (See
Figure 7-28.)
A INTERGRANULAR CORROSION
7-57
4.
Metallurgical Analysis
5.
a,
b.
Laps which are the result of material being foIded over and not
fused. .
e.
d.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
b.
c.
d.
729
MANDREL DRAG
1.
Category. Processing
2.
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
5.
b.
(2)
(3)
(4)
(2)
(3)
May be used in support of production line since it is adaptable for automatic instrumentation.
(4)
c.
d.
e.
730
SEMICONDUCTORS
1.
2.
Material. Hardware
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
Internal. Appear in many sizes and shapes and various degrees of density.
They may be misformed, misaligned, damaged, or may have broken internal
hardware. Found in transistors, diodes, resistors, and capacitors. (See
Figure 7-30.)
8.
4.
Metallurgical Analysis
I
5.
b.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
The complexity of the internal structure of semiconductors may require additional views to exclude the
possibility of non-detection of discontinuities due to
masking by hardware.
(7)
(8)
(9)
731
c.
d.
e.
HOTTEARS
1.
Categorx. Inherent
2.
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
Metallurgical Analysis
b.
(2)
(3)
c.
(2)
(3)
(4)
(2)
732
'
(3)
(4)
d.
e.
INTERGRANULAR CORROSION
1.
Category. Service
2.
Material. Nonferrous
3.
Discontinuity Characteristics
Metallurgical Analysis
5.
a.
b.
Improper stress relieving or heat treat may create the susceptibility to intergranular corrosion. Either of these conditions
colipled with a corrosive atmosphere will result in intergranular
attack.
OF I N T E R G R A N U L A R CORROSION.
ONLY MINOR EVIDENCE O F CORROSION IS E V I O E N T FROM SURFACE
8. MICROGRAPH SHOWING N A T U R E
b.
(2)
(3)
(4)
chlorine
and
(1)
c.
(2)
(3)
(1)
used
for
the
screening of'
(2)
(3)
d.
e.