Chapter 25 Quantum Physics

CAMBRIDGE A LEVEL
PHYSICS
QUANTUM PHYSICS
L E A R N I N G O U TC O M E S
No.
LEARNING OUTCOME
i.
Relate the concept of particulate nature of EM

radiation. Be able to calculate the energy of a photon.
ii.
Use evidence
radiation.
iii.
Use the photoelectric effect to support the claim that

EM waves exhibit particulate nature.
iv.
Use the fact that electrons can be diffracted to explain

the wave behaviour of particles. Calculate the
appropriate de Broglie wavelength.
to
explain
the
dual
nature
of
EM
L E A R N I N G O U TC O M E S
No.
LEARNING OUTCOME
v.
Relate the emission and absorption spectra to the

presence of discrete energy levels in isolated atoms.
Calculate the appropriate wavelength and frequency of
photons and relate it with the energy level diagram.
vi.
What is band theory?
vii.
Understand the principles of obtaining X ray images
viii.
Understand the principles behind CT scanning
D UA L N AT U R E O F E M
R A D I AT I O N
James Maxwell in 1864 proposed that
EM radiation is made up of coupled
electric and magnetic oscillations that
move at the speed of light and exhibited
wave behaviour.
Figure 2.1; Page 53, Chapter 2: Particle Properties of Waves; Concepts of Modern
Physics, by Beiser, Arthur; McGraw Hill Publications; New York, USA; 2003.
R A D I AT I O N
However, Maxwell had
physical evidence to support
claim.
Heinrich Hertz in 1898
experimentation, was able
produce EM radiation.
no
his
by
to
R A D I AT I O N
In addition, Hertz was able to show
that the radiation he produced had
both
electric
and
magnetic
components.
These radiation could undergo
reflection, refraction and diffraction
(wave properties).
R A D I AT I O N
Thomas Young, using light, showed that
EM radiation can undergo interference
and diffraction, a property inherent to
waves.
R A D I AT I O N
The scientific community accepted that EM
radiation
is made up of waves up till the end of
th
the 19 century.
However, Maxwells theory failed when
radiation originating from matter was tried to
be explained.
To analyse this radiation, it is assumed, with
strong justification that all objects be classified
as blackbodies.
A blackbody is an object that absorbs all
energy incident upon it and re emits this
energy without storing it.
The emitted radiation is known as blackbody
radiation.
R A D I AT I O N
A typical blackbody radiation spectrum is
shown below:
Figure 2.6;
Page 58,
Chapter 2:
Particle
Properties of
Waves;
Concepts of
Modern
Physics, by
Beiser, Arthur;
McGraw Hill
Publications;
New York,
USA; 2003.
R A D I AT I O N
A radiation spectrum is a plot of
spectral energy density vs.
frequency for a specific material
at different temperatures.
R A D I AT I O N
The English duo of Rayleigh and
Jeans at the end of the 19th century
proposed an equation for the shape
of the radiation spectrum.
However, the equation was incorrect
because it showed that the spectral
energy density would approach
infinite values for high frequencies.
R A D I AT I O N
R A D I AT I O N
In 1900, Max Planck (a German
physicist), proposed a new
formula to rectify Rayleigh and
Jeans
formula
at
higher
frequencies.
However, any equation needs to
be justified by a physical
explanation.
R A D I AT I O N
Planck explained that the energy
changes that occur inside a
blackbody must have discrete
values, and not continuous
values.
R A D I AT I O N
Planck explained that the
energy changes, that occur
inside a blackbody are like
that in a oscillator, where:
and
R A D I AT I O N
When EM radiation of
frequency is absorbed, the
oscillator jumps to a higher
state.
When EM radiation of
frequency
is emitted, the
oscillator jumps to a lower
state.
R A D I AT I O N
Since each jump requires a fixed
amount of energy, it was
inferred that EM radiation is
made of little packets / bundles
of energy, now called photons.
What are photons? Photons are a
quantum of electromagnetic
energy.
R A D I AT I O N
We now accept that EM radiation
exhibits a dual nature:
I. it is be said to be made up of
discrete packets of energy called
photons that exhibit particulate
nature, and
II. It can also exhibit a wave like
nature; i.e. behave like waves.
R A D I AT I O N
Each photon has energy, ,
where:

6.63 10 Js, and
the frequency of the EM radiation.
We can also use

,

where:
the speed of EM radiation .

, and
the wavelength of the EM radiation,
m.
R A D I AT I O N
Now, the total energy,
carried by EM radiation can
be calculated using
"!"$%
!"!#
where:
the number of photons. This

must be a whole number.
!"!# the energy of a single
photon
EXAMPLES
Calculate the energy of one photon
of red light if the wavelength is 680
nm.
How many photons of red light are
found in red light with energy of 4.39
x 10-18 J ?
Is it possible to have 6.00 x 10-18 J of
energy of red light?
EXAMPLES
Questions 1 and 2, page 469, Chapter 30: Quantum Physics ; Cambridge International
AS and A Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and Woodside, 2nd edition,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.
EXAMPLES
Question 3 and Figure 30.4 ,
page 469, Chapter 30:
Quantum Physics ; Cambridge
International AS and A Level
Physics Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and Woodside,
2nd edition, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge,
UK,2014.
EXAMPLES
Questions 4, 6 and 7 pages 469 and 470, Chapter 30: Quantum Physics ; Cambridge
International AS and A Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.
T H E P H O TO E L E C T R I C
EFFECT
The photoelectric effect provides us
with solid evidence of the
particulate nature of EM radiation.
This effect occurs when metal is
illuminated (by EM radiation).
Under certain conditions, electrons
can be ejected from the surface of
the metal.
EFFECT
Electrons in metal are bound
to the positive ions in the
metal.
To eject electrons, there must
be enough energy supplied.
If the illuminating EM
radiation has photons that
have enough energy, then
electrons will be ejected. Else,
no electrons will be ejected.
Diagram 38.1, page 1261, Chapter 38: Photons:
Light Waves behaving as Particles; Sears and
Zemanskys University Physics, Young and
Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San
Francisco, 2012.
EFFECT
Electrons are ejected if the
amount of energy contained in
the photons is at least equal to
the work function energy, of
the metal.
EFFECT
Definition: The work function
energy, is the minimum
energy required by the electron
to escape from the surface of the
metal.
The table on the next slide gives
some values of work function
energy.
EFFECT
Table 38.1, page 1264, Chapter 38: Photons: Light Waves behaving as Particles; Sears
and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson
Education, San Francisco, 2012.
EFFECT
Assume a photon, that has
successfully ejected an electron,
has energy equal to the work
function energy of the metal.
Then, this photon has also a
particular frequency, known as
the threshold frequency, !
EFFECT
Definition: The threshold
frequency is the minimum
frequency of a photon
required to release electrons
from the surface of a metal.
EFFECT
We can now relate the work
function energy of a metal
with the threshold frequency.
To do this use,
.
EFFECT
Why does the photoelectric effect
occur?
Einstein described the arrangement
of electrons in metal as a potential
well .
The electrons on the surface require
lesser energy compared to the more
tightly bound electrons at the bottom
of the well.
This is shown in the diagram on the
next slide.
EFFECT
Figure 30.9, page 473, Chapter 30:
Quantum Physics ; Cambridge
International AS and A Level
Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones,
Chadha and Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.
EFFECT
Why does the photoelectric
effect occur (contd)?
If the photon has sufficient energy
to eject the electron, there is a
probability that the electron will
be ejected.
Any excess energy (in the
electron) will be in the form of
kinetic energy of the electron.
EFFECT
Some rules:
The interaction between photons

and electrons are one to one; i.e.
one electron interacts with one
photon.
If an electron absorbs the photon,
it will absorb all of the energy of
the photon, no partial absorption
of energy is allowed.
EFFECT
EFFECT
The diagram on the previous slide
shows how the photoelectric effect
may be observed.
Two conducting electrodes are
separated in an evacuated tube and
connected to a battery, and the
anode is illuminated.
EFFECT
Note that the ejected electrons
would have to go against the
direction of the electric force; hence
they will lose kinetic energy.
EFFECT
Conclusions from the experiment:
I. Electrons are ejected only if the
incident EM radiation had a
minimum frequency,
II. The photoelectrons have a range
of kinetic energies, from zero to
&,($) ,
EFFECT
Conclusions from the experiment
III. If the frequency of the incident
radiation is increased, the value
of &,($) also increases.
IV. For constant frequency of
incident radiation, the value of
&,($) remains the same, even
for increased intensity of
radiation.
EFFECT
Aside on intensity:
The intensity of EM radiation is
the number of
proportional to
photons being emitted.
The more photons are emitted, the
intensity of the radiation also
increases. The less photons there
are, the less intense will be the
radiation.
EFFECT
Aside on intensity (contd):
Recall that * + *,-. .
This means that when the source of EM
radiation is more intense, it contains
more photons.
No change occurs to the amount of
energy in each photon when the
intensity of the EM radiation changes.
EFFECT
Explanation:
Electrons are ejected if the amount of
energy contained in the photons (of EM
radiation) is at least equal to the work
function energy , of the metal.
The remainder of the absorbed energy
(if there is) will be in the form of kinetic
energy of the photoelectrons.
EFFECT
Explanation (contd):
Some of the photoelectrons that

are ejected have sufficient
kinetic energy ( /,($) ) to reach
the cathode (overcoming the
effect of the electric field).
EFFECT
The maximum kinetic energy of the
ejected electrons, /,($) is the
difference between the energy of the
incident photon,
!"!# and the
work function energy, of the
metal; i.e /,($)
.
!"!#
EFFECT
If we plot graph of /,($) vs.
, we
incident light frequency,
would obtain a straight line that is
unique to the type of metal used.
The horizontal axis intercept of each
line corresponds to the threshold
frequency, .
EFFECT
Note that no photoelectrons are
ejected for frequencies lower than
.
The lines for every metal are parallel
to each other. This means that all
lines will have the same slope. The
slope gives the value of , Plancks
constant.
EFFECT
Figure 2.12; Page 64, Chapter 2: Particle Properties of Waves; Concepts of Modern Physics, by
Beiser, Arthur; McGraw Hill Publications; New York, USA; 2003.
EFFECT
Stopping Potential:
The electrons with &,($) will reach
the cathode and produce a
photocurrent in the external circuit.
All the other photoelectrons will not
reach the anode as they have kinetic
energies less than /,($) .
EFFECT
Stopping Potential (contd):
If we are to increase the potential
difference between the electrodes,
but keeping the frequency of the
incident radiation constant, the
amount of photocurrent will
decrease.
EFFECT
We can actually reach a p.d. when
the photocurrent drops to zero. This
p.d. is known as the stopping
potential.
EFFECT
Definition: The stopping potential
is the minimum potential difference
between the electrodes necessary
to stop electron flow.
The stopping potential helps us
calculate the value of /,($) .
EFFECT
How do we calculate the value of
/,($) from the stopping potential?
Notice that the work done on the
electrons is negative (it takes away
kinetic energy from the electrons).
EFFECT
Some of the electrons have kinetic
energy equal to /,($) . These are
the fastest moving electrons.
We assume that these fastest
electrons are stopped just before
they reach the cathode.
EFFECT
Hence,
/,($)
,
where:
stopping potential, V and

charge of an electron =
0 .
EFFECT
On simplification , we can also

1
obtain
2
where:
($)
1
mass of an electron =

, and
($) speed of the fastest

moving electron(s),
EFFECT
f
Stopping Potential
EFFECT
The graph on the previous slide shows
how the amount of photoelectric current
varies with stopping potential for
different EM radiation intensities
(3, 13 and 3) but constant frequency, f.
The stopping potential remains the
same, regardless of intensity for the
same metal.
EFFECT
When the intensity of the incident
radiation is increased, the amount of
photocurrent increases because more
photons hit the surface, and more
electrons can be ejected.
EFFECT
4 1 4

1

EFFECT
The graph on the previous slide shows
how photoelectric current varies with
the stopping potential for different
frequencies , 1 and . The intensity,
I is kept constant.
The larger the value of , the larger will
be the value of the stopping potential,
5 .
EFFECT
Since the value of the stopping
potential varies with the value of f,
the value of /,($) is dependent on
the value of f, but independent of
incident radiation intensity, I.
EFFECT
Why the photoelectric experiment supports
the photon model?:
Observation
Wave Model
Photon Model
Emission of electrons occur Very intense light must be

instantaneously
used for instantaneous
emission
A single photon can emit

one electron
Low intensity may even

give emission
Low intensity light waves

should have no effect
Low intensity light

corresponds to lesser
photons, not lower energy
photons
Increased light intensity

causes an increase in
photocurrent
Higher intensity means

more energy, so more
electrons released.
Higher intensity means

more photons hit surface
per unit time, so greater
rate of emission of
electrons.
EFFECT
Why the photoelectric experiment supports
the photon model? (contd):
Observation
Wave Model
Photon Model
Increasing intensity of
radiation has no effect on
energies of electrons
Higher intensity would

mean electrons have more
energy
Greater intensity does not

mean more energetic
photons, so electrons
cannot have more energy.
A minimum threshold
frequency is required for
emission
Low intensity light waves

would work, but electrons
emitted slowly
Very low frequency

photons would have not
enough energy to eject
electrons.
Increasing frequency of
light increases maximum
kinetic energy of electrons.
To increase maximum
kinetic energy of electrons,
intensity, and not
frequency must be
increased.
Higher frequency means

photons have more energy
so electrons gain more
energy and can move
faster.
EFFECT
Calculation stuff:
Let us go back to the graph of
/,($) vs. incident light frequency,
.
Plotting that relationship will give us
a straight line of equation /,($)
.
!"!#
EFFECT
Calculation stuff (contd):
On simplification, we may obtain

1
.
2
1
($)
Remember that &,($) the

stopping potential, in eV or J.
EFFECT
This equation again tells us that
the maximum kinetic energy of
the photoelectrons is equal to
the difference between the
energy of the absorbed incident
photon (EM radiation) and the
work function energy.
EXAMPLES
Question 10, page 474, Chapter 30: Quantum Physics ; Cambridge International AS
and A Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and Woodside, 2nd edition,
EXAMPLES
Question 11 and
Table 30.5, page 474,
Chapter 30:
Quantum Physics ;
Cambridge
International AS and
A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge, UK,2014.
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
Question 1; Set 45: Wave
Particle Duality of
Electromagnetic Radiation ; page
113; PROBLEMS IN PHYSICS ; E.D
GARDINER, B.L McKITTRICK;
McGraw Hill Book Company,
Sydney 1985.
EXAMPLES
Question 1; Set 45: Wave
Particle Duality of
Electromagnetic Radiation ; page
113; PROBLEMS IN PHYSICS ; E.D
GARDINER, B.L McKITTRICK;
McGraw Hill Book Company,
Sydney 1985.
WAV E N AT U R E O F
PA R T I C L E S
Louis de Broglie, a French physicist in
1924, asked this about nature. If EM
waves can exhibit a dual nature, why
cant objects (particles) behave likes
waves?
PA R T I C L E S
As demonstrated in 1927 by
electron diffraction (scattering) ,
this claim was indeed true.
The experiment that showed
electrons can diffracted was done
independently by Davisson and
Germer (in USA) and G.P
Thompson (In England).
PA R T I C L E S
The diagram above shows the set up for the Davisson and Germer
experiment.
Diagram 39.2, page 1287, Section 39.1: Electron Waves, Chapter 39: Particles
Behaving as Waves; Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman,
13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.
PA R T I C L E S
6 50
Figure 4.5, page 105, Section 4.2:

Experimental Evidence for de
Broglie Waves, Chapter 4: The
Wavelike Properties of Particles;
Modern Physics, Kenneth S. Krane,
3rd edition, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., New York, 2012.
PA R T I C L E S
The diagram on the previous slide shows what
the initial results of the Davisson and Germer
experiment when 9; 54 9 .
54 9
Each point represents the relative intensity of
the scattered electrons at different angles.
The maximum intensity was when 6 50.
This is because constructive interference
produced a point of maximum intensity.
PA R T I C L E S
Diagram 39.3(b), page 1288, Section 39.1:
Electron Waves, Chapter 39: Particles Behaving
as Waves; Sears and Zemanskys University
Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition,
Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.
PA R T I C L E S
What had occurred?
The evenly separated atoms of nickel had
behaved similar to how slits respond when EM
radiation is incident on them.
The atoms caused the electron beams that
have low energy to diffract and interfere.
Similar to the behaviour of EM waves that
passed through slits, constructive and
destructive interferences occurred.
PA R T I C L E S
Figure 30.23, page
481, Chapter 30:
Quantum Physics ;
Cambridge
International AS
and A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge,
UK,2014.
PA R T I C L E S
We can observe electron diffraction
in the school lab.
This is done by accelerating a beam
of electrons using an electron gun
and using a piece of graphite to
cause diffraction as shown in the
previous slide.
The diffraction pattern will appear as
rings on the phosphor screen.
PA R T I C L E S
Figure 4.2, page 105, Section 4.2: Experimental Evidence for de Broglie
Waves, Chapter 4: The Wavelike Properties of Particles; Modern Physics,
Kenneth S. Krane, 3rd edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 2012.
PA R T I C L E S
We can also observe electron
diffraction on a screen using
different materials as shown on the
previous slide.
The bright spots in the diagram on
the right are points where
constructive interference occur.
This was done on a sample of an
alloy of titanium and nickel.
PA R T I C L E S
The diagram on the left
shows the electron
diffraction pattern
produced on a screen
when using
polycrystalline beryllium.
Figure 4.3 page 105, Section 4.2:
Experimental Evidence for de Broglie
Waves, Chapter 4: The Wavelike
Properties of Particles; Modern Physics,
Kenneth S. Krane, 3rd edition, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., New York, 2012.
PA R T I C L E S
de Broglie also proposed a formula
to help us calculate the wavelength,
of a particle.
The de Broglie wavelength is given by

where:
(@
Plancks constant;
momentum of the particle, in
kg m s ? .
PA R T I C L E S
Points to note:
Diffraction is only evident for
particles if the de Broglie
wavelength has the same order
as atomic or nuclear sizes
?A
m).
(
PA R T I C L E S
Points to note (contd):
Notice the symmetry between
de Broglies equation (
)and the wave equation
(
PA R T I C L E S
Points to note (contd):
We can also calculate the
frequency of a particle by
using the equation
,
where:
Plancks constant.
EXAMPLES
Example 3.1; Page 94, Chapter 3: Wave Properties of Particles; Concepts of Modern
EXAMPLES
Examples; Page 245, Chapter 9: Photons, Electrons and Atoms; Section 9.2: Wave - particle
Duality, International A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and Brown, Hodder
Education, United Kingdom, 2008.
EXAMPLES
Question 4; Section 9.3: Emission Spectra; Page 253, Chapter 9: Photons, Electrons
and Atoms; International A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and Brown,
Hodder Education, United Kingdom, 2008.
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
M O D E R N ATO M I C M O D E L
Figure 39.19(b), page 1299, Section 39.3: Energy Levels and the Bohr Model of the
Atom, Chapter 39: Particles Behaving as Waves; Sears and Zemanskys University
Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.
The diagram on the previous slide shows the
change in colour of the flame of a Bunsen
burner when a sample of sodium is placed in the
flame.
The colour of the flame turns yellow orange.
The colour of the flames correspond to
wavelengths of 589.0 and 589.6 nm.
This also occurs to other metals when you
perform the flame test
Why does this occur?
Neils Bohr, in 1913, proposed a
model of the atom that changed
the way physicists look at the
atom.
Bohr suggested that the electrons
inside an atom are confined to a
set of specific and discrete energy
levels.
Bohr proposed that:
I.
Electrons in an atom can only

have quantised and discrete
amounts of energy; called
energy levels in an atom;
II. Electrons in an atom cannot
have an energy amount
intermediate to these energy
levels;
Bohr proposed that:
III. All isolated atoms of the same
element have the same set of
energy levels;
IV. Atoms of different elements
have different sets of energy
levels.
Figure 30.15, page
482, Chapter 30:
Quantum Physics ;
Cambridge
A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge, UK,2014.
The image on the previous slide
shows the energy levels available to
the valence electron in an isolated
hydrogen atom.
Each horizontal line represents an
electron energy level.
The electrons in this atom can only
have these specific energy levels.
The numbers on the left are the
values (in Joules) of the electron
energy levels.
The lowest energy level is the
ground state (
) while the
ionisation energy level (
) has
energy = 0.
According to Bohr, under normal
conditions, atoms are at their
ground state.
Atoms can move up to a higher
energy level by absorbing
energy that is exactly equal to
the difference between the new
energy level, .FG and ground
state, HIJ.K ; i.e. #2L
BC!D#E
!"!#
Excitation can occur either via
heating, electrical excitation
(electron bombardement), or
photon bombardment.
The excitation can bring the
atom up to anywhere in
, but not in
between.
Figure 30.16 (b), page 477,
Chapter 30: Quantum
Physics ; Cambridge
International AS and A
Level Physics Coursebook,
Sang, Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd edition,
Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge,
UK,2014.
When the atom is excited, it
becomes unstable, and thus has to
lose the extra internal energy.
It loses the extra internal energy by
emitting a photon that has energy
equal to the difference between
the old energy level and the new
energy level; i.e. #2L
!%E
!"!# .
Figure 30.16 (a), page 477,
Chapter 30: Quantum Physics ;
Cambridge International AS and
A Level Physics Coursebook,
Sang, Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd edition, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge,
UK,2014.
During emission, there will be at
least one photon emitted. The
number of photons emitted
depend on the path taken by
the atom as it returns to the
ground state.
Source:
http://intro.chem.okstate.edu/1314f00/Lecture/Chapter
7/Hemission1.GIF
The image on the left

shows the line
emission spectrum of
hydrogen in the
visible spectrum.
Each emission line
has an associated
wavelength (of
photon).
Is there evidence for the emission?
shows the line emission
spectra of several
elements.
These spectra are
produced by isolated
atoms of each element.
Each vertical line
corresponds to a particular
photon that was emitted.
Source:
http://www.mso.anu.edu.au/galah/images/emission_spec.png
Is there evidence for the emission?
Figure 39.8, page 1293, Section 39.2: The Nuclear Atom and Atomic Spectra, Chapter 39:
Particles Behaving as Waves; Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman,
Diagram 39.7, page 1292, Section 39.2: The Nuclear Atom and Atomic Spectra, Chapter 39:
Particles Behaving as Waves; Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman,
How do we obtain a line emission
spectrum?
The diagram on the previous slide shows
a method of obtaining a line emission
spectrum for any element.
A sample of gas is heated. Heating
excites the ground state electron,
moving it to an excited state.
When the atom returns to its ground
state, it may emit one or more
photons, depending on the path take.
Note that the discrete lines present
indicate the photons that have been
emitted.
Is there evidence for the absorption?
The image above shows the line absorption spectrum of

atomic hydrogen.
Each vertical black line corresponds to a particular photon that
was absorbed.
All other photons are present, except the ones that were
absorbed.
Source:http://ch301.cm.utexas.edu/atomic/#H-atom/line-spectra.html
Source: http://www.green-planet-solar-energy.com/images/spectrum_abs_1.jpg
The image on the previous slide shows
how we can obtain the line absorption
spectrum of a particular sample. For
example, if we wanted to obtain the
absorption spectrum of atomic hydrogen,
we would use a sample of cool atomic
hydrogen gas.
White light (all photons within the visible
light region present) is incident upon the
sample of cool gas.
The sample of cool gas acts as a filter by
absorbing only certain photons. The
photons that were absorbed will be
missing from the spectrum.
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
Example 39.5, page 1299, Section 39.3: Energy Levels and the Bohr Model of the Atom, Chapter
39: Particles Behaving as Waves; Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and
Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.
EXAMPLES
Figure 30.17 and
Question 14, page 477,
Chapter 30: Quantum
Physics ; Cambridge
Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Press, Cambridge,
UK,2014.
EXAMPLES
Figure 30.17 and
Question 14, page 477,
Chapter 30: Quantum
Physics ; Cambridge
Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Press, Cambridge,
UK,2014.
EXAMPLES
Figure 30.18 and Question 15, page 478, Chapter
30: Quantum Physics ; Cambridge International
AS and A Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones,
Chadha and Woodside, 2nd edition, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.
EXAMPLES
Question 5; Section 9.3:
Emission Spectra; Page
253, Chapter 9: Photons,
Electrons and Atoms;
International A/AS Level
Physics, by Mee, Crundle,
Arnold and Brown,
Hodder Education, United
Kingdom, 2008.
EXAMPLES
Question 7; Section 9.3:
Emission Spectra; Page
253, Chapter 9: Photons,
Electrons and Atoms;
International A/AS Level
Physics, by Mee, Crundle,
Arnold and Brown,
Hodder Education, United
Kingdom, 2008.
HOMEWORK
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Question 7, Paper 4, Winter 2008.

Question 8, Paper 4, Summer 2009.
HOMEWORK
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

BAND THEORY
In isolated gaseous atoms, there is
negligible electrical forces between
atoms.
In solids and liquids, the atoms exert
electric forces on one another due to the
proximity of the atoms.
This produces a much more complicated
energy level diagrams.
BAND THEORY
In
Figure 30.19 (a)

and (b), page 478,
Chapter 30:
Quantum Physics ;
Cambridge
International AS
and A Level
Physics
Coursebook,
Sang, Jones,
Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition,
Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge,
UK,2014.
BAND THEORY
Figure 30.19 (a) on the previous slide
shows the lines representing different
energy levels for a solid. These lines are
very closely spaced.
Since the energy levels are very closely
spaced, we consider them to form an
energy band.
BAND THEORY
Figure 30.19 (b) shows the energy bands
in a solid. Electrons in the atom can have
any energy level that is in one of the
energy bands.
Energy bands are separated by
forbidden gaps. Electrons cannot have
an energy level in the forbidden gaps.
BAND THEORY
Comparing metals and insulators:
We will now use the band theory to
explain why metals are better
conductors than insulators.
A representation of the energy bands
in metals and insulators are shown on
the next slide.
BAND THEORY
Electron
energy
Figure 30.20, page 479,

Chapter 30: Quantum
Physics ; Cambridge
Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Press, Cambridge,
UK,2014.
BAND THEORY
The conduction band in a metal
is partly filled.
In insulators, the conduction
bans is empty, while its valence
band is full.
BAND THEORY
When we apply a p.d. across a
material, the electrons may gain
energy and move to a higher
energy level, provided the higher
energy level exists.
BAND THEORY
In metals, the energy gap
between the valence band the
conduction band is very small.
In some metals, the upper part of
the valence band overlaps with
the conduction band.
BAND THEORY
In insulators, the energy gap
between the valence and
conduction bands is too large.
The voltage supply will be unable
to lift even the most energetic
electrons to the conduction band.
BAND THEORY
The
electrons
in
the
conduction band are free to
move about in the material
and responsible for the
electrical current.
BAND THEORY
Hence,
metals
are
good
conductors because of the small
energy gap between the valence
and conduction bands, while
insulators are poor conductors
because of the large energy gap.
BAND THEORY
Semiconductors:
A semiconductor is a material that
can conduct electric current, but only
slightly.
A diagram representing the energy
bands in a semiconductor is on the
next slide.
BAND THEORY
Semiconductors:
Chapter 30: Quantum
Physics ; Cambridge
Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Press, Cambridge,
UK,2014.
BAND THEORY
Semiconductors:
Naturally
occurring
semiconductors are known as
intrinsic semiconductors, e.g.
silicon and germanium.
BAND THEORY
Semiconductors:
A
similarity
between
semiconductors and insulators
is that the valence bands are
fully occupied.
BAND THEORY
Semiconductors:
The
difference
between
semiconductors and insulators is
that the energy gap between the
valence and conduction bands is
smaller in semiconductors.
BAND THEORY
Semiconductors:
Hence, semiconductors are better
conductors than insulators. Some
electrons from the valence band in
semiconductors can even move to the
conduction
band
at
room
temperature.
BAND THEORY
Comparing metals and
semiconductors:
Metals are better conductors than
semiconductors.
BAND THEORY
semiconductors:
This is because there is one electron
available to conduct for each metal
atom, while there will be only one
free electron in one million
semiconductor atoms.
BAND THEORY
semiconductors:
The resistance of a semiconductor
decreases as its temperature
increases, while the resistance of a
metal increases as its temperature
increases.
BAND THEORY
semiconductors:
When energy is supplied to a
semiconductor, more electrons jump
from the valence band to the
conduction band.
BAND THEORY
semiconductors:
This increases the number of
available charge carriers per unit
volume. Hence, the resistance
decreases due to the presence of
more available charge carriers per
unit volume.
BAND THEORY
semiconductors:
When energy is supplied to a metal,
there is no increase in the number of
charge carriers per unit volume.
BAND THEORY
semiconductors:
However, the atoms vibrate more
and the electrons collide more often
with the atoms. This causes an
increase in resistance.
BAND THEORY
Figure 30.19 (b) shows the energy bands
in a solid. Electrons in the atom can have
any energy level that is in one of the
energy bands.
Energy bands are separated by
forbidden gaps. Electrons cannot have
an energy level in the forbidden gaps.
EXAMPLES
X - RAYS
X ray production:
X rays are produced when high speed
electrons are decelerated as they
bombard a metal target.
The deceleration is caused by the
electric forces they experience due to
the positive nuclei in the atoms of the
metal target.
X - RAYS
X ray production (contd):
The deceleration causes a decrease in
the kinetic energy of the high speed
electrons.
The decrease in kinetic energy of the
electrons is converted into X ray
photons.
X - RAYS
Fig. 2.1, page 12, A
Level Science
Applications
Booklet: Physics,
University of
Cambridge
International
Examinations,
Cambridge, England,
2006.
X - RAYS
a typical X ray spectrum.
The X ray photons that emerge from
the X ray tube have a range of energies,
as seen in the spectrum.
X - RAYS
The spectrum is made up of:
I. a broad background radiation, called
the braking radiation, and
II. sharp peaks called characteristic
peaks, that are characteristic to the
type of the metal used as the anode.
X - RAYS
I. the braking radiation:
The braking radiation is produced when the high
speed electrons decelerate.
The electrons that slow down will emit photons.
Usually more than one photon is emitted by
every electron that slows down.
Since infinitely many photon energies are
possible, we get a broad spectrum of energies.
X - RAYS
I. the characteristic peaks:
The high speed electrons may, upon entering the
anode, eject electrons from the anodes atom
when they collide.
Another electron, from a higher energy shell in
the atom, will transition downwards to replace
this gap.
The downward transition will emit a photon.
X - RAYS
I. the characteristic peaks (contd):
The energies of the photons are characteristic of
the type of metal used as the anode.
Different metals will produce different
characteristic peaks.
X - RAYS
Diagram 32.5, page
508, Chapter 30:
Quantum Physics ;
Cambridge
Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Press, Cambridge,
UK,2014.
X - RAYS
X ray spectra produced by accelerating
potentials of 30, 60 and 90 kV and a
tungsten target.
Compare the range, the heights and the
characteristic peaks.
X - RAYS
X ray tube:
Diagram 32.4, page
508, Chapter 30:
Quantum Physics ;
Cambridge
Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Press, Cambridge,
UK,2014.
X - RAYS
X ray tube :
a simplified X ray tube.
Electrons are emitted by heating the
cathode (thermionic heating).
X - RAYS
X ray tube (contd):
These electrons are then accelerated
across a large potential difference (from
50 kV to 200 kV) applied across the
cathode and anode.
X - RAYS
X ray tube (contd):
These high speed electrons experience
electric forces when they arrive at the
metal anode, causing them to undergo
deceleration.
This deceleration decreases the kinetic
energy of the electrons.
X - RAYS
X ray tube (contd):
This deceleration will cause the
emission of a X - ray photon.
Each photon has energy equal to the
loss in kinetic energy of the electron.
Only 0.5 % of the electrons will produce
X ray photons.
X - RAYS
X ray tube (contd):
X ray photons leave the X ray

tube via a window.
The electrons that do not produce X
ray photons will hit the target and
lose their kinetic energy as heat.
X - RAYS
X ray tube (contd):
Hence, the anode needs to be

cooled. A rotating anode will cause
the anode to cool.
Another option is to water cool the
anode.
X - RAYS
X ray tube (contd):
We can control the intensity of the X

ray beam.
The intensity of the beam refers to
the amount of photons emitted per
unit time.
X - RAYS
X ray tube (contd):
The intensity is controlled by the amount
of electrons that arrive at the target per
unit time; i.e. the tube current.
The tube current is controlled by the
heater current that controls the rate of
emission of electrons at the cathode.
X - RAYS
X ray tube (contd):
The greater the heater current, the

larger the thermal energy supplied to
the filament, hence more electrons
are emitted.
X - RAYS
X ray tube (contd):
We can also control the hardness of

the X ray beam.
The hardness of the X ray beam
refers to the penetration power of
the of the X ray photons.
X - RAYS
X ray tube (contd):
Hard X ray photons have high energies,
while soft photons have low energies.
Hard X ray photons are produced by
higher accelerating voltages. Soft
photons are produced by lower
accelerating potentials.
X - RAYS
X ray tube (contd):
Soft photons are also produced when
some of the high speed electrons
undergo collisions with one another.
Soft photons are undesired. Aluminium
filters are used to absorb these soft X
ray photons.
EXAMPLES
Questions 1 and 2,
page 509, Chapter
30: Quantum
Physics ; Cambridge
International AS
and A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge,
UK,2014.
X - RAYS
X ray imaging:
X ray photons that strike the
photographic film, will cause it to
blacken.
This process is called photoionisation.
The X ray photons will cause a chemical
compound in the film to be ionised and
turn black.
X - RAYS
X ray imaging (contd):
Some material in the human body are
good absorbers of X ray photons, e.g.
bone.
These material will absorb X ray
photons and prevent the X ray photons
from ionising the film.
X - RAYS
Some material, e.g. flesh and other soft
tissue, allow X ray photons to pass.
The difference in the amount of
ionisation of the film can be observed in
an X ray image, such as that seen on
the next slide.
X - RAYS
Source:
http://www.pemcincinnati.com/blog/
wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Case2.png
X - RAYS
X ray images may only be obtained if
there is sufficient difference between the
degree of absorption in the organ of
interest and the surrounding tissues.
Bone, for example has a higher
absorption rate compared to the
surrounding muscle and soft tissues.
X - RAYS
The quality of an X ray image
depend on its:
I. sharpness, and
II. contrast.
X - RAYS
The sharpness of an image refers to

how easy it is for us to see edges of
internal organs, i.e. the outline of the
organ is clearly visible.
A sharp X ray image is shown on

next slide.
X - RAYS
Figure 32.8, page

511, Chapter 30:
Quantum Physics ;
Cambridge
International AS
and A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge,
UK,2014.
X - RAYS
Sharp X ray images are produced

by a narrow beam of parallel X
rays.
X - RAYS
Three factors affect the width of an X
ray beam:
I.
II.
III.
the area of the target anode,

the aperture size, and
the use of a lead grid in front of the
photographic film to absorb scattered X
ray photons.
X - RAYS
I. the area of the target anode:
Chapter 30: Quantum
Physics ; Cambridge
Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Press, Cambridge,
UK,2014.
X - RAYS
II. the aperture size:
Chapter 30: Quantum
Physics ; Cambridge
Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Press, Cambridge,
UK,2014.
X - RAYS
III. The collimation of
the beam:
Figure 32.12, page 512, Chapter 30: Quantum

Physics ; Cambridge International AS and A Level
Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd edition, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.
X - RAYS
However, as the X ray photons pass
through the body, they will still scatter.
This causes fogging (blurring) of the
image.
A method to reduce fogging in an image
is shown in the next slide.
X - RAYS
Chapter 30: Quantum
Physics ; Cambridge
Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Press, Cambridge,
UK,2014.
X - RAYS
The screen placed just in front of the
detector is made from lead and
aluminium.
I.
Lead is used because it absorbs the scattered X

ray photons.
II. Aluminium is used as it is porous to some X ray
photons (depending on its hardness).
X - RAYS
The contrast refers the difference in the
degree of blackening between one organ
in an image and another.
Bone and soft tissue / muscle have good
contrast due to their different abilities in
absorbing X ray photons.
X - RAYS
How do we then differentiate organs that
have same rate of absorption?
We use a contrast agent such as iodine or
barium meal.
A contrast agent is a good absorber of X
ray photons.
X - RAYS
Source:
http://www.cyberphysics.co.uk/gr
aphics/photos/medical/barium.pn
g
X - RAYS
the X ray image of a patients intestines
after the patient had swallowed a barium
meal.
The presence of the barium meal gives
good contrast between the intestines
and its surrounding.
X - RAYS
Source:
http://www.chfn.ca/book/export/html/
506
X - RAYS
the X ray image of a part of the
patients head after the patients blood
vessels had been injected with a special
dye.
There is good contrast between the
blood vessels and other soft tissues.
X - RAYS
X ray attenuation (contd):
Some fraction of X ray photons that
pass through material will undergo
absorption.
This will cause a reduction in the
intensity of the beam.
X - RAYS
The attenuation follows an exponential
rate of decay.
A graph of percentage transmission
versus thickness is given in the next slide.
MNO = thickness of material when the
percentage transmission is 50 %.
X - RAYS
Fig. 2.6, page
5, A Level
Science
Applications
Booklet:
Physics,
University of
Cambridge
International
Examinations,
Cambridge,
England, 2006.
X - RAYS
The transmitted intensity,
for a
parallel beam of initial intensity,
after the beam has passed through a
material of thickness,
with
coefficient of absorption, is given
Q)
by:
!
X - RAYS
A graph of intensity versus thickness is
given in the next slide, and it compares
the intensities of X ray photons passing
through
two
different
biological
materials, flesh and bone.
X - RAYS
Figure 32.6, page
510, Chapter 30:
Quantum Physics ;
Cambridge
International AS
and A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge,
UK,2014.
EXAMPLES
Questions 3, 4 and 5,
page 510, Chapter
30: Quantum Physics
; Cambridge
A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge, UK,2014.
EXAMPLES
Questions 6 and 7, Table 32.2, page
513, Chapter 30: Quantum Physics ;
Cambridge International AS and A
Level Physics Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK,2014.
EXAMPLES
Question 8 and Table 32.2, page 513, Chapter 30: Quantum Physics ; Cambridge
International AS and A Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.
CT SCANS
Computerised axial tomography (CAT,
or CT for short) scans are an
improvement to X ray imaging.
X rays images are two
dimensional, i.e. no idea of thickness
and depth of internal organ.
A CT scan image is on the next slide.
CT SCANS
shows an image
produced by the CT
scan on a persons
lung.
CT scan images are 3
dimensional X ray
images.
Source: http://www.radiologyinfo.org/photocat/popup/chest-ct-lungs.jpg
CT SCANS
CT scans are produced by taking X
ray images from different angles by
rotating the X ray tube and
detectors through 360.
The image on the next slide shows
how this is done.
CT SCANS
Source: http://www.iambiomed.com/equipments/anatomy_of_a_CT_scan.jpg
CT SCANS
This techniques is called Computerised
Axial Tomography because:
a computer is used to control the
scanning motion, and to gather and to
manipulate the data to produce images,
the X ray tube is rotated around a axis,
It produces images of slices through the
patient. (tomos = slice in Greek)
CT SCANS
The table on the next two slides
outlines the steps taken when a
CT scan image is produced.
CT SCANS
Steps taken during performing a CT scan
I. The patient lies in a vertical ring of X ray
detectors
II. The X ray tube rotates around the ring,
exposing the patient to a fan shaped beam
of X rays from all directions.
III.Detectors that are directly opposite the X
ray tube send electrical signals to the
computer.
CT SCANS
Steps taken during performing a CT scan
(contd)
IV.The computer software builds up a three
dimensional image of the patient.
V. The radiographer can view the images of the
slices through the patient on the computer
screen.
CT SCANS
When performing a CT scan, we can
assume that the patients body is
divided into a tiny array of cubic
volume
called
voxels
(volume
element).
The image on the next slide shows this.
CT SCANS
Figure 32.18, page 514, Chapter 30: Quantum Physics ; Cambridge International AS
CT SCANS
We will now look at how an image is
constructed by using a 2 2 voxel as an
example.
Fig. 2.8, page 16, A Level
Science Applications Booklet:
Physics, University of Cambridge
International Examinations,
Cambridge, England, 2006.
The numbers inside each voxel is the

intensity.
CT SCANS
The next few slides describe how a CT
scan image is obtained.
The arrows show the direction of the X
ray beam through the slice.
The numbers obtained in the detector
will be send to the computer to be
processed.
CT SCANS
The diagram below shows readings
obtained when the X ray beam is at 0
.
The image on the right shows the
processing done in the computer.
CT SCANS
Fig. 2.9, page 16, A Level Science Applications Booklet: Physics, University of
Cambridge International Examinations, Cambridge, England, 2006.
CT SCANS
CT SCANS
The figure on the previous slide is
obtained after the X ray beam has
been rotated counter clockwise
through 45.
The next sequence of images are also
obtained by rotating the X ray tube
by 45 as seen on the next slide.
CT SCANS
CT SCANS
The next slide shows what is
going on when the X ray tube is
at 135.
We do not need to go beyond
135. Why is this so?
CT SCANS
CT SCANS
The figure below shows the final
image obtained after all the
imaging has processing has been
done.
Fig. 2.13, page 16, A Level Science Applications Booklet:
Physics, University of Cambridge International
Examinations, Cambridge, England, 2006.
CT SCANS
We now need to obtain the original
2 2 voxel.
To do this, we first subtract from
each voxel the background
intensity. The background intensity
is the total intensity of each set of
detector reading.
CT SCANS
We then divide by the intensity in
each voxel by N 1 where N =
number of detector readings
obtained.
The next slide shows this process for
the example we have looked at.
CT SCANS
For this example, the total intensity
of each background reading = 14,
and N = 4.
HOMEWORK
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.


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CAMBRIDGE A LEVEL

Relate the concept of particulate nature of EM

Use the photoelectric effect to support the claim that

Use the fact that electrons can be diffracted to explain

Relate the emission and absorption spectra to the

What is band theory?

Understand the principles of obtaining X ray images

Understand the principles behind CT scanning

We can also use

  the speed of EM radiation  .  

the number of photons. This

The interaction between photons

Some of the photoelectrons that

stopping potential, V and

Emission of electrons occur Very intense light must be

A single photon can emit

Low intensity may even

Low intensity light waves

Low intensity light

Increased light intensity

Higher intensity means

Higher intensity means

Higher intensity would

Greater intensity does not

Low intensity light waves

Very low frequency

Higher frequency means

On simplification, we may obtain

Remember that &,($) the

Figure 4.5, page 105, Section 4.2:

Electrons in an atom can only

The image on the left

The image above shows the line absorption spectrum of

Question 7, Paper 4, Winter 2008.

Question 7, Paper 43, Winter 2011.

Figure 30.19 (a)

Figure 30.20, page 479,

X ray photons leave the X ray

Hence, the anode needs to be

We can control the intensity of the X

The greater the heater current, the

We can also control the hardness of

The sharpness of an image refers to

A sharp X ray image is shown on

Figure 32.8, page

Sharp X ray images are produced

the area of the target anode,

Figure 32.12, page 512, Chapter 30: Quantum

Lead is used because it absorbs the scattered X

The numbers inside each voxel is the

Question 11, Paper 4, Winter 2008.

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the speed of EM radiation .