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AsstatedinapreviouschapterdealingwithaState,a
territoryisoneofthefundamentalelementsofstatehood.
Without a territory, an entity cannot be a State.[1] The
notionthataStateoccupiesadefiniteportionoftheearth
within which it exercises, subject to the limitations of
InternationalLaw,itsexclusiveauthoritytotheexclusion
of other States lies at the basis of International Law.[2]
TheexerciseofsuchasupremeauthoritybyaStateover
its own territory is known in International Law as
territorialsovereignty.
Notably, the concept territorial sovereignty is
confused with the concept jurisdiction. Some have
usedthetwoconceptsinterchangeably.However,thereis
a distinction between the two concepts. Territorial
sovereignty signifies ownership and possession of a
territory, which entitles a State to exercise its authority
Section1:TerritorialSovereignty
TherighttoterritorialsovereigntyenablesaStateto
exercisethefullestmeasuresofsovereigntypowersover
itslandterritory,largemeasuresoveritsterritorialwaters
and air space, and smaller measures over its continental
shelfandadjacentarea.Inaddition,itenablesaStateto
exercisesovereigntyovervesselsandaircraftsthatflyits
flag or carry its nationality, which are treated as its
territory.
Corollary to the rights generated from territorial
sovereignty,therearedutiesimposeduponaState.These
dutiesinvolvetheobligationtoprotectwithinitsterritory
the rights of other States, together with the rights that
eachStatemayclaimforitsnationalsinforeignterritory.
Manytreatiesandconventionshavebeenconcludedto
regulate State sovereignty over land, sea, airspace and
outerspace.Overairspaceandouterspace,therearethe
1944 Convention on International Civil Aviation (the
Chicago Convention),[7] the 1963 Treaty Banning
NuclearWeaponTestsintheAtmosphere,inOuterSpace
and under Water, [8] and the 1967 Treaty on Principles
Governing the Activities in the Exploration and Use of
Outer Space including the Moon and Other Celestial
Bodies(theOuterSpaceTreaty).[9]
Overthesea,thereisthe1982ConventionontheLaw
of the Sea,[10] which replaced the 1956 Conventions
relatedtotheTerritorialSeaandtheContiguousZone,the
High Seas, the Continental Shelf, and Fishing and
Conservation of living Resources of the High Seas. In
Addition,thereisthe1959AntarcticaTreaty.[11]
Since the rights generated from the concept of
territorialsovereigntycanonlybeexercisedinrelationto
aterritory,itisnecessarytoknowhowaterritorycanbe
acquired.
Section2:AcquisitionofTerritory[12]
Theinternationalrulesrelatedtoterritorialsovereignty
are rooted in the Roman Law provisions governing
ownershipandpossession.Inaddition,theclassification
of the different modes of acquiring territory is a direct
descendantoftheRomanrulesdealingwithproperty.[13]
TerritoryisthespacewithinwhichtheStateexercises
sovereign authority. Title to territory is acquired either
through the claim of land not previously owned (terra
nullius)orthroughthetransferoftitlefromoneStateto
another.[14]Titleacquiredinthefirstcategoryiscalled
original title, while in the second category is called
derivativetitle.Modesoforiginalacquisitionofterritory
include occupation, prescription and accretion.
Derivativemodesincludecession(voluntaryorforcible),
andconquestandannexation.Allthesemodesaredealt
withinthefollowing.
(1)Occupation
elementofphysicalassumptionmaybemanifestedbyan
explicit or symbolic act by legislative or administrative
measures affecting the claimed territory, or by treaties
with other States recognizing the sovereignty of the
ClaimantStateovertheparticularterritoryordemarcating
boundaries.
Occupation was often preceded by discovery that is
the realization of the existence of a particular piece of
land. In the early period of European discovery, in the
FifteenthandSixteenthCenturies,themererealizationor
sightingwassufficienttoconstitutetitletoterritory. As
time passed, something more was required and this took
theformofsymbolicactoftakingpossession,whetherby
raising of flags or by formal declarations. By the
Eighteenth Century, the effective control came to be
required together with discovery to constitute title to
territory.[17]
(2)Prescription
Prescriptionisamodeofestablishingtitletoterritory
which is subject to the sovereignty of another State (not
terra nullius) through peaceful exercise of de facto
sovereignty over a long period of time.[18] It is the
legitimization of a doubtful title by the passage of time
and the presumed acquiescence of the former
sovereignty. It differs from occupation. It relates to
territorywhichhaspreviouslybeenunderthesovereignty
ofanotherState.However,bothmodesaresimilarsince
theyrequireevidenceofsovereigntyactsbyaStateover
aperiodoftime.
AtitlebyprescriptiontobevalidunderInternational
Law, it is required that the length of time must be
adequate,andthepublicandpeacefulexerciseofdefacto
sovereignty must be continuous. The Possession of
Claimant State must be public, in the sense that all
(3)Accretion
(4)Cession
Cessionofterritoryisatransferofsovereigntyfrom
one sovereign to another.[22] Its basis lies in the
intentionoftheconcernedpartiestotransfersovereignty
overtheterritoryinquestion,anditrestsontheprinciple
thattherightoftransferringitsterritoryisafundamental
attributeofthesovereigntyofaState.Itoccursbymeans
of an agreement between the ceding and the acquiring
States. The cession may comprise a portion of the
territoryofthecedingStateorthetotalityofitsterritory.
Inthelattercase,thecedingStatedisappearsandmerges
intotheacquiringState.[23]
Cessionofterritorymaybevoluntaryasaresultofa
purchase,anexchange,agift,avoluntarymerger,orany
other voluntary manner, or it may be made under
compulsionasaresultofawaroranyuseofforceagainst
thecedingState.[24]Historyprovidesagreatnumberof
examplesofcession.[25]Examplesofvoluntarycession
aretheUnitedStatespurchaseofAlaskafromRussiain
1867, the exchange of a portion of Bessarabia by
RomaniatoRussiainexchangeforDobrudjain1878,the
FrancesgiftofVenicetoItalyin1866,andthevoluntary
mergeroftheRepublicofTexasintotheUnitedStatesin
1795. Examples of cession as a result of a war are the
cession to Germany by France of the region ofAlsace
Lorrainein1871,andthemergerofKoreaintoJapanin
1910.
(5)ConquestandAnnexation
ConquestisanactofdefeatinganopponentStateand
occupying all or part of its territory.[26] Annexation is
the extension of sovereignty over a territory by its
inclusion into the State.[27] Under traditional
Correspondingthemodesofacquiringterritory,there
aremodesoflosingit.Territorymaybelostbyexpress
declaration or conduct such as a treaty of cession or
acceptanceofcession,byconquest,byerosionornatural
geographicactivities,byprescriptionorbyabandonment.
[34]
[1]SeeL.Oppenheim,1InternationalLaw,p.563,eds.R.J.JenningsandA.D.
Watts,9th ed.London(1992).
[2]SeeJ.L.Brierly,LawofNations,p.142,4th ed.,Oxford(1949).
[3]SeeShaw,pp.41112.
[4]Id.p.412.
[5]Bledsoe&Boczek,p.143.
[6]Id.pp.1434
[7]Textin15U.N.T.S.295.
[8]Textin480U.N.T.S.43.
[9]Textin610U.N.T.S.205.
[10]Textin21I.L.M.(1982),1261.
[11]Textin402U.N.T.S.71.
[12]SeegenerallyBrownlie,pp.12657andShaw,pp.41743.
[13]SeeShaw,p.412.
[14]Bledsoe&Boczek,pp.1556.
[15]Bledsoe&Boczek,p.149andShaw,p.424.
[16]SeeShaw,pp.424and4326Brownlie,pp.1336.
[17]SeeShaw,pp.4256
[18]Id.426.Seegenerallyid.pp.42641andBrownlie,pp.14550.
[19]Shaw,p.419.
[20]Seeid.pp.41920.
[21]SeeBrownlie,p.144.
[22]SeeC.H.Hackworth,1DigestofInternationalLaw,421,U.S.Government
PrintingOffice(1940).
[23]SeeHackworth,pp.4212.
[24]Bledsoe&Boczek,p.144.
[25]Seeid.pp.1445andShaw,pp.4212
[26]Shaw,pp.422.
[27]Bledsoe&Boczek,p.140.
[28]SeeShaw,pp.4223.
[29]G.A.Res.2625ofOctober24,1970,25GAOR,Supp.28,U.N.Doc.
A/8028,at121(1970).
[30]Seeprinciple(a).
[31]SeeM.McDougalandF.Feliciano,LawandMinimumWorldPublic
Order,pp.7336and73944,NewHaven(1961).
[32]Shaw,p.424.
[33]S.C.Res.662of1990,paras.1and2.
[34]Shaw,pp.4423.
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