WELDINGANDNDTTECHNIQUES

UNDERWATERWELDING
Underwaterweldingcanbeclassifiedasfollows:
WetWelding
DryWelding
Inwetweldingtheweldingisperformedunderwater,

directlyexposedtothewetenvironment.
Indrywelding,adrychamberiscreatednearthearea
tobeweldedandthewelderdoesthejobbystaying
insidethechamber

Wetwelding
Aspecialelectrodeisused

andweldingiscarriedout
manuallyjustasonedoesin
openairwelding.
Theincreasedfreedomof
movementmakeswet
weldingthemosteffective,
efficientandeconomical
method.
Weldingpowersupplyis
locatedonthesurfacewith
connectiontothe
diver/welderviacablesand
hoses.

 Thepowersourceshouldbeadirectcurrentmachineratedat

300or400Amperes
Theweldingmachineframemustbegroundedtotheship
Theweldingcircuitmustincludeapositivetypeofswitch,
usuallyaknifeswitchoperatedonthesurfaceandcommanded
bythewelderdiver.
Theknifeswitchintheelectrodecircuitmustbecapableof
breakingthefullweldingcurrentandisusedforsafetyreasons
Specialweldingelectrodeholderswithextrainsulationagainst
thewaterareused.Theunderwaterweldingelectrodeholder
utilizesatwisttypeheadforgrippingtheelectrode.
TheelectrodetypesusedconformtoAWSE6013classification
Theelectrodesmustbewaterproofed.Allconnectionsmustbe
thoroughlyinsulatedsothatthewatercannotcomeincontact
withthemetalparts.

Advantagesofwetwelding
Theversatilityandlowcostofwetweldingmakesthis

methodhighlydesirable.
Otherbenefitsincludethespeed.Withwhichthe
operationiscarriedout.
Itislesscostlycomparedtodrywelding.
Theweldercanreachportionsofoffshorestructures
thatcouldnotbeweldedusingothermethods.
Noenclosuresareneededandnotimeislostin
designingtheseenclosures(asindrywelding).
Readilyavailablestandardweldingmachineand
equipmentareused.Theequipmentneededfor
mobilizationofawetweldedjobisminimal.


DISADVANTAGESOFWET
WELDING
Thereisrapidquenchingoftheweldmetalbythe

surroundingwater.Althoughquenchingincreasesthe
tensilestrengthoftheweld,itdecreasestheductilityand
impactstrengthoftheweldmentandincreasesporosity
andhardness.
HydrogenEmbrittlementLargeamountofhydrogenis
presentintheweldregion,resultingfromthedissociation
ofthewatervapourinthearcregion.TheH2dissolvesin
theHeatAffectedZone(HAZ)andtheweldmetal,which
causesembrittlement,cracksandmicroscopicfissures.
Crackscangrowandmayresultincatastrophicfailureof
thestructure.
Anotherdisadvantageispoorvisibility.Theweldersome
timesisnotabletoweldproperly

HYPERBARICWELDING(DRY
WELDING)
Hyperbaricweldingiscarriedoutinchambersealedaroundthe

structuretobewelded.
Thechamberisfilledwithagas(generallyheliumcontaining0.5
barofoxygen)attheprevailingpressure.
Thehabitatissealedontothepipelineandfilledwitha
breathablemixtureofheliumandoxygen,atorslightlyabovethe
ambientpressureatwhichtheweldingistotakeplace.
ThismethodproduceshighqualityweldjointsthatmeetXray
andcoderequirements.
TheTIGweldingprocessisemployedforthisprocess.
TheareaundertheflooroftheHabitatisopentowater.
Thustheweldingisdoneinthedrybutatthehydrostatic
pressureoftheseawatersurroundingtheHabitat.

ADVANTAGESOFDRYWELDING
Welder/DiverSafetyWeldingisperformedinachamber,

immunetooceancurrentsandmarineanimals.Thewarm,
dryhabitatiswellilluminatedandhasitsown
environmentalcontrolsystem(ECS).
GoodQualityWeldsThismethodhasabilitytoproduce
weldsofqualitycomparabletoopenairweldsbecause
waterisnolongerpresenttoquenchtheweldandH2level
ismuchlowerthanwetwelds
SurfaceMonitoringJointpreparation,pipealignment,
NDTinspection,etc.aremonitoredvisually.
NonDestructiveTesting(NDT)NDTisalsofacilitatedby
thedryhabitatenvironment.

DISADVANTAGESOFDRYWELDING
Thehabitatweldingrequireslargequantitiesof

complexequipmentandmuchsupportequipmenton
thesurface.Thechamberisextremelycomplex.
Costofhabitatweldingisextremelyhighand
increaseswithdepth.Workdepthhasaneffecton
habitatwelding.Atgreaterdepths,thearcconstricts
andcorrespondinghighervoltagesarerequired.The
processiscostlyandthesamechambercannotbeused
foranotherjob,ifitisadifferentone.

WeldingParametersanditseffects

Typeofcurrent
TypeofArcvoltage
Speedofwelding
Diameterofelectrode
Lengthofstickout
Electrodefeedspeed
Polarity(weldinDCsupply)
ElectrodeOrientation
Shieldingmedium
Jointgeometry

NDT

NonDestructivetesting(NDT)
Theuseofnoninvasivetechniquestodeterminethe
integrityofamaterial,componentorstructure

Toquatitativelymeasuresomecharacteristicsofan
object

InspectormeasurewithoutdoingHarm

NDE(NonDestructiveEvaluation)
methods
Flawdetectionandevaluation
Leakdetection
Locationdetermination
Dimensionalmeasurements
Structureandmicrostructurecharacterization
Estimationofmechanicalandphysicalproperties
Stress(Strain)andDynamicresponsemeasurements

WhenNDEapplicable
Toassistinproductdevelopment
Toscreenorsortincomingmaterials
Tomonitor,improveorcontrolmanufacturing

processes
Toverifyproperprocessingsuchasheattreatment
Toverifyproperassembly/workmanship
Toinspectinservicedamage

MethodsofNDT
Visual

Thermography

Xray

Magneticparticle

Ultrasonic

Laserinterferometry

Eddycurrent

Taptesting

Liquidpenetrant

Acousticemission

Magneticmeasurements

AcousticMicroscopy

Fluxleakage

VisualInspection
Mostcommonandbasicinspection
ToolsUsed
Fiberoscopes
Borescopes
Magnifyingglasses
Mirrors
Roboticcrawlersalsoused
Inhazardousareaslikeducts,reactors,pipelines

LiquidPenetrantInspection
Aliquidwithhighsurfacewettingcharacteristicsis

appliedtothesurfaceortothepartofthesurfaceand
allowedtoseepintosurfacebreakingdefects
Excessliquidisremovedfromthesurfaceofthepart
Adeveloper(powder)isappliedtopullthetrapped
penetrantoutofthedefectandspreaditonthesurface
whereitcanbeseen
Visualinspectionisthefinalstepintheprocess.The
penetrantusedisoftenloadedwithaflorescentdye
andtheinspectionisdoneunderUVlighttoincrease
testsensitivity

MagneticParticleinspection
Thepartismagnetized
Finelymilledironparticlescoatedwithdyepigment

arethenappliedtothespecimen
Theseparticlesareattractedtomagneticflusleakage
fieldsandwillclustertoformanindicationdirectly
overthediscontinuity
Thisindicationcanbevisuallydetectedunderproper
lightingconditions

Magneticparticlecrackindications

Radiography
Radiationusedinradiographyisahigherenergy

(shorterwavelength)versionoftheelectromagnetic
wavesthatweseeasvisiblelight
TheradiationcancomefromanXraygeneratorora
radioactivesource.
Thepartisplacedbetweentheradiationsourceanda
pieceoffilm
Thepartwillstopsomeoftheradiation
Thickerandmoredenseareawillstopmoreofthe
radiation

EddyCurrentTesting
Wellsuitablefor

detectingsurface
cracks
Alsocanbeusedto
measurecoating
thickness

UltrasonicInspection(PulseEcho)
Highfrequencysoundwavesareintroducedintoa

materialandtheyarereflectedbackfromsurfaceor
flaws
Reflectedsoundenergyisdisplayedversustime
Inspectorcanvisualizeacrosssectionofthespecimen
showingthedepthoffeaturesthatreflectsound

SecondaryProcessing
Machining
Welding
Grinding
Heattreating
Platingetc.

Inservicedamages
Cracking
Corrosion
Erosion/Wear
Heatdamageetc.

Wireropeinspection
Electromagneticdevices

andvisualinspectionsare
usedtofindbrokenwires
andotherdamagetothe
wireropethatisusedin
cranes,mooringtethers
andotherliftingdevices

Storagetankinspection
Roboticcrawlersuse

ultrasoundtechnique
toinspectthewallsof
largeoverheadtanksfor
signsofcorrosion

Camerasonlong
articulatedarmsare
usedto
inspectunderground
storagetanksfor
damage

Pressurevesselinspection
Failureofpressurevesselcanresultinrapidreleaseof

largeamountofenergy.
Toprotectagainstthisdangerousevent,thetanksare
inspectedusingradiographyandultrasonictesting

PipelineInspection
NDTisusedto

inspectpipelines
topreventleaks
thatcoulddamage
theenvironment
VisualInspection,
radiographyand
electromagnetic
testingaresomeof
thecommonNDT
methodsused

Underwaterinspection
InspectionofstructuresinoceanrequiresNDTtobe

carriedoutunderwater
Materialsmostlyincludesteel,concreteandwood
Problemstobeidentifiedinclude
Cracksandothergrowingdefects
Wallthinningduetocorossion
Biologicalandchemicalchanges(damagecausedby

insectsorwoodrot)
Damagecausedbycollision

Objectivesofunderwater
inspection
Detectionofsurfaceopeningcracksinweldedtubular

joints
Detectionofwallthicknessintubularmembers
Checkingofcorrosionsystems
Mappingofmarinegrowth,scouranddebris

 SteelPlatforms
Cracksandlocalizedcorrosionaremostcommon
damages
Cracksmostlyoccuratweldedzonesandduetofatigue
Tubularjointslocatednearthesplashzoneandnearthe
seaflooraremostsusceptible

Concretestructures
Detectionofsurfaceopeningcracksinareasofhigh

bendingmoment
Detectionoferosionofconcreteinsplashzone
Corrosionofreinforcement,anchorsforprestressing
tendons,andothersteelstructures
Checkingforfoundationontheseabed
Mappingofmarinegrowthanddebris
Detectionofcracksinstructuralsteelmembers

NDTofpipelinerisers
Pipelinerisers
Susceptibletodamagesbelowwaterline

Thermalsloads
Highinternalload
Highinternalpressure
Environmentalloads
Relativemotionbetweentheplatformandthepipeline(in
caseofgravityplatforms)

Corrosiongrowthinfixtures
Marinegrowthanddebris

Methodsforunderwaterinspection
Visualinspection
Magneticparticletesting
Ultrasonicmeasurements
Eddycurrentmeasurement
Radiographicphotography

ConventionalNDT
Visualinspectionbydiversandunderwatercameras

aremostcommon
Ultrasonicmethodsarebeingincreasinglyusedto
detectdefects
Radiographyarelittleappliedbecauseofradiation
problem
Vibrationanalysisisalsoused
Advantageisthatsometimesthedefectanywhereinthe

structurecanbedetected

Oncethedefectisidentified,detailedexaminationtobe
carriedoutbyNDTmethods
Steelstructure
Magneticparticles
Eddycurrent

Concreteandwood
Reboundhammer
Penetrationtechniques
Coreremovalfordetailedexamination

ForAllNDTmethodsinunderwatersurfacepreparationis
mandatory

Visualinspectionunderwater
MostlybyDiver
Experiencedpersonsareemployed
Remotelyunderwatercamera/videosused
Limitations:
Poorvisibility
Heavyfouling
Strongcurrents

Magneticparticleinspection
Purpose:todetectfinesurfacecracksinferromagnetic
materials
Method:Magnetisetheareatobeexaminedfollowedby
applicationofliquidsuspensionofferromagneticparticles
Ifthereisacrackonsurface,theseparticleswilldepositalong
thecrackduetoleakageofmagneticfluxatthe
discontinuityofthematerial
Difficulty:Sometimestheparticlesaremixedwith
fluorescentagents
UVrayswillproduceagoodcontrastbetweentheparticle
gatheringalongthecrackandthedarksurrounding

Magnetictesting
Fordepthsupto100mDNVhasfabricatedaMPI(magnetic

particleInstructiondevice)unit
Weighsabout1.5ton
Necessarymagneticfluxisobtainedbypassingahigh
amperagealternatingcurrentbetweentwoelectrodes
whichareappliedtotheinspectionsite
Currentisdrawnfromatransformerlocatedinacage
whichisloweredtotheinspectionsite
Cagealsocontainsthetankformagneticparticle
suspension
Tankisfittedwithbafflesdrivenbyelectricmotorto
preventsettlementofferromagneticparticlesduring
operation

Ultrasonictestingunderwater
Useshighfrequencymechanicalstresswaves,frequenciesabove

sound
Twomethods
Onetransducersenderandrecieverofpulsesignals,commonly
usedformetals
Twotransducereachside,throughtransmissionmeasurement,
commonlyusedforconcreteandwood
Usedtomeasurethicknessofshiphulls,usingpulseecho
Incorrodedplates,resultsnotgood
Pittedsurface,resultsshowsmultiplereflectionandareeasily
misinterpreted
Pittedsurfaceresultsonly50%oftheactualthickness,ifatestis
conducted

Ultrasonicequipment
DNVhasdevelopedaultrasonicflawdetectorforuse

underwater
Theinstrumentismountedinapressurehousing
Inspectionunitiskeptabovewaterandcablesand
transducerarekeptunderwater
Oneoperatormovesthetransduceralongthemetal
surfacewhileanotheroperatorabovewaterwiththe
inspectionunitinterpretsthereadingsandrecordsthe
location
Communicationbetweenthetwooperatorsisby
phoneorradio

Nanolayeredcoatingsfor
corrosionprotection
Nanostructuredcoatingsenhanceresistancesurfaces

againstcorrosion
RecentinventionatTaribatModaresUniversityin
Tehran
Advantagesofthismethodareitssimplicity,
homogeneityandhighuniformityoftheapplied
coating
Inthismethod,alkoxidetetranbutylirtotitanate
(TBT)wasusedtoprepareasolublegel

procedure
Ethanolandethyleacetoacetatearemixedtogetheratroom

temp
AddTBTtothesolutionandstirthesolutionwell
Addsomedropsofdistilledwaterwhileitisbeingstirred
Forpolymericreactions,thepreparedsolutionisleftfor6
hrs
Aftersurfacepreperationtitaniumoxidenanoparticle
coatingisappliedtothesteelsurfacebysubmerging
method
Itispossibletoreduceprobabilityofcorrosionin
petroleum,gasandpetrochemicalindustrieswiththis
method