Chapter 22 (quanta to quarks chpt 1/5)

Discoveries from 1895 onwards saw the demise of classical physics and the rise of quantum
theory
o Quantum theory objects can possess only certain discrete amounts of energy
packets/steps/levels rather than continuous
Thomson proposed that electrons were constituents of the atom, Rutherford proposed a
nuclear atom (an atom with a nucleus) and Bohr built on that by amalgamating quantum
ideas into a classical model
o Some quantum ideas were so strange that physicists didnt want to apply it but
found it was the only way to explain observations
RUTHERFORD
o Born a Kiwi, worked with J. J. Thomson in England who IDd the electron as a
component of the atom
o Model had shifted from Daltons small indestructible sphere to Thomsons plum
pudding model
Neg electrons in a sphere of pos charge like the spots in a pudding
o Alpha scattering experiment showed that atoms were mostly space with a small
nucleus
Fire alpha particles at a thin gold foil, radon as source of alpha
A very small fraction (1/8000) were deflected at greater than 90degrees
Rutherford reaction to this large angle deflection
the most incredible event that has ever happened to me in my life.
It was almost as incredible as if you had fired a fifteen inch shell at
tissue paper and it came back and hit you
Explained by proposing a nuclear atom
Some alpha comes in and bounces around off a gold nucleus
Rutherford showed that the charge that caused the deflection (as alpha
particle is pos and so is nucleus therefore repulsion and deflection) was in a
region 10,000 times smaller than the radius of the atom
He concluded that most of the mass and pos charge was concentrated in a
very small nucleus
Ratio of proton to atom radius for hydrogen is about 2.5*10^5
If room is 10m as diameter of atom, nucleus would be 40microns
o PROBLEM: is electrons in orbit as per Rutherford model, then they are accelerating
and should be emitting em radiation. So the atom should be unstable
Electrons should radiate and lose energy, spiral into centre and atom
disintegrates
BOHR
o Danish, trained by Rutherford
o Attempted to apply the quantum ideas of Planck and Einstein
Einstein later showed that a problem of infinities will occur in any process
where classical and quantum theories are linked
o Photons are quanta of visible light

Philip Zhu

In 1913 Bohr saw the Balmer Equation (an empirical equation not theoretical but
works) and this made everything clear to him and he realised how electrons were
arranged in the hydrogen atom (but not others)
Balmers equation, Angstrom had measured the wavelengths of the four
visible spectral lines of hydrogen (Balmer Series) and Balmer came up with
an equation to relate them

where b was empirically found to be 364.56nm

Rydberg modified Balmers equation

RH is Rydbergs constant = 1.097X10^7

Spectra
Continuous which comes from incandescent objects
Bright line which come from excited gases
Light emitted from an excited gas through a prism form a series of
coloured lines of those wavelengths of light emitted
Absorption spectra of cool gases
Cool gases absorb certain wavelengths and reemit it in all different
directions, so dark lines on an otherwise continuous spectrum
Aurora is the emission of light from excited air molecules (both atoms and
ions)
Excited by interactions with charged particles from the sun after
intense solar activity
Bohrs Postulates
Made when he received the Nobel prize in 1922
1. That electron exist in stationary states (when they do not emit
any radiation) with an unexplained stability (later due to de Broglie
et al) any permanent change in their motion must consist of a
complete transition to another stationary state
2. No radiation is emitted from a stationary state. A transition
between states will be accompanied by the emission or absorption
of radiation
Then made his quantisation condition
An electron in a stationary state has an angular momentum that is
an integral multiple of (h/2pi, Plancks constant on 2pi)
o And angular momentum, L =mvr
Using these postulates (the quantum ideas of Planck and stationary states),
together with the energy of electrons as per classical physics, we can derive
a theoretical equation for the wavelengths of the spectral lines of hydrogen
than agrees with Balmers empirical equation
Bohr postulates + classical phys = theoretical eqn that matches
Balmers empirical eqn = yay!

Philip Zhu

Bohr: The maths get energy for hydrogen per Rutherford and classical phys, impose bohr
postulates, calc energies of stationary states and thus change in energy between stationary
states and can then calc frequency of spectral lines
o Sum of Ek and electrical potential energy is the total energy of the electron

Now the electrical force is

And this force provides the centripetal force so

where qe is the charge

And the potential energy of the electron is

Total energy is the sum of Ep +Ek

this is the total classical energy of Rutherfords

hydrogen
Input Bohrs quantisation condition, restricts electron to stationary states
Angular momentum must be an integer multiple of Planck/2pi
L=mvr=nh/2pi n an integer becomes the Principle Quantum
Number
Can rearrange for the radius of stationary states

mvr=nh/2pi is

Now from earlier

can get v2

And sub this into

So

So this is the radius of the nth shell

Note that when n=1
o
o
o

Stable orbits at square multiples of the radius of the first

Philip Zhu

Now back to the classical energy and impose this condition for the radii

and
So

and
So

Eg, since E1 for hydrogen = -13.6eV, E2=?

=-3.4eV
We can use this formula for the energy states along with the second postulate about
the emission/absorption of photons as electrons move between shells, to get a
formula for their energy and hence their wavelength, the emitted/absorbed photon
carries the energy difference in the two levels
Consider a jump from a higher to a lower state, eg fall from n=4 to n=1

, this is the energy of the emitted photon, E=hf

So

take out a factor of -1 so the bracket switches

since c=f

, same form as Balmers

and when

is calculated, it agrees with Rydbergs RH

Balmers equation is an empirical one, and not a theoretical one from Bohr agrees,
this is a major achievement that is strong support of the Bohr model
And the hydrogen atom is explained we can calculate the wavelengths of the many
spectral lines of hydrogen
o Balmer series, visible spectrum from falls to n=2 (the first excited state)
o Later series wavelengths all agreed with Bohr
Lyman series, ultraviolet, transitions to ground state n=1
Paschen series, infrared, transitions to n=3
Brackett series, infrared, transitions to n=4
Pfund series, infrared, transitions to n=5
Limitations of Bohr model
o Not possible to calculate the wavelengths of spectral lines for any other elements
4

Philip Zhu

o
o
o
o

Only works for hydrogen

Spectral lines are not of equal intensity, Bohr cannot explain
Other lines called hyperfine lines, Bohr cannot explain
When gas excited in mag field the spectral lines are split (Zeeman Effect), Bohr
cannot explain
Bohr model is a mix of quantum and classical physics and this itself is a problem

Philip Zhu