Gas Engine

Emissions Technology
Fourth Edition

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FORM 536
Copyright 2004
Waukesha Engine
Dresser, Inc.
Waukesha, Wisconsin 53188
All rights reserved. Printed in U.S.A. 3/04

IMPORTANT NOTICE
This publication is designed to present information to professionals as an aid to independent research. It is
not to be regarded as providing opinion or advice for any individual case. Waukesha Engine, Dresser, Inc.
assumes no responsibility for use and application of the information contained herein. User accepts all
responsibility and risk for the use and application of the information contained herein.

GAS ENGINE EMISSIONS TECHNOLOGY

Deterioration of the atmosphere caused by gaseous
pollutants is an important environmental issue. Local,
state, and national governments continue to enact
stricter exhaust emissions legislation to reduce and
possibly reverse the atmospheric deterioration. This
legislation often affects natural gas engine installations
by limiting the horsepower allowed or requiring very
low emissions levels out of the engine. Natural gas
engine manufacturers continue to develop products
which help to meet these requirements. In addition
exhaust treatment companies have developed processes which reduce pollutants by converting them
into safe, naturally occurring compounds that are not
damaging to the atmosphere.
This paper discusses how air pollutants are formed in
natural gas engines along with the health risks and
atmospheric deterioration which result from these pollutants. Some of the current emissions regulations are
presented and how they apply to gas engines is
addressed. Technology for reducing emissions is also
discussed.

DEFINITIONS
Air/Fuel Ratio (AFR): The ratio between the amount
of air and the amount of fuel flowing into an engine. It
is commonly expressed two ways on a mass basis or
on a volume basis.
mass flow rate of air
AFR mass = ------------------------------------------------------------mass flow rate of fuel
volume flow rate of air
AFR volume = --------------------------------------------------------------------volume flow rate of fuel

Ammonia: A chemical compound of nitrogen and

hydrogen with the formula NH3. It is used as a reducing agent for nitrogen oxides, NOx, in a Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) system. Ammonia is
environmentally hazardous and toxic.
Carbon Monoxide (CO): A pollutant having the formula CO.
Digester Gas: A gas suitable for fuelling an engine
formed by the anaerobic decomposition of organic
matter in a digester. It is composed primarily of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2). The saturated
lower heating value normally ranges from 500 600
Btu/ft3 (19.66 23.59 MJ/m3).
Dry Basis: A system for reporting engine exhaust
emission values based on the removal of all water
vapor present in the exhaust. This is done either with
suitable instrumentation or mathematically.
Excess Air: The amount of air provided to a combustion process over and above the amount needed for
complete, chemically correct, burning of the fuel provided.
FORM 536 Fourth Edition

Excess Air Ratio (Lambda or ): A ratio of the

amount of air provided to a combustion process to the
chemically correct (stoichiometric) amount of air. It is
equivalent to the actual air/fuel ratio, AFR, divided by
the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio, AFRS.
actual air flow
AFR
= -------------------------------------------------------------- = --------------stoichiometric air flow

AFR s

Formaldehyde: A hazardous air pollutant with the

chemical formula HCHO.
High (Higher) Heating Value (HHV): The total energy
released from a standard volume usually one cubic
foot of a fuel gas when the products of combustion
are cooled to the same pressure and temperature as
the original air and fuel mixture. This includes the
heat of vaporization of the water formed during combustion since the cooling causes the water vapor to
become liquid.
Landfill Gas: A gas suitable for fuelling an engine
formed by the decomposition of landfill refuse. It is
composed primarily of methane (CH4) and carbon
dioxide (CO2). The saturated lower heating value normally ranges from 400 550 Btu/ft3 (15.73 21.62
MJ/m3).
Lean Operation: Operation of an engine with more air
than is necessary for complete combustion of the fuel
supplied to the cylinders. Lambda is greater than 1.0.
Low (Lower) Heating Value (LHV):
The
energy
released from a standard volume usually one cubic
foot of a fuel gas when the products of combustion
are cooled to the same pressure and temperature as
the original air and fuel mixture. This does not include
the heat of vaporization of the water formed during
combustion since this water is assumed to remain
gaseous.
Natural Gas: A naturally occurring mixture of hydrocarbon and other gasses found beneath the earths
surface, often in connection with oil. The principle constituent is methane (CH4). Minor constituents are
heavier hydrocarbons such as ethane (C2H6), propane
(C3H8), and butane (C4H10), and other gasses such as
nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2), helium (He),
argon (Ar), oxygen (O2), and hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): A pollutant. The combination
of nitrogen oxide, NO, and nitrogen dioxide, NO2,
expressed as NO2.
Non-Selective Catalytic Reduction (NSCR): A catalytic process allowing the simultaneous reduction of
NOx and oxidation of CO and unburned hydrocarbons.
A precious metal catalyst is required for this process.
The AFR must be held within a very narrow band near
stoichiometry to permit all the reactions to occur at a
high efficiency. Also known as a three-way catalyst.
1

GAS ENGINE EMISSIONS TECHNOLOGY

Ozone: A pollutant having the formula O3.

ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS

Particulate Matter: A pollutant composed of very

small natural and man-made solid or liquid particles
such as dust, soot, carbon, and oils.

Pollutants which can be produced in natural gas

engines are classified in six different categories:
NOx (oxides of nitrogen)

Parts-Per-Million (ppmv or ppmw): A ratio calculated

on the basis of the whole being divided into one million
equal parts. The ratio may be calculated on a volume
(ppmv) or weight (ppmw) basis. For example, if 1 ft3 of
carbon dioxide is mixed with 99 ft3 of nitrogen, there is
10,000 ppmv of carbon dioxide in the mixture. Note
that 10,000 ppm equals 1%.
Percent (%v or %w): A ratio calculated on the basis
of the whole being divided into a hundred equal parts.
The ratio may be calculated on a volume (%v) or
weight (%w) basis. For example, if 1 pound of salt is
mixed with 99 pounds of sugar, the mixture contains 1
%w salt. Note that 1% equals 10,000 ppm.
Rich Operation: Operation of an engine with less air
than is necessary for complete combustion of the fuel
supplied to the cylinders. Lambda is less than 1.0.
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR): A catalytic process allowing the reduction of NOx in the presence of
high oxygen concentrations. The process requires the
use of a nitrogen bearing reducing agent, typically
ammonia or urea.
Stoichiometric Mixture: The chemically correct mixture of fuel and air that enables the complete burning
of the combustible portion of the fuel present with zero
remaining oxygen. Lambda is equal to 1.0.
Sulfur Oxides (SOx):A pollutant, primarily SO2.
Urea: A chemical compound produced commercially
from ammonia and carbon dioxide with the formula
NH2 CO NH2. In the form of an aqueous solution it
can be used as a reducing agent for nitrogen oxides,
NOx, in a Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) system.
When injected into the exhaust stream of an engine
the hot gasses over a catalyst cause the decomposition of urea into ammonia that then reacts to reduce
the NOx. Urea does not have the environmental concerns associated with ammonia.
Waukesha Knock Index (WKI): Waukeshas proprietary fuel knock resistance scale for gaseous fuels
determined from a basis of methane = 100 and hydrogen = 0. It includes the knock resistance effects of certain inert gases and is extended to values greater than
100 through the use of a nine gas mixture matrix.
Wet Basis: A system for reporting engine exhaust
emission values based on inclusion of all water vapor
present in the exhaust. This is done with suitable
instrumentation.

CO (carbon monoxide)
HC (hydrocarbons)
SOx (oxides of sulfur)
CHO (aldehydes, Formaldehyde is CH2O)
PM10 (particulate matter 10 microns and
smaller)
NOX
Oxides of nitrogen consist of NO (nitrogen oxide) molecules and NO2 (nitrogen dioxide) molecules which
are formed when N2 (nitrogen) and O2 (oxygen), from
the air, react with each other. This reaction requires a
high combustion temperature and the presence of
nitrogen and oxygen in the combustion chamber as
the fuel is burned.
NO2 harms humans and animals by reducing breathing capacity and limiting the bloods ability to carry O2.
It is also harmful to vegetation. In the lower atmosphere NO2 and NO, when exposed to sunlight, act as
precursors in the formation of O3 (ozone). Ozone in
the lower atmosphere damages plants and synthetics,
and causes coughing, choking and headaches in
humans. Photochemical smog contains NO2, which is
a yellowish-brown color, and ozone.1 These gasses
give smog its brownish color and irritate the lungs and
can weaken the respiratory system leading to
increased susceptibility to infections such as the flu,
bronchitis, and pneumonia.
OZONE
Ozone forms when NOx and hydrocarbons combine
and chemically react in the presence of sunlight.
Ozone irritates the eyes, reduces breathing capacity,
causes inflammation of the lungs, and may trigger
asthma attacks. More sensitive people such as the
elderly and children can experience other symptoms
including chest pains, coughing, wheezing, labored
breathing, and nausea. Ozone can also reduce the
respiratory systems ability to fight infections.
CO
Carbon monoxide is formed by incomplete combustion
of the fuel. Complete combustion of a methane molecule is represented by the formula below:
CH 4 + 2O 2 CO 2 + 2H 2 O

FORM 536 Fourth Edition

GAS ENGINE EMISSIONS TECHNOLOGY

Incomplete combustion of a methane molecule will
produce CO instead of CO2 (carbon dioxide). Incomplete combustion occurs when there is insufficient oxygen near the hydrocarbon (fuel) molecule for complete
combustion or when combustion is quenched near a
cold surface in the combustion chamber.

The non-methane portion of the THC is:

1350 PPMV THC
-1000 PPMV Methane
350 PPMV NMHC

Carbon monoxide is a colorless and odorless poisonous gas. It replaces oxygen in the bodys red blood
cells. Exposure to high CO levels can cause nausea,
headache and fatigue, and, in heavy enough concentrations, CO can even cause death. In the upper atmosphere CO reacts with O3 (ozone) producing CO2,
which depletes the ozone layer of the upper atmosphere. This ozone layer screens harmful sun rays
from reaching the Earths surface. Depleting the ozone
layer allows more harmful rays to reach the surface.1

Non-methane hydrocarbons are singled out

from methane because they can react with
NOx in the lower atmosphere, acting as a precursor in the formation of photochemical smog.
Methane will not readily react in the lower
atmosphere in the smog reactions.1 There are
technical differences between NMHC, VOC,
ROG, and ROC. However, Waukesha considers all of the emissions the same when reporting in technical publications. Consult area
regulation agency to determine potential differences for area being considered.

HC

NM-NEHC

Natural gas is a fuel made up of several hydrocarbon

gases including: CH4 (methane), C2H6 (ethane), C3H8
(propane), C4H10 (butane), and other heavier compounds. A small fraction of these hydrocarbons will
pass through the combustion chamber without reacting. Therefore these hydrocarbons will retain their form
in the exhaust (ie. some methane, ethane, and propane etc. will be found in the exhaust). These hydrocarbon emissions are commonly broken down into two
categories and sometimes a third. These categories
are:

Ethane is also disregarded in some controlled

areas because it has a much lower reactivity
than the heavier hydrocarbons. In these areas
the regulations are based on non-methane,
non-ethane hydrocarbons.

1. THC (Total Hydrocarbons) or TOC (Total

Organic Compounds)

SOX
Oxides of sulfur are formed when sulfur containing
compounds, in the fuel or lube oil, are oxidized in the
combustion chamber. In gaseous fuels sulfur can be
present in the form of H2S (hydrogen sulfide). Oxides
of sulfur enter the atmosphere and combine with water
in the air forming H2SO3 (sulfurous acid) and H2SO4
(sulfuric acid). These acids return to Earth as acid rain.

2. NMHC (Non-Methane Hydrocarbons) or

VOC (Volatile Organic Compounds) or
ROG (Reactive Organic Gases) or ROC
(Reactive Organic Compounds).

H2S can be removed from gaseous fuels with proper

treatments which will decrease the SOx exhaust emission levels.

3. NM-NEHC (Non-Methane,
Hydrocarbons)

In addition, sulfur dioxide, SO2, can narrow airway

passages and lead to difficult breathing especially
for people that have asthma.

Non-Ethane

THC
Total hydrocarbon emissions include all of the
hydrocarbon gases found in the exhaust
stream.
NMHC
Non-methane hydrocarbons are the portion of
the THC (total hydrocarbons) that does not
include methane. For example an exhaust gas
contains:
1000 PPMV Methane
200 PPMV Ethane
100 PPMV Propane
+
50 PPMV Butane
1350 PPMV THC

FORM 536 Fourth Edition

HCHO
Formaldehyde is a product of incomplete combustion
of hydrocarbon fuels and lube oil in an engine. It is
also a part of the resulting smog from photochemical
reactions between oxygen and hydrocarbons.
Starting in March 2004, formaldehyde emissions from
many engines over 500 bhp will be regulated by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Formaldehyde contributes to eye irritation, and polymerizes to form visibility-reducing aerosols.4 Formaldehyde is one of several aldehyde emissions. For gas
engines, formaldehyde is the primary aldehyde emission to consider.

GAS ENGINE EMISSIONS TECHNOLOGY

Formaldehyde is a probable human carcinogen and
can cause irritation of the eyes and throat, coughing,
tightening of the chest, headache, and heart palpitations. Prolonged or severe exposure has caused bronchitis, pulmonary edema, pneumonia, and even death
due to respiratory failure. Long term low level exposure can cause skin rash and respiratory problems.
PM/PM10/PM2.5
Natural and man-made solid or liquid particles such as
dust, soot, carbon, oils, etc. that are finer than the
diameter of a human hair. Particulate in the exhaust of
an engine is formed by incomplete combustion of liquid fuels and lubricating oil. Also, very fine silicon particulate can be ingested with landfill gas fuel and pass
through the engine to be emitted into the atmosphere.
Particulate is subdivided by effective aerodynamic
diameter. All suspended particulate is termed PM. Particulate with an aerodynamic diameter of 10 microns (a
micron is a millionth of a meter) or less is PM10. Even
smaller particulate, with an aerodynamic diameter of
2.5 microns or less, is PM2.5. High levels of PM10 and
PM2.5 are associated with increased respiratory infections, asthma attacks, decreased breathing ability, and
increased mortality rates. Fine particulate tends to
remain suspended in the air for longer periods and
reduce visibility. PM2.5 particles are so small that normal human lung clearing action is unable to remove
them leading to increased risk of lung and throat cancer.
Engine out particulate levels from natural gas engines
are low when compared to diesel engines. Particulate
matter in diesel exhaust has been labeled as a probable carcinogen (cancer causing agent) by some regulatory agencies.

EMISSIONS REGULATIONS
Regulations governing the quantity of pollutants which
a gas engine can discharge vary between different
regions due to the air quality in these regions. Regions
with poor air quality have much tighter restrictions on
exhaust emissions than areas where the air quality is
good. For this reason the local air quality board must
be contacted to determine emission requirements
when engines are considered for new projects or repowers.

In the United States, there are four common methods

of specifying the amount of pollutant discharged by an
engine or limits in permits or regulations. These are:
1. Pollutant per period, e.g., pounds/hour or
tons/year
2. Pollutant per
grams/bhp-hr

output

energy,

e.g.,

3. Pollutant per unit volume, e.g., ppmvd*

(parts per million on a volume, dry basis)
4. Pollutant per energy consumed, e.g.,
lb/MMBtu** (pounds per million Btu)
* must be associated with a specific oxygen dilution
level, e.g., at 15% oxygen
** Need to specify if the energy is on a high or low
heating value basis
1. Pollutant Per Period
On a site that will use gas engines there can be a limit
on how much mass of different pollutants can be discharged during a given time period. For example, in a
Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) area, the
federal Clean Air Act defines certain major emitting
sources as those having the potential to emit 250
tons/year or more of any listed air pollutant. Being
classified as a major source may necessitate additional permitting requirements including modeling, offsets, monitoring, control, or other requirements not
needed for lower emitting, non-major, sites.
The amount of horsepower that can be installed at a
site without exceeding the major source threshold can
be determined from the engine exhaust emission levels, e.g., in lb/day or g/bhp-hr, and the number of hours
that the engine will operate in a year. Note, unless
there is an enforceable limit on the number of operating hours per year, the potential to emit principle
requires that the number of hours in a full year, i.e.,
8760, must be used in this calculation.
For example an engines emission rates are 1.5
g/bhp-hr NOx, 2.65 g/bhp-hr CO, and 1.0 g/bhp-hr
NMHC, the major source limit is 250 tons/year, and
potential to emit must be used. In this case, the CO
emission rate will govern since it is numerically the
largest. Then:
250 ton 907,200 grams
Horsepower = --------------------- -----------------------------------------
year
ton
1 year
hp-hr
------------------------------- ------------------------------- = 9770 HP
8760 hours 2.65 grams

FORM 536 Fourth Edition

GAS ENGINE EMISSIONS TECHNOLOGY

2. Pollutant Per Energy Unit Generated
Some regions limit pollution from a source based on
the amount of useful energy it is producing. For natural
gas engines the useful energy is horsepower-hours of
mechanical energy, therefore the engines are regulated in grams/hp-hr. Limits are set for the pollutants
which are causing the air quality deterioration.
3. Pollutant Per Unit Volume Of Exhaust
This method of specifying exhaust emissions uses the
amount of pollutant in a given volume of exhaust produced. In the United States this in commonly
expressed as ppmvd (parts per million on a volume,
dry basis). In other parts of the world, e.g., Europe,
mass per volume of exhaust produced is commonly
used. The typical units are mg/Nm3 (milligrams per
normal cubic meter). To be complete and unambiguous, volume based measurements must be associated
with a specific oxygen, or dilution, level. In the US this
is commonly 15% oxygen. Europe typically uses 5%
oxygen while other parts of the world use different values.
4. Pollutant Per Energy Unit Consumed
This method involves regulating pollution based on the
amount of fuel consumed. Common units for this are
lb/MMBtu of fuel.
Efficiency Adjustment Factors
Many regions will consider the efficiency of the engine
in the calculation to allow more efficient engines a
higher emissions limit. This is accounted for by the formula:
Allowable Pollutant =
Engine Efficiency
Pollutant Limit -----------------------------------------------------Baseline Efficiency

Baseline efficiency is determined by the governing

agency.
Acronyms
The following definitions of emissions control technology follow federal EPA definitions. Note that the distinction between RACT, BACT, and LAER is often
blurred on a state and local level. Some states may
use BACT generically to mean any, or all, of the three
levels of control as defined in the Clean Air Act.
BACT Best Available Control Technology is applied
to major new or modified emissions sources in attainment areas and applies to each regulated criteria pollutant.
EPA The federal Environmental Protection Agency.
HAP Hazardous Air Pollutant.

FORM 536 Fourth Edition

LAER Lowest Achievable Emission Rate is applied

to new or modified sources in non-attainment areas.
MACT Maximum Achievable Control Technology is
the maximum degree of reduction possible in HAP
emissions. MACT may be a specified technology, e.g.,
oxidation catalyst, and/or may include revised procedures, fuel switching, operator training, etc. The MACT
floor level does not take cost or other factors into
consideration. A more stringent, above the floor,
MACT takes into consideration cost, energy requirements, and any non-air quality health and environmental issues.
NA A Non-Attainment area is one in which the
NAAQS standards for one or more of the criteria pollutants are not met. The state must have a SIP to bring
this region into compliance with the NAAQS at the earliest possible date.
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standard.
One type of nation-wide, federal air pollution standard.
It is applied to the six criteria pollutants, ozone, carbon
monoxide, total suspended particulate, sulfur dioxide,
lead, and nitrogen oxide.
NESHAPS The National Emissions Standards for
Hazardous Air PollutantS is a nation-wide, federal air
pollution program of standards for 188 specific hazardous air pollutants governed by Title III of the Clean Air
Act. It applies to new, reconstructed, and existing
sources. A NESHAPS was enacted for reciprocating,
internal combustion engines in February, 2003. It will
apply to engines at major sources of HAPs (formaldehyde). A major source of HAPs is defined as any
source that emits 10 tons/year or more of any individual HAP or 25 tons/year or more of any combination of
HAPs. Catalytic oxidation of formaldehyde is the technology preferred by the EPA.
NSPS New Source Performance Standard. A uniform, national air standard set by the EPA for air emission from a specific type or class of source such as
gas turbine, steel mill, acid plant, etc., for criteria pollutants. A NSPS has not been issued for reciprocating,
internal combustion engines.
RACT Reasonably Available Control Technology is
applied to existing sources in non-attainment areas. It
is the lowest emission limit that a source can meet by
application of control technology that is reasonably
available taking technological and economic feasibility
into account.
SIP A State Implementation Plan. This is an EPA
approved state plan for the establishment, regulation,
and enforcement of air pollution standards and controls. These state plans may incorporate regulations
more stringent than those spelled out in federal EPA
regulations or NSPS.
5

GAS ENGINE EMISSIONS TECHNOLOGY

THE 1990 CLEAN AIR ACT AMENDMENTS
(CAAA) AND THE TITLE V OPERATING
PERMIT PROGRAM
The 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments arguably form
the most comprehensive and far-reaching federal environmental law. As amended, it now contains, in Title V,
the framework of a national operating permit system
that will be administered by the states for many new,
modified, and existing sources. Operating permits are
legally enforceable documents issued by regulatory
agencies to air pollution sources after the source has
begun to operate. Most large and some smaller
sources must now obtain a Title V permit to operate.
The purpose of a Title V permit is to reduce air pollution violations and improve enforcement of air quality
regulations. A Title V permit does this by:
- recording in a single document all of the air pollution
control requirements that apply to the source. This
gives everyone including the public and the sources
management a clear picture of what the source is
required to do to comply with its legal limits.

Another way in which air/fuel ratio is represented is

with an excess air ratio referred to as Lambda ().
Excess air ratio is determined with the following formula:
Operating air/fuel ratio
= -----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio

= 1.0 at the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio

In recent years, engines which operate at a much

leaner air fuel ratio have been utilized because of their
low emissions and low fuel consumption characteristics. With a lean air/fuel ratio ( > 1.0) there is more
oxygen in the combustion chamber than is required for
combustion which leaves a high concentration of oxygen in the exhaust. Fuel consumption in a lean combustion engine is typically 5-12% lower than in a
similar stoichiometric combustion engine.
Figure 1 illustrates exhaust NOx output compared to
the air/fuel ratio.

- requiring the source to make regular reports on how

it is measuring its emissions and the performance of
the controls it is using to limit emissions. These reports
are public documents.
- adding monitoring, testing, and/or record keeping
requirements, if needed, to assure that the source
remains in compliance with its emission limits and
other pollution control obligations.
- requiring the source to certify each year that it has
met the air pollution requirements in its Title V permit.
The permits usually require self-reporting of any violations found by the source. These certifications are also
public information.
- making the terms of the Title V permit federally
enforceable. This means that the EPA and the general
public can bring suit to enforce the terms of the permit
along with the issuing state agency.

NATURAL GAS ENGINE EMISSIONS

In the past natural gas engines were commonly operated at an air/fuel ratio which provided the most horsepower for the amount of air being consumed. This
air/fuel ratio is fuel rich of Stoichiometry. Stoichiometry is defined as: The chemically correct air/fuel ratio
where all the fuel and all the oxygen in the mixture will
be consumed.

Figure 1.

To the rich side (left side on the graph) of stoichiometry, NOx decreases significantly due to the lack of oxygen in the combustion chamber and lower combustion
temperatures. On the lean side (right) of stoichiometry
the NOx reaches a peak because combustion temperature remains high and there is an abundance of oxygen. At increasingly lean air/fuel ratios, the combustion
temperature continues to fall and NOx levels fall even
though excess oxygen exists in the cylinder. As stated
earlier, NOx formation requires the presence of oxygen
and nitrogen in a high temperature environment, therefore less NOx is formed at lower temperatures.

FORM 536 Fourth Edition

GAS ENGINE EMISSIONS TECHNOLOGY

Carbon Monoxide levels are also lower in a lean combustion engine than in a stoichiometric engine
because there is now plenty of oxygen for the fuel molecules to react with. Figure 2 illustrates CO levels
compared to air/fuel ratio.

Like CO emissions, NMHC emissions also are higher

at points rich of stoichiometry because of the lack of
oxygen for combustion. NMHC emissions are also
minimum at a point slightly lean of stoichiometry and
increase at further lean air/fuel ratios. The amount of
NMHCs are higher at the lean combustion air/fuel ratio
than at stoichiometry, also because of lower combustion temperatures.
Figure 4 sums up the emission levels for typical natural gas engines at various air/fuel ratios.

Figure 2.

Operating to the rich side of stoichiometry causes a significant increase in CO because of the lack of sufficient
oxygen to complete combustion of the fuel molecules.
At a point slightly lean of stoichiometry, CO output hits
a minimum because there is sufficient oxygen and high
combustion temperatures. At leaner combustion air/fuel
ratios, CO increases due to poorer combustion from
low combustion temperatures and lower flammability of
the fuel mixture. Emissions of CO, however, are still
lower at this point than at stoichiometry.
Levels of NMHCs also vary with air/fuel ratio as shown
in Figure 3.

Figure 4.

Overall (with the exception of NMHCs) we can see that

a lean combustion engine provides much lower levels
of pollutants than a stoichiometric engine. The lean
combustion engine does this without the aid of
exhaust after-treatment (catalytic converter) and without the need for electronic air/fuel ratio control.
Lean combustion engines have demonstrated low
emission levels consistently because these emissions
are not affected by deterioration of a catalyst or failure
of electronic oxygen sensing devices.
Ignition of the high air/fuel ratio in a lean combustion
engine can be obtained fairly well with a high turbulence open chamber design. Another method, utilizing
a pre-chamber with a stoichiometric mixture to ignite a
lean main chamber, can produce better combustion at
leaner air/fuel ratios. Open chamber and pre-chamber
configurations are shown in Figure 5.

Figure 3.
FORM 536 Fourth Edition

GAS ENGINE EMISSIONS TECHNOLOGY

Waukesha VGF-GL models are open chamber, lean
burn engines, running at = 1.53 to 1.67. The VHP
and AT-GL engines utilize a pre-chamber combustion
chamber for leaner operation at =1.74 to 2.0. Some
VHP engines utilize a high turbulence open chamber
design which operate at =1.52 to 1.54 (Refer to the
current WED Product Bulletins for emission levels on
all models.)
The pollutants in exhaust gas comprise only a small
percentage of the total exhaust gas. The remainder of
the exhaust gas consists of harmless, naturally occurring gases. Some of these gases are formed in the
combustion process while others are simply passing
through the combustion chamber without chemically
reacting. The composition of air, and some typical
compositions of exhaust gas, are given in the chart
below.
Figure 5.

SUMMARY OF PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION WITH NATURAL GAS FUEL*

Excess Air Ratio Setting =
GASES

0.97

1.00

1.06

1.53

1.74

2.00

AIR

N2

69.5%

71%

72.1%

73.8%

74.5%

75.3%

79%

H2O

20.9%

19%

17.1%

12.8%

10.9%

9.5%

Trace

CO2

8.4%

9.2%

9%

6.4%

5.7%

4.9%

Trace

O2

Trace

0.25%

1.15%

6.8%

8.8%

10.1%

21%

CO

0.9%

0.3%

Trace

Trace

Trace

Trace

NOx

Trace

0.25%

0.5%

Trace

Trace

Trace

HC

Trace

Trace

Trace

Trace

Trace

Trace

*Trace indicates less than 0.2%.

NOTE: Summary based on a wet volume basis.

EXHAUST EMISSIONS FOR ALTERNATE

FUELS
Gaseous fueled engines are often operated on fuels
other than natural gas. Propane and waste recovery
fuels are the most popular of these: HD-5 propane
as a standby fuel and waste recovery fuels, such as

GAS

NATURAL

Methane
Ethane

digester gas and landfill gas, as primary fuels. These

fuels produce a noticeable difference in exhaust gas
emissions when compared to natural gas. Before we
discuss the emissions levels of these fuels we
should have a better understanding of the fuels content. The chart below summarizes typical gas concentrations in the fuel.

HD-5 PROPANE

DIGESTER

LANDFILL

COAL SEAM

95%

65%

55%

95%

3%

4%

Propane

1%

95%

Butane+

1%

1%

Carbon Dioxide

35%

45%

3%

Nitrogen

2%

FORM 536 Fourth Edition

GAS ENGINE EMISSIONS TECHNOLOGY

Figure 6 illustrates NOx and CO output vs excess air
ratio for natural gas, HD-5 propane, and landfill gas.
Note that air/fuel ratio has been removed.

HD-5 propane NMHCs are the highest since HD-5 propane fuel is 100% non-methane hydrocarbon. Natural
gas contains about 5% non-methane hydrocarbon in
the fuel, therefore it has a lower level in the exhaust.
Landfill gas and digester gas contain no non-methane
hydrocarbons in the fuel, therefore their NMHC emission levels are much lower. The NMHCs which do exist
in landfill gas and digester gas exhaust are from combustion of lubricating oil in the engine.

EXHAUST GAS AFTERTREATMENT

The following discussion briefly covers commonly
available aftertreatment technologies and is not meant
to be all inclusive.
Catalyst

Figure 6.

Stoichiometry for propane, digester gas, and landfill

gas are at different air/fuel ratios than for natural gas,
therefore we only use the excess air ratio designation
for this graph.
NOx emissions for natural gas and propane are nearly
the same while emissions for landfill gas are much
lower. This is because of the high concentration of
inert gas (CO2) in landfill gas which cools the peak
combustion temperature, reducing NOx.
HD-5 propane combustion at lean air fuel ratios is not
as complete as methane. Therefore, CO concentration
is higher at lean air/fuel ratios, = 1.2 and above, than
with natural gas or landfill gas.
Concentration of NMHCs also vary with the type of
fuel an engine is operated with. Figure 7 illustrates
NMHC concentration for the three fuels.

Emissions from an engine can be reduced by chemically converting the pollutants into harmless, naturally
occurring compounds. The most common method for
achieving this is through the use of a catalytic converter. A catalyst is a substance which promotes a
chemical reaction without being chemically changed
itself. In a catalytic converter, the catalyst will either
oxidize (oxidation catalyst) a CO or fuel molecule or
reduce (reduction catalyst) an NOx molecule. The general (not balanced) reducing reactions are shown
below:
NO x + CO N 2 + CO 2
NO x + CH 4 N 2 + CO 2 + H 2 O
NO x + H 2 N 2 + H 2 O

These reactions are reducing the NOx to nitrogen and

oxidizing the fuel and CO molecules. These reactions
oxidize some of the CO and NMHC molecules, however further conversion is accomplished with an oxidizing catalyst. The oxidizing reactions take place as
shown here:
CO + O 2 CO 2
CH 4 + O 2 CO 2 + H 2 O
CnHm + O 2 CO 2 + H 2 O
H2 + O2 H2 O

Figure 7.

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GAS ENGINE EMISSIONS TECHNOLOGY

Three Way Catalyst
A 3-way catalyst contains both reduction catalyst
materials and oxidation catalyst materials and will convert NOx, CO, and NMHCs to N2, CO2, and H2O. A
catalyst process which causes reactions of several
pollutant components is referred to as Non Selective
Catalyst Reduction (NSCR). Typical emission conversion efficiencies for a three-way catalyst operating on
a near stoichiometric engine are:
90+% decrease in NOx
80+% decrease in CO
50+% decrease in NMHC
The efficiency of a three way catalyst is highly dependent on the percentages of NOx, CO, O2, and NMHCs
in the reaction. A very narrow air/fuel ratio operating
range is necessary to maintain these percentages.
Electronic air/fuel ratio controls are often necessary to
maintain this range.2
Oxidation Catalyst
An oxidation catalyst is often used on lean combustion
engines to oxidize CO and hydrocarbon molecules in
the exhaust. The lean combustion principle produces
very low NOx emission so this pollutant usually does
not require further reduction. Since an oxidation catalyst eliminates CO and HC emissions it is considered
an NSCR.
Dual bed catalyst
A less common method for treating stoichiometric
engine exhaust emissions is with a dual bed catalyst.
A dual bed catalyst utilizes separate reduction and oxidation sections with air introduced after the reduction
catalyst and before the oxidation catalyst. Figure 8
illustrates a Dual Bed Catalyst.

Exhaust from the engine first travels through the

reduction catalyst where the following reactions take
place.
NO x + CO CO 2 + N 2
NO x + H 2 H 2 O + N 2
NO x + CH 4 CO 2 + H 2 O + N 2

Air is added to the exhaust stream before it enters the

oxidation catalyst where these next reactions take
place.
CO + O 2 CO2
H2 + O2 H2 O
CnHm + O 2 CO 2 + H 2 O
CH 4 + O 2 CO 2 + H 2 O

A Dual Bed catalyst can convert up to 98% of both

NOx and CO and does not require the very narrow
air/fuel ratio operating range required for the 3-way
catalyst.2 Dual bed catalysts are losing popularity,
however, because 3-way catalysts are now approaching the same efficiencies.
Selective Catalytic Reduction
As discussed earlier, lean combustion, GL, engines
emit low NOx compared to similar stoichiometric
engines without a catalyst. When GL engines were
first introduced this low NOx level was acceptable virtually everywhere without any exhaust aftertreatment.
Many much more stringent emissions regulations currently or soon to be in force require NOx levels
lower than the best that lean combustion can provide.
NOx from a lean combustion engine can sometimes
be reduced a small additional amount with engine
adjustments. These adjustments will compromise
other engine performance areas such as raising other
emission levels, raising fuel consumption, and affecting power output and engine stability. A NSCR catalyst
cannot be used with a lean burn engine because of
the high levels of oxygen present in the exhaust
stream.
If further NOx reduction is needed from a lean combustion engine, the most common way to obtain this
reduction is with a Selective Catalytic Reduction
(SCR) system. SCR is selective in that it is effective
only on NOx and it avoids the problem of excess oxygen in the exhaust stream by the injection of an outside reducing agent.

Figure 8.

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GAS ENGINE EMISSIONS TECHNOLOGY

Early SCR technology involved injecting anhydrous
ammonia as the reducing agent into the exhaust gas
upstream from the catalyst. As the hot exhaust gas
passes over the catalyst the NOx and ammonia combine to form nitrogen gas and water vapor. The
amount of ammonia must be carefully controlled so
that ammonia slip or breakthrough does not occur.
The system typically includes a NOx monitor upstream
of the catalyst and a feedback loop mechanism to
ensure that the proper quantity of ammonia is injected
to eliminate as much NOx as possible without emitting
unreacted ammonia. Ammonia is, itself, a hazardous
compound requiring care in its use and storage and
can cause harmful effects if emitted.
Recently, SCR systems have been switching to an
aqueous solution of urea as the reducing agent. Since
urea is not considered a hazardous material, as is
ammonia, handling costs and problems are reduced.
Urea is a man-made compound produced commercially from ammonia and carbon dioxide with the formula NH2 CO NH2.
For urea SCR systems, the first part of the catalyst
converts the urea and water vapor from combustion to
ammonia and carbon dioxide. Then the ammonia and
NOx react, as before, to form nitrogen gas and water
vapor. A final oxidation stage can be added to the catalyst housing where any excess ammonia is oxidized
to nitrogen gas and water vapor. At the same time
hydrocarbons react with the oxygen present to form
carbon dioxide, water vapor, and a small amount of
carbon monoxide.
Figure 9 shows a basic ammonia SCR system. Urea
can be substituted for ammonia in this figure.

The basic chemical reactions governing the SCR process are:

Urea to Ammonia:
NH 2 CO NH 2 + H 2 O 2NH 3 + CO 2

NOx destruction:
4NH 3 + 4NO + O 2 4N 2 + 6H 2 O

or
6NH 3 + 2NO2 + O 2 4N 2 + 6H 2 O

Ammonia destruction:
4NH 3 + 3O2 2N 2 + 6H 2 O

This process can result in final stack emissions of NOx

as low as 0.2 g/bhp-hr. Whether ammonia or urea is
used, it is a consumable that must be replaced.

ELECTRONIC AIR/FUEL RATIO CONTROL

Stoichiometric Combustion Engine
Maintaining low emissions in a stoichiometric combustion engine using exhaust gas treatment often requires
a very closely regulated air/fuel ratio. Many control
devices are available for this and most use exhaust
gas oxygen sensing to determine air/fuel ratio.
A more universal Custom Engine Control Air/Fuel
Module (AFM) is offered by Waukesha. The AFM system is designed to function with all types of gaseous
fueled engines that Waukesha manufactureres including near stoichiometric and lean burn, naturally aspirated and turbocharged.
Theory of Operation
The AFM system controls engine air/fuel ratio and
consists of three basic components: an oxygen sensor, actuator, and AFM module. The AFM system is a
closed-loop process that looks at system outputs and
adjusts system inputs according to preprogrammed
instructions.

Figure 9.

FORM 536 Fourth Edition

The AFM system functions by monitoring oxygen levels in the exhaust gases with an oxygen sensor
located in the engines exhaust stream (see
Figure 10). The oxygen level, detected by the sensor,
is then fed to the AFM module through an electrical
signal. If the oxygen level detected by the sensor is different than the programmed oxygen set-point, the
AFM module directs the actuator to adjust the gas over
air pressure of the fuel regulator.

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GAS ENGINE EMISSIONS TECHNOLOGY

Figure 10.

The actuator adjusts the fuel regulator setting, within

programmed limits, by increasing or decreasing the
spring pressure acting on the regulator diaphragm.
The design gives very accurate positioning capability.
The regulator adjustment richens or leans out the
air/fuel ratio.

variance in heating value, such as some landfill gas

applications.

A thermocouple is used to assure that temperatures

are high enough for correct operation of the sensor. A
programmed minimum temperature must be achieved
before closed-loop control is enabled. A programmed
maximum temperature is also incorporated as a safety
to shut down operation on high exhaust temperature
conditions.
The oxygen sensor provides continuous feedback of
oxygen levels to the AFM module. The AFM module
makes the necessary actuator adjustments to correctly control the engines air/fuel ratio.
Lean Combustion Engines
Electronic control of air/fuel ratio is not required on
many lean combustion engines because small
changes in air/fuel ratio have very little effect on the
exhaust emissions. Figure 11 again illustrates emissions levels vs. Air/fuel ratio. The boxes around Stoich and Lean Combustion indicate the air/fuel ratio
drift that might occur during operation of an engine
without an air/fuel ratio control. At stoichiometry it is
apparent that a small change in air/fuel ratio can
cause a large change in NOx and CO which, when
used with a 3-way catalyst, can cause low conversion
efficiency. At the lean combustion air fuel ratio a small
change in air fuel ratio causes very little effect on the
emissions levels. Efficiency of an oxidation catalyst
operating on a lean combustion engine is unaffected
by these small air/fuel ratio changes.

Figure 11.

Using air/fuel ratio controls on lean combustion

engines which operate on steady heating value fuels
can add unnecessary complication and expense.
Its apparent from the information presented in this
paper that most of the extremely low emissions levels
are obtained using some type of exhaust gas treatment.
These levels can be misleading however, because they
rely on very strict maintenance of the treatment catalyst. Efficiency of catalytic converters will decrease if
they are coated with contaminants from the fuel, or
from lube oil additives. They can also be damaged by
overheating, or poisoning from fuel contaminants or
operating at an incorrect air/fuel ratio on stoichiometric
engines.

Electronic controls for air/fuel ratio on lean combustion

engines are often used for fuels which can have a wide

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GAS ENGINE EMISSIONS TECHNOLOGY

References
1. DeYoung, Richard, GL and Emissions-Air Pollution, Waukesha Engines Service Training Center.
2. Mayer, Charles, AT-GL Sales & Application-Gas Engine Exhaust Emissions Overview, Waukesha
Engines Application Engineering, 1990.
3. Radian Corporation, Austin, TX.
4. Obert, Edward F., Internal Combustion Engines and Air Pollution, Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc.,
1973.
5. Stachowicz, Robert, Near Term Emission Reduction Technologies For Stationary, Natural Gas Fuel
Engines, Air & Waste Management Association, SP-83, 1992.

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