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Biochemistry

National Medical
Admission Test (NMAT)
review:

Biology
Prepared by Joshua Evans M. Bajao

Macromolecules

Simply put, a very large molecule that is

necessary for life.

Created by the polymerization of smaller

subunits called monomers.

4 Types of the most important Macromolecules

Lipids
Carbohydrates

Macromolecules: Lipids
A group of naturally occurring non-polar
molecules that contain hydrocarbons.
Glycerol and fatty acids are the monomers of
lipids.

fatty acid

Nucleic Acids
Proteins
glycerol

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Macromolecules: Lipids

Main function of lipids include energy storage,

signaling, and structural components of the cell
memrabe (Phospholipids).

Macromolecules: Carbohydrates
One

of the main types of nutrients.

is the monomer of
carbohydrates.
Polysaccharides may serve as a storage for
energy and or structural components.
Includes sugars, starch, cellulose, etc.
Monosaccharides

Macromolecules: Carbohydrates

Macromolecules: Proteins

Three

of the most common disaccharides

Are large biomolecules that perform a vast array of

functions within the organism.
Composed of one or more chains of amino acid
residues, the monomer for proteins.
The structure of an amino acid
consist of one carbon with
a carboxylic acid and an
amine group

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Macromolecules: Proteins

Macromolecules: Nucleic acids

Are Macromolecules composed by nucleotides.
Nucleotides consist of a nitrogenous bases
(Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine), a fivecarbon sugar backbone
(deoxyribose for DNA,
ribose for RNA), and a
phosphate group.

CELLS

Cell
Cell

is the smallest, most basic structural,

functional, and biological unit of life.
Every organism is compose of one
(unicellular organims) or more (multicellular
organism) cell.
It is the smallest unit of life capable of
replicating/reproducing itself independently.

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Cell Theory
The

cell is the most basic unit of life.

Two types of Cells

Prokaryote

Eukaryote

All

living organisms are composed of one or

more cells.

All

cells arise from pre-existing, living cells,

Matthias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann

Prokaryote Anatomy

The main difference is that eukaryotic cell

have membrane bound organelles.

Eukaryote Anatomy

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Summary:

Summary:

Difference between Eukaryote and Prokaryote

Difference between Eukaryote and Prokaryote

Prokaryote

Eukaryote

Size

~0 .2-2m

~ 10-100m

Location of genomic material

(DNA)

Nucleoid region

Membrane bound nucleus

DNA

Single, Circular, lack

histones

More than one, linear, with

histones (protein)

Prokaryote
Motility

Flagella

Rotating Flagella (some)

Eukaryote
Undulating Flagella, Cilia
(microtubule arranged in a
9+2 manner), and or
Pseudopodia

Some (made of flagellin)

some (made of microtubule)

Membrane bound organelles

Absent

Present

Cilia

Absent

Some (made of microtubule)

RNA/protein synthesis

RNA and proteins:

Cytoplasm

RNA: Nucleus (nucleolus)

Protein: Cytoplasm (free
ribosome/RER)

Fimbrae and Pili

Some

Absent

Cell Wall

Most, made of peptidoglycan

Most, cellulose for plants,

chitin for fungi

80S
Small subunit: 60S
Large subunit: 40S

ATP production (etransport chain)

Cell membrane

Mitochondria

Mode of reproduction

Binary Fission (asexual)

Conjugation (sexual)

Mitosis (asexual)
Meiosis (gamete production)

Robosome subunit

70S
Small subunit: 50S
Large subunit: 30S

Cell Cycle

Mitosis

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Mitosis

Meiosis I

Meiosis II

Meiosis II: detailed

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Meiosis II: detailed

Genetics

Genetics

Genetic terms

Is

Gene a stretch of DNA that determines a certain trait.

ex: Eye Color, Skin color
Allele a specific variation of a gene.
ex: Blue eyes, green eyes, black skin, white skin

the study of genes, heredity and genetic

variations among species.
Gregor Johann Mendel, a scientist and an
Augustinian friar, is said to be
the father of modern genetics
due to his studies regarding the
pea plants.

Dominant alleles are alleles that show their effect even if the
individual has only one copy of the said allele.
Recessive alleles are alleles that show their effect only if the
individual has two copies of the said allele.

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Genetic terms
Homozygous a genetic condition where an individual inherits
the same alleles for a particular gene from both parents.
ex: AA, TT, yy, gg
Heterozygous a genetic condition where an individual
inherits two different alleles of a particular gene from
both parents.
ex: Aa, Tt, Yy, Gg
Genotype the organisms genetic makeup
Phenotype the organisms observable characteristic or trait

Mendelian Inheritance

Mendelian Inheritance (Laws)

Law

Definition

Law of Segregation

During gamete formation, the allele of each gene

segregate from each other so that each gametes
carries only one copy of the said gene

Law of Independent
Assortment

Genes for different trait segregate independently

from each other during gamete formation

Law of Dominance

Some alleles are dominant while other are

recessive. An organism with atleast one dominant
allele will display the phenotype of the said allele

Mendelian Inheritance
If a pure bred yellow seeded pea plant was
crossed with another pea plant with a green
seeds:
a) What is the genotypic ratio of the F2
generation?
b) What is the phenotypic ration of the F2
generation

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Mendelian Inheritance
YY
Gametes produced:

Yy

Yy

Mendelian Inheritance
Yy

yy
y

Yy

Yy

Gametes produced:

YY

Yy

Punnett square
Punnett square

Yy

Yy

yy

YY

Yy

Yy

Yy

Yy

yy

Yy

Yy

Mendelian Inheritance
If a round yellow seeded pea plan that is
heterozygous on both traits were crossed to a pea
plant with the same genotype:
a) What is the chance that the offspring will have
a green seed that is wrinkled?
b) What is the chance that the offspring will have
a yellow seed that is wrinkled?
Yellow (Y) is dominant over green and round (R)
is dominant over wrinkled.

a) Genotypic ratio is 1YY:2Yy:1yy

b) Phenotypic ration: 3 Yellow: 1 Green

Mendelian Inheritance
YyRr x YyRr
YR Yr yR yr x YR Yr yR yr
YR

Yr

yR

yr

YR

YYRR

YYRr

YyRR

YyRr

Yr

YYRr

YYrr

YyRr

Yyrr

yR

YyRR

YyRr

yyRR

yyRr

yr

YyRr

Yyrr

yyRr

yyrr

*Bold letter signifies the round phenotype

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Mendelian Inheritance
YyRr x YyRr
YY Yy Yy yy : RR Rr Rr rr
YY = ; Yy = 2/4; yy = : RR = ; Rr = 2/4; rr =
a) Green seed that is wrinkled = yyrr
yyrr = (yy) x (rr) = 1/16
b) Yellow seed that is wrinkled = Y_rr
Y_ = YY + Yy = + 2/4 =
Y_rr = (Y_) x (rr) = 3/16

Mendelian Inheritance
Two pea plants were crossed, there genotypes are
as follows: TtRRYy and ttRrYy (T= tall is
dominant to short; R= rounded seed is dominant to
wrinkled; Y= yellow seed is dominant to green).
a) What fraction of the progeny will be tall, and
has a yellow wrinkled seed?
b) What about short with green round seed?

Non-Mendelian Inheritance

Incomplete dominance

Sometimes called as Neo-mendelian, is any

pattern of inheritance that doesnt confirm to
Mendels law of inheritance.

A type of dominance that occur when the

phenotype of the heterozygous is distinct, or
often an intermediate, to phenotype of both
homozygous alleles.

Examples of Non-Mendelian Inheritance

Incomplete dominance
Codominance
Multiple allele
Sex-linked

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Codominance

Multiple allele

A type of dominance that occur when both

alleles are expressed equally and is visible as a
phenotype.

A type of non-Mendelian
inheritance pattern that
involves more than just
the typical two alleles
that usually code for a
certain phenotype in a
species.

Multiple allele

Sex-linked gene

Cross

between AaBbCc x aaBbCC.

What is the chance that the offspring are
light colored?
Aa aa; BB Bb Bb bb; CC Cc
Aa

(Aa) x (bb) x (Cc) = 1/16

aa CC (aa) x (bb) x (CC) = 1/16

Cc (aa) x 2/4(Bb) x (Cc) = 2/16

Light colored = 1/16 + 1/16 + 2/16 = 4/16 =

These are genes, thus, also the allele, that

are found in the X chromosomes alone.
The result is that the females will have two
copies of the sex-linked gene while males
will only have one copy of the gene.
Females that have a heterozygous allele of
a recessive trait in their genotype are called
Carriers.

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Sex-linked gene (example)

Red-green color blindness is a recessive
X-linked gene abnormality. Suppose a normal
female carrier (XCXc) has married a normal
male (XCY).
a) What is the Genotypic ratio of their
offspring.
b) What is the Phenotypic ratio of their
offspring.

Sex-linked gene (example)

XCXc x XCY
XCXC XCY XcXC XcY
a)
b)

1 normal female: 1carrier female: 1

normal male: 1 color blind male
2 normal female: 1 normal male: 1 color
blind male

Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

Central Dogma
of Molecular
Biology

Replication
DNA

process of producing two identical

DNA from one original DNA template

Transcription
RNA

Process of copying the DNA template

into an RNA

Translation
Protein

Translating the RNA code into a protein

sequence

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Replication

Replication

Replication
Enzymes

Function

TopoIsomerase

Relaxes the DNA from its super-coiled nature

Helicase

Unwinds the DNA helix at the replication fork

Single Strand Binding

(SSB) protein

Bind to ssDNA (single stranded DNA) to prevent it

from re-annealing (binding) after DNA helicase
unwinds it

DNA primase

Provides a starting point of RNA (or DNA) for DNA

polymerase to begin synthesis of the new DNA strand

DNA polymerase

Builds a new DNA strand by adding nucleotides in a

5 to 3 direction. Also performs proof reading and
error correction.

DNA ligase

Re-anneals the semi-conservative strands and joins

the Okazaki Fragments of the lagging strand.

Transcription

Always remember, both strand of DNA double

helix complements each other
Purines
A = T Pyrimidines
G = C
5 ATG GAG CCA GCA TCG GAT TAA 3!
3 TAC CTC GGT CGT AGC CTA ATT 5!
Thus, A + G = T + C
Note: RNA polymerase doesnt need a primer to propagate
Only one strand is transcribed (template strand)
Need a promoter region

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Transcription

Transcription
Always remember, like DNA, RNA complements the
template DNA, with one exemption: Thymine is
absent in RNA. Instead, Uracil (U) complements
Adenosine (A).

DNA template
5 ATG GAG CCA GCA TCG GAT TAA 3!
3 UAC CUC GGU CGU AGC CUA AUU 5
!
!
!
RNA

Translation

Translation coding

Translation

occur in the ribosomes

There are three kinds of RNA
responsible for translation
mRNA (messenger RNA) RNA that is

transcribed

tRNA (transfer RNA)RNA that holds the

amino acid

rRNA (ribosomal RNA) One of the

constituents of ribosomes, together with

various proteins.

5 AUG GAG CCA GCA UCG GAU UAA 3!

Met Glu Pro Ala Ser Asp stop!

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Translation

Translation

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