A Study of Directional Element Connections for Phase Relays W. K. SONNEMANN NeMeER AE SHE subject of the performance of single-phase directional relay cle- ments for phase fault protection has never been completely analyzed with ‘consideration given to all the possible variables. The analyses which have been made have been limited in scope when intended to be general in nature, or have been slanted toward specific problems. It is the purpose of this paper to extend the boundaries of the generalities of the analysis in the hope that the results will bbe beneficial to the industry through making answers available which have heretofore been difficult to obtain, Scope ‘The relay directional elements to be studied in this paper are single-phase clements only as normally applied forthe purpose of making directional discrimi nations for interphase faults. Polyphase Giectional relays are excluded on the basis that the method of approach used here is not adaptable to predicting their performance. Ground elaysare excluded fon the basis that they may be more con- ‘veniently studied as a separate problem, free of many of the complication that en- ter into a consideration of phase relays. ‘The single-phase directional elements that are tobe studied are used widely and thus {orm a conveniently separable bloc inthe over-all problem of directional diserimina- tion, ‘This blocs characterized by certain conditions that may be grouped into the ‘two classifications of (1) fixed, and (2) variable considerations. These are as follows: Faxep CONSIDERATIONS. ‘There are three relay directional ele- ‘ments for a S.phase system, one for each 1438 phase, There are four types of faults, ‘hich are phase-to-phase, single-phase-to ground, 2-phase-to-ground, and three phase. There are four types of connec: S which are commonly used, these being the 90-degree, two forms of 60- degree, and the 30-degree connections. (These willbe further described.) There is also the consideration of the location of the relays in the power system relative to delta star (or star delta) connected trans- former banks, parallel feeds, and zero sequence sources. The author believes that the variables of location in the sys- tem can be reduced to three as typified by Figures 1, 2, and 8, and this wil be discussed. Multiplying together the numbers involved in the above groups yields a product of 144, indicating that there are 144 facetsto the problem to be borne in mind while studying the variable considerations. These are actually re- duced to 86 in number, however, by virtue of the facts that: itis only neces- sary to study one relay out of three for Siphase faults; some of the relays are not affected by some of the faults; and, the system of Figure 2 is a duplicate of that of Figure 1 insofar as phase-to-phase and ‘Sephase faults are concerned. These 88 facets are involved in the interpretation of the effects of the variable considera- tons. Varian. CoNSIDERATIONS ‘The impedances of the power system are conveniently broken down into two single equivalent impedances for each sequence network, which are the im- ‘pedance of the source up to the relay loca- tion, and the impedance of the transmis- sion line from the relay to the point of fault, The impedance of the line may vary from zero representing a close in Sonnemann—Directional Relay Elements solid fault, toa relatively large value rep- resenting ‘either a fault far removed from the relay location, or else a fault in- volving an arc of very considerable Iength. For any given line impedance to ‘the point of fault, the source impedance ray be relatively’small, large, or in be- tween. The impedance angle of the line may be diferent from that of the source. ‘The author bas considered that the line ‘angle may vary from zero degrees (arcing Sault) to 90 degrees lagging, and that the source impedance angle may vary be- ‘tween the limits of 60 to 90 degrees lag sing. The zero sequence impedances for the source and line may difer ia relative ‘magnitude and impedance angle with re- spect to each other and quite independ- ently of the positive and negative se- quence network impedinees, The 86 facets of the problem are interpreted in the light of these variable considerations. ‘There are other variables which are not covered in this study. ‘These are con- cemed with the effects of load current and synchronizing current duiring faults, ‘and the variations possible between the positive and negative sequence networks. This study is Hmited to the effects of short circuit current only, and is based on ‘the assumption that the positive and negative sequence impedances are iden- ‘cal. In certain special cases, it may be necessary to consider the effect of load ‘curent, but itis believed that such cases vill be relatively infrequent. ‘The Four Commonly Used& ——_rmePIG oREctiON t System diagram showing relay ‘and system constants Figure 1. consideration given to the polarity of the relay coils. In order that no confusion will exist with regard to what is meant by the terminology’ used in descrfbing the four commonly used connections, Table IV identifies these connections in terms of ‘the voltage and current wed on each re- lay. In this table, as well as throughout ‘this paper, the double subscript voltage notation used is in accordance with the ‘concept recently recommended to the ATEE Standards Conmittee for con- Sideration as @ recommended standard practice, the sense of which is that when the vector quantity so represented isto be considered as being in the postive half cyde, there isa drop in potential fom the terminal of the fist subscript to the ter- inal ofthe second subscript. Similarly, the single subseripi notation used with the currents identify them by phases and jn the sense that the vector quantities (eurrents) so represented are to be con- sidered positive when actually flowing through the Fine in the tipping direction. ‘Method of Approach In the great majority of cases, a suf- ficient answer is obtained if it is deter- mined whether the torque on the direc tional element is contact opening or con- tact closing. This might be termed a qualitative analysis, and is determined purely by the relative phase angle be- ‘tween the current and the voltage ap- plied to the relay and a consideration of the phase-angle characteristics of the re- Jay. In a quantitative analysis, it would ‘be necessary to multiply together the ‘magnitudes of the voltage and current ‘and some function of the phase angle be- ‘tween them as modified by the angle by ‘which the maximum torque line of the re- lay Tends the reference voltage vector, thus determining the magnitude of the torque as well as its direction. The qualitative analysis method serves the ‘purpose, remembering that if the voltage is zero, the directional element will not operate anyway, and this method greatly simplifies the problem. The question then becomes that ‘of determining the relative phase angle between the current 1950, Vouume 68 and voltage applied to the various relavs for the various connections for the various fauks. To Mustrate the method used, consider relay 4 operating with the 90- degree connection. It is actuated by the voltage Vi, and the current I... We may arbitrarily write a Zo represents an artifical im- pedance value obtained by dividing Vae by Ze, Recalling the principles of vector algebra, it is remembered that ‘when the operation is done in polar form, the characteristic angle of the quotient (Zp) is obtained by subtracting the angle of the denominator (I,) from the angle of the mumerator (Vs). Using the mathe- rmaticians’ concept for positive angle, it is ‘lear that when this is done, the resulting ‘angle characteristic of Zp will be that angle by which Vs, leads Iq, of, con: versely, the angle by which I, lags Vie ‘This is exactly the kind of answer that is wanted to determine directional element operation, Wt was found through making a general analysis by the method gf symmetrical components thet the relay voltage and relay current could be reduced to terms involving only the source voltage and the system impedance constants such that ‘when one is divided by the other, the source voltage cancels out and the remain- ing expression consists of one or more system impedance values together with ‘complex operators. With the expression for Zp thus being reduced to a function of impedance, itis possible to substitute the appropriate values for the impedances involved for any particular system loca- tion and determine the characteristic angle for Zp for that particular condition, and thereby determine the angle by which the relay current lags the relay voltage, The work of deriving the Zp formulas for the 86 facets of the problem is given in the Appendixes, All quantities are kept in primary terms, neglecting the instrument transformer ratios. ‘Tabulation of Results Tables 1, 1, and IIT show the final form ofthe Zp formulas. These formulas are applicable to any system which can be reduced to a simplified equivalent rep- resented by Figures 1, 2, of 3, respec- tively. These three figures are believed to be adequate to represent the portion of interest of any system. While it i poo- sible to make specie applications of the formulas to fit partcslar conditions, itis desirable to study the formulas in general Sonnemann—Directional Relay Elements 4? ? See ae Figure &. System with rero sequence source concentated at opposite end of tansmission Tine terms on the basis of determining the raximuin possible spread of possbi- ties. ‘This has been done and the resus are shown in Tables V, VI, and VI, cot- responding respectively to Tables i, 11, find TIT, and Figures 1, 2, and 8.” Tn Tables V, VE, and VII the ey voltage vector is shown a the reference vector fn cach ease, extending along the xs, and ‘the maximum spread of angular position of the current with respect to ft, ether Jeading or lagging or both, shows by the shaded area and with symbolic notation ‘that will be explained. ‘Systems Studied Figure 1 represents the simplest system Jayout wherein the relays at bus G pro- tect the line from G to the fault at F In ‘general terms, Z, represents the imped- ‘ance of the line to the point of fault and includes the arc resistance, if any. The ‘source is represented schematically by the generator having an impedance Zs. The Positive and negative sequence source Greuit may or may not include the zero sequence source circuit, so that an al- temnate location is shown for the latter, illustrating the freedom of variation of se- quence source impedances, This figures adaptable to a section of any system not ‘otherwise bound to be considered in line with Figures 2 or 8. For example, a sys tem section (not shown) feeding the fault from the righthand: side and having similar sequence current distribution factors will not affect the section shown other than through increasing the ap- parent magnitude of the arc resistance. ‘This contingency is taken care of by the freedom of variation ofthe Hine impedance Zz in the formulas. Again, other ties be- > oo 4a Figure 3. System with transformer bank located between the relay and the fault 1439Table |. System Figure 1—Zp Values eBNer eanses| aeLay A RELAY 8 Rear e 90° | Bc oO Vaz, 70°+ 22, [240" V3 Bie [270° 2 By, Bo AG [elezstont2eutZo] 70° 0 ~° Bc-6 ~ GAB, b20t+Ur2nd2n hooe | vIAzakiorHieza)Z [e4o* TAL TFA [300 Age va 2, 70° co’ | ac |wszykrrtez,baor | Fz,,he70°+ 2, [200° ae A-G fiEseroMeact2z +25.) [230°] io vs [2B stZost2ZutZo, ]k72 bo-o [EAsebo%+Cieeayey [30% NEAzg 70" C14 2A)2y age ren) ay, [300° eee TER TA Boor Ape 2, [300% eo’ | Bc 0 Fest en] la [zu lereren, [20°] A-G |afeakmtrzesbeeF see, a2, ]a00° ° ° pee S [ifeatsrearieene, ]iss0¢ | faz ltors a5 borirenay rw 1+h [60° 3 | 1A [300° ABc 2, [200° 30° | Bc ~ [10+ 22, [300° 2a A-G his [Bis [270(Zagt22,.42,,) [330°] 0 0 : YEAR. b30re(1420) 2, (420) By [300° Eee - TFA Teor THA B00" Age en 20" ‘tween a system section to the right of the fault and the bus G have the effect of changing the value of the source imped- ance Zy to use in the fornrulas as the fault is moved down the line. ‘There is one effect of a source circuit ‘to the right of the fault which is not ade- ‘quately represented in Figure 1 and the formulas pertaining thereto, as follows. ‘With a relatively low zero sequence im- pedance im the grounding source con- nected to bus G, there tends to be a pre- pponderance of zero sequence current in ‘the line compared to positive and nega tive sequexce currents as faults involving ground are moved closer to the bus G, Vantaa Figue 4. System showing, alternate fault locations 1440 and toa degree depending upon the mag- nitude of the positive and negative se- quence source impedances to the right of the fault compared with those to the left of the relay. This is Mustrated in ‘more detail in Figure 4, fault location 1. ‘With a preponderance of zero sequence ‘current from the left, the effect will be to produce fault current in B and C phases for a phase-A-to-ground fault, and ia A phase for a phase-B-to-C-to-ground fault. ‘The formulas in this paper do not take care of thissituation. Itis dismissed from analysis in this paper in view of the fact ‘that such an analysis does not appear to be strictly necessary for the following First, it is the prime function of a pro- tective relay to operate when the fault Ties in its protected section. Single- phase-to-ground faults are to be cleared by ground relays and they may be elim- inated from further consideration be- ‘cause this paper is concerned with direc- tional elements for phase relays. Two- phase-to-ground faults, however, do lie within the domain of ‘phase relays but generally more so when the system is Sonnemann—Directional Relay Elements rounded through an impedance, In this illustration the zero sequence im pedance connected to bus G is low, no additional impedance being wed jn’ the neutral or ese the effect under discssion ‘would exist only to a Timited extent. Under these conditions, it may be prop- erly expected that forthe more ag. sravated conditions, even the 2-phase10- round fault may or should be properly cleared by the ground relay beeause ofthe magnitude of the zero sequence curreat. ‘With al ofthis shifting the responsibility tothe ground relay, however, itis belived as a result of a separate vector analysis not included here that the preponderance of zero sequence current for’ close ia fault involving ground would not prevent the correct phase relay directional element from operating Seconaly, itis a function of protective relays not to trip when the fault is fome other location. If one of the 3- phase relays gives an incorrect dice. Sonal fnieation for falt lotion 1 ia Figure 4, tis of no consequence as long as ‘tripping is obtained by another relay. ‘The question then arises ifthe incorrect ATEE Transactionsoocarien No.2 ym showing reley Tocation requing special consideration indication can cause false tripping if the {fault is back of the relay, asin fault loca- tion 2. There are tro answers to this question. The answer for the relay loca- tion as shown in Figure 4 is that the con- ditions affecting the relays at bus G on Tine 1 are completely changed by a fault at location 2 on line 2. The preponder- ance of zero sequence current disappears from all parts of line 1, and the analysis of relay action for this case is made by ‘considering therelaysof Figure? inreverse. The second answer is involved when the relay location is as shown in Figure 5, ‘and connected for the tripping direction fas shown. In this case, with fault loca- tion 1 or 2, and with « heavy preponder- ance of zero sequence current from the left, it appears quite likely tat false ‘tripping might result with three of the ‘commonly used connections, which are the 90 degree, the 60 degree number 2, and thé 30 degree. This is because of the ‘tendency of the large zero sequence com- ponents to draw the three line currents together in phase position, and since ‘these are used with three different volt- ages in the three different elements, it appears that at least one is likely to ‘operate incorrectly. If the conection identified as 60 degree number 1 is used, however, the difficulties are removed inas- muuch as the relay is then not seasitive to zero sequence components, either current ‘or voltage. Figure 2 represents the opposite con- dition to that discussed for Figures 1, 4, ‘and 5 in that all of the zero sequence comes from the far end of the Hine so that the relays are operable from positive and negative sequence currents only. Since ‘the result of this study can be applied in reverse to cover fault location 2 in Figure 4, it is important that all directional ele- ments associated with fault detecting ements (such as overcurrent elements, Table Il, System Figure 2—Z> Values impedance elements, and so forth) re- cciving enough current to operate should sive a correct indication. The study of Figure 2 does not repeat the considera tion of phase-to-phase and 8-phase faults, as in this respect, Figure 2 is a duplicate of Figure 1 ‘Figure 3 represents a typical condition wherein @ delta star connected trans- former bank is interposed between the relay location and the fault. Here again, it is important that all directional ele- ‘ments associated with fault detecting cle- ‘ments receiving enough current to operate should give a correct indication inasmuch fs the conditions affecting the relays of Figure 3 may be applied in reverse to other relays at bus G protecting source reuits feeding into bus G. ‘The study of Figure 3 has been based ‘on the connections as shown schematically in that the star side of the bank is con- nected to the Hine, Further, the line voltages X, Y, Z, lead the bus voltages A, B, C by 80 degrees in accordance with ‘American Standards Association stand- ard practice based on the line having the higher voltage. Other combinations were eounec masts] er RELAY RELAY got lac | 2, lero" vs[agl220"+(2ot2%,,) [330°] |vs [Bisfe70"+ (Hor? Bu) Le" } _ BAZ ,g 300%V5(142A) 2, 270° | 3AZ 15 (2404 V3(142A) Bn [270 Bere | we (i+Eh en a TES A [330 cove | ac | a [Fulzio'Heot22.)/330°) + Br le70° ceo | BAB slaa0t+ (+2 A021 L300" NB ABs [270° (1420) Zu [300° CF2N) Ey B90? TFA (60> +2 A T#A [300° Go'ez| A-G | 4[v5 2, lz10%+-v5 29380422, od zen V5 2 [21043 Ho [210422 [240" : 2) . V5 Re 5[300% (14302, (14154209 2, [200° BCG | (i+ v5Als20°) Z [300° TrySA [30 T+V5 A [330° 30° | A-G |*F[zs 2100+ 22,)[330°] | v5[z in o°+ (Zot 22.)120° ] ns 271270° 3 | 3A Zu [500"rV5(i+20) 2, [330° | VSCI+2A)Z, (280% lBc-G| 3AZi6 VS (142A) By [8308 | “8 aoe VEV5 A [33 1950, Vorume 69 Sonnemann—Directional Relay Elements 14able Ml, System Figure 3—Zp Valves reer fewer RELAY A RELAY ® REL € 90° | xz [vs feglez0" e0eretZ yu) [230°] [v5 [Eg le70"+2 (Zing Zu) [210°] | VS [Eig t(ZrntZn) 270° x6 |vanletee tee tee] eso” | vez slar0"+ [28 nett? ct BI L300" ° Nz-6, | VS(A 2s AIO" cat Bi, LTO] VTA g ASHI ANE rat 2s.) 270°] VE RAZ gHl2N1E rat Ey L270" 1+ A [300° 1+ A [60° Teen ae V3(Erret2y.)[270° oe Ae * Blesst(irat 2n)] 200" Sella" erat) 2224] X-6 [5 [vez igleI0(Cerat2Z A230] SE eet PEat Zo 5 Bg [270"+ (RR gt 2B [240" | + A 2 [Razige lit ZA Sirat BJ] [300° | Awis [240° +20N(F iret Zn) [300° 2-6 | Azgt(ite\(tinnt2 x) 1300 ENB cat ty jLi200" oi teArest 2a) ee Girt Z) [300° co%e| YZ 2C2ret Zn) V5 Bgl270°2Eret Ei.) [240° | VF 215 [270°+ ira Zn) [300% x-6 |B [Butirattattee] 270° |g [e 5 le20(28 care z seQ/22 0 vz-6) +2 Eretz 1) [200° eS AZ ig [330142 A)(2 ira .)/300° | VS AZig [270°H(1t2A)(E seu tn) (308 1A [300° 1A [60° 1t2a XYZ Grrat Zn) Boo" 30° | YZ | ve [Bis L202 ZrratBq) 130°] | 2v5RistZrret Zu] 270% | V5 [Bis 270+ rent Zn.) [330°] X-6 | VEZ 6TH ez eet 2242300] AZ EntZo ~ Size | WSLAZ i 20°F ENE at) 28] OBEAE 990% (1420 eet) [380°] vsfnz lee Hen (2 at 2) 930] IFA [300° TFA Bo THEA ae V5 (Zrret Z 230° ‘considered, such as star (low-voltage) to delta (high-voltage), and with the non- standard condition of the 30-degree lag- ging relationship. It was found that the same results were obtained, the only dif- ference being that when the 90 degree Ingging connections were used, the for- smulas became associated with relays for different phases. Hence it follows that ‘what is the best connection for Figure 3 also is the best for the other possible ‘transformer connections. ‘The Search for Limits With the formulas derived as shown in ‘Tables J, II, and IIT it became desirable to analyze these formulas to determine ‘the maximum spread in phase angle be- ‘tween the current and the voltage. The results of this study are shown in, Tables V, VI, and VII. Several of the vector diagrams in these tables will now be dis- ‘cussed in order to clarify the method of ‘analysis used as well as the peculiar nota- tion used with the diagrams. Dash lines in the table mean that that particular re- lay received no current for the fault ia Me question. Blank spaces in the B and C relay columns for the S-phase fault, ABC, indicate that the consideration given one relay, relay A, is sufficient. Remembering that Table V is asso- Gated with Table I and Figure 1 itis de- termined that the diagram for relay B, Hine 1 (@0-degree connection, phase-B-to- (fault) comes from the formula Zo Vill TO +22 4/240" @ ‘The angle of Zp is the angle by which ‘the current lags the voltage, so that the ccurrent vector will be plotted clockwise from the reference voltage vector by whatever positive angle results from ‘evaluating equation-2. The impedance terms Zig and Zig are the positive se- quence impedances of the source and the Tine, respectively. The expressions /270° and /240° are mathematical operators producing a positive angular rotation of ‘the amount indicated, In this particular formula, —j could have been used for {210° and the o operator of symmetrical ‘components could have been used for /240°. These two substitutions were not made, however, because so many of the other formulas ‘contain operators in steps of 30 degrees that is was considered preferable to Keep all of the operators in ‘this form. Equation 2 is to be studied for Limits. One limit is apparent immediately in that if the fault is close enough, Zz becomes zero and all that is left is V8Zig /270°. Table IV. Table of Connections Counce RELAY A RELAY 8 aac HENS” | Vocace | cunment | veuace | comment | vont | cunRENT = Yee BS te von te wor | vac ac Tete | vee | Tele wrnoz | ven ie te en Te = vac. ta te ve. le Sonnemann—Directional Relay Elements ATEE TRANSACTIONS,Teble V._ System Figure 4 ‘The source cannot have an angle greater ‘than 90 degrees, so if we take 90 degrees {for the angle of the source impedance and rotate it by /270°, the answer comes out at an angle of 360 or zero degrees. This is the characteristic angle of Zp and thus means that the current and voltage are in ‘phase. Referring to the vector diagram jn Table V, it wil be seen that a current ‘vector has been drawn in phase with the ‘voltage vector, and the notation for itis ‘590, ‘This notation means that the source ‘impedance (S for source) governs for this limit, and that it has an angle of 90 de- grees. ‘Assume that the source impedance has fan angle of 60 degrees. Adding 60 to 270 degrees yields 930 degrees, meaning that ‘the current lags the Voltage by 330 de- grees (leads by 30 degrees) and such a current vector would fall in the shaded area, not establishing a Himit, and hence ‘was not plotted. ‘For this case, equation 2, the maxi- sauum possible angular position was found ‘by astuming that the fault is close in and involves an arc of great length so that the impedance of the line is not only at 0 de- ‘grees, but also so large that the imped- ‘ance of the source becomes negligible. In this case, through neglecting Ze, the expression for Zp is evaluated by con- sidering the second term of equation 2, or 2Z,/240°, and with Ziz having its own (See [ose] ere mein B mane L0*590 vs so0 80 to ae be = a ‘s30°Y LO,As1 ee peo | — “ = .90,a we soon v to Seon foaarane nec. Bx v ee ue we ie pssee = : cots | ec | ge : Ps ‘sba"Y L980, L290 i te ee A as LE = De y 20 toe nasa rear Phvot ° a oa seo | Bay v Per 7 . Foxgieg 20. a8 nee ty 1.20 cote | ac . "7 ne v = - aad rseraonive Te LOLA ace - — Lo al Apc fis 90 30° ec = * o hae s A-G ¥ - = a Looe ssl . Bes av Vv seoncot | XLa0,Au Le AB — 20 1950, VouumE 69 Sonnemann—Directional Reloy Elements angle of zero degrees, it follows that the current leads the voltage by 120 de- grees. “Another current vector i shown acy cordingly in the vector diagram, and wherein the notation LO signifies that the tine impedance governs and that it has an angle of zero degrees. It was felt that it ‘was a bit pessimistic tolean too heavily on the limit thus established becanse this calls for the arcing fault to absorb the ex ‘tre system voltage, even though arcs on horizontally spaced Hnes approaching full system voltage bave been reported. Consequently, a compromise condition was evaluated as shown by the current ‘vector at 67 degrees leading, wherein the notation LO=S% means that the Hine ‘impedance at zero degrees (all arc) was taken sumerically equal to the source ‘impedance at 90 degrees and Zp evaluated accordingly, giving due attention to the Vand 2factors. This would account for the are absorbing somewhat more than half of the available voltage. Other in- termediate vectors representing alternate ‘conditions are occasionally used in other diagrams throughout these tables. ‘The method of analyzing the formulas is thus established as a study to determine ‘what possible impedance values, both in 1433,angle and in magnitude, can be utilized Tobie VI. Syatem Figure to yield the maximum angle and the minimum angle in either direction, and anything of a more reasonable nature as a limit in between. As might be expected, the 2-phase-to- ground fault condition was more difficult ‘to handle, both in derivation and analysis, than the other three combined. The only practical way which could be found was ‘to introduce a factor A, a real or complex number, letting a ® Zs in which Zp and Z, represents the final equivalent single impedances for the en- tire zero and positive sequence networks, respectively, as used in calculating the fault current components. ‘The factor is thusa ratio, and may vary from slightly more than zero to a very large number. In general, however, its possiblities were considered on the basis of it being either O+ or 1. Large values of A make the 2- pphase-to-ground fault approach the con: ditions of a phase-to-phase fault, as may be verified by comparing the formulas. (The one case where this does not hold ‘true is for the 60°, number 2 connection, Figures 1 and 2, which received the necessary special attention.) ‘Typical of a case where A is taken at O+, consider Relay B, line 3, Table V. ‘The formula is VBAZ 9/330" + (1424 )2, AL Consider the limiting condition when the line impedance is zero so that the second term of the mumerator drops out. Now assume that A is very small, and a real umber (meaning that Zy and Z; have the same angle). The denominator is then practically unity acd may be neglected. ‘This leaves the angle to be determined by Z,a/880°, and with a 90-degree source cr- cuit, this yields 60 degrees for current lagging voltage. A current vector is ae- cordingly shown at this angle in the vector Giagram with the notation S90, A=0+. Tt is of importance of note that the magnitude of Zp, heretofore not dis- ceussed, is a measure of the ratio of the ‘voltage to the current. If this ratio be- ‘comes low enough, the relay will not operate, The condition just discussed ap- proaches this condition, where A=0-+. ‘An auxiliary condition was calculated for A=1,a real number, yielding an angle of 30 degrees lagging, which has been shown. ‘A-value of A=1 can be obtained three ways. .First, at zero line impedance, the ratio of source impedances can be unity. Zo) @ ae Rew 8 0° | Ao mo by Leo,n00 ae L60,A0 my ac-6 ET [aR 2090 0,80 v Sone 4 ace ‘Bomor bo, mor 20° wo Secondly, if the line impedance is repre- sented by a high value of arc resistance, A ‘automatically becomes one. Such a con- ition forms the 90-degree current leading, limit for the diagram under discussion. ‘Thirdly, an assumption has been made that, for the sake of even figures, the zero sequence impedance of the line is equal to four times the positive sequence im- ‘pedance, hence if the fault is appropriately located a sulficent distance down the line, A becomes unity, even with a low zero sequence source impedance. ‘Transferring attention to the diagram Sonnemann—Directional Relay Elements for Relay C,line 8, Table V, a new symbol R/—67°is discovered. It represents the ‘maximum angular rotating effect of 67 degrees which could be discovered by ‘trial calculations for the portion A/1+4- 300° of the formula for this relay as ap- lied to the Zag term with Zy,0 and in ‘which A is a complex number occasioned bby the existence of a resistance to ground fn the fault affecting the zero sequence network only, aa illustrated by Ry in Figure 6 The R factor appears again at different points in these tables represent ing the same type of operation with AIEE TRANSACTIONSToble Vil, System Figure 3 90° | vz EY | ea br L280 307% ‘S30 no ze x6 $y 90 500 _ red Faso Cares a v we we | be eo’ | vz S ax €&- ‘0° 90 peony 20 Ke ge < 88 Les or s90,Rese vee & \ a ener ee xyz 10 ny [Lo oenntais aie ever | vz Be va ve L390 ‘be 190 x6 et . as y tis s0 LOA 0, Ash ant y2-6 cee a cy 20.0 Rt . Lo $90, Bre 0525 ee wz & a e |s0 : 47 560 ao | yz ee o v ! : sos 20 | 20 m0 ae v we | Qty I - oe ae, [ss0,eraro5ms,ReSs| LO,ANL sai ve0| QE v ee xe Vv xvz | Qi i Sse , Votume 69 Sonnemann—Directional Relay Elements angular values appropriate to the occa sion, In all cases where the X factor was ‘used, it was evaluated on the basis that the source impedances were at angles of 90 degrees lag and that’ Zip=0.05Z1s Im the same vector diagram (Relay C, line 3, Table V) the factor A is used equal to 1 based on Zan=4Ziz- ‘The 2-phase-to-ground fault condition is particularly tricky to handle for the (60°, mumber 2 connection by virtue of the fact that the fault condition in itself is complicated enough, and with the relay ‘using phase-to-ground voltage for polari- zation, the analysis becomes tedious. In this cave, the R, value Figure Gis likely to ‘become quite important, as may be seen by the 150-degree angle shown for Relay G, Table V, Hine 11, This diagram also shows a case where it was desirable to consider values for A of 2, 4, and in Sanity. Other symbolic notation used in these tables is explained as follows: ‘L=0 means that the line has no im- ‘pedance, contrasting with the symbol LO described previously. Zag denotes the zero sequence imped- ance in the source up to the relay, while Zq denotes the total zero sequence net- work. Zz represents the total of all imped- ances used in making the initial fault cur- rent caleulation, as for example, in cal- culating a single-phase-to-ground fault Zpnrtlat le “Zoe Tepresents the impedance of the transformer in Figure 8. In preparing Table VII for Figure 8, it ‘was necessary in some cases to assume a ‘very low limit for the impedance of the transformer, but not zero, In such cases, ‘it was assumed equal to 5 per cent of the positive sequence source impedance and is so indicated. ‘Summary of Results ‘The vector diagrams now may be studied in the light of directional element ‘hase angle characteristics either a8 they ‘rst it wil be recalled that when this con- nection is used, the relay is usually ‘equipped with phase shifting means to put the zero torque line at 45 degrees lagging— 185 degrees leading, and the directional clement therefore kas maximum torque ‘when the current leads the voltage by 45 degrees. A study of the vector diagrams reveals three cases where the current falls. in the contact opening zone by being either more than 45 degrees Iagzing oF more than 135 degrees leading. These 1445,uN Figure 6. Location offaultresitance affecting ero sequence network only are (1) Relay B, BCG fault, System igure 1; (2) Relay C, A-G fault, System igure 2; and (8) Relay B, YZ fault, ‘System Figure 3. The last two cases may bbe dismissed as nontroublesome on the ‘basis that the conditions assumed for ‘these limits are associated with such low current values that the fault detecting element can hardly be expected to oper- ate. In case of doubt, the formulas may bbe used to investigate particular condi- tions short of the limits shown here. In the first case, however, a hazard of pos- sible false operation does exist when the selay location is as shown in Figure 5 and with the fault back of the relay as in loca- tion 1 or 2. It will be remembered that for this location, @ previous discussion save the 60-degree, number 1 connection 4 preference for other reasons ‘The 60-degree, number 1 connection is generally used with an element having a wwatt-type characteristic, which means that the zero torque line falls at 90 de- agrees leading and lagging the reference voltage, with a maximum contact closing torque produced when the current and voltage are in phase. With this type of characteristic, the only possibilities of trouble are for Relay A, BC fault, System Figure 1, and for Relay C, X-G fault, ‘System Figure 3. In each of these cases, it is doubtful if the fault detecting ele- ‘ment will receive enough current to operate. In the case of the 60-degree, mumber 2 connection, ifa watt-type element is used, ‘the first possibility of trouble is encoun: tered in connection with System Figure 1, BCG fault, Relay C, for the condition of Ryw0+, AnO+, L=0, where an incor- rect directional indication would obtain. ‘This fault would lnc cleared by relay B acting alone. ‘The problem of the incor- rect indication of relay C causing a false trip out is, once again, timited to a loca- tion as shown by Figure 5. Other cases where the current leads the voltage by ‘more than 90 degrees are discovered for System Figure 2, 4-G fault, Relay C, and Systéhh Figure 3, YZ fault, Relay 3. The possiblity of causing a false trip out by approaching these limits depends on 16. the magnitude of current involved as it affects the fault detecting element. ‘The 30-degree connection remains free of trouble only as long as the application {is described by System Figure 1. If ap- plied as shown by Figures 2 or 3, it is easily seen that erroneous directional in- dications will result with probable current magnitudes within the range of operation of the fault detecting element, thus lead. ing to false tripping. Conclusions 1, The general practice of shifting the angle of maximum torque to approxi- mately 45 degrees leading for the 90-de- gree connection appears to give the best characteristic to fit the spread of possible phase angles. 2. Awatt-type element appears to be best suited to the three remaining types of connections. 3. Bach connection theoretically in- volves possibilty of trouble in certain ex- treme cases. 4. The 30degree connection is not suited to systems as shown by Figures 2 and 3. General Notes on Derivation of Formulas. ‘The following appendixes I, TI, and II, cover the calculation of the necessary fault currents and voltages for the four types of faults, following which the Zp formulas appropriate to the several relay connections are derived for enough cases to illustrate the method. The sequence network connections for the various fault calculations are not shown as it is taken for granted that those who check this ‘work willbe familiar with the method of symmetrical components. ‘The following remarks, however, are appropriate. V,! represents the generated voltage ‘which causes the fault current to flow. Subscripts 1, 2, and O denote positive, negative, and zero sequence, respectively, as applied to current, voltage, or imped- Subscripts S and Z denote source and Xin, reapectively. “impedance symbols with 1,2, or 0 sub- scripts only denote the total impedance of the respective positive, negative, or zero sequence network to the point of fault. The relay voltages are ealeulated for the bus G. ‘Ais the ratio Z/Zs. For simplicity, phase-to-ground volt- ages at bus G are witten without the second subscript, Va instead of Var Sonnemann—Directional Relay Elements Appendix |. System Figure 1 ZonZas} Zan, Phase-to-Phase Fault on Phases BC Calculate currents and voltages Val Vet Te ® ‘Zr ) ” 5/90" (8) ” a0) ay sootasoranPbaesntat e235) (az 28/1007) 9) Desive the Zo formulas 90° Comseron Relay A: Zp (20) AIEE TransactionsYe teay B: Zp 5 aZg/1 4232/10" IS fencer area che term Vel/Zr is not shown because it ‘ppears in both numerator and denominator [bd therefore cancels out. ‘The multiplica- joa by /90°/780° is to convert the denomi- sator toa real tema. 2pm Vz us /2I0" +22, 240" @ Bde + 2.VBZ 4/330" /270° yaa" * eT = V5Z,8/270° +22, /240" @ =Ve Rely B: Zp= te ote 7 ) @s) (9) Pel 210"-+ 24 210") en 1 wn l20% 422 80%) y(2n 202 422/880") x) 1950, VoLume 69 30° CoxnscnioN @0) Veo 232/90" Teg Be 1) Phase A-to-Ground Fault Calculate currents, and voltages at bus G ae a vat LenB es) dnhe=0 oo @s) 88) en @s) 89) «) Ver Verb Vert Var eertan git +ze/180") (0) But Zp=2Zye+2utZetZa — 42) Vor oF erat Zu) @) VeneVateVat Ve AEE er fBi0 4 Zl BOY 4 "+ 2/180) 22/240" + 2/240") 44) VeraVartetVart Van (V2 90" + V8" 224 AD 42a ND) (8) Sonnemann—Directional Relay Elements ‘The phaseto-phase voltages are derived as in a preceding section by taking the dif- ference between the appropriate phase-to- round voltages, above. Substitutions are fade within the parenthesis for Zp in ac cordance with equation 42 in order to sepa rate the source and line impedance terms 90 that the end results are: Vaan FE (Vatu l004+ Vi 2Azia/80"+ VBL") Fea via. 0" VAIO" 2 /8z/TO" 4 Vu /20%) (47) Vea FE (Az / BO" + Vata 2VBZy,/160"-+ VBZac/150") (48) 9) ‘expression for current in each case is 50 Simple that performing the necessary divi Sion of curent into voltage is done in one Step, yielding at once the formulas which are already tabulated in Table I for phase ‘A-to-grosad fault, hence there is no point in ‘repeating them here. ‘Two-Phase-to-Ground Fault on Phases Band C ‘The sequence networks are, of course, con- nected in parallel, and from-this considera. ‘ton as) (30) Az A Zn TAA) TA 14/380" o Z Zs dwn 107 47," FOEA) 1 okra /i80" pilot (32) Tpnlertlartle=0 Lye Bletelertle= 3) 4 1 eA. pana 1 peo (ENO + a + ee veg aE (VBR YEA 270") (54) lita 2 2 a7Sinitarly, lem /350° 4/84/90") (88) Va! Za v8/30°+ v3.4 /20") 6) (v8/210" +2, 84/270") en Fp VIA + Via 100%) 8) mae Varn Vel —lakism Val zis c= -F ez 6 Vantaa A tata w(A 2h) © Va Toles Inds jena taees Vert Vert Van Bs (2e42o( tf) Fp MAziet Zee Zi(1+24)) rita) (2) VyseVarbeVet Va ale mt) Spates tte) (Aza L180" Zag (424) 2240") (63) aay VoneVartetVert Von arte Zag faerie) 144, Zit Ay Ais Zar (2A) Tapa Aza t VIUFOA ZX (20°) (65) T(VI+2A)zu/270") (66) Bal aaa) Yen araea) FE paz Vat 2A DK Zux{150") (67) ee Ha 1448 With the expressions of voltage and current now available, the relay formulas are de ‘ved in a manner similar to those ia the two preceding sections. ‘The algsbra of the Operations is bit more complicated in this case, however, because of the greater com- plexity of the current expressions, hence the erivations will be given here for the "00" Connection,” to illustrate the method. 90° Coxnnerox Relay ) Relay B: Zp: al 180". 1/150" BAZ g/180"+ VU+2AVZu/150" 4g, “VELBIO" + A [210° ‘There are two different angular operators ia the denominator so that itis impossible to reduce each of them to a real number in the Same way that the denominators in previous ‘ustrations were reduced. The best that ‘cam be done is to reduce one of the factors toa real term, and the factor chosen is the fone not involving 4. Inspection shows that ifan angle of 150° is added, this will be done, hence multiply both musaerator and Aenominator by /150°, and cancel out 3 from each. BAZ (8908 14/0" (14.24)2,/800" a= Relay C: Zp, (AZo VBI 2AZ/20", 210" ‘Utilising the above method of derivation ‘yields the formulas for the remaining relay ‘connections, and these are listed in Table T. ‘Three-Phase Fault Calculate the currents, and voltages at bus @ ay (ry may 7) 79) ™ (7s) (9) (eo) Sonnemann—Directional Relay Elements @n (2) ) We Vente hea VER Cul om Ve! Youm Yor Yan VEZ Zull es) Because of the symmetry of the S-phase fault, only one relay formtla fs needed per connection. "These are derived as before, nd are sted in Table I. Appendix Il, System Figure 2 Tnasmnuch a5 Appendix I has shown the ‘method of derivation of the Zp formulas for ‘the relay directional clementa aa well as the ‘method of deriving the currents and voltages ‘his appendix will merely Hst for reference the currents and volages involved. This ‘vill only be aocesary for faults involving ‘round, becuse for phase fo-phase and 3 Phase faults, Figure 2 ina duplicate of Figure 1. The Zp formulas are given ia Table, ‘Phase-A-to-Ground Fault Zen Bbot tend t Zs (as) (7) es) (9) (0) on 2) 3) om co) (96) on FE ya LO" + Aaa f0%+ 22 ,/240") VEZ" 22/1 (8) 9) ATEE Transactions2/82/80") (100) a 8d 21+ V2 282/270") (101) Vz" BZ [IO 27/32y,/150") ‘Two-Phase-to-Ground Fault on Phases ‘Band c ea) ao7) Currents at relay Jocation, bus G, do not involve zero sequence. ‘Therefore Yet Lelotlan ye ty (aoe) vet - bez, it, pa: +/84/270") (109) We 4 Ee (110) VEIN + VEA 120%) er an V hokey aaa) (val 284/270") (132) (7 3(150° + 8.4/0") (a) Zeta) am) Ay. verre 2s Ly. Har as) Yam a6) Sadist Zu lt34)) (27) a (Zan 1/240" + VBA (270°) as) "70. aa [120° 4-/8.4/20")) as) set peun veal 1950, VoLume 69 Reet VIF 20) Se Gi v8t 2A Zu 270") a2 Yen aaa (2AZ 9/180" + /8L424) 2/380") (122) Appendix Ill, System Figure 3 1n this case, a delta star connected trans former bank is interposed between the relay Jocation and the fault. The phase relation- ‘hips assumed are thatthe star side voltages 3, 5 (high voltage assumed) are 30° Teading the delta voltages 2, &,€ Gow vatt- age assumed). Calculations are made ini tally from the star connected side, but it ‘must be remembered that in passing the transformer bank to the relay location, the positive sequence currents and voltages are rotated 80° laging, the similar negative ‘sequence components are rotated 30° lead ing, and the zero sequence current and volt- ‘age disappear io line with the policy established in Appendix 11, only the expressions for the necessary currents and voltages will be shown here, remembering that the Zp formulas are given in ‘Fable 8. Also, Ve" fs used for the source voltage in this case rather than Vy’ because of the different ‘hae terminology used to identify the side Of the transformer bask away from the reay. Phase-to-Phase Fault on Phases YZ Zemkagt LaretZn=Zs (aaa) Fyn Bt 2en22y az) Tan 30° (azs) Jan fe 10" (26) (27) 2s) a2) 20) 31) 032) x, z ass) Van BE eal as a Van (22,8007 + 255/07) 3s) ‘Sonnemann—Directional Relay Elements Vom 5 (2221074251007) 036) Yer HE an Net 4224h") aan Vanvive" as) a3) we EVE 100" 4/82/20") 40) Phase-to-Ground Fault on Phase X Lym bbtet Zam Bet hy aay ZmastZaret ln a2) Zimdartin 43) a) (4s) 1146) ar) (14s) ass) as) as) asa) ass) as, Van FE (8804 Viz LBO” ass) Van FE GyfBiC4 VEE) 36) as?) ass) (39) (160) ‘Typ; Phase-to-Ground Fault on Phases Yi Dakshin ZanLera ton Azs ae 62) 439us) aon ues) 068) a ait pUee+azm) — a oe pate ot az hag Pe quaerazD — as Jeng sme 42a 169 Fed a ed w aiea) tau Vet ohn Va an Ww Ye _¢g/20°4 34/90" Fett ea VSI 84 120") an) (Zp/330" + Z,9/150") 073) ram (A 215/30" reet(Aratt) om ; (VEAZist (1424) "ZaFAay (Zire Zix)/380°) (175) ve - 320 Vong (vEAciB074-14-24) (Cera ZuY20") (176) vet : Vom PGi OF 2A Cine 200) am vows Vaan PEMA tas (424) CaretZu) (78) vv = PENS ag Yoon EME (AZO 424) Carx+ 2x20") (179) ae Vea ei gi zal (1424)(EaratZix)/120") (180) ‘Pheve Dhase Faslt 2pm kim but linet as) Ye 50° Ian 0 a) IanTan0 ass) ve, atone, am 1450 to a0 ass) 20 ow) Ea 87) ‘No other “delta” currents are needed. Vental2ine Zit) =f Cire 20° (188) vet . Vor Seitz 200 iss) ¥= toned" (090) ve i Vaan Van Ver te ere 2a VSL aon View Yon Von ona tus) VIL" cava) No other vag are needed Discussion Myron A, Bostwick (Portland General Electric Company, Portland, Oreg.): I ‘wish to compliment Mr. Sonnemana for his, ‘Cacllent analysis of single-phase directional Clement connections. He has used a simple, readily understood approach to the prob- Jem, and provides more definite limits for successful operation than have been pub- fished previously. A glance at the many pages of ealealations provides an indication Df the thoroughness of is investigation, Fortunately it is not mecesary to dig ‘rough these voluminous calculations to ‘use the information that has been pro- Yided, The vector diagrams tell ‘the ‘whole story, when considered in terms of the particular relay characteristics ‘and ‘connections, Tt also is eseetial to consider etails of the power cireuit as Mr. Sonne- ‘mann has indicated. "The need of this is emphasized by con- cases where the current falls in the contact ‘opening zone by being either more than 45 ‘degrees lagging or more than 126 degrees eating.” “He then discusses three condi- ‘ions that may cause undesirable operation. Ip this discussion be fas to mention two conditions (the B relay, OOdegree connee- don, for a phase A-to-ground fault on system Figure 2, fa table VI and the phase A relay, 9Oedegree connection, in Table VII for a YZ fault in system Figure 3) that also ccquse contact opening torque. Discussion of ‘these was apparently omitted because the sedeya will aot trp ineeerectly ome se ‘Yersed How of current to an external fault. think it desirable to have consideration of ‘hese relays inchided ia the diseusion for ‘Sonnemann—Directional Relay Elements future reference and suggest that it be added to the paper. ‘The analysis has clinched ray opinion that the OO-degree consection should be used generally ia all applications, except those ‘oted as being subject to incorrect operation. Individual study of those installations may ‘then be required. In closing these remarks, T'wish to thank Mr. Sonmemann for his clear analysis of the problem, and the tre- ‘endows amount of work that was required to present it ‘W. K. Somemann: Mr. Bostwick has picked out two conditions which should have been discussed in the original paper. In the fourth paragraph preceding the “Conclusions,” the reference should be to five cases where the current falls in the ‘contact opening zone rather than just three ‘As a matter of fact, all of the vector dia- grams were studied individually for their {implications at the time of their original derivation, including these two. At the time of sifting and sorting all of the work which had beea done in order to prepare the paper, however, these two were missed ‘The author regrets that they were missed and thanks Mr’ Bostwick for calling ‘attention to them. Tn the fist case, relay B, 90-degree con- nection, phase--to-ground fault, syste 2, For example, relays in the source cireuit ‘at bus G, as well as relays on the leftchand ‘de of any bus interposed between the bas Gand the fault, will "see" the vector rela- ionships of Table VI line 1 in reverse, hhence it i= apparent that the possibility of erroneous tripout for relay 5 should be amined further. Teis in cases such as this that itis well to bear in mind that the vector Giagrams show extreme conditions which ‘may be more theoretical than practical, and ‘hat an examination of the system constants, ‘may show the trouble to be nonexistent fora particular system. The formula for relay B ‘ender diseusson is: Zo=-VBlra/ 210° (Za+2Zu2)/290"] Nigtble, and that it has an. agrees.” The 90-degree angle is {ssumption f the fault occurs at the far end fof the Hne at the grounding bank location Provided ‘that the bank is not grounded ‘Through a resistor. If the faut i at the far fend of the line, however, the impedance of the line is not necessarily negligible, and degrees, #2 found that it requires a scalar ‘value of only 0.266 to bring the Zp valve to {2 AS-degree angle, the border ine condition. ‘Thus, if Zig exceeds $6.6 per cent of Ze the ‘problem disappears for relays having a 45- Ucgree characteristic. If Zyg has a smaller Single than 90 degrees, a slightly greater AIBE Transactioxsake wil Be reguied_I th thasaforner greg trough = resto, the chore: BS, ud be caine arcs te 3. lege: Iedlng sexton, “Foe second eae evoaed by Br Bot igkcovrng rey 4, Osea emnection, Y2 tat system Pigure 3 sia fo He Set tht lye inoue cea at bus © seme srw he on vr cond rece en he fa ght the i Leroi of the snsformer 20 that Zin sstmed to Bave a onan aagle than 9 eaves, zero. The angle of the tant fannerespedance Zinn thet 99 degree, however and dependence must be placed the source iipedaaee being rately lege In ceder to reduce the sole of Za to es ‘han 46 dere i there are sora some ‘nits conneted to thos she conehon til be saterally agrnvated forte ray ‘Sethe soure cheats by vrtweol the ale Local Wire Video Television Networks CN. NEBEL, NOAM Ae satisfactory load video diatibation television string, transite, and pike ‘up points witha ety and to connect {hem 10 the coaxial cabte snd mera fnteritlesson netwicks.'? Wire ex: tension sruitsaiso are necexary to dis tribute video signals Irom local micr- nave circuits wich are ml to ick up emote prngram meal, Thi is neces fry beenme pace om broeaster’ ene often unavatade nde Sable from a system meinenance joist (of view forthe erate of tame mero. wave ersipments, Aral video is. ‘tution stem lie hewn lope for the Bell lepine System alsin eis Ing telephone facto ete as pate ‘eae. cin amas fn eal are use penty developed ewe her shielded ideo eae jee In many ewes these fare suppenenel by en ts of existing sper tsi ables Equipment is proved forthe exe zation and ann liSeation nf the. ven sikzals tanmnitied over wire crete, ‘This eipeent consist n'a transiting terial, an intermediate repeater with ible equalizer, anda rectving. tor aninsk Video repeating oils (ine tana ocr) are soutetnnes ye st the fer mina for eieetevnneetbas tn the ele fis. clomper sho ie med at the fe: ceiving terminal a a etisng element foe lees reuit e ant for rescing the low Sree sual eum: ponents which ave removed he the ter- ‘bina peeing ‘The intermediate repeater contains 1950, Voucae 69 for backs of gain the oof np And oatpot spb sn eo ampifar fate neon The equation for the {shim eouaned ting te ain Iregictey characteris the two am Ter goa nctwork ane teas ‘hich ‘are comedies te to trplier: “The squslaton a gn sre troop te sytem san te pbsins redo in sce and ae Difler ne Tweed gh emensy tei sepresin tae by mans “Soa petting that sy rane ting th evel egy ga Ccrvonent er he soto ata higher {han nom sla Pest to derma eve atthe ching eet the Te ie pues of tis perv sere thee leo tonsnfson ties ‘hore aly sad to cote Tels 9 {Sind th sane tel Set apie tom ; Characteristics of Cable Plant ‘The exble plant jn the beat exchange seis availaie for viden trusemieion fonsists of coaxial exiles, existing Hnter- ‘fice trunk ad sbseriber paper insulate cables, and sieldelpolyetiglene string ‘ad tap fnlated eles, ‘Conta Canta The fist domegacyete veo tras. som Gireuits were ed for relatively sort stutiorammiter coanections. Special instatiations of 0.268 coil cables wth specially designee quizes were provided to care for thice eases "These were very special eases whore the 4 mega cyte Jos was ess than 20 decibels te firing no intermediate guin in the cables” Although they were short lt cuts, they had the disadvantage that ‘grand current induced into the outer Conial coufseter by neighboriog power Nebel Loca! Viieo Distribution System ying eco he cert rom the oer ‘She on the ape woe of Zw Sco inter bp ay om mt a aon Sloe croat! fi cocceais tnt ere ote yams whee Se Sockors con Tec, wth he dere pase ae, {be outatneay. io a cyt hor to molly the eee as ‘Site ale dw se cree Seat k ‘ie fh thro or oon oe So Goan cman ireits caused seis interference, l= ‘ought could be balanced out by spa means on shot circuits, it wat found in practicable to employ Jong: unbalanced ‘vans crits jn a large video tans Son plant. Balancéd pair cables provide ‘a vatual balance of 75 deciiaior more 10 ‘hese interfering gower Frequensies ni are, therefore, ach more stable for ve ‘the developmen of large video pant fact Esasrine Camte Piet A wide varoty of bnlanced ceils ae to be found i te existing plant in ie form of paperinruated iterofice trite i subseiber cable pire, Thee existe ing filter were fury entesively wed inthe inital stages ofthis video plant de- ‘clpinent. Te wil e interesting at this tint to examine the Bitatons ofthese ‘Sees for ideo transis, “There are four principal sources of ‘ice fmererence om balanced tri Som crete, Fit sre the vllages fre laced tetecen the Fie oomduetore round from nighoring power spate ese aet spon asialanees between the Tine conductors and ground to prodoce components inthe metalic ri ‘Second are impule-tsye noises aiing from rons inet Iran meager pairein thecal. ‘hw orgie fn Ue any etching operotious occurring in Table L Aten of Line Fae fr Video Trminion ‘Sem if 25) pin 9.0