The Scientific Principles of Strength Training

Muscular Strength: The amount of

force a muscle can produce with a
single maximal effort
Mechanical Strength: the maximum
torque that can be generated about a
joint

Torque about the elbow joint

Strength determined by:

Absolute force developed by muscle
Distance from joint center to tendon insertion
Angle of tendon insertion

Shoulder joint torque as a function of arm position

Structural organization of skeletal muscle

From Principles of
Human Anatomy (7th
edition), 1995 by
Gerard J. Tortora, Fig
9.5, p 213

From Basic
Biomechanics
by Susan Hall
(3rd edition),
Fig 6.6, page
153

6-6

From Skeletal Muscle:

Form and Function (2nd
ed) by MacIntosh,
Gardiner, and McComas.
Fig 1.4, p. 8.

From Basic Biomechanics by Susan

Hall (3rd edition), Fig 6.5, page 152

6-5

From Basic Biomechanics by

Susan Hall (3rd edition), Fig
6.3, page 150

6-3

From Exercise
Physiology: Theory and
Application to Fitness
and Performance (6th
Edition) by Scott K.
Powers and Edward T.
Howley. Fig 8.6 P. 147

A motor unit: single motor neuron and all

the muscle fibers it innervates

From Basic Biomechanics

Instructors manual by Susan
Hall (2nd edition, 1995), Fig TM
31

From Basic Biomechanics by Susan

Hall (3rd edition), Fig 6.7, page
154

6-7

From Basic Biomechanics by Susan Hall

(3rd edition), Fig 6.8, page 154

6-8

Types of muscle fiber: Fast twitch vs Slow Twitch

Type I
ST Oxidative
(S0)

Contraction speed
(4xI)
Time to peak force
Fatigue rate
Fiber diam.
Aerobic capacity
Mitochondrial conc.
Anaerobic capacity

Type IIa
FT Oxidative Glycolytic (FOG)

slow

fast (2xI)

slow
slow
small
high
high
low

fast
inter.
inter.
inter.
inter.
inter.

Type IIb
FT Glycolytic
(FG)

fast
fast
fast
large
low
low
High

Sedentary people 50% slow/50% fast, whereas elite

athletes may differ
e.g., cross country skiers 75% slow 25% fast
sprinters
- 40% slow 60% fast

Factors affecting force Production

1. Cross-sectional
area

Hypertrophy: increase
in the # of myofibrils
and myofilaments

Hyperplasia: increase
in the number of
fibers???

2. Rate Coding frequency of stimulation

From Basic Biomechanics by Susan Hall

(3rd edition), Fig 6.9, page 155

3. Spatial recruitment

Increase # of active motor units (MUs)

Order of recruitment
I ---> IIa -----> IIb

Henneman's size principle: MUs are recruited in

order of their size, from small to large
Relative contributions of rate coding and spatial
recruitment.

Small muscles - all MUs recruited at approximately 50%

max. force; thereafter, rate coding is responsible for
force increase up to max
Large muscles - all MUs recruited at approximately 80%
max. force.

The force-velocity
relationship for
muscle tissue:
When resistance
(force) is negligible,
muscle contracts
with maximal
velocity.

Force

4. Velocity of shortening: Force inversely

related to shortening velocity

(Low resistance,
high contraction
velocity)

Velocity

isometric
maximum

Force

The force-velocity
relationship for
muscle tissue: As
the load increases,
concentric
contraction velocity
slows to zero at
isometric
maximum.

Velocity

Force-Velocity Relationship in different muscle fiber types

Type II fiber

Type I fiber

Effect of Temperature on Force-Velocity relationship

(22oC, 25oC, 31Co, and 37oC)

Force -Velocity Relationship (Effect of strength-Training)

Force-velocity Relationship During Eccentric

Muscular Contractions

Force/Velocity/Power Relationship
Force/velocity curve
Power/velocity
curve

Force

Power

30%
From Basic Biomechanics
by Susan Hall (3rd
edition), Fig 6.25, page
175

30%

Velocity

Effect of Muscle Fiber Types on Power-Velocity Relationship

Consequences of the force-velocity relationship for

sports practice

When training for sports that require power, train

with the appropriate % of 1 RM that will elicit the
most power.
24 weeks of:
a). heavy weight-training b. Explosive strength
training

From Science
and Practice
of Strength
Training (2nd
edition) V.M.
Zatsiorsky
and W.J.
Kraemer
(2006) Fig
2.19 P. 39)

Why do elite weight lifters start a barbell lift

from the floor slowly?
They try to accelerate maximally when the bar
is at knee height. Two reasons:
1. At this position, the highest forces can be
generated as a result of body posture

2. Because force
decreases when
velocity increases,
barbell must
approach the most
favored position at
a relatively low
velocity to impart
maximal force to
the bar.
From Science and Practice of Strength
Training (2nd edition) V.M. Zatsiorsky and
W.J. Kraemer (2006) Fig 2.20 P. 40)

Adaptations associated with strength training

1. Activates protein

catabolism. This
creates conditions for
enhanced synthesis of
contractile proteins
during the rest period
(break down, build up
theory)

From R.L. Leiber (1992). Skeletal

Muscle Structure and Function. Fig
6.1, p. 262.

2. Neural adaptations occur to improve

intra-muscular and inter-muscular
coordination.
Intra-muscular coordination affects the
ability to voluntarily activate individual fibers in
a specific muscle
Inter-muscular coordination affects the
ability to activate many different muscles at
the appropriate time

Intra-muscular coordination changes with

training

Untrained individuals find it difficult to

recruit all their fast-twitch MUs. With
training, an increase in MU activation
occurs
Strength training also trains the MUs to
fire at the optimal firing rate to achieve
tetany
MUs might also become activated more
synchronously during all out maximum
effort

Consequently, maximal muscular

force is achieved when:
1. A maximal # of both FT and ST motor
units are recruited

2. Rate coding is optimal to produce a

fused state of tetany
3. The MUs work synchronously over the
short period of maximal effort.

Psychological factors are also of importance

CNS either increases the flow of excitatory stimuli, decreases
inhibitory stimuli, or both
Consequently, an expansion of the recruitable motor neuron
pool occurs and an increase in strength results
Hidden strength potential of human muscle can also be
demonstrated by electrostimulation
Muscle strength deficit (MSD) =

(Force during electrostimulation-Maximal voluntary force ) x 100

Maximal voluntary force

Typically falls between 5-35%

Electrostimulation
Possibility exists to induce hypertrophy through
electrostimulation
However, does not train the nervous system to
recruit motor units

Bilateral Deficit
During maximal contractions, the sum of forces
exerted by homonymous muscles unilaterally is
typically larger than the sum of forces exerted by the
same muscles bilaterally
Bilateral training can eliminate this deficit, or even
allow bilateral facilitation

Other benefits of strength training

Increase in resting metabolic rate

Each additional pound of muscle tissue increases
resting metabolism by 30 to 50 calories per day = 10,950
to 18,250 calories a year = 3-5 lb of fat

Increase in bone mineral content and, therefore, bone density

Increases the thickness and strength of the connective tissue
structures crossing joints such as tendons and ligaments
helps prevent injury

Increased stores of ATP, Creatine Phosphate (CP), and glycogen

Aids rehabilitation from injury

Aging gracefully! Less falls in latter years

Looking better, feeling better. Greater self-esteem

Metabolic stress of resistance

training

Classed as only light to moderate in terms

of energy expenditure per workout
Standard weight-training does not improve
endurance or produce significant
cardiovascular benefits like aerobic type
activity does
Circuit-training increases metabolic stress

Delayed onset of muscle soreness

(DOMS)

The intensity and the novelty of a workout influence how sore you
become
Lactate does not cause muscle soreness due to:
1. Lactate returns to baseline within an hour of exercise
2. After exercise, lactate is in equal amounts within the muscle
and the blood
3. DOMS is specific, not generalized

Muscle soreness is due to the physiological response to muscle

fiber and connective tissue damage (microtears)
White blood cells enter the muscle tissue, clean up the debris of
broken proteins, and then initiate the regeneration phase

Muscle Soreness (continued)

Edema (increase in fluid) to the area accompanies

the above response
The pressure from edema is thought to produce
the sensation of soreness
Also, metabolic by-products released from the
macrophages may sensitize pain receptors
Next stage is the proliferation of satellite cells help form new myofibrils
Eccentric contractions cause the greatest amount
of soreness