VFD Manual

THE BASICS OF VARIABLE-FREQUENCY DRIVES
How to use various types of VFDs and harmonic mitigation tactics to combat the
heat loss that accompanies these devices.
Find more articles on: Variable Frequency Drives
Peter Novak, Fluor, Inc. | Electrical Construction and Maintenance
May 1, 2009
When Tesla first introduced the 3-phase alternating current (AC) induction motor in 1888, he knew
that his invention was more efficient and reliable than Edison's direct current (DC) motor. However,
AC motor speed control requires either varying the magnetic flux or changing the number of poles on
the motor. Even decades after the induction motor gained widespread use, changing the frequency
for speed control remained an extremely difficult task and the physical construction of the motor
prevented manufacturers from creating motors with more than two speeds.
As a result, DC motors were necessary where accurate speed control and significant power output
were required. In contrast to AC motor speed control requirements, DC motor speed control was
achieved by inserting a rheostat into the low-power DC field circuit, which was feasible with available
technology. These simple motor controls varied the speed and torque, and were the most economical
way to do so for a number of decades.
<b>Fig. 1.</b> An ideal sinuosoid and PWM waveform figure.

By the 1980s, AC motor drive technology became reliable and inexpensive enough to compete with
traditional DC motor control. These variable-frequency drives (VFDs) accurately control the speed of
standard AC induction or synchronous motors. With VFDs, speed control with full torque is achieved
from 0 rpm through the maximum rated speed and, if required, above the rated speed at reduced
torque. VFDs manipulate the frequency of their output by rectifying an incoming AC current into DC,
and then using voltage pulse-width modulation to recreate an AC current and voltage output
waveform. However, this frequency conversion process causes 2% to 3% loss as heat in the VFD
caloric energy that must be dissipated. The process also yields overvoltage spikes and harmonic
current distortions.
Variable-frequency types
There are three common types of VFDs. Current source inversion (CSI) has been successfully used in
signal processing and industrial power applications. CSI VFDs are the only type that has regenerative
power capability. In other words, they can absorb power flow back from the motor into the power
supply. CSI VFDs give a very clean current waveform but require large, expensive inductors in their
construction and cause cogging (pulsating movement during rotation) below 6 Hz.
Voltage source inversion (VSI) drives have poor power factor, can cause motor cogging below 6 Hz,
and are non-regenerative. Consequently, CSI and VSI drives have not been widely used.
Pulse-width modulation (PWM) VFDs are most commonly used in industry because of excellent input
power factor due to fixed DC bus voltage, no motor cogging, higher efficiencies, and lower cost. A
PWM VFD uses a series of voltage pulses of different lengths to simulate a sinusoidal wave (Fig. 1 on
page 8). Ideally, the pulses are timed so that the time average integral of the drive yields a perfect
sinusoid. The current method of choice to produce this waveform runs a triangle wave and sine wave
through a comparator, and outputs a voltage pulse whenever the sine wave's value is greater than
the triangle wave. The current electric component of choice to generate the voltage pulse is the
insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), although silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) can work as well.
In the near future, injection-enhanced gate transistors (IEGTs) will be used to perform this task.
Much more long term, memristors will probably become the component of choice for this task.
Memristors are the fourth passive circuit element, linking electric charge and magnetic flux.
Memristors have been hypothesized to exist for more than 30 years, but were not fabricated until
April 2008 by Hewlett Packard Labs. Hewlett Packard hopes to use these devices as a passive
transistor, reducing their heat generation compared to other types of memory. Regardless of the
component used to form the sine wave, the switching action causes problems.
Heat, power losses, and harmonics
The first problem a VFD manufacturer needs to address is heat. Although VFDs are highly efficient
devices, manufacturers are unable to produce an ideal set of components. The heat lost in the drive
is governed by the following equation:
Hloss = Pt (1-)
Where Hloss is the power lost (W), Pt is the power through the drive (W), and is the efficiency of the
drive. Usually, VFDs have an efficiency rating between 95% and 98%. This means the amount of air
that must be moved through the drive is governed by the equation:
m = Hloss(CpT) = Pt(1-)(CpT)
Where m is the mass flow rate (kg/s), Cp is the specific heat of air [kJ(kgK)], and T is the
difference in temperature between the incoming air and the outgoing air (K). This heat can cause
significant cooling costs to be added into the design, especially if the drive is unable to be placed in
an unclassified location (area free of flammable gases or particles). If the drive must be placed in a
classified location, then the airflow going to the drive will need to be purged and pressurized.
<b>Fig. 2.</b> A real sinusoid and PWM waveform. Note how the harmonics affect the
shape of the sinusoid.
Heating is only one of the problems with VFDs. The other major problem lies with system harmonics.
A picture of the PWM and the harmonics they cause is shown in Fig. 2. The irregularities in the sine
wave are called harmonics. In an ideal power circuit world, these harmonics should not exist. They do
nothing but cause problems. Fortunately, there are a number of ways to mitigate harmonics.
One of the simplest methods of dealing with harmonics is to place a sine wave filter on either side of
the VFD. On the line side, these are typically called line reactors and have reactance values anywhere
between 1.5% and 5.0% impedance. Higher impedance not only stops more harmonics, but it also
limits the power going to the VFD.
Another tactic that can be used on the line side of the VFD is to place capacitors at a common bus.
Because the impedance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to the frequency of a signal, the
harmonics see a short through the capacitor and travel through the capacitor to ground, hopefully
ignoring the other loads on the bus. VFDs may also use an active front end to limit the harmonics
that the line side sees. An active front end has another IGBT switching at an inverse voltage as the
main IGBT, but it is placed through a high pass filter so that the fundamental power signal goes to
ground. The summation of the two harmonic signals ideally should be zero. If an active front-end
drive is not suitable for some reason, a passive front-end VFD might be procured. Passive front-end
VFDs use multiple phase-shifting transformers and diode bridges to mitigate harmonics.
The more pulses a passive front-end VFD has, the fewer problems with harmonics exist. The trade-off
is that the line voltages must be well balanced, and with each additional phase shifting transformer
there is increased cost and a loss in efficiency. In extreme cases, an isolation transformer might be
procured. Although this is one of the most effective ways to prevent harmonics from spreading, it's
also one of the most costly.
If harmonics are not sufficiently mitigated on the line side of the VFD, crosstalk and overheating could
become issues. Overheating could either cause bus sizes to be derated or increase cooling costs.
Crosstalk is defined as the signal from one circuit interfering with another circuit. Generally speaking,
it is a larger issue than overheating. An example of this is a radio just slightly out of tune. Although it
is possible to hear the music through the static, the static is annoying. Crosstalk is an annoying thing
in telecommunication circuits. In power circuitry, crosstalk will cause overheating and frequency relay
trips.
Just as harmonics left unchecked on the line side can cause problems, they can create issues on the
load side as well. This is because of the nature of waves. For example, a small force exerted on a
Slinky at either end will cause a high amplitude sine wave. Electromagnetic waves act in the same
fashion, meaning a small amount of reactance can cause large voltage spikes. Because this reactance
is inductive in nature, most output filters are capacitors connected in a delta configuration. Ideally,
this should make the reactance portion of the impedance go to zero. If the impedance is matched
properly, then this does not occur.
A note of caution: Capacitors connected on the load side of the VFD can create a large number of
problems, up to and including destroying a drive. Therefore, it's wise to check with the drive
manufacturer before installing a sine wave filter on the load side of the VFD. On rare occasions, an
active filter may be used. Although these tend to work well, they are rather expensive and usually
have to be custom designed.
VFD benefits
Despite the fact that VFDs generate a large amount of harmonics and heat, they would not be as
widely used and popular as they are today if they did not have significant economic benefits.
Electrically, VFDs run at a high power factor. Any class of induction motors usually has a low power
factor at half and three-quarters load (0.75 to 0.85). This actually decreases the life of the motor,
because the unnecessary increase in current overheating the winding insulation. VFDs bypass this
problem by running the load at a frequency below the fundamental.
The most obvious reason to procure a VFD is speed control. This is usually done for process,
operation, and economic benefits. One economic benefit comes from the reduction of maintenance
when using a VFD, especially not having to deal with the DC motor carbon brushes or mechanical
speed-control gearboxes (transmissions). The most obvious economic benefits of VFDs occur with
fans and pumps. The power that a pump or fan consumes is directly proportional to the cube of the
velocity. This means if an operator can run a fan at 80% of full speed, it theoretically uses 51% of full
load power.
VFDs also optimize motor starting characteristics. VFDs bring motors up to full speed quickly and by
drawing only 100% to 150% of full load amps (FLAs). This ability to start at normal FLA is very
important if the power supply cannot withstand the normally six times FLA across-the-line starting
draw, or even the 350% FLA soft-start device current. VFDs do this by managing the magnetic flux of
an induction motor. Magnetic flux is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to
the frequency. By keeping the flux constant, the inrush current does not exceed the FLA rating of the
motor, and full torque is maintained. This is a significant improvement on a soft-start, which has
significant voltage drop problems and cannot start under full load.
Another potentially useful aspect of VFDs is demonstrated in Fig. 3, (click here to see Fig. 3) which
shows the output of a constant torque VFD. Notice the two regions, constant torque, and constant
horsepower. The constant torque region is fairly self explanatory; the VFD is regulating the flux so
that the current is constant. Once the VFD surpasses the rated system frequency, the voltage cannot
increase due to the physical constraints of the system. Because the voltage is static and the
frequency is increasing the flux is forced to decrease. When this occurs, the current and torque are
forced to decrease as well. This is called field weakening. Although not necessarily a good thing, it
can be useful if there is a need to power a partial torque load above the rated speed. In addition to
this capability, VFDs can also take any form of input power whether it's single-phase AC, 3-phase AC,
or DC. VFDs fed from a DC source still power an AC load without an internal rectifier.
VFDs also have some applications on the power grid. One classic example of this is a doubly fed
induction generator, in which the VFD can force a fixed frequency and voltage signal out of a
variable-speed (frequency) input. This is commonly seen in wind turbines and other small
hydroelectric generation projects that will be connected to the power grid. Other renewable energy
sources, such as photovoltaic cells, can use VFDs to act as an inverter before connecting to the power
grid, although inverters with buck-boost technology are more common. While there are many
potential uses for VFDs on the commercial power grid, they are beyond the scope of this article.
In summary, whenever a load has either a variable torque or a variable speed, a VFD should be
considered. A VFD might be considered if a large motor has a problem with voltage drop, torque, or
inrush current during start-up. Even though VFDs undoubtedly solve their fair amount of problems
and provide substantial energy savings, the heat they generate must be dissipated and the
harmonics they produce must be mitigated.
Novak is an electrical engineer with Fluor, Inc., Sugar Land, Texas. He can be reached at
peter.novak@fluor.com.
UNDERSTANDING VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES (PART 1)

Solomon S. Turkel | Electrical Construction and Maintenance
Mar 1, 1999
Three basic types of variable frequency drives offer certain advantages as well as disadvantages
depending on your motor application. The new flux vector drive is also discussed.
While all variable frequency drives (VFDs) control the speed of an AC induction motor by varying the
motor's supplied voltage and frequency of power, they all do not use the same designs in doing so.
There are three major VFD designs commonly used today: pulse width modulation (PWM), current
source inverter (CSI), and voltage source inverter (VSI). Recently, the flux vector drive also has
become popular.
Let's compare these technologies.
PWM design
The PWM drive has become the most commonly used drive controller because it works well with
motors ranging in size from about 1/2 hp to 500 hp. A significant reason for its popularity is that it's
highly reliable, affordable and reflects the least amount of harmonics back into its power source. Most
units are rated either 230V or 460V, 3-phase, and provide output frequencies from about 2 Hz to 400
Hz. Nearly 100 manufacturers market the PWM controller. A typical controller is shown in the photo.
As shown in Fig. 1, an AC line supply voltage is brought into the input section. From here, the AC
voltage passes into a converter section that uses a diode bridge converter and large DC capacitors to
create and maintain a stable, fixed DC bus voltage. The DC voltage passes into the inverter section
usually furnished with insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), which regulate both voltage and
frequency to the motor to produce a near sine wave like output.
The term "pulse width modulation" explains how each transition of the alternating voltage output is
actually a series of short pulses of varying widths. By varying the width of the pulses in each half
cycle, the average power produced has a sine-like output. The number of transitions from positive to
negative per second determines the actual frequency to the motor.
Switching speeds of the IGBTs in a PWM drive can range from 2 KHz to 15 KHz. Today's newer PWM
designs use power IGBTs, which operate at these higher frequencies. By having more pulses in every
half cycle, the motor whine associated with VFD applications is reduced because the motor windings
are now oscillating at a frequency beyond the spectrum of human hearing. Also, the current wave
shape to the motor is smoothed out as current spikes are removed. Fig. 2 (on page 56) shows the
voltage and current waveform outputs from a PWM drive.
PWMs have the following advantages.
* Excellent input power factor due to fixed DC bus voltage.
* No motor cogging normally found with six-step inverters.
* Highest efficiencies: 92% to 96%.
* Compatibility with multimotor applications.
* Ability to ride through a 3 to 5 Hz power loss.
* Lower initial cost.
The following are disadvantages, however, that you should also consider.
* Motor heating and insulation breakdown in some applications due to high frequency switching of
transistors.
* Non-regenerative operation.
* Line-side power harmonics (depending on the application and size of the drive).
CSI design
As shown in Fig. 3, the incoming power source to the CSI design is converted to DC voltage in an SCR
converter section, which regulates the incoming power and produces a variable DC bus voltage. This
voltage is regulated by the firing of the SCRs as needed to maintain the proper volt/hertz ratio. SCRs
are also used in the inverter section to produce the variable frequency output to the motor. CSI
drives are inherently current regulating and require a large internal inductor to operate, as well as a
motor load.
CSIs have the following advantages.
* Reliability due to inherent current limiting operation.
* Regenerative power capability.
* Simple circuitry.
The following are disadvantages, however, in the use of CSI technology.
* Large power harmonic generation back into power source.
* Cogging below 6 Hz due to square wave output.
* Use of large and costly inductor.
* HV spikes to motor windings.

* Load dependent; poor for multimotor applications.
* Poor input power factor due to SCR converter section.
VSI design
As shown in Fig. 4, the VSI drive is very similar to a CSI drive in that it also uses an SCR converter
section to regulate DC bus voltage. Its inverter section produces a six-step output, but is not a
current regulator like the CSI drive. This drive is considered a voltage regulator and uses transistors,
SCRs or gate turn off thyristors (GTOs) to generate an adjustable frequency output to the motor.
VSIs have the following advantages.
TERMS TO KNOW
Cogging: Pulsating symptom of a motor while operating at a very low frequency, usually 2 to 6 Hz.
Shaft of motor jerks in a rotational manner. The term "cogging" comes from gear cogs.
Non-regenerative: The inability of a drive to regenerate, or reverse, the power flow back from the
motor through the drive.
* Basic simplicity in design.
* Applicable to multimotor operations.
* Operation not load dependent.
As with the other types of drives, there are disadvantages.
* Large power harmonic generation back into the power source.
* Poor input power factor due to SCR converter section.
* Cogging below 6 Hz due to square wave output.
* Non-regenerative operation.
Flux vector PWM drives
PWM drive technology is still considered new and is continuously being refined with new power
switching devices and smart 32-bit microprocessors. AC drives have always been limited to "normal
torque" applications while high torque, low rpm applications have been the domain of DC drives. This
has changed recently with the introduction of a new breed of PWM drive, the flux vector drive.
Flux vector drives use a method of controlling torque similar to that of DC drive systems, including
wide speed control range with quick response. Flux vector drives have the same power section as all
PWM drives, but use a sophisticated closed loop control from the motor to the drive's microprocessor.
The motor's rotor position and speed is monitored in real time via a resolver or digital encoder to
determine and control the motor's actual speed, torque, and power produced.
By controlling the inverter section in response to actual load conditions at the motor in a real time
mode, superior torque control can be obtained. The personality of the motor must be programmed
into or learned by the drive in order for it to run the vector control algorithms. In most cases, special
motors are required due to the torque demands expected of the motor.
The following are advantages of this new drive technology.
* Excellent control of motor speed, torque, and power.

* Quick response to changes in load, speed, and torque commands.
* Ability to provide 100% rated torque at 0 speed.
* Lower maintenance cost as compared to DC motors and drives.
As usual, there are disadvantages.
* Higher initial cost as compared to standard PWM drives.
* Requires special motor in most cases.
* Drive setup parameters are complex.
While flux vector technology offers superior performance for certain special applications, it would be
considered "over-kill" for most applications well served by standard PWM drives.
Solomon S. Turkel is Senior Instructor and Course Author for ATMS (Advanced Technologies
Marketing and Service), Inc., Baltimore, Md.

A thorough understanding of how to match the VFD to the driven load is the key to a successful
application.
When applied properly, the variable frequency drive (VFD) is the most effective motor controller in
the industry today. Modern VFDs are affordable and reliable, have flexibility of control, and offer
significant electrical energy savings through greatly reduced electric bills.
They are used in a wide variety of applications for various reasons. For example, they are the most
effective energy savers in pump and fan applications; they enhance process operations, particularly
where flow control is involved. VFDs provide soft-start capabilities, which decrease electrical stresses
and line voltage sags associated with full voltage motor start-ups, especially when driving high-inertia
loads.
To obtain a clear understanding of the proper and most effective application of VFDs, you first should
gain a working knowledge of VFD basic theory as well as a strong familiarity with practical know-how.
Basic VFD Theory
Applying a VFD to a specific application is no mystery when you understand the requirements of the
load. Simply put, the VFD must have ample current capability for the motor so that the motor can
produce the required torque for the load. You must remember that machine torque is independent of
motor speed and that load horsepower increases linearly with rpm.
VFD applications can be divided into the following individual load types.
Constant torque loads. These loads represent 90% of all general industrial machines (other than
pumps and fans). Examples of these load types include general machinery, hoists, conveyors, printing
presses, positive displacement pumps, some mixers and extruders, reciprocating compressors, as well
as rotary compressors.
Constant horsepower loads. These loads are most often found in the machine-tool industry and
center driven winder applications. Examples of constant horsepower loads include winders, coredriven reels, wheel grinders, large driller machines, lathes, planers, boring machines, and core
extruders.
Traditionally, these loads were considered DC drive applications only. With high-performance flux
vector VFD's now available, many DC drive applications of this type can be now handled by VFDs.
Variable torque loads. Variable torque loads are most often found in variable flow applications, such
as fans and pumps. Examples of applications include fans, centrifugal blowers, centrifugal pumps,
propeller pumps, turbine pumps, agitators, and axial compressors. VFDs offer the greatest
opportunity for energy savings when driving these loads because horsepower varies as the cube of
speed and torque varies as square of speed for these loads. For example, if the motor speed is
reduced 20%, motor horsepower is reduced by a cubic relationship (.8 X .8 X .8), or 51%. As such,
utilities often offer subsidies to customers investing in VFD technology for their applications. Many
VFD manufactures have free software programs available for customers to calculate and document
potential energy savings by using VFDs.
Sizing VFDs for the Load
How do you size a VFD drive for an application and feel confident it's going to work? First, you must
understand the requirements of the load. It helps also if you understand the difference between
horsepower and torque. As electrical people, we tend to think of loads in horsepower ratings instead
of torque ratings. When was the last time you sized something based on torque? Thus, both torque
and horsepower must be carefully examined.
Torque. Torque is an applied force that tends to produce rotation and is measured in lb-ft or lb-in. All
loads have a torque requirement that must be met by the motor. The purpose of the motor is to
develop enough torque to meet the requirements of the load.
Actually, torque can be thought of as "OOUMPH". The motor has to develop enough "OOUMPH" to
get the load moving and keep it moving under all the conditions that may apply.
Horsepower. Horsepower (hp) is the time rate at which work is being done. One hp is the force
required to lift 33,000 lbs 1 ft in 1 min. If you want to get the work done in less time, get yourself
more horses!
Here are some basic equations that will help you understand the relationship between hp, torque,
and speed.
hp = (Torque x Speed)/5250 (eq. 1)
Torque = (hp x 5250)/Speed (eq. 2)
As an example, a 1-hp motor operating at 1800 rpm will develop 2.92 lb-ft of torque.
Know your load torque requirements Every load has distinct torque requirements that vary with the
load's operation; these torques must be supplied by the motor via the VFD. You should have a clear
understanding of these torques.
Break-away torque: torque required to start a load in motion (typically greater
than the torque required to maintain motion).
Accelerating torque: torque required to bring the load to operating speed within a
given time.
Running torque: torque required to keep the load moving at all speeds.
Peak torque: occasional peak torque required by the load, such as a load being
dropped on a conveyor.
Holding torque: torque required by the motor when operating as a brake, such as
down hill loads and high inertia machines.

Practical Knowhow Guidelines
The following guidelines will help ensure a correct match of VFD and motor.
1. Define the operating profile of the load to which the VFD is to be applied. Include any or all of the
"torques" discussed above. Using a recording true rms ammeter to record the motor's current
draw under all operating conditions will help in doing this. Obtain the highest "peak" current
readings under the worst conditions. Also, see if the motor has been working in an overloaded
condition by checking the motor full-load amps (FLA). An overloaded motor operating at reduced
speeds may not survive the increased temperatures as a result of the reduced cooling effects of
the motor at these lower speeds.
2. Determine why the load operation needs to be changed. Very often VFDs have been applied to
applications where all that was required was a "soft start" reduced voltage controller. The need
for the VFD should be based on the ability to change the load's speed as required. In those
applications where only one speed change is required, a VFD may not be necessary or practical.
3. Size the VFD to the motor based on the maximum current requirements under peak torque
demands. Do not size the VFD based on horsepower ratings. Many applications have failed
because of this. Remember, the maximum demands placed on the motor by the load must also
be met by the VFD.
4. Evaluate the possibility of required oversizing of the VFD. Be aware that motor performance
(break-away torque, for example) is based upon the capability of the VFD used and the amount
of current it can produce. Depending on the type of load and duty cycle expected, oversizing of
the VFD may be required.
Key VFD Specifications
While there are many specifications associated with drives, the following are the most important.
Continuous run current rating. This is the maximum rms current the VFD can safely handle under
all operating conditions at a fixed ambient temperature (usually 40 [degrees] C). Motor ball load
sine wave currents must be equal to or less than this rating.
Overload current rating. This is an inverse time/current rating that is the maximum current the
VFD can produce for a given time frame. Typical ratings are 110% to 150% overcurrent for 1
min, depending on the manufacturer. Higher current ratings can be obtained by oversizing the
VFD. This rating is very important when sizing the VFD for the currents needed by the motor for
break-away torque.
Line voltage. As with any motor controller, an operating voltage must be specified. VFDs are
designed to operate at some nominal voltage such as 240VAC or 480VAC, with an allowable
voltage variation of plus or minus 10%. Most motor starters will operate beyond this 10%
variation, but VFDs will not and will go into a protective trip. A recorded voltage reading of line
power deviations is highly recommended for each application.
Applications to Watch Out For
If you answer any of the following questions with YES, be extra careful in your VFD selection and
setup parameters of the VFD.
Will the VFD operate more than one motor? The total peak currents of all motor loads under
worst operating conditions must be calculated. The VFD must be sized based on this maximum
current requirement. Additionally, individual motor protection must be provided here for each
motor.
Will the load be spinning or coasting when the VFD is started? This is very often the case with fan
applications. When a VFD is first started, it begins to operate at a low frequency and voltage and
gradually ramps up to a preset speed. If the load is already in motion, it will be out of sync with
the VFD. The VFD will attempt to pull the motor down to the lower frequency, which may require
high current levels, usually causing an overcurrent trip. Because of this, VFD manufacturers offer
drives with an option for synchronization with a spinning load; this VFD ramps at a different
frequency.
Will the power supply source be switched while the VFD is running? This occurs in many
buildings, such as hospitals, where loads are switched to standby generators in the event of a
power outage. Some drives will ride through a brief power outage while others may not. If your
application is of this type, it must be reviewed with the drive manufacturer for a final
determination of drive capability.
Is the load considered hard to start? These are the motors that dim the lights in the building
when you hit the start button. Remember, the VFD is limited in the amount of overcurrent it can
produce for a given period of time. These applications may require oversizing of the VFD for
higher current demands.
Are starting or stopping times critical? Some applications may require quick starting or emergency
stopping of the load. In either case, high currents will be required of the drive. Again, oversizing
of the VFD maybe required.
Are external motor disconnects required between the motor and the VFD? Service disconnects at
motor loads are very often used for maintenance purposes. Normally, removing a load from a
VFD while operating does not pose a problem for the VFD. On the other hand, introducing a load
to a VFD by closing a motor disconnect while the VFD is operational can be fatal to the VFD.
When a motor is Started at full voltage, as would happen in this case, high currents are
generated, usually about six times the full load amps of the motor current. The VFD would see
these high currents as being well beyond its capabilities and would go into a protective trip or fail
altogether. A simple solution for this condition is to interlock the VFD run permissive circuit with
the service disconnects via an auxiliary contact at the service disconnect. When the disconnect is
closed, a permissive run signal restarts the VFD at low voltage and frequency.
Are there power factor correction capacitors being switched or existing on the intended motor
loads? Switching of power factor capacitors usually generates power disturbances in the
distribution system. Many VFDs can and will be affected by this. Isolation transformers or line
reactors may be required for these applications.
Power factor correction at VFD-powered motor loads is not necessary as the VFD itself does this by
using DC internally and then inverting it into an AC output to the motor. All VFD manufacturers warn
against installing capacitors at the VFD output.

May 1, 1999
Correct installation of variable frequency drives demands attention to vital factors such as location
and environment, electrical connections grounding, supply voltage, and protective devices.
Over 50% of drive failures are a result of improper installation and start-up. As such, you can avoid
many problems by carefully planning your VFD installation prior to the actual work beginning. There
are several key factors that must be considered to ensure a proper VFD installation.
The drive installation procedure begins with a thorough reading of the drive's manual. (That's the
book we always put aside until we have problems and need answers). This manual will give you
important information about receiving, storage, and planning for the installation before the equipment
arrives. It's a good practice to make several copies of the manual; it seems they always end up in
that great void with all the other lost manuals. Better yet, specify additional spare manuals for the
drive with your order.
Cooling and line power quality considerations
There are many important considerations for all industrial electronic equipment; however, the two
most important are cooling and line power quality.
Cooling. VFD control units should be installed in locations where the maximum ambient temperature
does not exceed 40 [degrees] C (104 [degrees] F). This is a common temperature rating for most
units. If higher ambients are expected, derating of the VFD may be required.
You should avoid installing units in mezzanines, direct sunlight, or near external heat sources because
these locations usually have unpredictable temperature rises. If you must install VFDs in such areas,
take steps to provide necessary cooling.
Proper cooling of the VFD's heat sink is essential for successful operation. Wall-mounted units employ
a "chimney effect" for cooling of the heat sink and must be mounted against a smooth, flat, vertical
surface. If a wall-mounted unit is to be installed in a free-standing position, then plywood or a sheet
of metal should be fastened to the back of the unit to ensure that chimney-effect cooling will be
achieved. Larger free-standing VFDs require minimum clearances around them for sufficient air flow
to circulate through them, assuring adequate cooling.
Altitude affects the heat dissipation capability of the heat sink and units in locations at 3300 ft (1000
m) above sea level must be derated. A common rule of thumb is a 2% derating for every 1000 ft
above the 3300 ft altitude level.
Supply line power quality. The line voltage (supply) to the drive input should not vary plus or minus
10% because most drives will trip via a protective fault. This voltage stability should be considered
when running conductors to the drive and voltage drops should be calculated for long runs.
Very often external control signals are used to start/stop and control the speed of a VFD. Control
signal types can vary depending on the application. It's not unusual to have a 115V or 24V control
circuit for start commands and a 4-20mA or 0-5VDC signal for speed control. These control signals
must be run independently of each other as well as separate from any power wiring. Induced noises
can produce erratic drive behavior that is very difficult to troubleshoot.
Other VFD installation considerations
There are other installation considerations for VFDs. These include electrical connections, grounding,
fault protection, motor protection, and environmental parameters such as humidity and moisture.
Electrical connections. The sizing and installation of VFD line and load conductors should conform
with the NEC and other appropriate local codes.
Grounding. For safe and dependable operation, all VFDs must be properly grounded. This normally
calls for a grounding conductor to be brought back to a single-point grounding location, usually
selected to be at the service. In addition, a grounding conductor must be brought back from the
motor to the VFD's internal grounding terminal. This direct motor ground to the VFD is required to
minimize interference and for the ground-fault protection function of the drive to operate properly.
Fault protection. Many VFDs have short-circuit protection (usually in the form of fuses) already
installed by the manufacturer. This is usually the case on larger hp units. Smaller units (1/3 to 5 hp)
normally require external fuse protection. In either case, the selection and sizing of these fuses is
critical for semiconductor protection in the event of a fault. The manufacturer's recommendations
must be followed when installing or replacing fuses for the VFD. Be sure to torque-bolt fuses in place
according to the manufacturer's specifications to assure fast operation of fuses in case of a fault.
Motor protection. All motors require overload protection. The most common practice is the use of a
motor overcurrent relay system that will protect all three phases and protect against single-phasing.
This type of protection will respond to motor overcurrent conditions of an overloaded motor, but will
not detect over-temperature conditions.
A motor operating at reduced speeds will have reduced cooling; as a result, it may fail due to thermal
breakdown of the motor windings insulation. Thus, the optimum protection for a motor is thermal
sensing of the motor windings. This sensing is then interlocked with the VFD's control circuit. This is
highly recommended for any motor that is to be operated for extended periods of time at low speeds.
Humidity and moisture. As is the case with all electrical and electronic equipment, high humidity and
corrosive atmosphere's are a concern. Drive units should be installed in a noncorrosive location
whenever possible, with ambient humidity ranging between 0 to 95% noncondensing.
Completing the installation
Installation of a VFD is no different than any other type of motor control. Common sense, along with
the manufacturer's guide lines and adherence to the appropriate code requirements, are all that is
needed.
At this point in time you'll probably want to power-up the VFD and give it a test. STOP...DON'T DO
IT! Most fatal VFD failures occur about now.
A start-up procedure must be followed for the safe and correct start-up of the VFD. If the installation
is performed by outside contractors, a notice should be placed on the VFD reading: Start-up by
Facility Personnel Only.

Jun 1, 1999
A carefully organized start-up procedure assures better equipment operation and system reliability
while greatly simplifying future troubleshooting.
Proper start-up procedures for variable frequency drives (VFDs) are of paramount importance to the
ultimate success and effective operation of the VFD installation. In fact, successful installation of
nearly any electrical equipment or system benefits from an orderly, well-planned start-up process
similar to the procedure presented here.
In addition to a fast and smooth start-up, other major benefits of an organized start-up procedure are
as follows.
* A better understanding of all component and system functions.
* Documentation of data for warranty purposes.
* Accumulation of baseline information and values to speed future troubleshooting and proper
maintenance.
Of course, during initial design stages and long before start-up, you'll have developed a good
understanding of the application and its variations to assure the best possible performance of the
load. Also by this time, you'll have a good knowledge of the VFD's features and adjustments for fine
tuning it to the application.
Prior to start-up
First, read and follow all caution notes and warnings provided by the VFD manufacturer. These will be
found in the equipment manual as well as labeled on the VFD equipment itself.
Next, read the entire VFD manual and highlight the features and adjustments you expect to use. Pay
particular attention to connection terminals for power and control and locate these within the VFD
control enclosure.
Important note. Before energizing the VFD make a physical inspection of it and look for the following.
* Any moisture or debris (metal shavings for example) inside the equipment.
* Damage or dents to the enclosure, damaged or loose components and wires, and disconnected
terminal connectors.
* Possible restrictions to air flow at the cooling fans or heat sink.
* Unremoved shipping blocks or tapes at power contactors, relays, etc.
In addition to the VFD itself, you should also make a visual inspection of the entire system, including
motors, disconnect switches, circuit breakers, controls, load components, control devices (limit, float,
pressure switches), etc.
Finally, you should make an intense and thorough check of the following items.
* Connections (line, load, and ground).
* Motor (horsepower, full-load amps, voltage, and rotation).
* VFD (input/output voltages, maximum output current).
* Protective devices (circuit breaker, fuses, overloads, thermal devices).
* Disconnects (are they in place and sized correctly).
* Incoming line power voltage measurements to the VFD (A-B phase, B-C phase, C-A phase).
Start-up guide sheet/report
You should use a VFD start-up guide sheet/report in your start-up procedure. A sample of a report is
on page 62. This document verifies all parameters prior to power up; documents the installation for
warranty claims; and aids in troubleshooting for future problems. Even if you are not doing start-up,
you should require this report from whomever performs the start-up.
Start-up instruments
To help you have a start-up that is effective and efficient, we recommended that you have available
the following instruments.
* True rms multimeter capable of reading AC/DC voltages up to 750V.
* True rms clamp-on ammeter capable of reading the VFD's maximum current output.
* Photo tachometer to verify shaft output speed at load.
* Current/voltage signal generator to generate a reference analog signal to VFD (4-20mA or 0-5V).
(This is extremely useful on HVAC applications where the building automation system designed to
control the VFD is not ready at time of start-up.)
* Oscilloscope to check wave shapes of VFD output to motor. These wave shapes can be compared
to those provided in the start-up manual, or recorded (via Polaroid camera) for future comparison
during troubleshooting or maintenance. The scope also can be used to check volts/hertz ratio.
Make up a complete final check, via a check-off list, of all electrical and mechanical components to be
sure that they are set correctly. This includes valves, dampers, limit switches, steady-state voltage
and current values, etc.
Station people at key locations (motor, controller panel, load(s), etc).
A proper start-up can be considered complete only when the VFD is operated at full load. This is
important because you then can make meaningful drive adjustments. You can verify this by actually
checking the FLA and comparing the value to that on the motor nameplate.
When the start-up command is given, watch, listen, and smell for anything unusual. Once start-up
has been accomplished, allow the system to run a few hours before taking test readings for future
comparison.
Marketing and Services) Inc. Baltimore, Md.
BEHIND THE SCENES WITH VFDS

VFDs can help control maintenance costs-not just motor speed and torqueFind more articles on:
Variable Frequency Drives
Doug Weber, Rockwell Automation | Electrical Construction and Maintenance
Sep 1, 2006
Ask any system designer to name the top three reasons for specifying a variable-frequency drive
(VFD), and you probably won't hear a lot of maintenance cost reduction responses in return.
Instead, you'll likely get answers ranging from range of precision and/or control to ease of
installation to energy reduction the latter of which tops everyone's list. That's because using a
VFD to control the speed of a centrifugal fan or pump at 80% of rated speed, for example, can cut
energy costs in half. This dramatic energy savings is one reason designers like to use VFDs in today's
commercial and residential HVAC systems.
So where does the savings come from? Doesn't adding another piece of equipment increase the costs
of maintenance by providing more equipment to maintain? Not necessarily. In fact, converting a
process from fixed speed to variable speed can significantly reduce wear and tear on mechanical
systems by reducing start/stop cycles. VFDs can also eliminate the need for such active components
as vanes, dampers, and valves. Ultimately, you have less equipment to maintain, and longer runtime
between failures.
Simply slapping a drive into an existing system, however, isn't going to cut it. To get the desired cost
savings, first you need to understand the features offered by the particular drive you have or are
planning to buy. Then, you need to think about how to implement those features in a way that will
reduce system maintenance and overall operating costs.
Smoothing acceleration. When a load transitions from steady-state speed to accelerating or
decelerating, the transition is usually instantaneous. However, the mass of the load doesn't instantly
follow. This difference causes a jerking action that puts considerable stress on mechanical
components.
VFDs can control acceleration and deceleration along the torque/speed curve to eliminate the
jerkiness and thus reduce the stress on components. This method has long been recognized as an
aid in the handling of very light conveyor loads (e.g., a bottling line), extending the life of mechanical
components in any application that has fast transitions.
Avoiding overcurrent conditions. Controlling a motor that is already spinning (commonly called a
flying start) creates overcurrent challenges. Avoiding the maintenance downtime that could result
from an overcurrent trip in those flying-start situations requires an AC drive that can reconnect the
drive to a motor already spinning as quickly as possible to resume normal operation with minimal
impact on load or speed.
When a drive executes a normal start, it initially applies 0 Hz and ramps up to the commanded
frequency. Starting the drive in this mode with the motor already spinning will generate large
currents. This can result in an overcurrent trip, if the current limiter does not react quickly enough.
The likelihood of an overcurrent trip is even greater, if there is a residual flux on the spinning motor
when the drive starts.
Simply preventing an overload trip isn't enough. If done incorrectly, the deceleration and subsequent
reacceleration can place extreme mechanical stress on the application. And, of course, this creates a
potential for causing premature equipment failure with the attendant downtime and repair costs. This
is why a VFD needs a flying start mode.
In flying start mode, the drive responds to a start command by identifying the motor speed and then
beginning its output synchronized in frequency, amplitude, and phase to the spinning motor. The
motor will then be reconnected at its existing speed, and be smoothly accelerated to the commanded
frequency. This process eliminates overcurrent tripping and significantly reduces the time for the
motor to reach its desired frequency. Since the motor is picked up smoothly at its rotating speed
and ramped to the proper speed, little or no mechanical stress occurs.
Skip frequency. All rotating machinery from motorcycles to industrial fans and pumps have
mechanical resonance points. These are the frequency points at which vibration can rapidly damage
that specific equipment. If you're aware of these points and avoid them by either accelerating
beyond or decelerating below them so the motor doesn't run at those points you can prevent the
rapid damage. VFDs with skip features allow you to do exactly that. In fact, most drives offer multiple
skip frequency parameters to mitigate different resonance points.
The skip frequencies do not affect normal acceleration and deceleration. The drive output will ramp
through the band, uninterrupted. When the operator issues a command to operate continuously
inside the established band; however, the drive will alter the output to remain outside the band until
a new command is issued.
If you know the mechanical resonant frequencies of your equipment, you can program the drives to
skip through operation at those frequencies. That is, your equipment will run at those frequencies
only momentarily, rather than continuously just long enough to arrive at a safe frequency of
operation. How can you determine what these resonant frequencies are? You may find this
information in the equipment manual. A more common method is simply observing the equipment for
noticeable changes in heat (for example, at bearings), noise, or motion when the operating frequency
changes.
Monitoring the system. While drives don't possess the extensive monitoring capabilities of devices
designed specifically for predictive maintenance or monitoring, they do monitor motor current and
speed. You can put that information out on your industrial network. A distributed control system or
PLC can provide reminders, warnings, and alarms to maintenance personnel.
Using just motor current and speed, a control system can determine a load problem is occurring. It
can then call a designated cell phone for intervention before failure occurs. Such a system can also
call alternate numbers and take backup actions, which may include more notifications or corrective
action.
Overloads and current limits. Almost all drives have a built-in electronic motor thermal overload.
When a motor runs outside its safe operating limits, the overload can reduce the output current (or
shut off the motor) to prevent thermal damage or outright failure.
Overload software uses an algorithm incorporating motor current, speed, and time as inputs to model
the temperature of the motor. This may also be done with thermister feedback directly from devices
buried in the motor windings, using actual temperature readings to determine motor stress.
Multi-motor applications (those using one AC drive and more than one motor) require the motor
overload to be disabled. The drive can't distinguish the current of each individual motor to provide
individual protection. These applications require more advanced monitoring devices that can accept
data from multiple sources to alert personnel of impending faults and failures.
A VFD has control of the amount of current it supplies to a motor. By limiting current or shutting
down the motor, VFDs can reduce mechanical damage.
Many drives have a feature called an electronic shear pin. This feature is based on the proven
concept of the mechanical shear pin. Snow blowers, for example, are equipped with mechanical shear
pins including one on the main driveshaft. If an object such as your kid's skateboard buried
under a foot of a spring snow jams the rotating blades, the driveshaft shear pin breaks. When it
breaks, it disconnects the drive train to the motor. This obviously protects the blower motor. Using
shear pins to mechanically disconnect the rotating blades from the motor saves the expense of
replacing a damaged motor.
Similarly, an electronic shear pin can define a current limit level that would cause damage. If the
torque in the motor ever exceeds the set limit, the drive will automatically shut off the motor.
By limiting torque to a set level, AC drives provide good protection for systems that can become
jammed. A common application for this is the chain conveyor. By not allowing a motor to power
through the jam, you can use the VFD to prevent chain breakage and damage.
You probably have unused features in your existing motor drives, which means you have untapped
cost savings. By taking advantage of the wide array of techniques already available, you can minimize
stress placed on valuable plant machinery, increase equipment uptime, and reduce maintenance
costs. One last bit of advice when calculating your return on investment for VFDs: Be sure to quantify
the maintenance cost savings especially if you need to submit a capital request. Ask your drive
vendor for assistance in obtaining realistic numbers.
Weber is an electrical engineer with Rockwell Automation, Mequon, Wis.
TROUBLESHOOTING VFDS
Paul Frank, PRIMEDIA Workplace Learning | Electrical Construction and Maintenance
Apr 1, 2000
When a motor drive goes down, how do you resolve the problem quickly?
When a variable frequency drive (VFD) goes down, you're under pressure to get it back online fast.
Don't let this pressure make you take even longer to resolve the problem. Instead, remember the
following basic checkpoints about troubleshooting VFDs.
Check the controller display. Most VFD controllers include an interface to set up the drive for
operation, and display information about its operation. Although the information varies, most
controllers tell you about high current, high and low voltages on the input and output sides, high
temperatures, internal faults, and even some advanced power diagnostics.
Check the connections. If the fault codes can't help you track down the problem, check the
connections. Surprisingly, loose connections are among the most common causes of faulty operation
in VFD applications. Just eyeballing a connection is sometimes enough to know it's loose. But, you
can also check for a voltage drop across a connection if you're still powered up; or resistance through
a connection if you're powered down. Don't forget to isolate the connection to ensure a reliable
reading.
Check temperatures. Checking the temperature of connections with a temperature probe or IRthermometer is one way to tell if they're loose. They should never be hotter than the connecting
wires. You can check temperatures in the drive and at the motor. For example, if a controller's heat
sink overheats because of infrequent cleaning, it can shut down the drive. Or, if the motor insulation
is unsuitable for VFDs, it'll gradually degrade until it develops a short. Such shorts are often too small
to blow a fuse, and too intermittent to trip an overload. However, they're enough to shut down a
controller. An IR thermometer can show what is going on. Also, use your nose: If a motor smells hot,
it is.
Sure, you can do more (see sidebar, below). But usually, just checking the basics will be enough to
uncover the problem and get the system running again. And that can give you the time you need to
schedule a permanent fix.
Sidebar: A Closer Check
In new motor installations, problems with drive performance are often due to improper application,
selection, setup, or installation. Sometimes what seems like drive problems are due to process control
logic -- not the drive at all. In the case of frequent breaker trips, you may need to examine protection
coordination to ensure your breakers are the right size from the drive all the way back to the service - and possibly other branch and feeder circuits. Before you do that, however, see if your drive can
reduce inrush current with a "soft start" function. You also want to check: current to the motor
(ammeter); voltage notching (oscilloscope); inductive noise in signal, control, or power wiring
(oscilloscope); cable routing (visual inspection); damaged signal, control, or power wiring (insulation
resistance, TDR); and current through the controller during sudden load changes or speed ramps
(controller display).
TROUBLESHOOTING VFD PROBLEMS

FIND MORE ARTICLES ON: VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES
Paul Frank | Electrical Construction and Maintenance
Nov 1, 2000
When a motor drive goes down, production often grinds to a halt. How do you find and resolve the
problem quickly?
When that variable frequency drive (VFD) goes down, you're under pressure to get it back online.
Don't let this pressure make you take even longer to resolve the problem. Instead, remember the
VFD troubleshooting checkpoints: check the basics (the controller display, connections, and
temperatures), check the motor, and check the drive - then check a little closer.
Check the controller display. Most VFD controllers include an interface to set up the drive for
operation and to display information about its operation, once it's underway. Although the information
displayed varies, most controllers tell you about high current (usually including blown fuses and
overload trips), high and low voltages on the input and output sides, high temperatures, internal
faults, and even offer advanced power diagnostics.
Check the connections. If the fault codes can't help you track down the problem, then check the
connections. Loose connections are among the most common causes of faulty operation in VFD
applications. Just eyeballing a connection is sometimes enough to know it's loose. You can also check
for a voltage drop across the connection if you're still powered up - or resistance through a
connection if you're powered down. Don't forget to isolate the connection to get a reliable reading.
Check temperatures. Checking the temperature of connections with a temperature probe or IRthermometer is one way to tell if they're loose. They should never be hotter than the connecting
wires. You can check temperatures in the drive and at the motor. For example, if the motor insulation
is unsuitable for VFDs, it'll gradually degrade until it develops a short. Such shorts are often too small
to blow a fuse, and too intermittent to trip an overload - but enough to shut down a controller. An IR
thermometer can show what's going on. Also, use your nose: If a motor smells hot, it is.
You can do more. But usually, just checking the basics will be enough to uncover any problems you
may have and get the system running again. That can give you the time you need for a permanent
fix.
Sidebar: Check a Little Closer
In new installations, apparent problems with drive performance are often due to improper application,
drive selection, setup, or installation of the motor as well as the drive. Sometimes "drive problems"
are due to process control logic and not the drive at all.
In the case of frequent breaker trips, you may need to examine protection coordination, to ensure
your breakers are the right size from the drive back to the service. You may also need to check other
branch and feeder circuits. But first, see if your drive can reduce inrush current with a "soft start"
function. Also, you may need to check:
- Current to the motor (ammeter),
- Voltage notching (oscilloscope),
- Inductive noise in signal, control, or power wiring (oscilloscope),
- Cable routing (visual inspection),
- Damaged signal, control, or power wiring (insulation resistance, TDR), and
- Current through the controller during sudden load changes, or during speed ramps (controller
display).
HOW TO KEEP VARIABLE-FREQUENCY DRIVES AND MOTORS RUNNING
How to keep variable frequency drives (VFDs) and electric motors running smoothly and practical tips
for a more effective preventive maintenance programFind more articles on: Variable Frequency Drives
Dan Orchard, Intigral, Inc. | Electrical Construction and Maintenance
Feb 1, 2009
When applied to blowers and pumps, variable-frequency drives (VFDs) offer energy savings. In
mechanical applications, they allow fine adjustments that wouldn't be possible by other methods.
Despite their popularity in multiple applications, they are not simple plug-in-and-forget devices.
Because VFDs are full of electronics, they're susceptible to all sorts of problems from incoming
power disturbances to environmental hazards to wrong operation, not to mention one or two
unexpected issues that may arise. The motors they drive present their own set of challenges.
Periodically scan operational motors with a noncontact temperature device and look for
abnormal hotspots. Having a baseline temperature to refer to helps evaluate temperature
readings.
I work with motors (from 300 hp down to 1/16 hp) and variable-speed drives on a daily basis. During
my 24 years of practical experience, I've learned a great deal about troubleshooting different
situations. Here's a list of practical tips to keep your motors up and running as well as common errors
to avoid.
Start with baseline readings
Don't just take a motor out of the box, throw it in place, and hope for the best. Before putting a
motor into full operation, take insulation resistance readings from phase-to-phase and phase-toground. Measure the insulation resistance of the windings using an insulation multimeter to determine
what a good reading is. In addition, measure the starting and running amperage, the running
voltage, and the leg-to-leg balance.
Measure the temperature at first startup (unloaded, loaded) and after a period of use. A motor may
run hot because it's been used hard, is in a high-temperature area, or has a problem. Without
knowing its normal temperature, it's difficult to tell which is the case. It's nice to know whether
motors are running hot or not. A lot of times, you won't see any problems until the heat really builds
up. For example, the inside temperature near the glass tempering ovens in my plant in the
summertime is normally about 130F.
You should also measure temperature using an infrared thermometer or a thermocouple connected to
an insulation multimeter. It's good to compare results between the various methods.
Make other measurements periodically
Depending on your preventive maintenance (PM) schedule and the cost of unscheduled downtime,
take additional amperage, resistance, and insulation resistance readings. Compare these readings to
previous readings. If the measurements deviate by more than 5% to 10%, start looking for bad
electrical connections or loose/ill-fitting mechanical connections. Has the load increased, the
frequency of use changed, or have ambient temperatures increased/decreased?
Find out if the motor matches the application and was specified for the system, or if upgrades are
needed.
Check the protection
Look at the protection systems, the overload contactors, and fusing. Is the overload set for full load
amperes, or is it set too high or low? Is the fusing correct for the application? Overload contactors are
designed to take care of overloads, while fuses and circuit breakers are intended for short circuit
protection. Are they sized according to the load? Do the fuses blow without tripping the overload? Are
the fuses rated properly?
If the fuses blow repeatedly, there's a temptation to replace them with higher-rated fuses. But if
some time later the overload decides to short across itself and doesn't trip any more, suddenly those
fuses that are too high will make the motor cook. That means a lot of back-checking, pulling out the
manuals (if they're available), or looking at the nameplate data.
Don't change parts instead of troubleshooting
Some technicians will change out parts until the trouble goes away. This is an expensive way to
troubleshoot, because most motors and drives start at $500 and up. It's not unusual to find that the
same motor/drive that had failed may start working in another application.
This makes the job of finding the original problem harder, because the failure was only temporary.
Was it the loading, application, or a combination of things that led up to the failure?
Cabling can be an issue, too
Check the line at the motor, not just at the panel on the wall, which may be 100 ft away. Power lines
in hostile (e.g., high-temperature) areas, even when protected by conduit, may fail. Checking the
voltage at the panel and not at the motor may result in replacing a perfectly good motor when the
problem is in the wiring.
Look at the drive's setup and parameters. Check the acceleration and deceleration times. Are you
running at line frequency (higher or lower)?
Make sure it's the right motor
Sometimes, motors are put into applications for which they are not designed. Inverter-rated motors
make a big difference in the longevity of the system. Running a standard-duty motor at 50 Hz, for
example, often leads to overheating. Similarly, running it at 90 Hz or 120 Hz may work for a while,
but the motor can't accept that as a steady diet.
The duty cycle of the motors will help determine where and what application they are suited. A motor
designed to run 8 hr a day, five days a week, will fail prematurely if it has to run 24/7.
Nameplate data is an important troubleshooting tool. It will tell the motor's service factor, the duty
cycle, and more. It will also provide useful information about the protection circuits and fusing.
Continue on Page 2
Check for power problems
Many drive failures come from power spikes, phase loss, or undervoltages. After a power issue, it's
important to measure the power to see if the problem has been corrected or is still happening. If you
don't check the power after an outage, the drives will pay the price. When the power comes back
after an outage, the machine operators may just automatically restart and try to run again. Suddenly,
you start popping drives and burning up motors because of single-phase conditions.
Most newer drives have settings that will not let the system restart after a fault has occurred. I set up
mine so that something like a missing leg of 480VAC is not overlooked, using phase loss indicators to
help the maintenance staff look for problems.
Editors note: A similar version of this article originally appeared in Fluke Electrical News (Volume
7, Number 1).
Orchard is a senior technician for Intigral, Inc., Walton Hills, Ohio. He can be reached at
dan.orchard@intigral.com.
SEND ME ANOTHER DRIVE PLEASE

Stan Turkel, Power Quality Consultant | Electrical Construction and Maintenance
May 1, 2001
It's scary to think how many drives the engineer might have replaced before discovering the true
culprit.
Variable-frequency drives (VFDs) and power quality problems seem to go hand in hand. If it isn't
causing problems in the building by affecting other equipment, the VFD itself is the victim of a supply
problem. You should expect the occasional problem, but what do you do when the customer has
already replaced three units and the problem still persists?
After calling his supplier to replace a 7-hp drive for the fourth time, the electrical engineer at a
cosmetics manufacturing plant decided a new course of action might be necessary. He had returned
each unit with a note that read Keeps tripping on overload, believing they were all defective. After
listening to his problem, I made an appointment with the engineer to visit the site and investigate
what was affecting these drives. I was very impressed with his knowledge of the system and with the
installation itself. He had mounted eight drives that controlled the motors serving a production
conveyor in a NEMA 12 freestanding cabinet with filtered air-cooling.
The engineer explained that all the units worked well, but he believed he had received a series of
defective VFDs, because they all appeared to trip on overload when no overload was present. As
proof of the problem, he showed me a chart tape of his current measurements taken over several
days. The charts indicated the system had experienced no overloads. At the same time, however, it
didn't make sense for this many units to have the same problem especially when the rest of the
drives worked fine.
Before I begin troubleshooting any power quality problem, I always ask myself, Is this a global
problem, or is this a local problem? In this situation, all the other units powered by the same source
were working fine, so it had to be a local problem. We looked at the motors, and they all were of the
same design. The loading of the conveyor did not seem to be a problem either.
It wasn't until I asked the engineer to take another set of current readings at the motor that I
discovered the reason for the overcurrent trips. As the engineer prepared to connect his meter to the
conductors serving the motor in question, I could see the wires ran in a metal wire-way alongside the
conveyor. When he pulled the leads out of the tray, I noticed they were wrapped around another
larger set of conductors that served an air compressor located near the conveyor.
I asked the engineer to force the air compressor on by readjusting the pressure switch. As soon as
the unit kicked on, the VFD tripped out on overcurrent. The compressor motor conductors were
inducing a secondary current onto the VFD motor leads, which were inducing a false current to the
protective circuits of the VFD. The fast peak current of the starting compressor motor never
registered at the chart recorder, but the VFD's solid-state protection had no problem picking it up.
It's scary to think how many drives the engineer might have replaced before discovering the true
culprit. While most of us know not to run signal and control wiring with large motor conductors, it's
easy to forget small motor conductors. However, the rules change when it comes to solid-state
overcurrent protection. Microprocessor-based motor controls have far superior protection capabilities
that can and will cause nuisance trips if you're not careful. Good wiring practices and proper routing
of conductors inside a control cabinet are a necessity for today's controls. Often, a group of
circumstances and occurrences can conspire to give the illusion of a power quality problem.
The preceding scenario qualifies as a noise problem. Electrical noise is nothing more than random
signals getting into circuits where they are not wanted. This indirect transmission of signals and
power may be hard to comprehend, but one look at a radio tower will demonstrate how easily it can
happen.
There are four ways unwanted noise (that is, voltage or current) can enter a circuit. It pays to have a
basic understanding of how and where these conditions can exist.
Capacitive coupling occurs when two conductors are insulated from each other. In the case of a
lightning discharge, air acts as the insulating material between two potentials. This electrostatic noise
can cause headaches when phantom voltages appear on conductors and prevent solid-state control
logic from operating correctly. These strange voltages can be very frustrating for electricians.
Inductive coupling is current-based, and it occurs when induced magnetic fields cut across nearby
conductors. This is the same principle used in a transformer's primary and secondary windings. It is
difficult to believe one single loop can induce substantial current into a secondary conductor. A fast
rise in current (as in our story) or a fast rate of change (oscillation) can also affect the increase. The
proximity of the conductors and even their size and shape are concerns, so wrapping excess wire in a
coil inside the cabinet is not a good idea.
You should even consider the type of signal conductors you use when placing conductors. You should
isolate input signals from output signals when they run in the same raceway.
Conducted noise does not require a traditional conductor to carry unwanted noise. Solid-state devices
(like transistors and SCRs) never really open up and isolate a circuit from a potential. Instead, they
limit the amount of current that passes through them. Even in the off state, there is always a small
amount of leakage current that passes through the device.
Another example of this is when we create ground currents by using isolated grounding techniques. A
current will flow between grounds using the earth as a conductor.
RFI noise, also known as electromagnetic interference (EMI), has become a greater concern over the
past few years with the increase in transmission devices in use. We sometimes overlook the fact that
any conductor or device switched at a high frequency (10 KHz and above) will act like a transmitter,
with surrounding conductors becoming receivers. Shielding and isolation techniques are often
necessary to prevent this unwanted noise from affecting our circuits.
In the end, all circuits can generate noise and all circuits have the potential to be affected by noise.
This is the nature of working with electrical devices. Diligent installation, wiring practices, and
forethought into the potential problems that may arise are the keys to keeping noise problems from
affecting our operations.
RETROFITTING VFD MOTORS AT A WASTE WATER TREATMENT PLANT

Jenkins, Tom | Electrical Construction and Maintenance
Jul 1, 1999
From 50% to 90% of the electrical power consumed at a typical waste water treatment plant
(WWTP) with a diffused aeration system is used to run blower motors. Any improvement in the
efficiency of the blower drive system has a significant impact on energy use and operating costs.
Many electric utilities sponsor Demand Side Management (DSM) programs for new installations and
retrofits to existing WWTP systems, and offer cash rebates or low-interest loans to assist in financing
such programs. They also provide incentives if variable frequency drives (VFDs) are installed on
process equipment that is normally constant speed. These include multistage centrifugal blowers
commonly used for diffused aeration activated sludge processes. In many cases, however, VFDs are
not implemented because engineers don't understand the technology involved and the sophisticated
controls needed.
Designing with VFDs
Before designing a system using VFDs, a study is made in which the effects of static pressure, friction
losses in piping and diffusers, blower performance, and motor data are analyzed. The system
headloss curve is plotted, as shown in Fig. 1. Blower performance curves then are corrected to site
conditions at full and reduced speed and superimposed on the system curve. This identifies the
minimum blower speed that will provide adequate pressure to overcome static head. Then, the
savings from using VFDs are calculated.
Blower energy consumption with VFDs is typically 10% to 20% lower than consumption using
conventional controls. Utility billing rates for on-peak, off-peak, and demand are used to determine
savings. Most projects show a two-yr payback.
Instead of a low-amperage switch for protecting against blower surge (damaging air flow pulsations),
an air flow transmitter and low flow detection logic are used to prevent operation below the surge
point. This technique provides more accurate equipment protection and extends the usable operating
range of the blower.
Integrating air flow control logic for all basins into a unified strategy eliminates the need for discharge
pressure control. Special Most-Open-Valve logic eliminates wasteful discharge throttling and
distributes air flow proportionately in spite of upsets and equipment limitations.
Installation example
The Uniontown, Pa. WWTP plant is an example of a successful retrofits system with ESCOR's
automatic aeration control system. This plant has two blowers with VFDs and two constant-speed
centrifugal blowers with inlet throttling. They serve six activated sludge diffused aeration basins and
air lift RAS pumps. Built in 1990, the plant was expanded in capacity and upgraded in 1994 to receive
additional sewage from the surrounding Uniontown community.
In the ESCOR system, blower speed is modulated to provide air flow based on the demand from the
dissolved oxygen (DO) control logic. Schedule control is provided as a backup. If the variable-speed
blowers can't provide enough air, the constant speed blowers are started, discharging into a common
header with the variable-speed units. Layout of the system is seen in Fig. 2.
The two 350-hp blowers with VFDs and two 200-hp constant-speed centrifugal blowers send air to
the six aeration basins. Sensors measure the DO level in the basins. If the level is outside a specified
range, the blower air flow is modulated to correct the DO level. For constant speed blowers, motoroperated inlet butterfly valves are adjusted to restrict the air and change air flow. With VFDs, the
blower speed is adjusted to correct the air flow. The parameters monitored by the ESCOR system can
include blower amperage or air flow (for surge and motor overload protection), blower bearing
temperature or vibration, and inlet filter pressure.
The DO and air flow signals are sent to the central control unit (CCU) over 4-20 mA current loops.
Each basin may have a different operating DO level, and the operator may select average or worst
case DO for control. The consulting engineering firm for the Uniontown WWTP was Chester
Engineers, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Test data shows the power savings available from using VFDs in this application, as well as the
increased operating range provided. [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 3 OMITTED]
Housed in the NEMA 12 enclosure of the CCU, a single-board industrial computer working in tandem
with distributed I/O hardware is the core of the system. The system's boot and control files are stored
on a solid-state (Flash EPROM) disk. This system is more reliable in hostile environments than floppy
and hard disk drives - no matter how "ruggedized" they are.
High-level language programs are used in the CCU software to provide flexibility and convenient
operator interface through a keypad (similar to a microwave oven's). This scheme also enables the
ESCOR system to communicate with a customer's other systems.
RELATED ARTICLE: UNDERSTANDING DO CONTROL
The dissolved oxygen (DO) level in an aeration basin is the key factor to control. Because of
fluctuations in loading, the oxygen demand in most aeration systems is constantly changing. To meet
process requirements, manual controls are usually set to meet the maximum demand for any given
period. In a plant with manual controls, equipment can only be adjusted on an occasional basis - daily
at best, but commonly once a week. Excess aeration wastes energy and may also impede treatment.
However, if air flow is reduced too far, the basin DO level will be low, and the resulting process
problems far outweigh any energy savings.
Although they can save approximately 25% of the energy needed for aeration, automatic DO control
systems have not been used in many plants in the past because of a variety of factors. One reason is
that the older probes for measuring DO levels needed frequent maintenance. New sensor technology
and self-cleaning probes have eliminated this drawback.
Traditional proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controllers (where "P" stands for proportional band
or gain; "I" for integral time, usually called resets/minute; and "D" for the derivative time in seconds)
aren't suitable for controlling aeration systems. (See "What To Know About PID Controllers" on page
20.) This is simply because of the long time lag between a change in sewage flow or air flow and the
response in DO level. A PlD controller, in addition to being difficult for operators to tune, is often
unable to achieve both stability and effective control during oxygen demand variations.
For example, when a controller makes an adjustment increasing air flaw, the change in a basin's DO
level will lag behind by many minutes. The controller will consequently continue to increase air flow.
As a result, the DO will eventually be too high. This is called overshoot.
Then, the controller starts decreasing air flow, but the basin's DO level will once more lag behind. The
system will over-compensate again, and at that point, the cycle begins anew. Repeating this cycle is
called hunting. Since this is not good for the process, an operator will usually switch to manual
operation.
Hunting can be eliminated by tuning the system for a very slow response. However, if a sudden
change in load from rainstorm run-off or an industrial discharge occurs, and the controller is tuned to
react slowly, it won't properly correct for the sudden load, which is called a slug.
In older types of DO controls, it's common to vary air flow to basins independently according to their
individual DO levels. A constant pressure is maintained in a common air header to prevent changes in
one basin's valve from affecting air flow to the other basins. In this type of system, blower control
partially relies on inefficient discharge throttling and typically wastes 10% of the blower power
overcoming excess pressure.
RELATED ARTICLE: UNDERSTANDING AUTOMATIC CONTROLS
A basic knowledge of control system terms is essential to evaluating the benefits of automatic control.
The control logic is handled by the central processing unit (CPU) or central control unit (CCU). Input
signals from field devices and the control commands output to them are referred to as I/Os
(inputs/outputs). Discrete or digital I/Os are on/off signals like switches or pilot lights. Analog I/O
signals, such as a 4-20 mA flow transmitter signal, are proportional to the measured variable.
Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) were originally developed as relay replacements but have
evolved to include analog I/O, PID control algorithms, math functions, and high-level language
blocks. PLCs are generally programmed in a relay ladder logic (RLL) language proprietary to each PIC
maker. They are the best choice when the control requires high-speed timing and logic functions and
predominantly discrete I/O.
Process control computers were developed from the digital computers used for management
information systems. Now, industrial computers that emulate a personal computer are available. They
often include MS-DOS or Windows operating systems, a printer port, and communication ports in one
device.
Solid-state data storage is frequently used instead of disk drives. Programming is usually in higher
level languages such as C, Pascal, or BASIC. Many are available with built-in monitors and keyboards
suitable for industrial atmospheres. Compatible I/O systems are available from many sources and are
not usually proprietary.
Process controllers evolved from pneumatic and electronic proportional-integral-derivative (PLD)
controllers. Originally, they were single loop dedicated devices with one analog input and one analog
output per unit. Many now have multiple loop capability, alarm outputs, programming, and
communications.
Various types of communications networks far PLCs, I/O systems, computers, and process controllers
are available. Many have proprietary protocols, but the trend is toward open systems and networks.
Some open data and I/O communications are based an formal industry standards (for example the
IEEE-488 GPIB standard). Others are based on de facto standards, such as Optomux or ModBus serial
communications.
Operator interface, or the access to the system for status and process information and tuning, varies
from simple switches and pilot lights to sophisticated computer software. New systems generally use
same type of personal computer software that displays trends, annunciates alarms, and transfers
setpoints and tuning parameters to the control hardware. Several I/O drivers should be available
simultaneously to allow mixing hardware from different vendors an one PC.
Graphics software uses a schematic or physical representation of the process to display status and
performance, making most important information available at a glance. Most graphics interface
programs can duplicate PID controller face plates and digital displays as well as annunciators and
pilot lights. Trend displays show real time and historical data in a bar chart or an X-Y format, making
it easy to monitor the process. The data can be printed in a variety of ways.
A distinction should be made between a control system, which modifies process operations
automatically, and a monitoring system, which merely gathers data and presents it to an operator.
Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems generally fall into the monitoring category.
After reviewing the data, an operator must implement the changes. However, most vendors are
adding control features to SCADA software.
Trends in hardware and software are leading to both increased control consolidation and more
distributed control. While this may seem to be contradictory, it's a result of low-cost electronics and
data communications systems being applied to the field devices (pumps, valves, sensors etc.) and to
the operator interfaces.
For example, related control logic for separate pieces of equipment can be integrated into one unit
instead of having independent logic for each unit. A single PLC or controller for a nutrient addition
process can coordinate several chemical feed pumps, a pH sensor, influent flow sensors, and
mechanical mixers. This represents consolidation. This PLC may be connected to a PC with a graphics
interface program. The PC's graphics program may connect several independent controllers or PLCs,
each responsible for a separate process.
A local PLC or process controller can be provided for each feed pump to implement control commands
and provide equipment protection. The I/O may be separated into several remote units mounted
close to the mechanical equipment and connected to the controller CPU by a communications
network. This reduces wiring and maintenance problems. This distributed control reduces the impact
on the entire facility of a singe controller failure.
All automatically controlled equipment should be provided with manual overrides. They are not only
required in case of controller failure or system servicing, but are also useful for testing and
troubleshooting. Note that the MANUAL setting on some controllers may not bypass the processor.
Additional devices may be needed far manual operation if the controller incurs catastrophic failure.
Tom Jenkins, P.E., is General Manager, ESCOR, Milwaukee, Wis., an engineering/consulting firm
specializing in process control systems for waste water treatment plants.
TOP 10 TIPS: SPECIFYING VFDS

Variable frequency drives or VFDs can reduce energy consumption, improve realtime control,
and lengthen motor life. Selecting the right one for your application requires asking the correct
questions. Here are some expert tips to consider.
Joe Kimbrell, AutomationDirect | Motion System Design
Determine if a VFD is right for your application.
The primary function of a variable frequency drive is to vary the speed of a three-phase ac induction
motor. VFDs also provide nonemergency start and stop control, acceleration and deceleration, and
overload protection. In addition, VFDs can reduce the amount of motor startup inrush current by
accelerating the motor gradually. For these reasons, VFDs are suitable for conveyors, fans, and
pumps that benefit from reduced and controlled motor operating speed.
A VFD converts incoming ac power to dc, which is inverted back into three-phase output power.
Based on speed setpoints, the VFD directly varies the voltage and frequency of the inverted output
power to control motor speed. There is one caveat: Converting ac power to a dc bus and then
back to a simulated ac sine wave can use up to 4% of the power that would be directly supplied to
a motor if a VFD were not used. For this reason, VFDs may not be cost-effective for motors run at full
speed in normal operation. That said, if a motor must output variable speed part of the time, and full
speed only sometimes, a bypass contactor used with a VFD can maximize efficiency.
RELATED
How to Choose the Right Control Method for VFDs
Basics of Rotary Encoders: Overview and New Technologies
What's the Difference Between AC Induction, Permanent Magnet, and Servomotor Technologies?
Consider your reasons for choosing a VFD.
Typical reasons for considering VFDs include energy savings, controlled starting current, adjustable
operating speed and torque, controlled stopping, and reverse operation. VFDs cut energy
consumption, especially with centrifugal fan and pump loads. Halving fan speed with a VFD lowers
the required horsepower by a factor of eight, as fan power is proportional to the cube of fan speed.
Depending on motor size, the energy savings could pay for the cost of the VFD in less than two
years.
Starting an ac motor across the line requires starting current that can be more than eight times the
full load amps (FLA) of the motor. Depending on motor size, this could place a significant drain on the
power distribution system, and the resulting voltage dip could affect sensitive equipment. Using a
VFD can eliminate the voltage sag associated with motor starting, and cut motor starting current to
reduce utility demand charges.
In addition to varying speeds, conveyor applications typically require frequent starting
and stopping. Here, VFDs substantially reduce starting current to extend motor life.
Controlling starting current can also extend motor life because across-the-line inrush current shortens
life expectancy of ac motors. Shortened life cycles are particularly prominent in applications that
require frequent starting and stopping. VFDs substantially reduce starting current, which extends
motor life, and minimizes the necessity of motor rewinds.
The ability to vary operating speed allows optimization of controlled processes. Many VFDs allow
remote speed adjustment using a potentiometer, keypad, programmable logic controller (PLC), or a
process loop controller. VFDs can also limit applied torque to protect machinery and the final product
from damage.
Controlled stopping minimizes product breakage or loss, as well as equipment wear and tear. Because
the output phases can be switched electronically, VFDs also eliminate the need for a reversing starter.
Using VFDs to operate fans and pumps can significantly reduce energy consupmtion,
because they can tailor fan speed to the application. Fan horsepower is proportional to
the cube of fan speed, so depending on motor size, energy savings can compensate for
the initial VFD purchase price in less than two years.
Select the proper size for the load.
When specifying VFD size and power ratings, consider the operating profile of the load it will drive.
Will the loading be constant or variable? Will there be frequent starts and stops, or will operation be
continuous?
Consider both torque and peak current. Obtain the highest peak current under the worst operating
conditions. Check the motor FLA, which is located on the motor's nameplate. Note that if a motor has
been rewound, its FLA may be higher than what's indicated on the nameplate.
Don't size the VFD according to horsepower ratings. Instead, size the VFD to the motor at its
maximum current requirements at peak torque demand. The VFD must satisfy the maximum
demands placed on the motor.
Consider the possibility that VFD oversizing may be necessary. Some applications experience
temporary overload conditions because of impact loading or starting requirements. Motor
performance is based on the amount of current the VFD can produce. For example, a fully-loaded
conveyor may require extra breakaway torque, and consequently increased power from the VFD.
Many VFDs are designed to operate at 150% overload for 60 seconds. An application that requires an
overload greater than 150%, or for longer than 60 seconds, requires an oversized VFD.
Altitude also influences VFD sizing, because VFDs are air-cooled. Air thins at high altitudes, which
decreases its cooling properties. Most VFDs are designed to operate at 100% capacity up to an
altitude of 1,000 meters; beyond that, the drive must be derated or oversized.
Be aware of braking requirements.

With moderate inertia loads, over-voltage during deceleration typically won't occur. For applications
with high-inertia loads, the VFD automatically extends deceleration time. However, if a heavy load
must be quickly decelerated, a dynamic braking resistor should be used.
When motors decelerate, they act as generators, and dynamic braking allows the VFD to produce
additional braking or stopping torque. VFDs can typically produce between 15 and 20% braking
torque without external components. When necessary, adding an external braking resistor increases
the VFD's braking control torque to quicken the deceleration of large inertia loads and frequent
start-stop cycles.
Determine I/O needs.
Most VFDs can integrate into control systems and processes. Motor speed can be manually set by
adjusting a potentiometer or via the keypad incorporated onto some VFDs. In addition, virtually every
VFD has some I/O, and higher-end drives have multiple I/Os and full-feature communications ports;
these can be connected to controls to automate motor-speed commands.
Most VFDs include several discrete inputs and outputs, and at least one analog input and one analog
output. Discrete inputs interface the VFD with control devices such as pushbuttons, selector switches,
and PLC discrete output modules. These signals are typically used for functions such as start/stop,
forward/reverse, external fault, preset speed selection, fault reset, and PID enable/disable.
Discrete outputs can be transistor, relay, or frequency pulse. Typically, transistor outputs drive
interfaces to PLCs, motion controllers, pilot lights, and auxiliary relays. Relay outputs usually drive ac
devices and other equipment with its own ground point, as the relay contacts isolate the external
equipment ground. The frequency output is typically used to send a speed reference signal to a PLC's
analog input, or to another VFD running in follower mode.
Typically, general-purpose outputs of most VFDs are transistors. Sometimes one or more relay
outputs are included for isolation of higher-current devices. Frequency pulse outputs are usually
reserved for higher-end VFDs.
Analog inputs are used to interface the VFD with an external 0 to 10 Vdc or 4 to 20 mA signals. These
signals can represent a speed setpoint and/or closed loop control feedback. An analog output can be
used as a feedforward to provide setpoints for other VFDs so other equipment will follow the master
VFD's speed; otherwise, it can transmit speed, torque, or current signals back to a PLC or controller.
Select the proper control mode.
VFD control mode choice greatly depends on the application. The three VFD control modes are voltsper-Hertz (V/Hz), sensorless vector (sometimes called open-loop vector), and closed-loop.
V/Hz-type VFDs use the ratio between voltage and frequency to develop the operating flux to supply
operating torque to the motor. Sensorless-vector VFDs have accurate torque control over a wide
speed range without having to use encoder feedback. Closed-loop VFDs use encoder feedback to
obtain motor speed and slip information.
V/Hz control is adequate for many applications such as fans and pumps. However, for applications
that require greater degrees of speed regulation, sensorless vector or closed-loop control types may
be necessary. Applications such as paper mills, web printing presses, or material converting require
the added speed regulation that closed-loop control provides.
Understand your control profile requirements.

Selecting the proper VFD control profiles is critical and depends greatly on the application. Control
profiles to consider include acceleration, deceleration, ramp linearity, torque control, braking, and
PID. Most of these parameters are available on nearly every VFD type on the market, but PID may
not be offered on very basic models.
Web printing presses, paper mills, and material converting applications require the
precise speed regulation of closed-loop control. For such cases, VFDs can be run in a
closed-loop control mode. Elsewhere, volts-per-Hertz (V/Hz) and sensorless (or openloop vector) modes are used.
These parameters are programmable and can be selected using the operator keypad, or by digital
communications. Understanding these parameters (and how they affect integration of the VFD) is
imperative; user manuals typically provide the information required to select and program the right
control profiles.
Know your options for communication.
Many VFDs have one or more built-in digital communication interfaces. Even the most economical
models typically include a serial interface such as serial Modbus RS-232/RS-485. Ethernet and fieldbus
communication are options offered with many VFDs.
A digital communication interface can be used to connect the VFD to other devices that can function
as a master device such as a PLC or PC-based controller. The master device can control the VFD with
this interface instead of using the discrete and analog I/O. The master can also use this interface to
monitor the status of various VFD parameters such as speed, current, and fault status.
An RS-232 connection is somewhat limited as the maximum RS-232 network cable length is 50 feet.
Also, the RS-232 interface is one-to-one, allowing connection of one VFD to one controller. An RS-485
network cable can span up to 4,000 feet and allows connection of multiple devices. However, extra
adapters may be required to make this type of connection.
An Ethernet interface provides a low-cost, high-performance link between the control system and
multiple VFDs. Some VFD Ethernet interfaces are even available with a web server that allows users
to configure and control the VFD from any web browser. Ethernet protocols such as Modbus TCP/IP
and EtherNet/IP take the guesswork out of VFD control over Ethernet and make setup easy for nonIT users.
Don't overlook installation and operating requirements.
VFDs generate a significant amount of heat. This heat can cause the internal temperature of an
enclosure to exceed the VFD's thermal rating. Enclosure ventilation or cooling may be necessary to
keep enclosure temperature within specified limits. Ambient temperature measurements and
calculations should also be made to determine the maximum expected temperature.
Operating precautions must also be considered. One should avoid running a standard induction motor
at low speed for an extended period of time, as this can cause the motor temperature to exceed its
rating due to limited airflow produced by the motor's fan.
When a standard motor operates at low speed, output load must be decreased. If 100% output
torque is desired at low speed, it may be necessary to use an inverter-duty rated motor.
Don't use a contactor or disconnect switch for run/stop control of the VFD and motor: This reduces
VFD life. Cycling the input-power switching device while the VFD is operating should be done only in
emergency situations.
Beware of harmonics.
Any non-linear load, which encompasses anything with rectifiers, generates harmonics including
VFDs. If excessive, harmonics can overheat and damage equipment, transformers, and even power
distribution wiring.
Two types of filters can mitigate the harmonics associated with VFDs. Passive harmonic filters include
ac line reactors and chokes. Reactors and chokes reduce VFD-related harmonics and line notching,
and are recommended for all installations. They also protect the VFD from transient overvoltages,
typically caused by utility capacitor switching.
Active harmonic filters sample the harmonic current waveform, invert it, and feed the inverted
waveform back to the line to counteract harmonics. Some active filters also have dynamic braking
circuits that allow motor deceleration to place regenerative current back on the ac supply line.
Output line, or load, reactors protect motor and cable insulation from VFD short circuits and insulated
gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) reflective wave damage. They also allow the motor to run cooler by
smoothing the current waveform. Output line reactors are recommended for operating non-inverter
duty motors and in which VFD-to-motor wiring exceeds 75 feet.
For more information, call (800) 633-0405 or visit automationdirect.com.
VFD Installation Instructions

The block diagram below shows a typical VFD installation. This diagram shows the wires that supply
power to the VFD, the wires that provide voltage from the VFD to the motor, and all the necessary
input and output signals that the VFD needs for operation. From the diagram one can see that the
power source for the VFD is provided at terminals R, S, and T by 3-phase AC voltage. The value of
this voltage can be 208, 240, or 480 volts. The 3-phase voltage is converted to DC voltage in the
rectifier section on the VFD where six diodes are connected as a 3-phase full-wave bridge rectifier. On
larger VFDs the diodes can be replaced with silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs).
The next components in this circuit are the choke and the capacitors that make up the filter section of
the VFD. The capacitors and choke provide a filter that removes all of the sinusoidal ripple and any
trace of the original frequency. The voltage at this point in the VFD is pure DC voltage and will be
approximately 670 volts.
The output section of this VFD contains three pairs of insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs).
These transistors are turned on by a pulse-width modulation (PWM) control circuit that times the
conduction of each IGBT so that a PWM wave is produced that looks like a sine-wave output. The
transistors are turned off approximately 12 times for each half cycle. Each time the transistor is
turned on, its amplitude will be adjusted so that the overall shape of the waveform looks like a sine
wave. The time each transistor is turned on is adjusted as the frequency for the output signal is
adjusted. The overall frequency for the VFD output signal to the motor will be determined by the
frequency of the PWM sine wave. The frequency can be adjusted from 0 - 400 Hz on some VFDs and
typically it can be adjusted from 0 - 120 Hz. The amplitude of the signal will change to change the
voltage of the signal. The voltage and the current for the output signal will be adjusted to provide the
correct amount of torque to the motor load. The VFD will maintain a volts-per-Hertz ratio (V/Hz) to
ensure that the motor has sufficient power to provide torque to respond to changes in the load. The
V/Hz ratio can be adjusted slightly to provide more voltage at lower frequencies if the motor is used
in these applications where larger loads must be moved accurately at lower speeds. In the block
diagram one can also see that a diode is connected in reverse bias across each IGBT to protect it
from excess voltage spikes that may occur. The IGBTs are controlled as pairs so that one will provide
the positive part of the PWM sine wave and the other will provide the negative part of the wave.
The output terminals of the VFD provide a place to connect the three motor leads. These terminals
are identified as U, V, and W. The labels R, S, and T for the input voltage and U, V, W for the output
terminals are worldwide standards. Some VFDs made in the U.S. before 1990 may still be identified
as L1, L2, and L3 for input terminals and T1, T2, and T3 for output terminals where the motor is
connected.
(A block diagram of a VFD that also shows the components that are connected to the VFD to provide
additional control)
Q&A
Rajendra: 07/02/2016, 05:12:14 PM
I m building new machine with 2 motor 1 hp and 50 Hp my application is wire saw I am selecting 750
rpm motor and I am running motor only 20 percent less rpm for few hours and go maximum rpm my
application need to start with low rpm around 550 then go Max rpm I need constant torque during
cutting or say my load on motor depend upon contact of wire saw with stone as wire rope length
reduce current drawn by motor reduce but to maintain cutting speed need full power what kind of
drive I should go?
Steve Fierst: 14/01/2016, 01:13:58 PM
Is to Toshiba VFD better than an Allen Bradley VFD
Ganesh Shete Patil: 09/01/2016, 09:52:17 AM
Dear sir,
I have all the parameters of motor into my ABB350 series,but the problem is that my motor is of .5HP
having 3 phase 415 supply requirment & the maximum voltage I can set into this VFD is only 350
Volt....So I am experiencing a lower speed than stated...so what will the the solution for this..
Ganesh Shete Patil:11/01/2016, 10:39:33 PM
Sorry Its not 350 volt but its 250 volt
Ganesh Patil:05/01/2016, 04:23:13 AM
1) I have replaced a old 3 HP two stage water pump with .5 HP motor...my question is can use the
old 3 HP VFD to my new 0.5 HP motor...
2) Secondaly how can I calculated FLA for this motor..?
3) The 3 HP VFD that I have is of ABB350 series so is there any setting i have to do to drive this 0.5
HP Motor..?
admin:05/01/2016, 11:02:49 AM
1) Please see Menarias comment below regarding an oversized VFD, and let us know if that does not
answer your question. As long as the new motor is also rated for the same voltage, then the VFD
should work.
2) A motors FLA can only be estimated using a number of parameters, such as voltage, horsepower,
number of poles, etc. To obtain the actual FLA of the motor, the manufacturer performs a dyno load
test.
3) You will have to program the VFD to the new motor. Please give us a call at 1-800-800-2261, and
we can connect you with our technical support staff.
George:27/12/2015, 12:23:39 PM
I have a very old motor and a hoist system. Motor is 3 ph, 208v, 3HP, not inverter-duty rated, and it
is linked directly to the hoist. Therefore the motor has constant torque load constantly. I used a
Powerflex 525 3HP VFD to drive the motor. The VFD allows heavy-duty operation. The problem I
have is that I sometimes have difficulties to start motor run using VFD. However if I just use two
fingers to slightly twist motor axial, the motor start run normally. Also a VFD was burned without any
error code at this situation. What would be the solution on this problem?
If I am using by-pass mode to drive the motor directly, motor never had problem to start and run
normally.
Thanks for your advices.
admin:29/12/2015, 08:36:31 AM
Hi George,
Can you provide us with some more information?
(1) How long have you run the VFD before it was burned?
(2) Is the Powerflex 525 the VFD that is out of commission?
(3) Can you elaborate the problems you are having when you start the motor with the VFD? Does it
only start occasionally, or start with strange noise, or something else?
Please e-mail us at bdt@emcsolutions.com and we can continue looking into this issue. Thanks
George.
George:29/12/2015, 08:47:09 PM
1. The burned VFD Unit was new, only used for less than 30 hours when it was burned. We do not
have constant use of motor/hoist or VFD. When the VFD was burned, it operated the motor for a few
minutes, then started struggling with the load. After a few seconds, without any overloading
message, heavy black smoke came from the VFD's power unit.
2. We changed a new VFD, and it is in commission in a stand-alone circuit. We still have weak
operation issue with the new VFD. We can feel that the VFD runs the motor weakly in comparison
with the bypass mode using regular 3ph power. We observed that the VFD struggles with load, while
by-pass runs the motor strongly and regularly.
3. We can use VFD to start motor run with normal load in most of time. But occasionally, and nonreproducibly motor could not start run normally. Whether the VFD runs normally, line current is about
9.6amp. If motor does not start, the current would start to increase and eventually VFD is
overloaded. When motor does not start, we can use hand to slightly twist the motor axial, the motor
would run normally. Without this slight twist, motor would not run.
4. When motor does not run, I think I could hear very light noise, possibly generated by current
through the motor.
5. The VFD is about 7 feet distance from the motor. VFD frequency varies from 20HZ to 60Hz in 3
second. VFD is set to maximum overload values.
Hope the above information would help to understand the problem.
Thank you.
admin:30/12/2015, 11:29:50 AM
Thank you for the detail explanation George, that certainly helped narrowing it down. We have an
idea what is happening but it might take a little bit of time to explain the problem and potential
solutions. Will you give us a call at 800-800-2261?
Naveen Menaria:22/12/2015, 01:10:09 AM
Dear sir,
If we apply High rated VFD eg. 60HP VFD on 40Hp Motor then What effect will be on system. please
reply
admin:22/12/2015, 04:17:16 PM
A 60HP VFD will operate a 40HP motor without a problem. However, an oversized VFD will generate
slightly higher harmonics back onto the line. VFDs are sized by the motor's FLA (full load amps). A
40HP motor may demand a FLA that is higher than the rated amps of a 40HP VFD, thus, a higher
horsepower VFD with a higher amps rating is recommended. An oversized VFD will run at a lower
temperature and have a longer lifetime. It is important that you program the VFD parameters to the
motor nameplate specifications. More importantly, is there a reason you are considering an oversized
VFD? There are many reasons a VFD would be oversized (load, environment, temperature, altitude,
braking, single-phase input, etc.), and without knowing what those reasons are, we cannot be certain
that the VFD is properly sized.
adam gibson:20/12/2015, 01:18:43 PM
I have machinery, all three phase, 1 to 7.5 hp. I have 240 v single phase and 480 single phase
available. Several machines are 480 v only and all machines are currently wired for 480. I will only
operate one at a time. I also have a 240/480 three phase transformer. Would I be better off putting
output of 240 v VFD through the transformer (I will not change frequency) or looking for a large
enough VFD that will accept single phase 440. I have not found one yet.
Thanks
admin:22/12/2015, 04:41:45 PM
Just to clarify your question, you would like to know if it is more economical to purchase a 240V
three-phase VFD and connect the 3-phase output to a 240/480V transformer, or purchase a 480V
three-phase input VFD and connect the 3-phase output directly to the motor? The prices of 240V
VFDs are only slightly lower, and you may run into some problems when installing a transformer in
between the drive and the motor. We recommend that if all of your motors are rated for 480 V, you
use a 480V VFD and connect it to your 480V single-phase power supply. You are correct in that your
best option is to find a VFD that is large enough (de-rated) to the higher amperage from single phase
input. The rule of thumb for single-phase input on a three-phase input VFD is to multiply the motors
FLA by 2 and find a VFD with a higher amperage rating than that value. For example, if your 7.5HP,
480V motor has an FLA of around 12A, youll need to find a drive with an amperage rating greater
than or equal to 24A. Please give us a call at 1-800-800-2261 if you would like help finding a VFD for
your applications. Also, if you will use one VFD to power all of your motors, read the comment and
response above regarding oversized VFDs on smaller motors.
Aaron:16/12/2015, 12:26:29 PM
I have a 3HP PowerFlex 40 200-240V Single-Phase Input VFD, may I use it for a 1HP , 115V rated
sigle phase AC motor?
Aaron::16/12/2015, 12:31:12 PM
the reason is we only have a 115V power source, however, we have a 3HP PowerFlex 40 200-240V
Single-Phase Input VFD at present, do not want to buy an extro one.
admin:17/12/2015, 07:59:24 AM
Youll need to power the VFD with the voltage and phase it is rated for. If you have single phase
power and a single phase motor at 115 V, youll need a VFD rated for 115 V single phase input &
output. We do not sell single phase input & out drives, but we have heard they exist.
admin:17/12/2015, 01:42:02 PM
Aaron, I wanted to clarify that there are few technologies in single-phase motor speed control,
however, they are not popular or cost effective. The most common and reliable solution people go to
is converting their single-phase motor to a three-phase motor, and using a VFD to phase make from
the single phase input to the three phase motor.
Omar:04/12/2015, 06:22:32 AM
I have an older belt-driven lathe with a 1 horsepower, 220 3 phase motor w/2.4 amp rating. I also
have an RPC using a 15 horse motor with a knife switch mounted near the lathe. Would like to install
a VFD to allow for more spindle speed variability. The motor is older and is not fan-cooled, but I can
move the sheave belt to overcome any overheating problem with the motor. Would there be any
problem arising from the over-voltage of the third leg that is being generated by the RPC? Would the
knife-switch eliminate the possibility of overpowering the VFD upon start-up of the RPC? What size
VFD would you recommend? I would say that the torque value would be variable.
Hector M:27/11/2015, 10:28:12 PM
I have a 10hp 208-230v,3ph,60hz blower motor in a 25ton hvac application that I would like to
consider using a vfd, to overcome the noise when it starts and to slow it down on the first stage of
cooling and later to ramp it up when it goes into high speed cooling. What would I need to provide
you to know how this can be done and about how much?
admin:01/12/2015, 08:27:48 AM
Hector,
Here is what we would need to know to give you the most competitive price:
What is the FLA of your motor?
What are the properties of your power supply? (also 230V, 3-phase, 60Hz?)
What is the environment like where the vfd will be installed? (dirty/clean, dry/humid, indoor/outdoor,
etc.)
What is the elevation of the residing application?
What is the maximum ambient temperature at the site where the VFD will be placed?
What is the lead length (cable length between VFD and motor)?
How will you be controlling the VFD? (i.e. keypad, control room, any communications used)
Paul Lancaster:19/11/2015, 06:14:10 AM
Can I use a 15 HP VFD on a 10HP motor?
admin:19/11/2015, 08:44:03 AM
Absolutely. The motors output power (HP or kW) at a specific voltage (V) dictates how much current
(Amps) the motor will need to draw in order to produce that power. If the motors Full Load Amps
(FLA) - the current it needs to run at full load - does not exceed what the VFD can handle (maximum
Amps rating), the VFD will be able to handle the motors needs.
Nagendra Yadav:28/10/2015, 11:57:56 PM
So as I want to start a productive machine of its motor & control supply details are as,
Motor connection details - 30 kw, 3 phase 220 volt in delt / 3 phase 380 volt in star 60 Hz operated
with 3 phase 220 volt VFD.
Now the power supply available at our side is 3 phase 380 - 415 volt 50 Hz.So guide me that I could
start that machine with our side present power supply or need to change according to machine
specification.
Also suggest what is the best option to start the machine.
R.Prabhakar Rao:22/10/2015, 04:58:22 AM
Please give suitable VFD for RO high pressure pump motor
Motor Kw 37.0, Motor RPM 2950, voltage 450, 3 phase, Full load amps 60.0
Please give suitable VFD specifications.
with regards,
R.Prabhakar Rao
mob.9972309434
admin:22/10/2015, 02:07:24 PM
A Reverse Osmosis high pressure pump pumping water usually requires a 110% overload variable
torque (VT) for 1 minute. We have multiple options for a 37kW (50HP), 450V @ 60Hz motor;
however, to give you the most competitive price we would need to know a little more on your
application.
-What is the environment like? (dirty/clean, dry/humid, indoor/outdoor, etc.)
-What is the elevation of the residing application?
-What is the maximum ambient temperature at the site where the VFD will be placed?
-What is the lead length (cable length between VFD and motor)?
-How will you be controlling the VFD? (i.e. keypad, control room, any communications used)
-Are there any regulations set by the utility company on harmonic pollution?
Feel free to send us an e-mail at bdt@emcsolutions.com
Thanks!
dale race:12/10/2015, 12:51:28 PM
I have an air compressor that is lightly used. It is presently driven by a 6 wire, 3HP, 3Phase,
1740rpm, 10.6FSA motor. I want to run the motor with a 230V VFD to be switched with the existing
pressure switch. The compressor pump has a mechanical unloader.
Could you kindly advise which of your products would best suit the need described?
Thank you for your time and attention,
Dale Race
admin:22/10/2015, 02:29:46 PM
Hi Dale,
Is the motor a WYE-Delta starter?
Kyle:17/09/2015, 03:22:33 PM
Hello,
I have a three phase dust collector. 4hp, 3360 rpm, 220 volts, 10.6 amps, 3kw, 60 hz. Can you please
advise which vfd I need?
Thanks,
Kyle
admin:17/09/2015, 04:21:36 PM
Hello Kyle,
Do you have single phase or three phase power?
kyle:17/09/2015, 05:28:31 PM
Single phase
admin:18/09/2015, 09:34:30 AM
Kyle,
You should get a 3 phase input, 3 phase output VFD that is twice the size of your 10.6 amps motor. It
is called derating when doubling the size of the VFD in order to convert the single phase input power
to three phase output. In your case, the closest VFD size would be 7.5HP (typically around 24 amps),
such as the Mitsubishi E720 series 7.5HP ($910) new with 5 year warranty. You can also consider the
Saftronics C10 series 7.5HP ($561) new surplus with no warranty. We have both in stock. Feel free to
give us a call 800-800-2261 or email if you would like more information about them.
The E720 is IP20 rated (there is an opening at the bottom where the wires are connected, IP20 is
meant to be mounted inside an enclosure/panel), whereas the C10 series is NEMA 1 rated (it is fully
enclosed and can be mounted on the wall by itself).
Hope that helps.
cRK:15/09/2015, 08:28:17 AM
Hello,
I would like to put VFD for two of the motors in the plant, the consumption is 18A and 30A
respectively. Its a 3 phase motor which is very old and I don't think its designed for VFD service. In
this case which model you recommend?
Thanks,
admin:15/09/2015, 10:04:09 AM
Hi cRK,
We would recommend getting an inverter rated motor if possible. Choosing your VFD will depend on
your voltage, application, and how you plan to mount the VFD. If you provide those information, we
can give you a couple of suggestions. Thank you.
Chux:30/08/2015, 02:25:13 PM
Can I use the VFD for a 2.2kw,2500rpm,6.7amp single phase centrifugal fan? Can I connect it to one
of the phases on the output side
admin:01/09/2015, 09:32:36 AM
Hi Chux,
1. We always recommend that you use a 3-phase motor on a Variable Frequency Drive. You cannot
use a 3-phase drive to run a 1-phase motor.
2. Single-phase drives do exist, but only work with certain types of single phase motors. We
recommend you use a 3-phase motor if possible. If it is not possible, we would need all of the
information on the motor nameplate to see if a single-phase VFD would work.
Let us know if you have other questions. Thanks!
Ambarish:24/08/2015, 02:22:45 AM
Can i use a 2 hp drive for my 0.75hp 3 phase motor to get 40rpm motor speed
Craig:14/08/2015, 08:32:40 AM
I have a Sid Harvey 1/2 HP single phase, 1725 rpm motor for a furnace distribution blower. I'm
looking to reduce the fan speed to quiet the blower and increase the run-time to eliminate shortcycling. I had a Danfoss VLT2800 given to me from a job site, can I use the two together?
Frederick Cox, P.E.:09/08/2015, 01:39:04 PM
I do not have a hardware-specific comment or request at this time. Rather, I want to congratulate
you on your thoughtful and authoritative responses to all inquiries. I was seeking confirmation that an
oversize (40HP-rated) VFD drive would work with a 30 HP inverter-rated AC motor; Google led me to
your website and I got the answer I needed by browsing your Q and A section. Thank you. You are
now on my go-to list for future inquiries and specifications.
Miles:24/05/2015, 12:09:33 AM
Is A pump motor rated: 25 Hp, 3-Phase, 230V, 60Hz can be serviced & run by a Single Phase, 230V
60 Hz power supply connected to Variable Torque VFD for motor rated 60Hp? Please advise if this
possible prior purchase of VFD unit. Thanks.
Miles
admin:13/07/2015, 09:56:00 AM
Hi Miles,
Yes it is possible but with limitations. You need to get a drive that is around 50 HP in order to accept
single phase power. More accurately, you should double the amps of the motor instead of the horse
power.
You have to connect the VFD to the motor, with nothing in between the two and nothing after the
motor. Any lights or switches will have to go before the VFD.
Hope that makes sense. Thanks Miles.
Cam:20/04/2015, 03:09:22 PM
Miller Dimension 452 welder, Volts. 230/460/575
3 phase
Amperes. 90/45/36
kW 22.3
60 hertz
Input.
Would like to use it at home with available 120/240v Single Phase 60hz.
admin:13/07/2015, 09:45:00 AM
Cam,
You cannot run a VFD on your welder. Welders typically do not have a motor in them. They are more
like a transformer. Also, this one already has a speedometer to control its speed.
VFDs are decided to run motors. One of our engineers said to using a VFD to control a welder is like
using a VFD to control lights. It will not work. I hope this helps. Sorry for the slow response.
D Clark:19/11/2015, 12:58:25 PM
Thank you for your introduction into VFD use here online. I understand that a VFD is not appropriate
to run the Miller Dimension 452 Cam was asking about from a single phase supply. However, could
the thinking of engineering saying all welders are transformers be slightly limiting?
For example, inverter welders are not transformer based (but also would not work with a VFD)...
But perhaps the older motor-generator welders like the Lincoln-Electric SA-800 that have a 3 phase
motor could be controlled by a VFD? perhaps these machines are not easy to purchase anymore in
the US but there are still a fair number around and still in use.
Jinn Liong Chin:30/03/2015, 11:39:47 PM
I have a 803KW motor with voltage 6.6KV and 86A. I have a ABB VSD ACS2000-066-A01K-J4-101,
the max output continuous current is 86A. Is it ok to use?
admin:07/04/2015, 10:19:00 AM
Hi Jinn,
Sorry we missed your comment. Theoretically it will work as long as your VFD amp rating is higher
than the motor FLA. However, depending on your application, you will likely need a little more
headroom. You should consider going at least one size bigger on the VFD.
For example, for applications that are constant torque, you will need 150% to 200% overload.
Typically, manufactures will call it the heavy duty rating. For applications that are variable torque, you
will need 100% to 120% overload. Typically, manufactures will call it light duty or normal duty rating.
A constant torque rated VFD will have both heavy duty and light duty ratings. You will see something
similar to "95/80A" or "95(CT)/80(VT)" in the specifications. You will need to determine if your
application is constant torque (heavy duty) or variable torque (light duty), then match your amp
rating accordingly. I hope that makes sense.
Balaji:21/03/2015, 12:46:49 PM
we have an VFD written U1: 3-380V I1-385 Amps U2-3-0-u10-320 Hz.
I2 : 820 amps.
Dooes this mean that the VFD is suitable for withstanidng a current of 385 amps or 820 amps Please
advice
admin:23/03/2015, 08:54:00 AM
Hello Balaji,
Can you tell us what brand and model is your VFD?
- Yin
naif:24/02/2015, 04:35:02 AM
Hi
can u suggest for us three phase inverter
220V .
+/- 10% voltage
36kw 220 motor
1200 rpm
we need 25~100Hz.
main shaft is pushing biomass briquette
we need to protect inverter from being burned from overload.
admin:25/02/2015, 10:30:00 AM
Hi Naif,
We will send you some suggestions to your e-mail. Thanks!
Izhar:27/01/2015, 10:06:20 PM
Please suggest me VFD drive or any other for the following two Vacuum PUMP:
1) Model & Spec: ADS-602 By ALCATEL, 3KW, 3-PHASE, 400V, 5.5A.
2)Model & Spec:DUO 65 Double stage, 3-Phase, 400V, 2.2KW, 4A.
Application: Vacuum generation
Please email me the suggested drive model.
Many Thanks and Regard
Izhar
admin:28/01/2015, 08:06:00 AM
Izhar,
We would be happy to point you in the right direction on your search for the right VFD for your
application. I will send you an email shortly with a few additional questions I have for you.
Thanks,
Mackenzie
Willy Tom:14/01/2015, 08:01:43 AM
I have a mixer that serves 2 types of mixes. For example the thin mix will only require low power
torque around half or less. The thick mix will require full power torque of the motor. Both mixes will
use the same RPM.
Some of the questions I have.
1) Will a VFD work on this application?
2) Will it save and use half of the energy for the thin mix?
3) Can the VFD automatic sense the require preprogrammed require torque automatic adjust to the
require torque. Let said if we mixing thin mix, the VFD will automatic use low torque.
4) Can the VDF be preprogrammed to auto sense the require torque for example during initial mix the
require torque is very low but the mix will get thicker as more ingredient is added for the thick mix.
Thanks
admin:21/01/2015, 10:27:00 AM
Yes, a VFD will work for your application and will allow you some control in how fast you would like
the mixer to operate at. VFDs often result in energy savings by creating more efficient operations.
With applications that require high torque (like mixers) it is hard to see significant energy savings
because the demand is still going to be pretty high. You may still be able to see energy savings by
using a VFD on your mixer, though, most likely, it will not be half.
The VFD will only use the amount of current needed to mix based on the torque at the motor shaft.
The motor develops torque as it starts, as the torque builds the drive sends more current and voltage
as needed to maintain any increases in speed. Through parameters that you set in your VFD, you can
adjust the speed that the mixer will mix at. We have many different drives available, some of which
you can input the torque directly into the drive. If you are looking to maintain a specific level of
torque you may want to look into using a drive capable of that, such as our A700 Mitsubishi drive.
Thanks,
Mackenzie
Ben:19/12/2014, 04:22:04 PM
Have a 7.5hp 3 phase lathe. Trying to run on 240v single phase. What are my options? I don't need
full 7.5hp of the lathe (this lathe is oversized for my needs, but got a good deal).
admin:22/12/2014, 10:32:00 AM
Hi Ben,
We still need to use a drive that covers 7.5HP even if your lathe requires less than the maximum
horsepower. Let me ask you a questions before providing a suggestion.
(1) Is it a spindle lathe?
(2) Do you have an encoder?
(3) What is the full load amps (FLA) of your motor? You can find that on your motor nameplate.
If you prefer to call us, we are more than happy to help you out! 800-800-2261
Ben:23/12/2014, 06:45:45 AM
(1) - Yeah. A 18"x59" metal lathe.
(2) - It's built in 1984. Not sure, but probably not?
(3) - I made a mistake. Looks like the motor is only a 5hp. 14amps.
admin:23/12/2014, 12:29:00 PM
Ben,
We have just sent you an e-mail. Let us if we can help you further. Thanks!
Romeo Bungay:29/11/2014, 01:49:00 AM
We have a 10 HP 3phase motors for winching machine, is it OK to use VSD with 3phase,15 HP
capacity. Appreciating your favorable feedback. Thank you very much.
VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE INSTALLATION GUIDE

Environmental Requirements
Most VFDs are supplied with a protection rating of IP20 (Finger proof). This normally requires that the
variable frequency drive needs to be mounted in a floor standing enclosure or wall mounted panel, to
increase the degree of protection.
Cooling
The reliable trouble-free operation of all industrial equipment is dependent upon operation in an
environment for which that product was designed. The single most significant reason for the
premature failure of a VFD controller is operation in excessive ambient temperature.
The design of the enclosure in which the VFD is housed is therefore of critical importance.
The following guide covers the basic calculations necessary to ensure that heat generated by a VFD
can be satisfactorily transferred to the air surrounding the cubicle.
When making the calculation, remember to take account of all power dissipated inside the cubicle,
and not simply that generated by the VFD. Further, in the internal layout of the cubicle, where
possible, avoid placing electronic components at the top (hot air rises!), and where possible provide
fans to circulate internal air.Remember, as a rule of thumb, an electronic product's lifetime halves for
every 7C temperature rise.
The enclosure itself transfers the internally generated heat into the surrounding air by natural
convection, or external forced airflow. The greater the surface area of the enclosure walls, the better
is the dissipation capability. Remember also, that only walls which, are not obstructed (not in contact
with walls, floor or another hot enclosure) can dissipate heat to the air.
Calculate the minimum required unobstructed surface area A e for the enclosure as follows:
Where:
Ae = Unobstructed surface area (m)
P = Power dissipated by all heat sources in the enclosure (W)
Tamb = Maximum expected ambient temperature outside the enclosure (C)
Ti = Maximum permissible ambient temperature inside the enclosure (C)
k = Heat transmission coefficient of the enclosure material (Wm -2 C-1).
Example
To calculate the size of an enclosure to accommodate the following:
Two Gozuk 3.7kW VFDs
EMC filter for each VFD
Braking resistors mounted outside the enclosure
Maximum ambient temperature inside the enclosure 40C
Maximum ambient temperature outside the enclosure 30C
Maximum dissipation of each VFD = 190W
Maximum dissipation of each EMC filter = 25W
Total dissipation = 2 x (190 + 25) = 430W
The enclosure is to be made from painted 2mm sheet steel having a heat transmission coefficient of
5.5 Wm-2 C-1. Only the top, the front and two sides of the enclosure are free to dissipate heat.
The minimum required unobstructed surface area Ae for the enclosure is as follows
Ae = 7.8m2
If we select an enclosure with a height (H) of 2 m, a depth (D) of 0.6 m, and a minimum width W
Dissipating surfaces
> 7.8 m
Top + Front
> 7.8 m
(Wmin x 0.6)+(Wmin x 2)+(2 x 0.6 x 2) > 7.8 m

Wmin
> (7.8 2.4)/2.6

> 2.1 m
If the enclosure is too large for the available space it can be made smaller by:
Reducing the power dissipation in the enclosure
Reducing the ambient temperature outside the enclosure
Increasing the permissible ambient temperature inside the cubicle if possible by derating
equipment in line with manufacturer's instruction
Increasing the number of unobstructed surfaces of the cubicle
Circulating the air flow in a ventilated enclosure

In this case the dimensions of the enclosure are determined only by the requirements to
accommodate the equipment making sure to provide any recommended clearances. The equipment is
cooled by forced airflow. This being the case it is important is such arrangement to ensure that the
air flows over the heat-generating components to avoid localized hot spots.
The minimum required volume of ventilating air is given by:
m3hr-1 (4)
Where:
V = Cooling air flow ( m3hr-1),
P = Power dissipated by all heat sources in the enclosure (W),
Tamb = Maximum expected ambient temperature outside the enclosure (C),
Ti = Maximum permissible ambient temperature inside the enclosure (C) and
k = ratio of po / pi
Where:
po = Air pressure at sea level and
pi = Air pressure at the installation.
Typically, a factor of 1.2 to1.3 can be used to allow for pressure drops in dirty air filters.
Example
To calculate the size of an enclosure to accommodate the following guide:
Three Gozuk 15kW VFDs
EMC filter for each VFD
Braking resistors mounted outside the enclosure
Maximum ambient temperature inside the enclosure 40
Maximum ambient temperature outside the enclosure 30
Maximum dissipation of each VFD = 570W

Maximum dissipation of each EMC filter = 60W
Total dissipation = 3 x (570 +60) = 1890W
Then the minimum required volume of ventilating air is given by:
V = 737 m3hr-1
Electronic overload relays
It is important to recognize that the non-sinusoidal waveforms, and variable frequency, associated
with variable frequency drives, invalidate the basis for protection afforded by most electronic overload
relays. The use of such devices on the mains supply of a variable frequency drive is also invalid.
Please consult with the manufacturer before using any of these devices.
Fusing
Fuses should not be seen as an overload protection device; variable frequency drives regulate the
current flowing in the system and fusing needs to be designed to cater for catastrophic failure within
the VFD or a short circuit between cables. High rupturing capacity fuses (HRC) act as clearing devices
for sustained high currents and are consequently well suited to this type of duty, and is commonly
recommended by most VFD manufacturers.
Typical fuse recommendations for three-phase variable frequency drives are given in Table 2.
Variable frequency drive rating
Recommended
Power (kW)
Current (A)
Motor cable (mm) Fuse rating (A)
0.75
2.1
1.5
1.5
3.8
2.5
10
2.2
5.6
2.5
10
9.5
2.5
16
5.5
12
2.5
16
7.5
16
20
11
25
35
15
34
40
18.5
40
10
50
22
46
10
60
30
60
16
70
37
70
25
80
45
96
35
100
55
124
35
125
75
156
50
160
90
180
70
200
110
202
95
250
Motor and variable frequency drive protection

Apart from the VFD built in motor overload protection, internal heat, short circuit and ground fault,
protection is provided. The electronic overload protection for the motor also takes into account the
reduced cooling when the motor is operated at low speeds without forced ventilation.
Long motor cables

The use of chokes to facilitate the application of long motor cables is rare. It is usually simpler and
more elegant to use a larger variable frequency drive rating.
Because of charging currents, long motor cable runs can cause a reduction in the torque available
from the variable frequency drive; this could also cause the variable frequency drive to trip due to
excessive current normally experienced with smaller capacity variable frequency drives.
The following guidelines give suggested limits for standard shielded cables. The capacitance of the
cable is approximately 300pF/m measured from the three phases together to the sheath. This is
typical of steel wire armoured cable (SWA) and similar, where the individual phase conductors are
surrounded by a further insulating medium before being covered by the screen. For other values of
capacitance the length limits are approximately in inverse to the capacitance.
Note that individual separate phase conductors give lower capacitance, but may not be acceptable for
EMC reasons. Cables where the screen is laid over the phase conductors and mineral insulated cables,
are known to have much higher capacitance and should be treated with caution.
Maximum cable lengths at a specific supply voltage and switching frequency
Variable frequency drive
Cable length (m) at 400V.A.C. supply voltage and 3kHz switching
Rating
frequency
0.75kW
70
1.5kW
100
2.2kW
130
4kW
200
5.5kW 11kW
250
15kW 90kW
300
The above cable lengths are for Gozuk VFDs. Please consult with the variable frequency drive
Manufacturers before installing.
For other switching frequencies:
Maximum cable length = Maximum cable length at 3kHz x (3kHz / switching frequency)
Output Chokes
Calculation of the necessary inductance of the choke is complex. However the following guidelines
might be helpful.
Estimate the cable capacitance (C), from one line to all others.
Typical values
Screened/Armoured cables where there is a plastic sheath between the phase and the screen:
130pF/m
Screened cables with no plastic sheath between cores and screen, mineral insulated cables: 300pF/m
Add an allowance for the motor capacitance: 1nF is a reasonable estimate
Decide on the available charging current
Where:
In = Nominal rated r.m.s output current
k = Acceptable short term overload factor
Factor 1.41 = Maximum DC link voltage
Factor 2 = variable frequency drive instant trip current to nominal output current
Most variable frequency drives are rated at 150%, i.e. k = 1.5
Maximum DC link voltage can be calculated from the highest r.m.s. AC supply voltage times 1.41
Now calculate the minimum inductance per phase from the following expression
If using standard iron-cored chokes, the inductance at the high frequencies involved will be rather
lower than the specified 50Hz inductance. A good rule of thumb is to specify an inductance of twice
that determined by this calculation.
The acceptable voltage drop at the working frequency determines the maximum value of inductance.
Calculate this from the following expression:
Where:
x = Acceptable volt drop over the choke
VA.C. = Motor voltage rating (line to line r.m.s.)
f0 = Maximum variable frequency drive output frequency
If 2Lmin < Lmax then any value between these limits can be used.
If 2Lmin > Lmax then the variable frequency drive cannot operate with this length of cable and a higher
rated variable frequency drive must be used.
Consideration must be given to the high frequency losses in the chokes. This can be estimated from
the following expression:
Where:
fs = Switching frequency
The factor 0.8 is a rough estimate of the fraction of the total losses dissipated in the choke. Note that
the loss is proportional to the switching frequency so the lowest acceptable frequency should be
selected.
It is now necessary to decide whether the choke is able to tolerate this loss. This is a difficult
judgment. As a crude rule, the loss should not exceed 0.1 VA in the choke at maximum speed, i.e.:
Where:
fo(max) = Maximum output frequency
If the loss exceeds this limit, and it is not possible to reduce the switching frequency, then a resistor
should be connected in parallel with each choke to extract some of the power. The resistor value is
given by:
The value is not critical and variations of 50% are acceptable. The power rating of the resistor
should beat least 0.8P. Provision must be made for the resistor to dissipate this power without
overheating itself or nearby equipment. Values of 100W per phase are not uncommon.
Supply impedance
High quality commercial VFDs are designed to operate from typical industrial power distribution
systems with a maximum fault level of ten to twenty times the variable frequency drive rated power.
Problems can also occur if a VFD system is installed close to the main power supply or power factor
correction capacitors, both of which present low supply impedance to the VFD. Variable frequency
drives fitted wit D.C. link chokes are in general unaffected by low supply impedance.
A good rule of thumb is to ensure a total supply impedance of approximately 4 percent reactance.
Where information about the supply is not known, it is good practice to fit line reactors of 2 percent.
There is no easy solution for high supply impedance as power lines carrying VFD current need to be
oversized, as do transformers used in order to minimize the impedance. This over sizing may need to
be as high as five times that normally considerate adequate.
Brake resistor selection
Firstly we need to understand what happens when a motor decelerates to stop under a high inertia
load. When the motor starts to decelerate and the load keeps on rotating the motor, the motor starts
to act as a generator sending energy back to the VFD.With energy from the main supply and from the
motor, now acting as a generator,the DC Bus voltage level starts to rise from approximately 560VDC
to levels that will activate a DC Bus over voltage trip. Most variable frequency drives can sustain
levels up to 780VDC before tripping. Some variable frequency drives equipped with internal braking
circuits and resistors will control this rise in DC Bus voltage but only for a short duration. If a lengthy
or heavy-duty brake cycle is required, it is best to fit external units, which could cope with the extra
energy safely.
To reduce the cost and physical size of VFDs, and the fact that very few applications require DC Bus
braking, manufacturers only provide units with limited DC Bus braking capabilities. Users should
consult with Manufacturers as to the capability of the units before installing them in these
applications.
Two important factors to consider are the required braking torque and the duty cycle of the
application.
Kinetic energy of the motor and load = 0.5 J 2
Where:
J = Total inertia (kg m) of the motor, transmission and driven machine
If there is gearing between the motor and the driven machine, J is the value reflected at the motor
shaft.
J = angular velocity
As the energy regenerated is proportional to the square of the angular velocity, most of the energy in
the system is concentrated at the higher operating speed, and is delivered to the resistor at the start
of the deceleration.
Example:
A system inertia of 10kg m2 is to be decelerated from full load speed to rest. We need to find the
braking resistor value and maximum braking torque

VFD rating = 30kW
Motor rating = 30kW
Motor full load speed = 1475rpm
Motor nominal torque rating = 191Nm
Repeat cycle time = 30 Seconds
Resistor operating voltage = 660V
Our first step is to determine the minimum deceleration time tb
Maximum braking torque Mb is identical to maximum accelerating torque
Nm
But maximum deceleration occurs at 150% of motor nominal torque. The value to apply for M b is
therefore
1.5 x 191 = 286.5 Nm
So the actual deceleration time tb is:
Seconds tb = 5.39 seconds

This is the minimum deceleration time. For example, let us decide on a more practical deceleration
time of 7seconds. We can now calculate the maximum braking torque to decelerate the load in 7
seconds:
Nm
=220.64 Nm
Braking Power is:
=34.65 kW
Resistor resistance value ():
The motor is capable of delivering up to 150% of its full load rating for up to 60seconds maximum,
i.e.:
1.5 x30 = 45kW.
It is therefore equally capable of regenerating the same short time power. As 45kW is in excess of
35kW required for the application, the value of the resistor is:
=12.45
Resistor power rating Pr
As the braking operates intermittently, the resistor can be selected from a range offering
"intermittent" rather than "continuous" power absorption. Advantage an also be taken of the overload
rating of the resistor by applying an overload factor, which will be derived from a set of cooling
curves obtained from the manufacturer or supplier of the resistor. In this example,deceleration time is
taken as 7 seconds, repeat cycle time 30 seconds. From typical data the overload factor is 2.
The power rating of the chosen resistor is:
Pr = 35/2 =17.5kW
For practical purposes, it can be assumed that 15% to 20% of energy dissipated during the
regenerative braking is due to electrical losses in the motor and variable frequency drive, and
mechanical losses in the motor and load, all of which assist the braking. In practice, using the
recommended resistor value will result in extra braking torque available. However, the rate of energy
feedback from the load inertia is determined by the rate of deceleration.
A braking resistor must be installed in accordance with instructions provided by its supplier or
manufacturer. The braking resistor should incorporate a thermal tripping device, which should be
connected, to a trip release mechanism to stop the VFD.
Resistors intended for braking duty should be capable of tolerating thermal shock "Pulse rated"
resistors are recommended
Application selection
The following table is a guide of torque requirements in certain applications.
Load torque as percentage of full load driving
torque
Name of Application
Breakaway
Accelerating
Peak running
Liquid
100
100
100
Slurry
150
100
100
Valve closed
30
50
40
Valve open
40
110
100
40
40
100
Centrifuges (extractors)
40
60
125
Compressors, axial-vane, loaded
40
100
100
Conveyors, shaker-type (vibrating)
150
150
75
Escalators, stairways (starting unloaded)
50
75
100
Valve closed
25
60
50
Valve open
25
110
100
Valve closed
25
60
100
Valve open
25
200
175
40
110
100
Agitators
Blowers, centrifugal
Blowers, positive-displacement, rotary,

bypassed
Fans, centrifugal, ambient
Fans, centrifugal, hot gasses
Fans, propellers axial-flow
Frames, spinning, textile
50
125
100
Grinders, metal
25
50
100
Machines, buffing, automatic
50
75
100
Machines, cinder-block, vibrating
150
150
70
Machines, key seating
25
50
100
Machines, polishing
50
75
100
Mills, flour, grinding
50
75
100
Mixers, chemical
175
75
100
Mixers, concrete
40
50
100
Mixers, dough
175
125
100
Mixers, liquid
100
100
100
Mixers, sand, centrifugal
50
100
100
Mixers, sand, screw
175
100
100
Mixers, slurry
150
125
100
Mixers, solid
175
125
175
Pumps, adjustable-blade, vertical
50
40
125
Pumps, centrifugal, discharge open
40
100
100
Pumps, oil-field, flywheel
150
200
200
Pumps, oil, lubricating
40
150
150
Pumps, oil fuel
40
150
150
Pumps, propeller
40
100
100
Pumps, turbine, centrifugal, deep-well
50
100
100
Pumps, vacuum (paper-mill service)
60
100
100
Pumps, vacuum (other applications)
40
60
100
Pumps, vacuum, reciprocating
150
60
150
Rolls, crushing (sugarcane)
50
110
125
Rolls, flaking
30
50
100
Screens, centrifugal (centrifuges)
40
60
125
Screens, vibrating
50
150
70
Separators, air (fan-type)
40
100
100
Washers, laundry
25
75
100

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THE BASICS OF VARIABLE-FREQUENCY DRIVES

<b>Fig. 1.</b> An ideal sinuosoid and PWM waveform figure.

UNDERSTANDING VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES (PART 1)

* HV spikes to motor windings.

* Excellent control of motor speed, torque, and power.

UNDERSTANDING VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES (PART 2)

Break-away torque: torque required to start a load in motion (typically greater

than the torque required to maintain motion).

down hill loads and high inertia machines.

UNDERSTANDING VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES (PART 3)

UNDERSTANDING VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES (PART 4)

BEHIND THE SCENES WITH VFDS

Weber is an electrical engineer with Rockwell Automation, Mequon, Wis.

TROUBLESHOOTING VFD PROBLEMS

SEND ME ANOTHER DRIVE PLEASE

RETROFITTING VFD MOTORS AT A WASTE WATER TREATMENT PLANT

TOP 10 TIPS: SPECIFYING VFDS

Be aware of braking requirements.

Understand your control profile requirements.

For more information, call (800) 633-0405 or visit automationdirect.com.

VFD Installation Instructions

VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE INSTALLATION GUIDE

Two Gozuk 3.7kW VFDs

EMC filter for each VFD

Braking resistors mounted outside the enclosure

Maximum ambient temperature inside the enclosure 40C

Maximum ambient temperature outside the enclosure 30C

Maximum dissipation of each VFD = 190W

Maximum dissipation of each EMC filter = 25W

Total dissipation = 2 x (190 + 25) = 430W

(Wmin x 0.6)+(Wmin x 2)+(2 x 0.6 x 2) > 7.8 m

> (7.8 2.4)/2.6

Reducing the power dissipation in the enclosure

Reducing the ambient temperature outside the enclosure

Increasing the number of unobstructed surfaces of the cubicle

Circulating the air flow in a ventilated enclosure

Three Gozuk 15kW VFDs

EMC filter for each VFD

Braking resistors mounted outside the enclosure

Maximum ambient temperature inside the enclosure 40

Maximum ambient temperature outside the enclosure 30

Maximum dissipation of each VFD = 570W

Motor cable (mm) Fuse rating (A)

Motor and variable frequency drive protection

Long motor cables

Cable length (m) at 400V.A.C. supply voltage and 3kHz switching

braking resistor value and maximum braking torque

Seconds tb = 5.39 seconds

Braking Power is:

Compressors, axial-vane, loaded

Conveyors, shaker-type (vibrating)

Escalators, stairways (starting unloaded)

Blowers, positive-displacement, rotary,

Fans, centrifugal, ambient

Fans, centrifugal, hot gasses

Fans, propellers axial-flow

Frames, spinning, textile

Machines, buffing, automatic

Machines, cinder-block, vibrating

Machines, key seating

Mills, flour, grinding

Mixers, sand, centrifugal

Mixers, sand, screw

Pumps, adjustable-blade, vertical