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ALGEBRA
SEQUEL
ELEMENTARY
ALGEBRA
TO
EOR
SCHOOLS.
s.
ALGEBRA
HIGHER
TO
SEQUEL
FOR
ALGEBRA
ELEMENTARY
SCHOOLS
BY
H.
FORMERLY
MASTER
OF
THE
S.
CHRIST'S
OF
SCHOLAR
AND
MILITARY
M.A.,
HALL,
COLLEGE,
SIDE,
ENGINEERING
CAMBRIDGE,
CLIFTON
AND
FORMERLY
LATE
B.A.,
KNIGHT,
S. K
COLLEGE,
TRINITY
OF
SCHOLAR
AT
ASSISTANT-MASTER
MARLBOROUGH
CAMBRIDGE,
COLLEGE.
EDITION.
FOURTH
Honfcon:
AND
MACMILLAN
AND
NEW
CO.
YOKE.
1891
[The Right of Translation
is reserved.}
COLLEGE
2- TO
"
12/
4 2 2
First
Second
Third
Printed
with
Edition
Edition
revised
Reprinted 1890.
1887.
corrections
and
Fourth
1888.
enlarged 1889.
Edition
1891.
PREFACE.
The
is intended
work
present
of
discussion
fuller
Progressions, which
elementary
and
manner
the
and
which
examples
Elementary
our
chapters
work
former
have
we
devoted
are
introduced
for
the
in
an
theorems
first
to
and
treated
were
here
unsuitable
are
to
Proportion, Variation,
Ratio,
in
sequel
first few
The
as
of
course
reading.
From
part
this
importance
these
work
student, and
the
to
new
the
point
thoroughly, discussing
witli
that
experience
our
It
as
but
in
all
first
find
such
cases
of
for fuller
In
are
in
of
few
within
the
for
room
and
examples
in
necessary
to
of
single
it has
out
map
student
parts
to
possible
im-
been
sketch
introductory
an
been
has
essential
limits
chapters
than
more
the
all
the
later
object
our
discuss
to
possible
as
to
course
aim
our
completely
minutely
found
always
special
treat
bookwork
have
we
to
of
most
teachers.
as
been
has
volume,
which
both
the
subjects
upon
endeavoured
and
fulness
enters
have
we
for
ground
covers
suitable
special treatises
information.
the
chapter
much
indebted
to
Choice
and
proofs
in
make
Chance.
our
own
Permutations
on
to
use
the
of
For
Rev.
W.
of
some
many
teaching,
and
and
A.
the
we
Whitworth
are
we
for
proofs given
we
years
Combinations
have
convinced
mission
per-
in
used
that
his
these
this
PREFACE.
vi
to the beginner
intelligible
part of Algebrais made far more
from first principles
sense
reasoning
by a system of common
text-books.
found in algebraical
than by the proofs
usually
The discussion of Convergencyand Divergencyof Series
his first
to the student on
always presentsgreat difficulty
reading. The inherent difficultiesof the subjectare no
increased by the placeit
and these are
doubt considerable,
and by the somewhat
has ordinarily
occupied,
inadequate
have
it has hitherto received. Accordingly
treatment
we
later than is usual; much
placed this section somewhat
thoughthas been bestowed on its generalarrangement,and
the selection of suitable examplesto illustratethe text ;
on
and
have endeavoured to make
it more
and we
interesting
introducinga short chapter on
by previously
intelligible
LimitingValues and VanishingFractions.
of Series we
have laid
In the chapteron Summation
much
stress
the
on
"
Method
The
importantapplications.
known
which
formula in the Calculus of Finite Differences,
396, we
in
sidered
purelyalgebraical
proofcan hardlybe conadmissible in a treatise on Algebra.The proofof the
Difference formula which we have givenin Arts. 395,
and original,
and the development
believe to be new
the absence of
Finite
is a well-
has enabled
to
us
have
received
able and
from
chapteron Probability
Christ's College,
Brecon, and
to
him, both
material
the
our
Rev.
warmest
T.
assistance in the
C. Simmons
thanks
are
of
due
placingat our
original
problems.
It is hardly possible
to read any modern
AnalyticalConies or Solid Geometry without
treatise
some
on
know-
PKEFACE.
ledge of
Determinants
and
yii
their
We have
applications.
therefore givena brief elementarydiscussion of Determinants
in Chapterxxxm.,
in the hope that it
may provide
the student with a useful introductory
course, and prepare
him for a more
completestudyof the subject.
The last chapter
contains all the most useful propositions
in the Theoryof Equations
suitable for a firstreading.The
the study of
Theory of Equationsfollows so naturally
on
Algebrathat no apologyis needed for here introducing
position
prowhich usually
find placein a separatetreatise. In
fact,a considerable part of Chapter xxxv.
may be read
with advantage
at a much earlierstage,
and may conveniently
be studied before some
of the harder sections of previous
chapters.
It will be found that each chapteris as nearly
as possible
that the order of their succession can
so
completein itself,
second
reading.
enumeratingthe sources
of
assistance in the preparation
In
to which
it is difficult to
from which
we
have derived
say how
far
we
are
book
one
indebted.
H.
H.
A.
Viii
PREFACE.
other writers.
our
speakinggenerally,
ments
acknowledge-
due
are
in
PREFACE
same
been
in
as
recast,and
have
We
TO
S. R. KNIGHT.
"
THIRD
THE
In
the
H. S. HALL,
1887"
and
examplesare
previouseditions,but
all the exampleshave
also added
EDITION.
substantially
few articles
been verified
havej
again.
laneous
Miscel-
care
and
subject,
has been
to
taken
part
of the
and
fairly
representthe principal
University
to illustrate every
CONTENTS.
I.
CHAPTER
ratio.
PAGE
Ratio
of
incommensurable
and
Commensurable
greater and
less
quantities
inequality
3
i
_c
/pan
_e
qcn
+ren+
qdn
...\n
'
b~d~f~"'~\pbn
a1 + a2 + a3+...
+ an
bl + b2 + b.i+
Cross
rfn+...J
lies between
greatest and
flh
of
bn
...
fractions
multiplication
Eliminant
of three
Examples
linear
equations
Definitions
10
and
and
Inverse
B,
geometrical
definitions
1G
quantities
17
II.
19
CHAPTER
If Ace
proportion.
13
algebraical
of incommensurable
Examples
II.
Propositions
between
Comparison
Case
CHAPTER
then
III.
VARIATION.
21
mB
variation
22
variation
Joint
li
least
Ace
when
23
is
constant,
and
"
when
then
is constant,
A=mBG
23
Illustrations.
Examples
Examples
on
joint
variation
.21
.
20
III
b-1
CONTENTS.
IV.
CHAPTER
PROGRESSION.
ARITHMETICAL
PAGE
of
Sum
of
terms
29
formulae
Fundamental
of arithmetic
Insertion
IV.
Examples
Discussion
31
means
31
of roots
of dn~ +
(2a-d)n-2s
V.
geometricmeans
series
terms of a geometrical
of
Examples V.
of
40
41
a.
of
terms
39
geometricalseries
Sum
38
....
infinite
an
PROGRESSION.
GEOMETRICAL
Insertion of
Sum
33
35
CHAPTER
f'
of
IV. b
Examples
Sum
28
arithmetical series
an
43
recurringdecimal
series
arithmetico-geometric
an
of
44
V. b
Examples
CHAPTER
45
VI.
HARMONICAL
PROGRESSION.
WITH
in
of quantities
Reciprocals
Harmonic
mean
THE
H. P.
THEOREMS
CONNECTED
PROGRESSIONS.
in A. P.
are
......
Formulae
Hints
Sum
of squares
Sum
of cubes
of the natural
of the natural
numbers
numbers
notation
Examples VI.
Number
a.
of shot in
Pyramid
on
Pyramid
on
.....
pyramid
on
square
base
base
triangular
rectangularbase
Incompletepyramid
a
5J
.....
Examples VI.
CHAPTER
Explanation of systems
VII.
scales
of
notation.
of notation
Examples VII. a.
Expressionof an integralnumber
Expressionof a radix fraction in
57
59
in
proposed scale
proposed scale
a
59
01
CONTENTS.
XI
PAGE
The
difference between
by
Proof
number
and
tho
of its
sum
is
digits
divisible
62
of rule for
"
the nines
castingout
divisibility
by r + 1
Examples VII. b
"
C3
Test of
CHAPTER
64
65
VIII.
nationalisingthe
AND
SURDS
IMAGINARY
QUANTITIES.
denominator
of
07
jc + s/d
sjb+
factor of fJa"Z/b
Rationalising
Square root of a + Jb + *Jc+ Jd
69
Cube
70
root of
*Jb
68
Examples VIII. a.
Imaginary quantities
-ax
If
+ ib
+ ib
If
Modulus
-b=
Square
root of
of i
of
Q, b
c, b
75
75
moduli
+ ib
77
79
unity; 1 +
-f or
79
80
Examples VIII.
b.
81
CHAPTER
IX.
THE
THEORY
QUADRATIC
OF
than
quadraticequation cannot have more
Conditions for real,equal,imaginaryroots
b
Sum
of roots
of
product of roots
equationswhen
For
Examples IX.
Definitions
Condition
85
the roots
are
given
be
86
.....
(1)equal in magnitude
88
88
expressionax2 +
exceptions
real values of
signas
83
...
84
quadraticshould
oppositein sign,(2)reciprocals
Examples IX.
roots
two
EQUATIONS.
"
Formation
77
roots of
Powers
of
Powers
Cube
75
id, then
74
sjab
0, then
c
72
the
bx +
has in
generalthe
same
90
92
of function,variable,rativnnl integralfunction
that ax2 +
may
93
...
be resolved
into two
9i
linear factors
0 and
0 may
have
common
96
root
Examples
IX.
c.
96
CONTENTS.
Xll
X.
CHAPTER
EQUATIONS.
MISCELLANEOUS
page
97
quantity
unknown
Equations involvingone
100
equations
Reciprocal
101
Examples X. a
Equations involvingtwo unknown
Homogeneous equations
103
quantities
104
....
106
X. b
Examples
107
quantities
Equations involvingseveral unknown
Examples X. c.
Indeterminate
equations; easy numerical examples
109
111
113
Examples X.
XL
CHAPTER
combinations.
and
permutations
Preliminaryproposition
permutationsof
Number
of
Number
of combinations
of ways
at
things r
at a time
of
of
in which
classes containingm,
Examples XI. a
of the
Signification
Number
thingsr
of combinations
number
Number
of
n,
p,
...
n
n
.115
"
115
time
of combinations
number
The
"
at
thingsr
117
a
time
is
equal to the
time
things ?i-rata
things can be divided
+p +
.119
into
...
things severally
120
....
122
'like' and
terms
'unlike'
124
.....
of
are
alike of
Number
repeated
The
total number
initio
126
of combinations
value of
proof of the
of
things
expressionnGr is greatest
the
formula
one
Examples
of
binomial
127
are
alike
129
131
XII.
XII
CHAPTER
of
of combinations
of selections of p + q+r+
things,whereof
of
alike
second
"c
a
kind,q
kind,
Examples XI.
Product
128
number
...
of
127
at a time
thingsr
Total
125
of
mathematical
induction.
proof
133
x
134
135
Xlii
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
XIII.
BINOMIAL
THEOREM.
POSITIVE
INTEGRAL
INDEX.
PAGE
when
n is a positive
Expansion of (x+ a)11,
integer
General term of the expansion
to depend upon the case
The expansionmay be made
term is unity
Second
Examples
The
XLII.
139
in which
the first
140
theorem
141
142
coefficients of terms
are
137
....
equidistant from
the
beginningand
end
equal
143
Determination
of the greatestterm
Sum
of the coefficients
Sum
143
146
is
equal to
sum
of coefficientsof
even
terms
146
Expansion of multinomials
Examples XIII. b.
CHAPTER
Euler's
General
XIV.
proofof
term
the binomial
of the
XIV.
146
147
BINOMIAL
theorem
expansion of
THEOREM.
for any
ANY
INDEX.
index
(1+ x)'1
150
153
.....
Examples
is only arithmetically
when x"l
Expansion of (l-rx)n
intelligible
The
can
expression(.r-f?/)'1
always be expanded by the binomial
a
theorem
General
of the
Particular
157
....
of the
158
159
Examples XIV. b.
Numericallygreatestterm in the expansionof (l+ x)n
Number
formed
of homogeneous productsof r dimensions
161
162
out
of
164
letters
Number
of terms
Number
of
in the
expansionof a
combinations of n thingsr at
Examples XIV.
105
multinomial
a
beingallowed
time,repetitions
in the
XV.
MULTINOMIAL
expansionof (a+
THEOREM.
when
bx + ex2 + dx3 + ...)p,
^ is
170
integer
positive
General
term
in
the
expansion of (a+
is a rational quantity
Examples
XV
166
107
CHAPTER
General term
155
157
expansion of (1 .r)_n
cases
expansions of (1 x)~n
Approximationsobtained by the binomial theorem
term
155
bx +
cx-
when
"lv:i+...)n,
//
171
173
CONTENTS.
XIV
XVI.
CHAPTER
LOGARITHMS.
PAGE
175
N=a)ogaN
Definition.
Elementary propositions
176
Examples XVI.
178
Logarithms
Common
of the characteristic
Determination
"
"
.179
180
by inspection
.....
181
Advantages of logarithmsto base 10
182
Advantagesof always keepingthe mantissa positive
Given the logarithms of all numbers
to base a, to find the logarithms
....
to base b
loga"xlog6a
=
185
Examples XVI. b
CHAPTER
XVII.
Expansion of
e
EXPONENTIAL
Series for
ax.
l\n
is the limit of
(1
LOGARITHMIC
SERIES.
187
when
AND
is infinite
188
Expansion of log,,
(1+ x)
Construction
183
183
of Tables
191
of
Logarithms
Rapidlyconvergingseries for log,,
(n+ 1) logen
194
The
195
192
quantitye
Examples XVII
is incommensurable
195
CHAPTER
XVIII.
of
INTEREST
AND
ANNUITIES.
Nominal
and
true
annual
.198
198
199
rates of interest
200
Case of
200
....
Examples XVIII.
Annuities.
201
202
Definitions
202
Amount
of
203
Amount
of
203
unpaid annuity,simpleinterest
unpaid annuity,compound interest
Present value of an annuity,
compound interest
Number
of years'purchase
Present
value of
deferred
204
204
annuity,compound interest
.
ExamplesXVIII.
of
lease
.205
206
206
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
XV
XIX.
INEQUALITIES.
PAGE
ElementaryPropositions
Arithmetic mean
of two positive
quantitiesis greater than
208
the
geometric
mean
The
209
of two
sum
they are
equal
The
210
arithmetic
the
Given
number
of
geometricmean
sum
211
Easy
Examples XIX.
cases
The
of
mean
of maxima
and
212
minima
212
213
arithmetic
of
mean
?/ithpowers
mth power
the
of
number
of
positive
of their arithmetic
mean,
0 and 1
214
b
If
and b
and a"b, ( 1 +
positive
integers,
are
"
(1 + ^ )
216
?1"*"""0'Vrr|"vrrf
217
'a + b\a+b
217
Examples XIX.
CHAPTER
218
XX.
VALUES
LIMITING
AND
VANISHING
FRACTIONS.
Definition of Limit
Limit
By
of a0 + axx +
takingx small
220
a2x"+
a3x3+
is a0 when
...
is
zero
222
....
222
Method
of
Discussion
some
vanishing fractions
in
peculiarities
the
solution
of
221
simultaneous
226
equations
Peculiarities in the solution of
quadraticequations
227
....
228
Examples XX
CHAPTER
Case of terms
XXI.
CONVERGENCE
AND
and negative
alternately
positive
u
~n
"u
is less than
-i
DIVERGENCY
.....
OF
SERIES.
230
232
CONTENTS.
XVI
PAGE
Comparison of 2rtnwith
The
auxiliaryseries ^p
auxiliaryseries 2vn
an
of
log71
when
and nxn
235
3~p
2P
to Binomial, Exponential,
LogarithmicSeries
Application
Limits
234
is infinite
237
238
Product
of
Examples XXI.
a.
238
of factors
infinite number
an
v-
series is
]nI
"
"
"
"
ji-i
)"
"
auxiliaryseries
247
248
\n (
"
J
-
l|log
248
249
infinite series
of two
Examples XXI. b.
252
.
CHAPTER
XXII.
UNDETERMINED
COEFFICIENTS.
Examples XX1T.
245
(logn)p
244
2
n
243
n-l
\un+i
( n log
convergent,if
u
The
241
CHAPTER
254
254
256
.
257
2C0
XXIII.
PARTIAL
FRACTIONS.
Decompositioninto partialfractions
261
Use
265
of partialfractions in
Examples
expansions
XXIII
CHAPTER
265
XXIV.
recurring
series.
Scale of relation
267
Sum
269
of
series
recurring
Generating function
269
Examples XXIV
272
XXIX.
CHAPTER
previousmethods
productof n factors in A. P
of the productof
reciprocal
series.
.312
of
Summary
un the
un the
of
summation
"
"
314
n
316
factors in A. P
318
of Subtraction
Method
318
Examples XXIX.
321
320
Method
of Differences
Method
succeeds when
If an is
319
322
function of n
un is a rational integral
function of n, the series 2anx'1is
rational integral
recurring
series
Further
327
of
cases
recurringseries
Examples XXIX.
Miscellaneous
329
332
methods
of summation
331
.......
series lr + 2r + Sr+...+nr
Sumof
326
336
Bernoulli's Numbers
337
Examples XXIX.
338
CHAPTER
Statement
Number
No
of
of
rational
A number
Number
XXX.
theory
of
principles
341
primes is infinite
formula
algebraical
342
can
be resolved into
can
of divisors of
prime
given integer
factors in
only one
of ways an integer
be resolved into two
can
of the divisors of a given integer
Highestpower
Product of
of
prime contained in In
consecutive
Fermat's Theorem
Examples XXX.
342
way
factors
343
344
345
is divisibleby
integers
[r
NP-ia
Definition of congruent
342
343
Number
Sum
numbers.
l=M(p)
345
prime
to 2?
347
348
....
350
CONTENTS.
XIX
PAGE
If
is
prime
b, then
to
a,
2a, 3a,
when
(6- 1)a
...
divided
by
6 leave
different remainders
350
......
(p(abcd...)="p(a)(p(b)"p(c)
"p(d)
352
"PO-"'(i-i)(i-J)(i-l)
352
Wilson's
354
Theorem
1 +
\p
-
(p)where
to prime numbers
property peculiar
Wilson's Theorem
(secondproof)
Proofs
by induction
p is
prime
354
....
355
35G
.......
357
Examples XXX.
b.
CHAPTER
XXXI.
general
the
of
theory
continued
FRACTIONS.
Law
"
"
of formation
has
"
of successive
a.2+
The
convergents
order of
to
are
where
positiveproper
fractions in ascending
a2~
magnitude, if an"kl + bn
General
an and
generalvalue of convergent
is incommensurable,
ax+
362
yn+l
al
Cases
359
"""'"n4'1"0
...
a,+
convergents
if
a2 +
"
363
bn are
can
'Conversion of
366
"1
367
continued
continued
one
fractions
371
372
CHAPTER
Definitions and
369
Examples XXXI.
illustrations.
(ExamplesXXXII.
XXXII.
probability.
Simple Events
373
376
/Compound Events
IProbabilitythat two independent events will both happen is pp'
[ The formula holds also for dependentevents
Chance
of an event which can haj^penin mutually exclusive ways
.
Examples XXXII.
of
an
of
happening exactlyr
probablevalue
points"
377
.
378
379
381
383
event
Expectationand
"Problem
365
cl
Examples XXXI. a
Series expressedas
Chance
364
constant
be found
.......
times
in
trials
385
386
388
.......
CONTENTS.
XX
PAOE
XXXII.
Examples
391
probability
Inverse
of Bernoulli's Theorem
Statement
Proof
389
c.
of formula
P P
392
Qr= ^rj-jn
testimony
Traditionarytestimony
Concurrent
396
....
....
899
Examples XXXII. d
Geometrical
Local Probability.
Miscellaneous examples
Examples XXXII. e
of two
Eliminant
of
Determinant
Sign of
If two
rows
A factor
Keduction
409
row
or
410
or
412
column
made
are
of determinants
411
vanishes
identical,the determinant
are
constituents
and columns
fcw" adjacentrows
by interchanging
to any
.410
of third order
is altered
columns
common
Cases where
dktkrminants.
by interchangingrows
of determinant
or
405
.....
determinant
columns
402
is not altered
Development
401
XXXIII.
CHAPTER
Eliminant
methods
may
up of
be
placedoutside
number
of
by simplification
rows
of terms
columns
or
112
412
413
.111
417
Examples XXXIII.
419
of fourth order
Determinant
of any
422
equations
423
...
42jl
order
.
Notation
Sia^-^
Examples XXXIII.
CHAPTER
Keview
...
b.
divided
of Detached
Method
Symmetricaland
Examples
of
miscellaneous
laws of
a
out
examples.
429
/"
432
434
Functions
Alternating
and
\-r,
433
SyntheticDivision
of identitiesworked
theorems
Algebra
leaves remainder
divided by
Coefficients
425
...
of the fundamental
by
Quotient of / (x)when
Horner's
XXXIV.
f(x) when
Method
434
435
437
438
CONTENTS.
XXI
PAGE
Examples
XXXIV.
Identities provedby
438
of cube roots
properties
Linear factors of a3 + 63 + c3
Value
of an + bn + cn when
Examples XXXIV.
b.
of
unity
440
Sabc
+ b+
441
=
442
442
Elimination
444
Elimination
by symmetricalfunctions
Euler's method
Method
Dialytic
Sylvester's
method
Bezout's
Miscellaneous
446
c.
the nth
Kelations between
the roots
These
relations are
Cases
of solution under
not
Descartes'
theory
degreehas
of
roots and
no
An
454
given conditions
454
of the roots
455
456
roots
in
pairs
equationswith
occur
457
surd roots
458
....
459
Signs
of
460
462
463
464
0 has
root
between
464
and 6
equationof
equationof
an
odd degreehas
an
even
degree with
465
real root
one
negativehas
two
real
465
roots
If
/ (x)
=
0 has
Determination
equal to
equal roots
roots
of
a,
0 has
f (x)
=
1 roots
equal to
an
468
x-b
x-a
Examples XXXV.
Equation
Equation
x-c
assignedpower
Transformation
with
466
467
/'(*)_ I1,1,
J (X)
Sum of
452
452
An
more
b
Examples XXXV.
Value of /(.r
+ //).Derived Functions
Calculation of f(x+h) by Horner's process
/ (x) changesits value gradually
If f(a) and/ (b)are of contrary signs,f(x)
a
equations.
and solution of
Kule
449
symmetricalfunctions
Examples XXXV. a.
Imaginary and surd
Formation
447
XXXV.
Every equationof
of
446
of elimination
CHAPTER
cases
445
....
examples
Examples XXXIV.
Easy
444
of elimination
of the roots
468
.
470
471
of
equations
roots of sign opposite
to
with roots
of those
multiples
those of
of
f{x)=0
f(x)
"
"
"
471
472
CONTENTS.
XX11
PAGE
Equation
with
those
of
reciprocals
roots
of
/ (x)
472
.
Discussion
of
reciprocal
equations
473
....
with
Equation
roots
with
Equation
of
squares
of
f(x)
475
exceeding
roots
those
by
those
of
f (x)
475
Bemoval
of
assigned
an
term
476
.
Equation
with
given
roots
functions
of
those
of
477
f{x)-.
XXXV.
Examples
478
.
Cubic
Cardan's
equations.
Solution
480
.
Discussion
of
the
solution
481
.
Solution
by
Trigonometry
in
the
irreducible
482
case
.
Biquadratic
Ferrari's
Equations.
Solution
483
.
Descartes'
Solution
484
.
Undetermined
multipliers
486
.
cubic
Discriminating
roots
all
real
486
.
Solution
of
three
simultaneous
equations
a+\
Examples
Miscellaneous
Answers
XXXV.
e.
Examples
=1,
+
b
487
"c.
.
488
490
525
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
CHAPTER
I.
RATIO.
bears
to
other.
what
the
relation
kind,
same
multiple, part,
B
the
find
the
which
quantity
one
comparison
parts,
or
order
to
of the
terms
same
second
compare
unit.
being
quantity
one
the
the
part
be
may
made
is
by
of
the
The
is
of
quantities they
ratio
quantities
first
B,
adopt
to
we
is
term
of "2
this
be
must
divide
the
by
measured
two
the
The
consequent.
it convenient
Thus
B.
ratio.
term
or
find
fraction
notation.
expressed
in
15s. is measured
to
2x20
"
of
terms
multiple
ratio
written
usually
the
usually
shall
In
the
what
the
we
is
antecedent,
; hence
and
to
called
are
To
2.
B
of A
ratio
and
called
-^
is
"
The
by
of the
another
considering
Ratio
Definition.
1.
....
traction
the
by
and
another,
Since
3.
ratio
Note.
or
"
"
the
expresses
therefore
the
by
every
laws
is
of
that
times
of
number
ratio
abstract
an
one
quantity
tains
con-
quantity.
fractions,
ma
b=mJ'
it follows
that
and
is, the
the
H.
that
the
value
consequent
H.
A.
ratio
of
are
ratio
is
remains
multiplied or
equal
unaltered
divided
ratio
the
to
by
if the
the
same
ma
mb
antecedent
quantity.
1
HIGHER
Two
4.
ratios may
more
or
fractions
equivalent
and
xt
x-
ratios.
two
are
y
J
Thus
denominator.
common
comparedby reducingtheir
be
JNow
aV
and
by
ratio of two
The
5.
b is
fractions
be
can
Ch
integers. Thus
of two
ratio
the
hence
="
by3
the ratio
than
bx.
less than
expressedas
ratio
"
"
x
"
suppose
bx
ratio
the
to
ALGEBRA.
by the
is measured
"
fraction
"
or
="
is therefore
and
ratio
the
equivalentto
be
d
ad
be.
If
6.
both, of
either,or
then
quantity,
their ratio.
measure
expressed
by
J'2:
ratio be
which
surd
will
exactly
be
exactly
1 cannot
integers.
two
any
be found
ratio
the
Thus
of
terms
can
integers
two
no
the
If the
7.
incommensurable.
find
cannot
we
J5
V
Thus
2-236068...
=
so
4
"
"
and
mm("
closer
Definition.
Ratios
fractions which
the antecedents for
the
for
new
"
-jooOOOO;
By carryingthe
decimals
Find
the ratio
2a
and
a
further,
together
compounded by multiplying
denote them ; or by multiplying
together
and the consequents
new
antecedent,
are
consequent.
Example.
1000000
be arrived at.
approximation
may
8.
559018
559017
J5
"A1I,
-559017...
-.
,
and , therefore
two
compounded
:
Sb, Q"ab
5c2,c
: a
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
importanttheorem
proofof the following
of procedure.
method
The
the
//
will illustrate
'
where
/pan
(
these
each of
J
ratios
"
qcn
r-
re11 +
are
rtn
ace
7-
",
b
then
~""
"
j
"
"
"
"
"
dk,
')
=fk,...;
whence
bk, c
"
)
+
ivhatever.
quantities
any
Ijet
j-
\pbn + qdn +
p, q, r, n
.\n
rf"k",...
;
'''
'
k";
.\n
'pa"+ qc"+ re" +
+ qd"+ ?'/"
+ .../
2)b"
c
=
-,=
cases
particular
or
they may be
For
instance,
_c
b-~d'f-'"
each of these ratios
b+d
a
result of such
should
each
sum
+f+
that
frequentutility
be
noticed
When
(I
1.
If
C
=
series
""
=-
shew
azb + 2c2e
that
Sae2/
ace
"-"-"-X;.
Let
Let
then
6_rf_^._A,,
bk, c
valent
followingverbal equiare
equal,
offractions
Example
the
dk, e =fk
divided
by the
RATIO.
aa6+2c"g-3qgy
k4 + 2tl-f Bbf3
'*
+2d?fk* 3bf3k3
fc4+ 2r/-/ 36/8
-
""
...
ace
=
bdf'
Example
If
2.
*2 + a2
that
prove
"2
y2+
32 + c2
y + b
#+a
it
Let
+ ?/+
a;
+ "+c
z
=
A;,
so
that
ch ;
aW+a*
sa + a3
"
then
a:
x*+a*
ya+y
?/+ "
"
ah +
(k* +
L_
l)a
'
;
"
Jc+1
ga+e"_(ifea+l)o("2+ l)"
"
+ l)c
(fc2
'
ar
/c+ 1
" + 1
Jfc2+ l)(a+
" + 1
c)
6 +
fc+1
Jfc8(a+6+c)8+(a+6+c)a
"(a +
"+
+ kb
(lea
(ka+
kb
c)+
+ 6+
he)%+ (a+
+ kc)+a +
(x+y+z)*+(a+
b+
b+
c)2
b+
cf
x+y+z+a+b+c
13.
an
is
in x, y,
homogeneous
to x, y,
11
Put
"
an
a,
75
"
Let
a,
j3,y
three
be
quantities
portiona
pro-
respectively.
z
so
that
ak, y
z
/3k,
yk ;
y
+ n^y'k4 0,
+ ma(32yk*
Ia3f3k4
then
that
z.
is,
+ nj32y20
+ ma/32y
7a3/?
one,
original
respectively.
form
y,
the
as
but
with
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
If y*
1
."
nominators
r-nbe unequalfractions,
of which
,....
of the
all
are
sign,then
same
a,
a8 + a3+
...
bl+b2+b3+
Supposethat
it
denote
and
least fraction,
the fraction
an
+bn
"'"
the greatestand
magnitudebetween
liesin
the de-
important.
y~
is
theorem
following
The
14.
least of them.
positive.Let
are
"=* be
the
k ; then
by
/c i
"
.'.a
ko
"
'
"
"
y-1" k
kb
a"
.-.
'
bl
a
k;
2"
.-.
a2
"
kb2;
and
.*.
on;
so
by addition,
a
,+"2
al + a2 + a3+
b.+b9
we
Similarly
au
al
'
that
a2 + a3
6.+*.+*" +
where
In
like
denominators
15.
the
manner
The
any
an
the
an
at
+K"
givenfractions.
theorem
proved when
be
may
of
readyapplication
involved
generalprinciple
of
all branches
mathematics,
the
great value in
freedom in
it with some
be able to use
that may arise,
without necessarily
introducing
student should
case
particular
auxiliary
symbol.
Example 1.
c-a
y +
+ b +
prove that
"
b +
V-
X"
If
all the
negative.
are
in Art. 12 is of such
that
ar
b
r
prove
may
+b
b.+
+K)k'"
+an"(bl+b,+ K+
"3 +
a-b
*"+*)+?
b-c
(*+*)+* (*+V)
2(ax + by + cz)
RATIO.
t
Each
"
"f numerators
sum
ie
fi
actions
,i
ofe the
given
"
__
of denominators
sum
+ y +
+ b +
_
'
"
Again,
if
we
multiply both
givenfractions by
y + z,
+ x,
z)
\{lj
+
?("+ *"
(z+ x) (c+ a-b)
three
'(* + *)
-
(y+z) +
(x+ y)(a+b-e)
of denominators
sum
y
2ax +
(2).
(1)and (2),
+ y +
Example
_x
+ b + c~
If
2.
l(mb
m(nc + la-mb)
nc-la)
I
prove that
x(by
cz-ax)
I
have
mb
nc
la
"
nc
mb
'
nc)
(cz+ ax-by)
(la+
We
the
of numerators
sum
from
of
__.
(y z)(b+ c-a)
.'.
denominator
respectively,
each fractions
and
numerator
+ y
''
z(ax+ by -cz)
+ la-mb
la + mb
"
nc
-+n
m
=
ny +
'"2/a"
two
similar
_lz +
mz
expressions
;
ly
mx
nx
_
Multiplythe
y, and
the third
by
below
and
by
then
nxy
Jyz+ nxy
mxz
mxz
lyz
by
ax
cz
_2lyz
=
by +
two
I
x
(by+
cz
cz-
ax
similar
expressions
;
n
-ax)
(cz+ ax-by)
(ax+ by-cz)'
by
8
16.
If
equationscontainingthree
such as
first degree,
have
we
in
quantities
we
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
the
two
alx
a2x
solve these
cannot
unknown
(1),
bly+ clz=Q
b2y+ c2z 0
(2),
completely
; but by writingthem
in the
form
II
X
we
can,
and
by regarding
and
unknowns,
blc2 b2ci
cxa2
c2al
__
"
"
'
afi2 a2bl
symmetrically,
%
more
"
'
-a2bl
afi2
'
bxc2 b2cx
cla2
It thus appears
representedby
write
down
Write
that when
(1)and
the ratios
equationsby
the
down
those of y; and
in the
obtain
or,
solve
ordinaryway
the
as
we
(2)
we
:z
rule
following
c2a,
afi2 a_px
of
equations
alwaysby the above
have
may
in terms
,(3).
two
the
type
formula
are
of Cross Multiplication,
RATIO.
Example
the ratios of
Find
1.
7x=4y
have
By transposition
we
Ay
12x +
the
"Write down
obtain
equations
0,
0.
-3
12
-4
11,
100
x,
y,
a1a;+
+
a^
(-4),
-3
Eliminate
12
y
-*-
x
-
11
is,
^75~"125'
,.
125;
-75,
x
"'*
2.
Uy.
8-2=
-8
100,
Example
12x +
(-8)xl2-(-3)x7,
or
that
products
the
(-4)x(-3)-llx(-8),
x,
the
thus
coeilicients,
11
we
3z
lly-Sz
-4
whence
from
: z
Qzt
7x
the equations
from
^y
(1),
+ c12
^1?/
(2),
c^^O
(3).
Ogaj+fegy+c^^O
From
multiplication,
by cross
(2)and (3),
j*
*__
"
'
k"C3 Vs
C2"i
"
"263 llih
C3"2
+ ('i("A
+ "i(^'"3 c3aa)
63ca)
3.
A-)
"-
givenequations.
by +
ax
x+
cz
y+
From
"
of the
Example
(1)and (2),by
x
(1),
(2),
(b c) (c-a)(a-b)
"
z
"
a-b
c-a
(3).
^"
b-c
x
multiplication,
cross
.-.
(b- c),y
(c a),z
"
k, suppose
k(a- b).
"
in (3),
Substituting
k
{bc(b-c)+
ca
a)+
(c
ab
(a
.-.
^ln'nce
-b, y
"
a-r,
fcss-lj
z
a.
10
HIGHER
If in Art. 16
17.
and
ALGEBRA.
put z
we
1, equations
(1)and (2)become
axx
bxy+
ct
h2y+
c2
0,
"
"
(3)becomes
x
y
'
bxc2 b2cl
cxaa
alb2-a0bl
Hence
any
in the
two
simultaneous
first
degreemay
aj"% a2b]
c2ai
afi2-a2bl
equationsinvolvingtwo
be solved by the rule of
knowns
uncross
multiplication.
Example.
Solve
-1
5x-3y
By transposition,
5x
3y
2y
+
1
0;
x
*'"
10 + 3
1 + 60
59
38
x
is'
lS'
EXAMPLES.
1.
Find
the ratio
I.
compounded of
(1)
the ratio 2a
(2)
the
36,and
the
ratio
subduplicate
ratio
duplicate
of 64
2.
If #+7
3.
exceeds
4.
to make
What
it
(#+ 14)in
number
equalto 1
5.
If x
6.
If 15
y=3
must
of
-j-
the
M--
and
to each
of 5
12
so
4,find the
=
ab.
:
56.
ratio of
the ratio of
2by.
x.
of the ratio 5
term
7x-4y
8, find
3 \
in the ratio of 7
find
(2a-2y2) *7xy,
-
ratio
duplicate
be added
of 9b2
/6a?
2a
ratio
(3) the duplicate
36 + 2
whence
12.
0,
2y -12
0, x
3x+y.
y.
37
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
12
If
18.
bz,y
cy +
j"*
that
Given
19.
a(y
\-bl i
""
\"cL
+ ab + 2abc
ca
l.
followingequations:
the
+ 7z
3x-4y
2x-y-2z
0,
0,
21.
x+y=
3x-2y+17z
x* +
to?-f+"=l8.
7a*
.--*
If
that
"
Jb+Jo
c)(a
the
ax
26.
x
6.
=-
by+
+
cz
abz
0,
0,
0.
+ "2y+ 6'22==0,
+ C2=a2#
a.-"+"y
0.
+ y + z + (b-c)(c-a) (a-b)
=
that
"
ax
"
7"
{I-be)
ky+gz
s2
?/2
*
X2
prove
If
If
0,
xyz + abc
28.
(c a) (b \Jac)
V be)
bcx + cay
prove
1
0,
equations:
25.
27.
?==-
(a-b)(c-\/ab) (b
Solve
l67.
'
"/c+V"
"
Ja+Jb
+ 2zs
2y2+ oz2
3y2-I5z2
0,
*""",
+-^L^
+
3f
z,
=
5.0-4^ + 73
shew
3x2
23.
tyz+ 3sa?=4an/,
22.
24.
"
bc +
20.
a1
prove that
Solve
+ ay,
z2
II
that
shew
z=bx
az+cx}
b(l-ca)
0, kx
"
c(l-ab)
cz
0,
that
x2
bc-f2
y2
ca-g2
(2) (be-f2){ea
z2
ab-h2
CHAPTER
II.
PROPORTION,
When
Definition.
18.
them
quantities composing
ft
if
then
saying
that
is to
b, c,
a,
terms
and
extremes
Let
a,
Then
as
is to
b,
c, d
definition
by
any
be
d ;
d.
This
b and
extremes,
three
the
Thus
proportion
when
b and
third,
d,
as
are
the
the
means.
of
product
the
b,
d
be.
of
any
c, d
are
means
third
in continued
a
bed
vice
to
to
c,
proportion
are
then
the
"
are
the
the
versa.
said
to
second,
fourth
proportion
c
given,
given,
are
quantities, a, b, c, d, such
d being the
proportionals ; a and
or
is
first
the
four
Quantities
the
is written
proportion
extremes,
if a,
are
Definition.
20.
expressed by
"
terms
there
a,
is
"
=.
"
found.
Conversely, if
ad
be, then
c,
if
may
the
the
the
ad
Hence
b,
Thus
proportionals.
the
be
whence
fourth
: :
"
called
are
and
d,
a,
four
proportionals.
in proportion,
If four quantities are
is equal to the product of the means.
19.
to
be
to
proportionals.
are
or
that
said
are
the
equal,
are
c
=
The
ratios
two
when
be
as
and
in
the
so
continued
second
on.
is
Thus
14
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
quantities
a, b,c
If three
.-.
In this
c
\ and
then
proportion,
in continued
are
"
ac
: c
b2.
[Art.18.]
proportionalbetween
b is said to be a mean
is said to be a third proportionalto a and b.
case
c
If
21.
the firstis
are
proportionals
quantities
three
to
of the first
ratio
third in the duplicate
be
quantities
and
the
to
tJiesecond.
then
b,c:
a.
-.
be
Now
cue
X6 =F,;
b
that
is,
It will be
of
: c
a2
b2.
is
proposition
that this
seen
a2
a
=
the
22.
d and
"
.bor
c
=
'f=g
and
and
then
23.
other
The
them
If four
known
are
often
Geometry.
ae
bf= eg
dh.
dhy
dh.
d,
: x
v/,
: x
y-
as
ex
in Geometry.
cequali
quantities
a, b, c,
be deduced
form
proportion,
many
of fractions.
by the properties
these operations
and
of
are
some
very useful,
borrowed
from
quoted by the annexed names
proportions
may
results of
will
eg
bf= eg
h, then
bf
If
definition
v.
ae
"'*
Cor.
the
ae
as
""=!-:
or
same
PROPORTION.
If
(1)
For
d, then b
therefore 1
-f- =-
d'
b
that
: a
If
For acZ
d,
: a
then
be ; therefore
"
: c
: c.
is,
a
or
If
(3)
lor
[Alternando
: c
-,
"
If
For
=-
-,
therefore
"
is,
a
(5)
If
"
-7
df,then
"
"
[Componeudo.'
d.
c-
d.
[Divideudo.]
+6
-="
r
a
d.
bc-d
"
by (3)
For
"7"
or
c +
a-b
"
that
c +
d, then
="
(4)
c +
=
7"
a +
is
or
d.
o
a
that
+ 1
s-
-,
d, tlien
therefore
-, :
7-
"
d.
b
=
.'.
"
a
,
and
"!
that
d'
or
[Invertendo
: c.
-r- -_
is
(2)
15
: a
-j-
"
d.
b=c+d:c"
d.
bc"d
/ * \
by (4)
,
"
by
division,
J
This
"
c +
d
"
c-d'
a-b
a
or
^-j
-j
a-b
c +
c-d.
is usuallyquotedas Componeiuh a) id
proposition
JJivi-
dendo.
Several other proportions
may
be
provedin
similar way.
16
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
the algebraical
results of the precedingarticle are
fifth
in
the
book
of Euclid,
of the propositions
of some
equivalents
himself familiar with them
and the student is advised to make
The
24.
follows
For
form.
in their verbal
example,dividendo
may
be
quoted as
the excess
of the firstabove
four proportionals,
the second is to the second, as the excess
of the third above the
fourthis to the fourth.
there
When
definition
algebraical
the
compare
that givenin Euclid.
shall
We
25.
are
with
now
Euclid's definition is
as
follows
of proportion
if any equiwhen
said to be proportionals
multipl
first
and third,and also any
whatever be taken of the
second
and
of
the
wJiatever
fourth,the multipleof
equimultiples
are
quantities
Four
the third is
multipleof the
first is greaterthan,equal
less than
greaterthan,equalto,or
of the
the multiple
as
fourth,according
the
of the second.
to, or less than the multiple
In
quantitiesa, b,
Four
accordingas
I.
definition may
symbolsthe
algebraical
p"a
qb,p
the
deduce
To
and
c, d
in
are
be thus stated
proportionwhen
p"c
qd
tcJudever.
beingany positive
integers
definition
geometrical
proportionfrom
of
definition.
the algebraical
a
Since
-z
both
by multiplying
pa
qb
sides
by
we
obtain
2)C
qd
'
of fractions,
hence, from the properties
pc
which
proves
the
To
deduce
II.
the
qd accordingas
pa
qb,
proposition.
the
definition
algebraical
of
from
proportion
definition.
geometrical
Given
that pc
qd accordingas
a
b=~d'
pa
qb,to
prove
PROPORTION.
If
is not
-j-
Supposeg
"
equalto
them, q
and
(1)
(2)
greater.
fraction 2
some
"
0).
"
(2"
pa"qb;
2)c"qd\
Therefore
the
find
the
beingpositive
integers.
"p
from
be
must
possibleto
and
Hence
From
them
lies between
which
it will be
; then
-^
of
one
17
and
hypothesis.
unequal;that
not
are
is
which proves
-"
proposition.
26.
of measurement.
well
as
to commensurable
as
commens
to inapplicable
quantities
; whereas
mensurable
definition,
strictly
speaking,
appliesonlyto comalgebraical
it
that
is
the
since
assumes
a
same
tacitly
quantities,
determinate multiple,
part,or parts,of b that c is of d. But the
will
quantities
proofswhich have been givenfor commensurable
the
since
incommensurables,
stillbe true
mensurables
for
article.
next
27.
into
Suppose that
positive
integer.Also
less than
n+
"
is,
divide
incommensurable;
-="
-j-
differs from
H. H. A.
(n+1)
-^
and
"
m/3,where
in
"
by
more
/^
and
;
m
And
"
since
is a
than
imp
mp
lies between
"
that b
suppose
1 times;
that
are
f3is contained
nB
i,
then
so
times and
that
and
we
can
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
18
B
choose
(ourunit
of
great
we
small
as
measurement)
as
m
please,
we
can
1
be
as
made
as
and
please,
we
of
please. Hence
and
integersn
two
that
will express
as
and
be found
can
be made
can
"
small
as
ratio
whose
requireddegreeof accuracy.
b to any
The
Example
1.
If
6mb + Snc +
(2ma +
9wtZ)
(2ma Gmb
(2ma 6mb +
proportionals.
prove
that
a,b, c,
2ma
are
Snc +
9nd)
Snc
(2mm +
9/uZ)
2ma
Qmb
Snc
Gmi
9nd
2ma
.*.
componendo
and
bmb
+ Snc
\)nd
ma
6mb
Snc + 9nd
dividendo,
2
(2ma + Snc)
{2ma
(Smb
Sue)
'
2~{Gmb
+ 9nd)
2ma
Alternando,
Gmb + (.)nd
Snc
="
n-
"
"
2ma-Snc
Again,componendo
,.
dividendo,
and
\2mb
;
lQnd
One
whence
-,
c
a
or
2.
"
d.
Jx+l + Jx^l
Jx + l- Jx-1
We
"
bmb-vna
Ama
Example
9m/)
4a; -1
_
Jx+l
4a;+ 1
_
.r
l_16a;2+
*'"
8a;+l
"
16a;2-24a; + 9
2x
_
32a;
16a;2-8a; + 5
"X~
whence
16a;2
'
16a;- 4
-
16a;2 8a;+ 5
4a;=
5
"
"
-.
'
Snc
dnd),
20
21, the
of
sum
Two
in the
the
the
10, find
that
the
the
done
work
the
x.
of
sum
of
sum
is to
days
of 9
ratio
19, and
means
the
ratio
gallons
water,
again filled
the quantity
of
with
be
the
is
extremes
of
squares
filled with
two
kinds
7, and
the
cask
one
the
If the
in
it
all four
B
to
full
of
mixture
in the
form
are
of
ratio
mixture
of the
other
wine; it is then
drawn, and the
of wine
in the
now
much
9, how
to
sherry, mixed
of
gallons
quantity
16
as
each
and
cask
of
gallons
water
from
kind
from
water.
in
taken
of
drawn
nine
of
gallons
are
then
is
were
must
of 2
consist
Nine
21.
and
quantity
shall
filled with
in
What
5.
to
in
men
proportionals such
casks
cask
which
be
"
in the
days
is 442.
20.
cask
by
done
four
Find
numbers
in
men
19.
work
If the
18.
by
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
does
cask
the
cask
hold?
If
22.
that
great
In
and
In
more
of
compare
25.
Brass
containing
of
per
times
three
as
two.
the
cent., compare
between
cent,
per
and
cent,
per
and
town
of
zinc,
80
brass
and
10
if b
the
If
consumption
per
cent,
the
aggregate
per
cent,
and
is
an
the
tions
popula-
country
tea
and
consumed
and
per
would
consumed
is five times
b per
would
cent,
be
cent,
be
more
3c
per
the
more
1c
per
coffee
cent,
b.
of
alloy
copper,
is found
bronze
:
find
the
and
copper
of
cent,
of tin
more
tea
more
of
tea
amount
amount
aggregate
per
and
the
country
coffee.
but
consumed,
mass
if the
consumed,
were
other
the
shew
proportion,
least
is at
15*9
population increased
increased
town
18
population
certain
consumption
more
between
continued
last
1871.
24.
were
in
are
first and
the
the
population
in
cent,
between
England
1881;
country
coffee
positive quantities
difference
the
as
23.
1871
four
difference
the
4
to
ratio
of
zinc
; bronze
is
of
tin.
zinc, and
contain
74
of copper
to
16
an
alloy
fused
of copper,
16
per cent,
zinc in the composition
of brass.
26.
they
they
could
with
the
can
crew
row
row
stream
can
the
it in
row
same
certain
down
course
still water
how
course
up
stream
long
would
in
stream
in
84
minutes
they
take
minutes;
less
to
row
than
down
III.
CHAPTER
VARIATION.
as
another
such
One
Definition.
29.
B,
two
if B
that
manner
the
when
directly
other
the
in
same
ratio.
as
instance
For
miles
in
60
80
miles
in
120
often
omitted,
the
distance
the
time.
The
30.
constant
values
symbol
"A
and
that
suppose
of A and
Inen,
by
and
is said
to
vary
that
/"
denote
to
minutes,
each
the
as
velocity
the
or
is
distance
variation
is
tlien A
equal
to
b
=
"
"=*
y^=
=-
so
"
"
"
"3
-r
and
so
on,
being equal
each
to
"
"
="
corresponding
7u,
as
that
value
where
ot
.'. A=mB.
is
always
is constant.
the
some
corresponding
r.
time.
varies
of A
value
any
,.j-
63
62
case
uniform
multiplied by
","
-=
is,
the
time,
30
in
ratio
a,
deimition,
6,
the
the
in
distance
same
when
travels
rate
B.
/. s-i
Hence
that
miles
the
the
uniform
B."
",
TT
20
on;
used
a
mi
so
in
as
B,
as
at
travel
will
is
oc
varies
If A. varies
quantity.
31.
For
it
diminished
or
is read
on
moving
expressed by saying
is ptroportional to
is
This
train
minutes,
minutes,
increased
being
if
40
directlyis
word
The
Note.
B.
same
22
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
of A
values
pairof corresponding
If any
the constant
can
known,
are
if A
instance,
For
determined.
be
and
3 when
^=12,
have
we
and
do
4
varies
if A
Thus
The
hours, 2
-^
where
is constant.
hours,12
would
men
do the
If 6
work
same
men
in
vice-versa.
Example 1. The
3, find
in 24
the number
when
in 8
men
and
decreased;
x=8
as
B,
inversely
is an
following
certain work
when
quantityA
varies directly
as
Z?,when
another
as
\B.
One
Definition.
32.
12;
=m
inverselyas the
square
of y ; if
By supposition
"/x=
"
where
is constant.
if
Tit
Puttingx
8, y
have
3, we
2=n"
.*.
18,
?;t =
18
v
*jx
and
"
hence, by puttingy
^,
obtain
we
512.
a; =
Example 2.
the cube
measured
P2
in
D3,
P*=kD3,
or
where
k is
some
constant.
365
365
4x4x4
k
whence
365
4
.
"
rp2
4
"
_
~
365
'
in millions
VARIATION.
For
23
pa^i^ili
66
3
Venus,
66
b.)
whence
Hence
number
of
varies
the
principal,
on
a/*7233,
approximately,
264
-85
224-4.
is
7/*A
35.
is said to vary
varies
varies
-^
their
A
jointly as
product.
mBC.
varies
For
stance,
in-
jointlyas
as
directly
the
and
in-
when
as
as
is constant,and
is constant,then tvill A
to vary
C, when
of
sum
and
money
the rate per cent.
time,and
as
C, when
versely
nearly224" days.
quantityis said
as
directly
3 -i. Definition.
when
as
jointly
interest
the
365
it varies
others,when
Thus
264
One
Definition.
:":
33.
/264
4x66
6G ;
BC
as
vary
varies
ivhen both B
as
and
C
C
vary.
variation
The
of A
dependspartlyon
Suppose these
that of C.
in its turn
be certain simultaneous
each
a,
b,c
while
C be constant
Let
values of
B
changesto
change and
undergoa partial
a\
will
A, B, C.
assume
some
A must
intermediate value
where
(1)
"=-
2.
Let B
changesto
intermediate
From
"
'
that
is,
"
=-
BC,
be
or
b ; then
A varies
as
BC.
24
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
are
following
The
36.
provedin
amount
done
of work
V=mr2h,
where
of
the base
is constant.
770
By supposition,
"
72 x 15
22
whence
.*.
V=
by substituting
132, r
S, we
"
get
22
132=-
xOxft;
"
7i= 14 ;
whence
and
therefore the
37.
case
two
The
heightis
14 feet.
of
proposition
be extended
easily
dependsupon that of more
Art. 35
can
the variation of A
variables.
Further, the variations
in which
inverse.
to the
than
be either direct or
may
because of its frequent
is interesting
currence
ocThe principle
For example, in the theory of
in PhysicalScience.
of a gas
gases it is found by experimentthat the pressure (p)
varies as the "absolute
temperature"(t)when its volume (v)is
the volume
as
constant, and that the pressure varies inversely
when
the
temperature is
2?
oc
; that is
constant
t, when
is constant
25
VARIATION.
and
cc
t is constant.
when
results
these
From
p
and
by
actual
square
number
with 18
consumed
or
pv
of
duration
k is constant
kt,where
t and
are
railway journey
to be the- case.
is found
experimentthis
The
Example.
distance
cc
both
the formula
have
should
variable,we
expect that,when
should
we
varies
directlyas
the
much
coal will be
of coal is required; how
16
with
in
28
21
miles
minutes
of
carriages?
journey
carriages 10
in
cwt.
have
oc
and
*!l
oc
whence
or
the
Substituting
"
values
"
7-
oc
"
k is constant.
where
have
given,we
1
18
25
2~
that
is,
jm
=
25x36"
v/lO cd
.
Hence
t=
now
Substituting
question, we
the values
"
0^
2o
36
of t, c, d
/
s/q="
whence
15x28
q
the
quantityof
coal is
'
25x36^2
n/10x16x21
Hence
given in the
710x16x21.
60"
is,
Jq
have
28
a
that""
^"
"
-=-
6|cwt.
,-
=5^10,
6|.
second
part of
the
26
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
EXAMPLES.
varies
1.
If
2.
If P
3.
If the square
y, and
as
III.
when
#=8
as
Q, and
inversely
varies
of
varies
#=-y-
15,find
when
P=7
the cube
as
when
10.
3, find P when
of y, and
when
x"3
varies
4.
find 0 when
and
as
54 and
If .4 varies
each vary as C.
5.
as
i?
4,
if
jointly;
2 when
and
10
C="
3.
C, and
i? varies
as
will
C
6.
If J. varies
7.
BC,
as
as
inversely
-7
varies
Q and
directlyas
also P
as
R\
inversely
when
=
~
and
If
8.
a'
="
find
varies
If y varies as the
directly x and the other
3 ; find the
31 when x
y
as
If 3/ is equal to the
and the other
as x directly,
3 ; find y in terms of x.
10.
11.
the cube
and
jR=\/"5.
x2-y\
as
of which
of two quantities,
sum
if y
6 when
as x ; and
inversely
between
and
x
equation
y.
=
of two
sum
as
x2
if y
x=4, and
of which
quantitiesone
and
inversely;
varies
one
19 when
varies
x=2,
Given
that
+ y
varies
as
and
that
"
varies
as
"
or
C=g
12.
and
x2+y2 varies
that
y, prove
as
9.
P=a/48
(^when
and
z,
providedthat
=2
when
=3
and
\.
If J. varies
13.
varies
as
inversely A,
as
while
B and C jointly,
shew that A varies as D.
varies
as
Z"2,and
When
a
body falls from rest its distance from the starting
: if a body falls
pointvaries as the square of the time it has been falling
through 402^ feet in 5 seconds, how far does it fall in 10 seconds ?
Also how far does it fall in the 10th second?
15.
IV.
CHAPTER
PROGRESSION.
ARITHMETICAL
Progression
when
Progression
15,
8, 2, -4,
-10,
the
d,
If
notice
common
examine
we
in
that
number
Thus
ference.
dif-
common
Arithmetical
an
by subtracting
In
is 4 ; in
the
first
second
the
of
term
any
of
the
it is
above
"
6 ; in
term
the
the
and, generally,
n
?ith term,
40.
the
we
have
To
find
3d,
the
coefficient
of
hi
the seiies.
3rd term
is
2d;
6th term
is
5d
term
is
I9d',
term
is
(p
of
number
the
2d,
term
pth
the
be
d,
any
of
series
the
20th
If
it is d.
third
the
forms
it.
follows
difference
a,
than
by
Arithmetical
3d,
is found
which
that
from
39.
we
2d,
difference
the
examples
series
following
3, 7, 11,
common
series
or
in
be
to
decrease
a,
The
the
said
are
increase
they
of
each
Thus
the
Quantities
Definition.
38.
terms,
a
of
sum
(n
"
is
always
less
by
one
\)d.
"
and
if
I denote
the
last,
or
1) d.
number
of
terms
in
Arithmetical
Progression.
Let
the
number
denote
of
the
terms.
first
term,
Also
let
the
difference, and
common
I denote
the
last
term,
and
n
s
PROGRESSION.
ARITHMETICAL
the
; then
sum
required
8
a+(a
I+
2s
"'"
order,
(a + 2d)+ (a + d) +
these
Adding together
reverse
(I d)+ (I 2d)+
-
(I 2d)+ (l-d)+ l;
...
series in the
and, by writingthe
s
29
...
a.
series,
two
to
...
terms
(a+ I),
^(a+ l)
(1);
(n-l)d
(2),
-^{2a(n-l)d\
(3).
l~a
and
.-.
41.
In
(2),(3);
in each
unknown
the
of these
three
useful
of the
one
any
quantitywhen
instance,in (1)if we
have
we
the three
formula;
(1),
letters may
denote
known.
For
are
others
the
the
1.
common
substitute
sum
\2
"
16
to 17 terms.
*li|
y (11+20)
17x31
~2
=
2. The
find the number
Example
400
If
be the number
263".
first term
of
of terms, and
of
terms, then
from
(1)
"
400
whence
(5+ 4r");
10.
the
sum
30
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
If d be the
difference
common
45=
whence
If
42.
given,the
series
two
givethe
first term
and
the
Progressionbe
Arithmetical
an
data
will
difference.
common
of
4th terms
54th and
The
be
can
simultaneous
furnish
Example.
of
terms
two
any
2f
5 + 15d;
A. P.
an
are
64 ; find the
61 and
23rd term.
If
d the
61
64
and
difference,
common
4th term
the
53d ;
+ 3d ;
whence
d=
obtain
we
22d
-jr,
Hh.
16".
three
When
Definition.
middle
one
Progression the
43.
are
quantities
in Arithmetical
mean
of
is the arithmetic
To
44.
Let
findthe
and
since a,
Then
arithmetic
beingequalto
each
the
d.
givenquantities.
the arithmetic
mean.
have
a,
"
difference ;
a
common
whence
must
we
d and
"
betiveen two
mean
in A. P.
are
quantities
; A
b be the two
A, b
between
mean
"
2
Between
45.
it
given quantities
two
that
of terms
such
any number
formed shall be in A. P. ; and by an
Art. 43, the terms thus inserted are
insert
Example.
Insert 20 arithmetic
to
always possible
is
whole
the
of the definition in
extension
means
4 and
series of 22 terms
Let d be the
common
whence
and the
difference ;
67
then
d
requiredmeans
means.
67.
number
of terms will be 22 ; so that we have
in A.P., of which 4 is the first and 67 the last.
series thus
are
7, 10, 13,
4 + 21d ;
61, 64, 67
58, 71, 64.
ARITHMETICAL
givennumber
givenquantities.
two
insert
To
46.
Let
Includingthe
so
a
of
b be the
and
number
the
extremes
to find a series of
that we
and b is the last.
is the first,
whence
the
means
required
are
=-'
d, a,
"
'
"
_-
n+l
in A.P. is 27, and
the
difference ; then
common
+ d
are
+ 81
(9-rf)2
whence
sum
of
the three
27 ;
d, 9, $
d.
d="5;
the numbers
Example
w"' term
a)
"
+ d.
.-.
and
d the
number,
a-d
nib
"
"
The sum
of three numbers
is 293 ; find them.
Hence
whence
a)
(b
*
n+l
be the middle
1.
Example
their squares
Let
numbers
'
2
a
n+l
of terms
will be u + 2 ;
in A. P.,of which
are
"
means.
(n + 2)thterm
71+
the
of
number
2 terms
betiveen
means
difference ;
common
then
and
arithmetic
the
n
givenquantities,
have
Let d be the
31
PROGRESSION.
is 3n
are
Find
2.
-
4, 9, 14.
the
of the first p
sum
terms
of the
1.
obtain
we
respectively,
first term
.-.
2, last
term
Sum
to 20 terms.
2, 3|,4J,...
2.
Sum
to 17
49,44,39,...
3.
Sum-,
4
terms.
7
"
-,
,...
"
1.
"
1;
l).
3i"-l)=|(3p
sum=|(2
EXAMPLES.
=3p
to 19 terms.
IV.
a.
series whose
32
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
7
Sum
4.
to
If,...
3, -,
terms.
16 terms.
5.
Sum
to
3'75,35, 3-25,...
6.
Sum
to
-Tl, -7, -6J,...
7.
Sum
1-3,-3-1, -7-5,...to
8.
Sum
9.
Sum
10.
Sum
11.
Sum
2a
12.
-.-
to 50 terms.
3x/3,-75 "...
-j=
tt
10 terms.
12
Sum
24 terms.
-tt
36, 2a
6,4a
56, 3a
36,6a
76,
to 40 terms.
.
56,.
to
,,
a,
"
to 21 terms.
"
,...
13.
Insert 19 arithmetic
means
between
14.
Insert 17 arithmetic
means
between
15.
Insert 18 arithmetic
means
between
16.
Insert
17.
Find
as
the
arithmetic
sum
between
means
of
of 15 terms
The sum
is 5 ; find the first term.
19.
20.
The
sum
of
third term
of 17 terms.
9|.
"
3^ and
41".
"
36.17and
x2 and
1.
A. P. is 600, and
an
S.v.
A. P. is
29, the
the
in A. P. is
27,and
of three numbers
find
them.
is 408 ;
in A. P. is
22.
The
sum
23.
Find
the
sum
of 15 terms
24.
Find
the
sum
of 35 terms
25.
Find
the
sum
of p terms
26.
Find
the
sum
of
of the series
2a2
n
-
terms
1
6a2 -5
3
,
4a
155;
sum
ence
differ-
common
of three numbers
an
and
numbers.
find the
terms.
3a-6
+ 6
-"-
25 terms.
V5;-..to
is 30 ;
term
their
product is
sum
of their
nth term
is 4?i4- 1.
pihterm
nth term
is
is
^+
+
2.
b.
ARITHMETICAL
In
47.
to determine
values
the
of
"2a
have
we
(n-
the
s, a, d
are
given,
quadraticequation
l)d\
;
and integral
there is no difficult
positive
the result corresponding
to each.
In some
interpreting
cases
suitable interpretation
be
for
can
a
given
negativevalue of n.
both
when
33
Arithmetical Progression
when
an
in
PROGRESSION.
roots
Example.
taken that the
are
How
series -9,
-6, -3,...
be
must
be G6 ?
may
Here
{-18 + ("-l)3}=66;
that is,
n--ln-U
Q,
(n-ll)(n+4)=0;
or
?i=ll
.'.
If
we
sum
of the
take 11 terms
9,
the
of the
terms
many
sum
of which
6,
or
4.
have
we
series,
is 66.
If we beginat the last of these terms and count backwards four terms, the
is also 66; and thus, although the negativesolution does not directly
the question
answer
proposed,we are enabled to giveit an intelligible
meaning,
and we see that it answers
a questionclosely
connected with that to which
the positive
solution applies.
sum
48.
the
We
this interpretation
in the general
case
justify
can
following
way.
The
equationto
determine
dn2
Since in the
is
(2a-d)n-2s
beirin
we
difference must
this term
be denoted
at
("
|{2
and
we
shall shew
H. H.
A.
(1).
under
case
oppositesigns,let us
to
term of the series corresponding
if
in
1 )d ;
and
count
by
The
last
nl is
(nl
-
equationhave
backwards,
d, and
the
sum
of
the
common
yi.,terms
is
-!)(-"/)}
+ (",
",-!"/)
6-.
34
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
For
expression -? \ 2a
the
(2n{
n2
"
l)dl
"
d
+
^ 2an2 2nxn2d n2 (n2+ 1)
1
=
productof
the roots
When
49.
of terms
How
Example.
(2a d) n"
of this
.n2)\
0, and
"
n}n2
is
the
equation.
is fractional there
such
to
corresponds
is
exact
no
ber
num-
solution.
terms
many
2s
"
the value of
which
s,
n2 satisfies dn2
"
2a
l(4s-2s)
since
I 2nxn2d (da*
be taken
to
to 71 ?
amount
Here
that is,
5)i2
57u + 148
(n-4)(5n-37)
or
.*.
Thus
the number
is greater,while the
?i
is 4.
of terms
of 8 terms
sum
0,
0;
1%.
or
of 7 terms
sum
We
50.
Example
add
1.
ratio of 7?t+ l
"
Examples.
Miscellaneous
some
and
common
are
series be av
in the
dx and
d2 respectively.
We
"+127
|M^*
2a2 {n-l)d2
have
4?i +
Now
we
have
"
"
a2 +
tttt',
l0d2'
hence, by putting
n"21,
x
we
obtain
2^ + 20^
2a2+ 20d2
thus the
requiredratio is
Example
series whose
2.
If
148
"~
111
are
'
3.
the
1, 2, 3, 4,...and
are
Su S2,S"...S,,
first terms
sums
whose
of
common
terms
of arithmetic
differences are
36
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Sum
9.
series
the
If the
10.
find the
sum
-_
to
."
is
49, and
of
an
the
sum
are
a,
terms
A. P.
(q-i')a + (r-p)b+(p-q)c
that
The
12.
find the
p ;
of p
sum
ofp
sum
Divide
product
of
terms
is 289,
of 17 terms
integers in
is
of q terms
sum
fourth
product of
is
product
such
P., and
in A.
are
is to the
their
24, and
A. P. is
parts which
into four
20
the
A. P. is q, and
an
shew
b,c respectively,
0.
q terms.
of four
The
13.
sum
945 ; find them.
14.
terms.
...
terms.
pth,qth,rih
If the
11.
of 7 terms
sum
of
the second
that
and
the
third
in the ratio of 2 to 3.
The
15.
mtb
How
16.
make
If the
of
sum
Prove
19.
20.
If
21.
The
is
terms
:
the
is p ; find
qthterm
be
the
the
taken
to
3) for
number
24, of the
terms
even
22.
the
There
sum
of the
2m
in
as
as
1.
"
equal
even
pth term.
;
30, and
terms
of terms.
P. is
A.
an
1 is to 2n
"
in A. P. is
of terms
of nt find the
sets of numbers
two
1 than
nth term
of
the
sum
exceeds
of the odd
the
first
by
of terms.
of each
greater by
product
are
the
all values
of terms
sum
number
the ?tthterm.
3n2,find
A. P. is to the
number
odd
an
multipliedby
(pn
an
is to the
of
sum
A. P. is 2n +
an
of
terms
term
=
of
terms
of
that
middle
to the
is
of the
terms
many
If the sum
18.
shew
that
'in2to ?i2,
and
A. P. is q, and
an
306?
17.
10 1
of
term
pth
term.
set is 15.
the
each
The
common
difference
common
product
of
consisting
difference
of the
3 terms
in A. P.
of the
first set
second
of the second
set
as
set, and
the
7 to 8
find
the numbers.
23.
between
n
means
Find
x
and
the
relation
2y may
being inserted
between
be the
in each
same
x
as
and
the
case.
24.
If the sum
of an A. P. is the
that its sum
for p + q terms
is zero.
same
for p
as
for
terms, shew
CHAPTER
V.
GEOMETRICAL
Definition.
51.
Progression
Thus
when
each
they
of
PROGRESSION.
are
increase
decrease
or
be
to
by
forms
series
following
the
said
Quantities
in
Geometrical
factor.
constant
Geometrical
gression
Pro-
3, G, 12, 24,
The
factor
constant
found
by dividing
second
the
it is
"
ar2, ar3,
called
is also
above
; in
the
by that
examples
term
any
first of the
the
In
it.
ar,
27'
9'
3'
a,
-I
-1
the
third
the
series
it is
ratio, and
common
it is
immediately iwecedes
which
the
ratio
common
is 2 ; in
r.
If
52.
we
examine
a,
notice
we
tlian
that
the number
in
of
any
term,
we
53.
be
3rd term
is ar2 ;
the
6th term
is
the
20th term
the
pih
other
number
of
l
Definition.
the
two.
middle
When
one
is
always
less
by
one
term
ars;
ar19;
is
is a?^-1.
terms,
=
the series.
the
have
Progression
the
the
of
index
in
and, generally,
n
the
term
the term
Thus
If
ar,
and
if I denote
the
last, or
ar"~\
three
is called
quantities are
the
geometric
in
mean
Geometrical
between
n,h
38
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
To
Let
and
G, b
since a,
Then
the
b be
quantities
; G
two
in G.
are
the
a'
ratio ;
common
.-.
G2
G
whence
ab;
Jab.
givennumber
givenquantities.
To
54.
two
Let
In
insert
and
the
n
givenquantities,
series of
Let
be the
P.,of
in G.
2 terms
which
that
so
a
number
we
have
is the firstand
of
means.
to
find
b the last.
ratio ;
common
then
2 terms
between
of geometricmeans
b be the
geometricmean.
_G
G~
being equalto
the
P.,
b
each
givenquantities.
between two
mean
find the geometric
term
(n + 2)th
the
"r"+1;
"
~a'
i
"""""""
the
found
value
Hence
Example.
We
sixth.
Let
have
requiredmeans
in (1).
Insert 4
geometric means
common
160?'5;
1
and the
'
~32'
r=o'
means
are
between
ratio ;
tben 5
whence
arn,
a?-2,...
in G. P. of which
to find 6 terms
be tbe
of,
are
""
100
160
where
has
the
and 5.
and
is the first,
5 the
find
Progression.
To
55.
Let
the
=
multiplying
every
rs
ar2
+ car +
in
terms
n
ratio,
common
the
by
term
ar2
ar
.-.
arn~2
ar"~l ;
ar"~2
ar""1
ar*,
"
(r-l)s
arn
"
a(r"-l);
,..-5fe^a
r
denominator,
and
numerator
(2).
-r
Note.
Since ar'^1^
1,the formula
be written
(1)may
rl-a
S=7--T:
form
which
is sometimes
useful.
2
Example.
Sum
the series
-1,
to 7 terms.
-,
The
common
ratio
hence
by formula
(2)
(-23
the
(i).
.-?S=*3
of
have
we
r,
rs
s.
number
by subtraction,
Hence
for
Geometrical
required. Then
sum
the
of
number
of a
sum
be
terms, and
the
o!)
PROGRESSION.
GEOMETRICAL
sum
"
II
128
2315
2
3
403
2
*
2187]
128
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
40
111
Consider
56.
the
1,
series
r,
~3,
^-2,
2
The
to
sum
terms
"-
-H1
27
2
.2"
2"-i
From
taken
see
this
the
sum
that,by making
njr-^i
as
smaU
of terms
from 2.
the
sum
In the next
57.
sufficiently
large,
please. Thus
we
as
be made
can
article
Art.
From
we
55
we
to differ
by
have
is discussed.
-r
ar"
the smaller
therefore
n
we
proper
is the value
by making
"
then
fraction;
the
'
"
of
and
?"",
of
consequently
we
sufficiently
large,
terms
by
make
can
small
as
; and
the
of
sum
quantityas
please.
This
number
or
is
please
we
Suppose r
little as
as
we
the fraction
sufficient number
by takinga
generalcase
more
make
can
be
more
is
result
usuallystated
thus
the
sum
of
infinite
an
Geometrical Progression
is
of terms of a decreasing
the
briefly,
Example 1.
product is 216.
Denote
the numbers
Find
the numbers
are
"
a
sum
to
is
infinity
three numbers
by
6, 6r.
-,
r
a, ar;
1-r'
in G. P. whose
then
ar
sum
is
19, and
216 ; hence
whose
6, and
GEOMETRICAL
41
PROGRESSION.
6
+ 6 +
6r=19;
6-13r
.-.
6r2 =
2
3
whence
the cumbers
Thus
the
Let
of
sum
of their squares
sum
infinite number
an
the
'
is
and
the
of their squares
sum
is
Hence
-z
1 -r*
in G. P. is
ratio ; then
ci^
common
(l
terms
of terms
15, and
or
4, 6, 9.
are
The
Example 2.
0;
,"=15
1
-
"
the
sum
of the
(1),
a2
=
45
(2)-
(3),
5;
1_72
Dividing (2)by (1)
l +
and
from
(1)and (3)
whence
r=x
therefore
and
20
10
an,
Thus
+1
the
5.
...
is
series
o,
"
"
EXAMPLES.
V.
112
1.
Sum
to 7 terms.
-,-,-,...
O
6 terms.
2.
Sum
3.
Sum
l", 3,...to
^t,
4.
Sum
5.
Sum
to 7
16'2,5-4,1-8,...
6.
Sum
to p
1, 5, 25,...
7.
Sum
3, -4,
"
,...
8 terms.
terms.
terms.
to 2n terms.
8.
Sum
9.
Sum
to
1, N/3,3,...
8
1
-j-
v/2
12 terms.
'
,
-2,
-jr
s'2
,...
to 7 terms.
a.
42
HIGHER
11
ALGEBRA.
10.
Sum
11.
Insert 3
geometricmeans
between
12.
Insert 5
geometricmeans
between
3f and 40|.
13.
Insert 6
means
geometric
between
14 and
-~,
to ^ terms.
-j,.-
3,
series
following
Sum
the
14.
|,-1,
16.
18.
:
infinity
to
?,...
3, v/3,1,...
19.
7, N/42,6,...
of
of the first 6 terms
find
ratio.
the
common
;
fifth term
of
26.
sp the
sum
is
of three numbers
the
the second
is 24; find
term
ratio is 3 is
7,the
last term
in G. P. is
If
Sp denote
the
of the series 1
448, and
of
sum
728,and
the
the
sum
sum
"
and
inf.,
...
If the
Sp== ^*ij'2p'
rth terms
pth,qth,
of a G. P. be a,
a"-r6r-*c*-"=l.
The sum
of an infinite number
of terms
of their cubes is 192 ; find the series.
28.
sum
G. P. is 9 times
The continued
in G. P. is 216, and
product of three numbers
of the productof them in pairsis 156 ; find the numbers.
/Op +
27.
that
G. P. is 81, and
The sum
find them.
sum
17.
In
25.
"
1-665,-1-11, -74,...
the
I
-
64
The sum
of a G. P. whose common
22.
last term is 486 ; find the first term.
1728;
21. The
the series.
24.
15.
23.
2^ and
58.
Recurringdecimals furnish
Geometrical
Progressions.
Example.
Find
"423 =-4232323
4
~
io
23
23
+
iooo
iooooo
~io+ IP+105+
b,c respectively,
prove
of
G. P. is
good illustration
4, and the
of infinite
44
find the
To
60.
each
in which
Denote
of the
terms
series
product of correspondingterms
in
an
series.
geometric
the
S=a+(a
is the
term
and
arithmetic
ofn
sum
a,
.-.
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
by
sum
S ; then
d)r+(a
rS=
(a+ d)r2+
ar
2d)r2+
(a+
...
n~^ld)r"-'
;
+(a+ n-2d)rn~l+(a+
-ld)rn.
By subtraction,
S(l
r)
dr2
(dr+
dr(\-rn~l)
=
"
-N
+
Cor.
dr(l-r"-1)
l-r+
(1-r)2
dr
if
make
r"l, we can
sufficiently
great.
obtain
rn
(a + n~^\d)r"
"
-z
7^
1-r
to this
(a + n~ld)r\
T^r
(l-r)*
r"
small
as
as
so
for the
r"
sum
to
In
series of this
summing to infinity
proceed as in the following
example.
1.
If
"1,
sum
Let
S
.-.
"
pleaseby taking n
we
l+
~l-x]
"
a-
to
xS=
S(l-x)
We
infinity.
J
class it is
the series
"
(1 -r)
pointagain in Chap. XXI.
Example
'
T^r
In this case,
be made
can
'
dr"
l-r+ (l-ry~
involve
"
S in the form
Write
a
then
Id) r
'
"'"
"
,
(a
dr""1)(a+ n-lct)rn
2x* + 3x*+
x2 + x*+
infinity.
;
shall refer
usuallybest
to
GE0METK1CAL
Example
the series 1 +
Sum
2.
-,
o-
^
T
S==i+i+_+
"""
5*-
4
+
/3
to
terms.
Sn-2
+
_..
3n
+
53+
52
"
0"*
10
_+
"
Let
45
PROGRESSION.
3n-2
-57^-+
\
5,"
3n-2
3 A
1
f
3n- _2
57-"1" +5"-"j"~5"~
"
"
3
,
1 +
'""-i
'
1 +
1\
(1 5" J
"
3"-2
-
-5.-
12w + 7
~
~
35
"'*
5*
12/t+7
'
16
16
5"-1
EXAMPLES.
1.
Sum
1 4- 2a 4- 3a2 + 4a3 4-
2.
Sum
1+
3
-
4-
15
77.
to
c^rr.
zoo
64
3.
Sum
4.
Sum
-,
5.
Sum
1+
4-
3
0
6.
Sum
terms.
4
+
-2
-3 +
"
...
to
infinity.
to
infinity.
2
1+
31
+
^,
lb
V. b.
-7
to
terms.
5
+
+
Q
...
to
infinity.
to
l + 3^ + 6lf24-10ji"34-...
infinity.
is
The sum
of 2n terms of a G. P. whose firstterm is a and common
ratio r is equalto the sum
of n of a G. P. whose first term is b and
of the first two
ratio r1. Prove that b is equal to the sum
common
of the firstseries.
terms
8.
46
HIGHER
9.
Find the
and
sum
b+
l+
ALGEBRA.
b + b2 +
+ {l+
b2)r2
b3)r3+...,
fractions.
beingproper
the
12.
13.
14.
"
series
following
infinite G. P. are
of all the terms
15.
3"
3
+
ha +
^2
33
3
+
34
to
..
35
to
+...
"
2
+
72
17.
If a,
73
74
76
to
terms.
mfinity-
"
.,
llifinity-
Find
to
75
geometricmean,
19.
p+-- to
18.
it; find
terms.
2p
that follow
terms.
454545
16.
togetherequalto 5,
+ a? (a*3
(x + if)
+ x2 (x2+ y2)
+ if)+
+
extremes
in A. P. ;
the
sum
of
as
great as the
terms
of which
is
(2r-f-l)2'\
20. Find the sum
of 2n terms of a series of which every
the term
before it,and every odd term
a times
c times
before it,the first term beingunity.
is
21.
a, and
22.
whose
If
Sn denote the
of n terms
of a G. P. whose first term
sum
ratio r, find the sum
of SlfS3,/8'5,.../8r2B_1.
common
is
If Sv JS2,
of infinite geometricseries,
the sums
are
S3,...SP
first terms are 1,2, 3,..,j2,
ratios are
and whose common
2' 3' 4
prove that
23.
term
the term
even
If
Hence shew
'
'
'
^Ti
"
1 and
that nrn
respectively,
Sp=f(p+ 3).
shew that
and m is a positive
integer,
positive,
+
(2"i+ l)rwl(l-r)"l-r2wi1.
small when n is indefinitely
is indefinitely
great.
VI.
CHAPTER
ICAL
HARMON
THEOREMS
PROGRESSION.
DEFINITION.
Harmonical
quantitiesa, b, c
Three
Progression when
"
of quantitiesin
reciprocals
rithmetical Progression.
if ", b, c
By definition,
"
to
be
terms
Harmonical
in Harmonical
are
to
be
in
The
in A
said
said
of quantitiesare
Any number
consecutive
three
Progression when
every
Progression.
are
are
"
62.
WITH
PROGRESSIONS.
THE
61.
CONNECTED
in
Harmonical
are
in
monical
Har-
Progression
Progression,
~c^~b^~c'}
.'.
dividingevery
term
a(b
"
c)
(a b),
"
by abc,
1111
c
which
proves
the
a'
proposition.
chieflyinterestingbecause
:
of their importance in Geometry and
in the Theory of Sound
of
in Algebra the proposition
any
just proved is the only one
of
any
importance. There is no general formula for the sum
number
of quantities
in Harmonical
Progression. Questions in
H. P. are generally
solved by invertingthe terms, and making use
of the propertiesof the correspondingA. P.
63.
Harmonical
properties are
48
HIGHER
64.
To
Let
a,
then
-~
11
harmonic
find the
b
be
the
between two
7tiean
H
quantities,
two
givenquantities.
their
harmonic
mean;
in A. P. ;
are
ALGEBRA.
''11
a~b
IV
11
H~
a+
"'
2ab
,,
Example.
Insert
42na term
6 is the
Here
between
means
of
A. P. whose
an
the
first term
41d ; whence
Thus
7 and
is
; let d
be the
; then
difference
common
40 harmonic
arithmetic
means
are
41
---
-.
; and
monic
means
are
3", 2\,...~.
*
If
65.
between
means
be
II
A, G"
and
the
b,
arithmetic,geometric,and
have
we
proved
b
~Y~
(!)"
Jab
(2).
H=^
a+b
_,
"
Therefore
Tr
All
"
2ab
"
a+b
that
is,G
From
is the
these
geometricmean
results
(3).
v
'
7
see
we
ab
~2
between
and
//.
that
G=-~-Jab
harmonic
,-z=
b-
2 Jab
g-^_
is
which
if a
positive
of any
mean
and
49
PROGRESSION.
HARMONICA!
b
positive;therefore
the arithmetic
is greater than their geometric
positive
quantities
two
are
mean.
from
Also
A
harmonic
we
that G
see
in
between any tioopositive
are
quantities
means
is intermediate
in value
therefore
G,
"
equation G*--A1I,
the
descending
ofmagnitude.
order
in the Progressions
afford scope
Miscellaneous
questions
the
often
solution
for skill and ingenuity,
being
neatlyeffected
specialartifice. The student will find the following
by some
66.
hints useful.
If the
of an
the terms
1.
the
3.
same
same
of
terms
[Art.38.]
before.
as
A.P.
an
be
or
multiplied
will form
terms
the resulting
quantity,
same
with
difference
If all the
2.
the
common
same
same
new
by
P., but
divided by the
or
If all the terms of a G.P. be multiplied
will form
G.P. with the
terms
a
the resulting
quantity,
ratio as before. [Art.
common
51.]
also in continued
If a,
4.
'
in
series of quantities
a
Conversely,
by x, aw, xr'2,
represented
Example
1.
If
continued
in A. P., shew
that
proportionmay
b + c,
+ a,
+ b
in H. P.
By addingab
a* + ab +
that is
+ ac + bc to each
ac
bc, b2 +
term,
we
ba + bc + ac,
that
see
c'2+ ca + cb
ab
each term
.-.,dividing
b+
that is,
H. H. A.
are
in A.P.
in A. P.
portion^
pro-
bed
be
A.
an
[Art.38.]
difference.
common
divided
b + c,
are
+ a,
A. P.
+ b
+ b are
in H. P
are
of
terms
2.
Example
of
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
50
an
given relation is
the
Since
8ad
by substitution,
n=
1 ; then
s.
{d + 2a)2,
(d-2ay- 0;
=
or
.-.
Example 3.
p
l=
of terms, put
number
for any
true
Hence
2a.
q, q
r,
2a.
"
of
sth terms
If the pth,qth,
rth,
in G. P.
are
are
in G.
(g-l)d_a+(r-l)d
^V(q^lJd-^T"^l)~d-aT(^l)d
.*.
each
have
we
(p-l)d_a
A. P.
an
LAlt-bb-
of these ratios
{a + (p-l)d}-{a+(q-l)d\
_
{a + (q 1)d\
-
=p-q^q-r
r
q-r
Hence
q, q
r,
\a + (r- 1)d}
"
the first n
terms
To
68.
is
'
are
in G.P.
find the
of the
sum
be denoted
sum
"=l2
We
n3
have
the firstn
of
squares
by
22
S ; then
3'
(n l)a
=
+n2.
3n2
3n+
1 ;
and
as
sum
the
of
(n+1).
numbers.
the
"
often referred to
are
1, 2, 3,
67. The numbers
of
nth
the
series
is n, and the
term
natural numbers ; the
Let
(4)J'
33-23=3.32-3.3+l;
23-l3=3.22-3.2
l;
13-03=3.12-3.1
1.
1 ;
1 ;
natural
52
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
In
70.
be convenient
meet
results
the
to
referring
have
we
just proved
student
the
it will
will frequently
shall denote
We
the
series
1
1* + 2* + 3* +
l3
where
which
Example
1.
is the
wth
...
+"8by 2n3;
2 + 2
3 + 3
4 +
the
sum
2m2
of all terms
sum
.to
of
terms.
by writing down
consistingof
and
.".
generaltype.
term=ra(n+l)=n2+";
similar form
numbers, and
by %n*
+na
the
signifies
term
2,n ;
by
+ n
the series
Sum
1
The
23 + 33+...
placedbefore
that term
one
each
in a
term
the first n natural
+ 2?i
_w(m+1) (2m+ 1)
n(n
T'
n(n+l) j2n+l
l)
2
)
n(n + l)(n+2)
3
Example
Let the
2.
sum
Sum
to
be denoted
S
S ; then
by
2"
8m2(m+ 1)2
+
"
2
=
2"
2'l-l
(m+1)(2m + 1)
4~
1 +"
+
6m
~~
n(n + l)(2n2-l).
EXAMPLES.
Find
is 2'1_1+ 8m3
2 2"-1 + 82"i3-62n2
1.
Mth term
terms
VI.
in each of the
a.
series :
following
Insert two
3.
harmonic
means
between
5 and
11.
2
means
between
and
"
1"3
6m2.
EXAMPLES
OX
THE
4.
If the harmonic
5.
as
means
53
riiOGltESSlOXS.
harmonic
between
two
that
12 to 13, prove
the
quantitiesis
mean
ively,
respect-
means,
to their geometric
are
quantities
in the
ratio
of 4 to 9.
If a,
6.
b,c be in H. P.,shew
: a
If the iiilh
term
7.
equal to
of
a +
: a
H. P. be
that the
m, prove
"
that
c.
"
equal to
(m + n)thterm
n, and
is equalto
If the
8.
"
If b is the harmonic
9.
+ n
that
be
between
mean
1
o
of
"
c, prove
that
111
+
j-
and
"
Find
the
10.
3n*-n.
11.
ns+^n.
12.
"("+2).
13.
"2(2"+3).
14.
3" -2".
15.
sum
terms
nth term
is
+ 2;i2)-4/i:J.
(4'l
in
( i.
in the A. P. is
"
in G.
If I,m, n are three numbers
of an A. P. whose "th,
mth,and ?ithterms are
difference as m-\-\ to 1.
17.
18.
and
term
19.
If the sum
the nature
Find
the
of n terms of
of the series.
of
sum
series be
+ bu +
common
find the
cri2,
nth term
terms
first term
in H. P. is to the
nth
is
4?i(?i2+l)-(6"i2-fl).
If between
20.
two
means
Au A0;
H1, 7/2;shew that
any
two
21.
and
prove
lie between
between
the same
p and
numbers,
two
numbers,
J p.
"
an
two
A.
P.,and
shew
54)
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Piles
pyramid
on
square
Shells.
and
of
number
the
find
To
71.
Shot
of
shot
arranged in
complete
base.
Suppose
number
the
in
top.
.-.
S^n2
(n-l)2+ (n-2)2+...+
n(n+l)(2n
l)
To
72.
the
pyramid
of shot arranged in a
find the number
base of which is an equilateral
triangle.
Suppose that
number
xi
that
(n 1)+ (n 2)+
n(n
"
is,
"
V"
complete
shot ; then
the
1 j
1)
or
[n
n)
"
"
"
1,"
2,
2nd, 3rd,
"
for n, and
thus obtain
we
layers.
S=i($n* + 2,n)
M"(n+l)("+ 2)
.-.
To
73.
pyramid
Let
find
the base
the number
of which
is
of shot arranged in
rectangle.
and
be the number
n
of
the
base.
respectively
m
The
m
"
and
n+1
so
[Art7a]
of shot in the
longand
singlerow
of
complete
"
short side
(n l), or
shot ;
on
in the next
layerthe
number
is 2
(in
2);
in the next
layerthe
number
is 3
(in
3);
layerthe
number
is
(m
n).
"
"
in the lowest
"
"
PILES
S=
.-.
(m -01
OF
1)+ *2(m-n
n)(1+ 2 + 3 +
(wi n)n (n+ 1 ) w
+
(m
SHOT
...
AND
n(n
55
SHELLS.
+n(rn-n
...
...
n)
n2)
1){3(m-n)
2n+l}
_n(n + l)(3m-
1)
n+
=
'
74.
To
and
b denote
of
arrangedin
of shot is ab ;
in the next
layerthe
number
is
in the
layerthe
number
is
and
so
on
in the lowest
layerthe
ab
or
.-.
abn
abn
is
("+
--
1)(b+
In
1)
"
(a + b)(n-l)+ ()i-l)2.
number
(n-l)n(2 .n-l
6)
+
|{6ab
examplesit
numerical
1)
75.
sides of the
layers.
next
incomplete
an
rectangle.
the number
the number
n
top layer,
In the
shot
of
is
easier
generally
to
use
the
method.
following
Example. Find
courses, having 12
of shot in
side of the
incomplete square
top.
an
and
we
number
of shot in the
complete pile
=
^
11
also number
.*.
number
of shot
in the added
of shot in the
pile=
pile=6424.
incomplete
12
"
pile of 16
If
the
the number
shot in each
")'.)30
;
506;
23
[Art.7 1 .]
56
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
VI. b.
EXAMPLES.
the number
Find
1.
square
2.
3.
50
An
4.
and
of shot in
pile,having
side of the
pileof
there
number
of shot in
34 shot in the breadth
The
are
in each
top 14.
5. An incompletesquare
side of the base.
6.
15 shot
27 courses,
having 40
shot in each
complete rectangularpileis
of the
base, how
are
many
24395
; if
there in its
length?
and
number
The
7.
of shot in the
layeris 1089 ; how
in the lowest
Find
8.
15 courses,
of shot
shot in the
having 20
Find
9.
number
the
number
the
top layer of
a
pileis 169,
square
shot does the pilecontain ?
many
in
complete rectangularpileof
longerside
of shot
in
of its base.
incomplete rectangularpile,
course
being 11 and 18,
course
being 30.
an
What
10.
and
pilehaving 15
its upper
in the
course?
The
11.
number
12.
when
in the lowest
the
number
the
number
of shot
in
incomplete square
an
is 1005
course
pileof
16
less than
course.
Shew
13.
number
of shot in
a triangular
pileis greater by 150 than
of shot in a square pile,
the number
of layersin each
find the number
of shot in the lowest layerof the triangular
courses
6 shot
of shot
of shot in
the
If the number
14.
The
15.
value
value
of
lowest
layer.
iron
be
16.
If from
the same
will be
number
number
of
10s.
triangularpileof
6d. per
courses
be formed
sufficient to form
of shot in its side.
just
16
another-
lb. shot
number
is ,"51 ; if the
of shot in the
triangular
pileof
shew that the remaining shot
triangularpile,and find the
n
courses
CHAPTER
SCALES
The
76.
VII.
OF
NOTATION.
Arithmetic
for instance
25-2
4705
This method
of
10
103
digithigherthan
no.
in
scale whose
2453
number
in the
radix
is
5.
is called the
common
system of notation
or
of the
are
the
occur.
can
we
is denoted
4?,2+ hr
rn
+ a
,rn~1
+ a
the coefficients a
which
any
one
or
0 to
"
a2,...aj then
,,...",. are
digitsare
by r the above
if in
generally,
digits,beginning with
the
a/2
the
number
be
in
so
a,r + a,
more
rangingfrom
y~~
More
3.
denote
where
77. The
units'
will be
Hence
this
radix
for 2r3
stands
expressedby
Again
10
manner
the radix of
this scale
ten
The
In like
102
symbolsemployed in
and zero.
digits
scale.
that
numbers
representing
5;
r,
of
zero.
1
.
Binary,Ternary,Quaternary,Quinary,Senary,
Septenary,
Octenary,Nonary, Denary, Undenarv, and Duodenary
used
to
denote the scales corresponding
to the values fae",
are
names
twelve
three,...
of the radix.
58
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
'
ten
the
'
', eleven
'
and
'
twelve '.
especially
worthy of
It is
symbol not
for
'
of Arithmetic
ordinaryoperations
may be performed
that the successive powers of
in any scale ; but, bearingin mind
the carrying
the radix are no longerpowers of ten, in determining
not divide by ten, but by the radix of the scale
must
we
figures
in question.
78.
The
Example
multiply the
eightsubtract
1. In the scale of
difference by 27.
371532
from
530225, and
136473
530225
371532
27
1226235
136473
275166
4200115
by 7, we
Again,in multiplying
3x7
we
5 and
Next
7x7
put down
In the
+ 2
therefore put
down
1 and
on,
2x8
5;
6x8
3;
is completed.
multiplication
until the
nine
lx8
l;
carry 1.
2 + 6 + l
and
6+ l + l
so
addition,
Similarly
and
fiftyone
so
3 + 6
we
one
carry 2.
carry 6 ; and
3 and
twenty
nine=l
eight
=
8 +
1;
0;
lx8
on.
Example
Divide
2.
15et20
by
9)15"?"20
lee96...G.
Since 15
Explanation.
we
put down
Also 8
we
1 and
T +
T + 5
seventeen
1 x9 + 8,
carry 8.
one
hundred
e
and
seven
so
e x
on.
9+ 8 ;
60
N
Divide
by
r"
if the next
so
on,
rn 2+
until there is
successive
Example
requireddigits
a0,
divisions by the radix of
Express
1.
the
denary
is ai ;
quotient.
all the
Thus
al.
a2 ;
further
no
quotientis
the
remainder
r, the
quotientis divided by
quotient
+a0r
...
71"1
If this
is a0, and
the remainder
r, then
a
and
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
determined
ax, ag1...anare
the proposedscale.
number
5213
in the scale of
by
seven.
7)5213
7)7447
7)106.
7)15.
5213
Thus
and
+ 2x7
5;
requiredis 21125.
the number
Example
+ lx7-
2x74+lx73
Transform
2.
21125
from
scale
seven
to scale eleven.
e)21125
e)1244T
~e)Gl3.
.-.
the
requirednumber
Next
dividingby
+ 1
4x7
therefore
we
Example
put
3.
Reduce
we
put down
=
1 and
lx"? + 4;
carry 4.
+ 7 ;
carry 7 ; and
so
on.
7215
2x7+l=fifteen
2 and
verifythe
In scale
of ten
twenty nine
down
is 3t0t.
21
on
Explanation.
therefore
JL2
")874.
80
t)t^.
12
t)10.
.4
1.
in
f)7215
1033
by working
.2
In scale
of twelve
12
1 12401
Thus
in each
case.
7 x 123+ 2 x 122+ 1 x 12 + 5 in
Explanation. 7215 in scale twelve means
The calculation is most readilyeffected by writingthis expression
scale ten.
in the form
[{(7x 12 + 2)} x 12 + 1] x 12 + 5 ; thus we multiply7 by 12, and
add 2 to the product; then we multiply 86 by 12 and add 1 to the product;
then 1033 by 12 and add 5 to the product.
SCALES
Hitherto
80.
have
we
also be
fractions may
OF
f"l
NOTATION.
discussed
only
expressedin any
2
"25 in scale ten
denotes
5
+
"
"
2
"25 in scale six denotes
5
+
-=
G
5
denotes
"
expressedin
thus
fractions
ordinarydecimal
scale
The
that
analogous to
of such
generaltype
the
of
point
fractions in
or
form
is
where
called radix-fractions,and
are
"
Fractions
"25 in scale
10*'
10
b2,6a,
...
more
be
may
are
Let F
all
integers,
r, of which
less than
any
one
zero.
To express
81.
"
be the
and
given fraction,
proposedscale.
any
proposed
scale.
Let
be the requireddigits
b0, b3,...
beginningfrom
b
,
the
left ; then
FJ-X+bA+b^3+
r
We
have
now
Multiplyboth
sides of the
rF=b+-2
Hence
blis equalto
the fractional
the
part by Fx, we
6p b2,63,
equationby
+
h-l+
integral
part of
; then
;
rF
and, if
we
denote
have
H-i.+J+
Multiplyagain by r\ then,as before,b is the integralpart
of rFx; and similarly
by r, each of
by successive multiplications
the digits
be found,and the fraction expressedin the pro
may
posed scale.
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
62
products is
by
multiplications
successive
the
in
If
terminates
integerthe process
an
of the
any one
at this stage,and
given fraction
be
can
13
Example
Express -^
1.
as
7.
13x3
13
ft
4 +
16x6=-8-
7x3
Kj.1
lx3
I..1
8'
^x6
3.
the
requiredfraction
2.
We
treat the
must
Qi
"4513.
16064-24 from
Transform
Example
13
4
.-.
and
integral
5)16064
0
5)2644...
1*44
4
5)440...
..3
5)71.
2
5)13...
J"_
2-64
"_
2...1
4-04
5_
0-24
After
digitsin
this the
the
required
is 212340-1240.
number
In
82.
remainder
Let
with
scale
any
of
of the digits
same
hence
the
denote
divided
number
whole
any
as
of notation of which
divided
number, a0,
by
alt a2,
S the
place,and
1.
"
an the
digits
beginning
digits;
of the
sum
then
N
aQ
S=a0
r.tf-S=a1(r-l)
+
a2r2
axr +
ax+a2+
+
+
+
a2(r"--l)+
+ arn
a"_/,~1
an_l + an
+
""_, (i*-
1)+
",
(f
1).
SCALES
Now
every
term
OF
the
on
NOTATION.
righthand
03
side is divisibleby
"
"
iV-S
*
=-
that
-=/
is,
r
/ is
when;
Hence
83.
a
sum
of its
on
is divisible
digits
By taking ?-=10
that
number
"
nines
the
this
divided
by
Let
two
be thus
numbers
be
productby P;
then
Hence
of
has the
"
the
remainder
?"
1 when
"
the
from
the
above
the
proposition
remainder
same
rule known
the
as
"
castingout
is founded
multiplication
of
as
explained:
representedby
as
from
%c
9ad
remainder
same
not
da
b and
9c
-f
the
of the
sums
d, and
bd.
and
-^ ;
as
performed.
incorrectly
found
by
1.
"
must
multiplication
practiceb and
digitsof the two
In
the
therefore
divided
by 9, gives the
digitsof /*,when
divided by
of
the
when
the sum
of
digits bd,
been
will be divisible
9 will leave
by
tlie proposition.
proves
learn
we
P^Slac
on
'
y;
property.
rule may
s?nn
digitsdivided by 9. The
for testingthe accuracy
The
their
in scale
number
which
integer
j
some
of its
sum
integer
6
an
"
r-
are
numbers
same
9.
If
have
readily
to
be
together.
multiplied
Can
Example.
The
sums
of the
digitsof
the
have
two
of the
sums
=
1.
digitsof
24, which
84.
r+
we
8127 be 263395312
again, the
21, and 31 respectively;
M
8x3
whence
and
are
3,
7,
8,
digits;thus
is incorrect.
and
the scale
the
or
sums
of'r,and D denote
of the digit*in the
D
is a multiple,
of
64
an
a0, "!, a ,
in the units' place;then
JV=
Ar-a0 +
and
aA-a2
last term
the
accordingas
divisible by r
a,r
r2
is odd
I ; hence
the
by
is
="
rightis
"
"^D)
integer;
an
in the
digits
D
odd places,
of the
sum
the
in
digits
Let
the
mteo-er.
an
a} +fl2~ CC3+
Example
whose
'-
on
placesis equalto
even
=
0, and
is divisible
1.
r".
proposition.
If the
of the
sum
term
.'.
Cor.
that
aw(r"+l)or an(rn" 1)
every
a0~
the
,r"-1+
be
Thus
even.
or
proves
right will
the
on
which
ar*
digitsbeginningwith
a3-
NOW
the
denote
Let
.-.
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
number
square
in any
scale of notation
4 +
given number
Example
2.
is the square
In what
i=(2 -Y;
thus the
rz
rj
of 2*1.
scale is the
denary number
2-4375 representedby
213?
Let
2+
whence
that
(7r+12)(/--4)
=
0 ;
0.
the radix is 4.
Sometimes
Example
by
r-
7r2- 16r-48
"
is,
Hence
2=2-4375=2-^;
16
101215
3.
it is best to
In
what
use
the
method.
following
nonary
number
25607 be expressed
SCALES
OF
65
NOTATION.
volume
The
is
364-^i?cub. ft.,which
in
expressed
height of
the
area
of
area
is
46^
sq.
We
by St-OS in
3*08)26473-4(7-e
22*48
36274
36274
Thus
the
EXAMPLES.
Express4954
2. Express624
3. Express206
VII. b.
in the scale of
1.
seven.
binaryscale.
4.
Express1458
5.
Express5381 in
6.
Transform
7.
Expressthe duodenarynumber
8.
Transform
in powers of 10.
6"12 from scale twelve to scale eleven.
9.
Transform
213014
10.
Transform
23861
11.
Transform
400803
12.
13.
Transform
14.
Express
15.
Transform
17 "15625
16.
Transform
17.
Transform
71*03 from
18.
Expressthe septenaryfraction
of nine.
powers
212231
from
from
from
398e
ttteee from
to the
scale.
eight.
quinaryscale.
in powers
20665152
of 12.
scale.
common
3
"
as
septenaryscale.
the
duodenaryto
the
scale.
octenaryscale.
1552
"
"
as
denaryvulgarfraction
19.
Find
20.
In what
scale is the
denarynumber
21.
In what
scale is the
denary fraction
seven.
182 denoted
by 222?
25
H. H. A.
-"
denoted
by
-0302?
66
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
the radix
Find
22.
554
representsthe square
of 24.
In what
23.
denoted
scale is 511197
by
1746335
24.
In what
?
progression
25.
scale
are
the radix-fractions
that 148'84 is a
radix is greaterthan eight.
Shew
27.
perfectsquare
by
*16,"20,'28 in geometric
is in the scale of
212542
The number
26.
17486?
denoted
be
by
denoted
six; in what
scale will it
the
is a perfect
Shew that 1234321
square in any scale whose radix
is always expressedby the
the
and
that
root
4
than
is greater
square
;
four digits.
same
28.
29.
weigh
which
Find
30.
of the
perfectcube
in any
scale whose
lbs. must
weights1, 2, 4, 8, 16,...
radix
is
be used to
ton.
one
be used
of the weights1, 3, 9, 27, 81,...lbs. must
which
of each kind beingused
than one
not more
to weigh ten thousand
lbs.,
but in either scale that is necessary.
Find
31.
that 1367631
radix is greaterthan seven.
Shew
32.
is
perfectcube
the
will be divisible by
Prove that in the ordinaryscale a number
formed by its last three digits
is divisible by eight.
8 if the number
33.
Prove
34.
s are
is rm^OOOl,where
any
q, r,
number
N'
N be taken in the scale ?*,and a new
If any number
35.
t
he
order
in
shew
that
the
of its digits
be formed by altering
any way,
N and N' is divisible by r
1.
difference between
"
If
36.
divisible
of digits,
shew that it is
number
has an even
number
if the digits
from each end are the same.
r+1
equidistant
by
of the
37. If in the ordinaryscale St be the sum
the
number
the
of
and
be
the
of
sum
digits
JV,
3#2
is a multipleof 3.
difference between
aS^and "S'2
of
digits
3iV,prove
number
that the
Shew
down
writing
38.
is
In a scale whose
radix is odd, shew
that
of
number
will
be
odd
if
the
number
be
digits any
be even.
the number
39.
the
odd, and
of the
if
even
sum
If
formed
n
order,
digits,
68
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
To
86.
mial
givenbino-
surd.
Supposethe givensurd
Case
I.
Let
ZJa
xn and
x,
Now
xn
y"
Let x, y,
If
(1)
xn
is even,
yn
productis x"
the rational
If
(2)
xn
Thus
is
yn
odd, x"
productis x"
xyn~2+ yn~').
-xyn-2+ y"-1;
yn.
will rationalise ^/S+
^/5.
Let
is
Find
1.
Example
y""1).
y, and
the rational
ay"-'-3r1;
y" is divisible by
xn~1-xn~2y+
and
xf~*
yn.
factor
rationalising
the
y, and
is
+
"
fjb.
url-ary +
and
is pJa
y"~l;
meanings as before;then
factor
rationalising
the
Thus
y" is divisible by
"
y""1).
y'\
"
same
xn
is
xn~2y+ xn~y
the
have
32,y
55 ;
xe
then xb and
-
and
3223
32
32-9.
53+ 32
53
13
14
-
32
32.
6
-
5s"
33
=
53,
14
55+ 32~.53-15
32
53+ 32 53
productis
is
requiredfactor
y, the
541
"
32
and
y6 are both rational,
for
thus,substituting
or
q ; then
Supposethe givensurd
II.
Case
productis xn
the rational
of p and
l.c.m.
.X'""1
+
and
be the
factor
rationalising
the
"]a $b.
rational.
yn is divisible by
"
arThus
both
yn are
let
y, and
?Jb
is
52 =
2.
53-55;
AND
SURDS
as
69
equivalentfraction with
an
QUANTITIES.
("+") \55-9s)
Express
2.
Example
IMAGINARY
rational denominator.
To
34
y ; then
since
x4
-yA
requiredfactor is
5- + 52
+Vl
the
.".
i\
V 55+
expression
12
x,
\"
i
'-
"
3
.
3-*= 52
3V
+ 52
12
3^+
'
22.
5-
3\
3~4
+ 3 V'
"
"
52.3j
52 + 2
-3*, put 52
3-*
+ 5] 3*+ 3~4
;
is 52
/
"
to 5"
and
equal
the
is
13
5,J.34"+2.55.3j
+ 3t
+ 2.
22
3
_ll + o2.
113
3j+ 5.32+52.3j
11
87.
how
may
than
more
Ja + Jb + Jc + Jd
Assume
.'. a
Jb
If then
a,
.'.
And
root is
the square
4^5
it follows that
Jz j
Jxz +
Jxy +
V3
xyz
2-^/5.
8JS,
y +
2jxl
,Jx 2j3, Jy
=
Jd.
Jyz.
found
thus
x, y,
satisfy
requiredroot.
slx+ Jy
+ 2
slz\
Jxy- 2 Jxz
4J15,
240 ; that is
the
V15
+
4-
of 21
root
obtained
8^/3 4J15
=
2^3
Jy
shall have
we
same
by multiplication,
whence
2jxy
Put
Jc
21
Jb
V21 V5
Assume
Jc + Jd
Find
Example.
Jx
as
if,at the
and
surds,such
quadratic
two
2jyz
=
Jyz.
"Jo\
Jxyz=4s/lo
;
2, "Jz s/5.
=
satisfythe equation x
y +
70
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
If J a,
88.
Jh
Jb=x3
Equatingrational
a
that
3xy, Jb
Jb
.'. a-
x3
is,
Ja
Jb
where
89.
is any
of the form
"
Jb
Ja- Jb
in the last
Jy
Jy.
Theorem, Chap. XIII.
Jb
x-
Jy,
that
root of
the cube
an
expression
be found.
x-
Jy
Jy.
(1).
(2).
3xy
to be determined
y have
and
(1)suppose
x3
J a2
(1)and (2).
for
by substituting
then
b=c;
"
from
y in
obtain
a
that
have
article,
(2)we
Jy.
Jtf^b=x2-y
.-.
In
the Binomial
Ja + Jb
values of
Jy,
"
3xy -y Jy;
x"
sometimes
may
then
The
Jy
Jy
method
following
Suppose
Again,as
integer.
positive
the
By
3x2
parts,we
Jy, then J a
^/y+ 3xy +
3x2
by the helpof
Similarly,
it may be provedthat if
Ja + Jb
3x2
irrational
and
x3
Jh
"
obtain
For, by cubing,we
ci +
ivillJ a,
Jy, then
x3
kx3
is,
If from
"
3x
(x2 c);
3cx
"
"
equationthe
value
from
Note.
extraction
have
this
a.
of
y
x2
be determined
can
"
by
c.
We
do not here assume
sjx+ sly for the cube root, as in the
of the square root; for with this assumption,on cubing we should
a
Jb
cannot
equate
Example.
^72 + 32s/5
^5184
"
is,
72
Again
32^/5
=
(1)and (2)
90.
3.t//
x3 +
72
x:i+ Sx (x-
Example.
S; hence
Find
o,
whose
the
requiredcube
We
add
few
cube
root
root is
we
are
find that
/- J
v/3+v/2.
91.
the cube
9N/3+ llv/2.
=*J3 ( 1
root
and
proceedas follows.
.-.
4);
18.
y^'y;
(2).
-
surds,we
quadratic
consists of two
(1).
+ Sxy
fkcPJy
binomial
the
When
.c3
ar}-3x
=
a;2 y ;
is,
x
x'--y
s/y.
72
whence
From
1024
^/y;
By multiplication
that
32x/5.
then
71
QUANTITIES.
sf72 -'62^5
Assume
that
IMAGINARY
AND
SUKDS
examplesin
harder
surds.
4
'Example1.
The
expression
"
3fj
-
33 + 1
(J l)
+
l33 +
l)
l)(33-3ri
+
iM"i]-33
~d
3 + 1
+1"l
+
NV9-^3
3-^/5.
seekhi"
72
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Example
2.
l(x-l)
fj2x"i-7x-i.
+
The
expression
=
\{3x
J(2x+
l)(x-4)}
{x-") +
2jc2x+ l){x-")};
3 + 2
"{(2x
l)
+
the
hence,by inspection,
Example
Given
3.
root is
square
^5
of
(5
J2
and
numerator
Multiplying
J7- 3J5'
denominator
by "J2,
^6-2^/5
2 + ^14-6^/5
the expression
n/5-1
+ 3-^/5
EXAMPLES.
Villa.
fractions
Express as equivalent
1
i
L-
1+
2
A
V2-V3'
1-=.
3.
Find
^5-^/3
fi
J2+J3-J5'
^^
*Ja-l-\/2a+ *Ja+
(j3 + x/5)(j5+ ^/2)
7.
10.
#3 -a/2.
N3/3-l.
8.
11.
^/5+ ^/2.
2 +
4/7.
9.
12.
06+6*.
4/5-^3.
AND
SUKDS
Express with
IMAGINARY
rational denominator:
*/3
16
v8
17
^4
the square
19.
16-2N/20-2v/28
21.
G +
23.
a+36+4+4^/a-4^6-2V3oS
24.
21+3
Find
the eube
25.
10+6
28.
38^14-100^2.
31.
N/3
2N/l3.-". 20.
22.
(5 Jl
JZ.
24+4^15-4^21-2^35.
v'24
5-x/10-N/15
N/56 +
N/21.
\J%ax+
17^5.
26.
38 +
29.
54^3
41^5.
27.
99-70^/2.
30.
135^3-87^6.
of
root
x2.
32.
2a
\/3a2
l + "2 +
35.
If
36.
If
Find
the value of
(l+a2
"
"j-
l+(l-"2)"2.
34.
-i"
"
find
jl'jly S/|z7^
=
"
/6 +
V26-15J3
41.
Given
10
N/3)2 (7+
-
(26+
the value
sfzf
15
of
'
N/8+ V3
x*+ 1 + 3# #2 by
43.
Find
44.
Evaluate
the cube
3^-
"_"
N/10+ N/18
N/18 a/3+V5
Divide
"2. 40.
v/.3)
s/b 2-23607,find
lOx/2
42.
5jy
lb'2.
2V3
(28
V33-19N/3-
5V2-V38T573'
39.
b'2.
a4)2.
2ab
33.
N/G.
of
root
the square
a
of
root
,/12-^24-,/8.
N/8
i"
Find
Find
73
QUANTITIES.
root
of 9a62
V^'2-1
x-s/x*-\
when
,
V5
1 + */2.
Ja+
-i\'"
(26+ 15
N/3)
74
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Quantities.
Imaginary
we
can
no
quantityunder the radical signis negative,
arithmetical
a possible
longerconsider the symbol J as indicating
defined
be
as a symbol which
obeys
operation
; but justas J a may
shall define J" a to be such that
the relation J a x Ja
a, so we
shall accept the meaning to which this
J" a x J" a
a, and we
assumptionleads us.
When
the
It will be found
that
bring
ordinaryalgebraical
us
to
of
under the dominion
imaginaryquantities
results
their
use
may be obtained which
rules,and that through
others which
as
be relied on with as much
certainty
depend
can
real
of
the use
quantities.
on
solely
93.
.-.
that
J -I
1.
(J a
is,
J- 1)2
=
productJ a J" 1
imaginaryquantityJ" a.
Thus
the
J-
By definition,
the
may
a.
to
regardedas equivalent
be
It will
JZjtf Jja2 ( 1)
=
95.
We
shall
to
indicate
the
of
the
presence
J7 J-T.
76
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
be equal it
imaginaryexpressions
may
and
that the real parts should be equal,
is necessary and sufficient
the imaginaryparts should be equal.
that
in order
Thus
sign of
the
differ
imaginaryexpressions
be
said
to
imaginary part they are
When
Definition.
100.
only in
two
the
two
conjugate.
Thus
"
1 is
"
Similarly^2
The
101.
to
conjugate
3^-1
the
and
sum
is
to J
conjugate
product of
expressions
For
J -\
a
(
(a+
Again
J-\
+a-b
J- 1)(a
The
Definition.
is
The
J- 1)
1 and
"
product
ac
it may
denominator
a2 + b2.
of the square
"
the
of
conjugate
expressions
1.
imaginary expressions
by a+bj" 1
(ad + bc)J
and
c+dJ"\.
1, which
"
is
an
+ b*"f +
Jasc*
a*d* + bs(?
J a2 +
b2
Jc2+
d2 ;
proposition.
rationalised
by
bd
"
root
modulus
If the denominator
be
"
denoted
be
expressions
104.
(- b2)
their
proves
a2-
of the
of each
imaginaryexpressionwhose
which
2a.
modulus
equalto
Then
1.
imayinary
conjugate
value
positive
103.
two
a2
J-
'2
both real.
are
102.
1.
"
the
by
of
multiplyingthe
conjugateexpressiona
"
numerator
"
1.
bj" 1,
and
the
SURDS
For
IMAGINARY
AND
77
QUANTITIES.
instance
dj- 1 (c dJ-\)(a-bJ-\ )
b J=l ~(a+ b J~i)(a-bJ-T)
+
c +
a
bd
ac
(ad be)J
"
bd
ac
"
72
ad
be
"
-i
"
b~
a'
b _"
To
105.
find the
Assume
where
and
real
are
By squaring, a
of a
root
square
V"
=x
"
1.
s/ 1,
"
quantities.
bj"\=x2-y2
2xy J
"
1;
therefore,
by equatingreal and imaginaryparts,
x2-y2
^!/
(1),
(2);
.-.
."
xs
Ja2+
-*
b2 +
"
Thus
Since
the
the
x
and
root
required
y
are
sign must
positive
negative.
real
be
see
have
if
(2xyY
2.2
b ;
J a2 +
6"
(3).
obtain
we
(1)and (3),
From
Ja2+ b2-a
.""=*" i
.
is obtained.
before
prefixed
the
+ b-.
quantity*Ja2
sign as
signsif
b ;
is
78
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Example
Find
1.
root of
the square
J-
Assume
21*/-l
7-
-7-24N/Tl
then
24
J-
1.
1 ;
+ 2^N/Tl;
-^2-2/2
*2-?/2=-7
"""
(1),
2a;?/ -24.
and
From
(1)and (2),x-
9 and
that
the roots
It remains
are
2.
To
"/
4 j
?/== "4.
-3
"
^/
3,
*J
+ 4
(3
?/=
4.
1 ;
J ~i).
64a4.
\/"*J
.".v/
+ v/-l
Similarly
or
247"TT=
take
must
1 and
(2).
"3,
x=
3, y =
is,
Example
625;
we
product xy is negative,
x
Thus
?y2=16
.-.
Since the
49 + 576
2/2 25
.\ar
1.
V-l).
"-^(l
+
J J^l=
(1
"
^ ZI)
.".^"^^[="^(1=1=^31);
and
finally
^-64a4=
"
2a
(1"
^/^T).
SURDS
IMAGINARY
symbolJ
The
106.
AND
1 is often represented
by the letter i; but
"
had
has
littlepracticein the
he
quantities
of
(7-1)^1,
and
by
since each
we
1, or ?',
"
We
107.
that
^1
is,
.
"
0, or x2
x3
1, or
1 ) (x2+
imaginary
"
1.
It is
i ; thus
or
the
by multiplying
x3
; then
(x
either
now
before it
certain
nary
imagi-
0 ;
1)^0.
x+
+
"
one
recur.
of
the properties
investigate
of
are
very frequentoccurrence.
now
which
quantities
Suppose
symbol J
"
see
shall
of
use
i*=ij
is obtained
power
70
QUANTITIES.
0 ;
-W-3
whence
35=1,
It may
values when
be
or
=
.
shewn
cubed
these
cube
roots,
-1-733
-l+JZTs
"'
2
of which
two
Let
of the
us
are
denote
imaginary expressions.
these
by
and
since
then
they are
the roots
l =0.
that is,
.
that
ft;
equation
x2
their
~'
is,
it
other,
we
Similarly
108.
Since
may
shew
each
of
that
the
is usual to denote
since
a8
1.
ft2.
is thr, square
roots of unityby
imaginary roots
the three
cube
of thr
1, "d, ""~.
80
Also
equationx2 +
satisfies the
a)
is,the
that
Again,
109.
is useful
It
of
be not
1;
notice
1, to,
that
is
w3m
to"
unity;
successive
the
w2; for,if
and
; and
3m
It
KO
dm
he
positive
multipleof 3,
1.
"
be of the form
We
now
of which
of a7"x
are
are
3m
^9,
o"
root of
1.
^9,
are
aw2.
a, ao",
or
.w=to.
In
rule.
the cube
Similarly
^79is the
a"2^9, where
future,unless
taken
otherwise
to denote
the
Reduce
4.
1 \2
_
to the form
,
A +
Bj
1.
N/-l
^4-9
expression
2 +
(-5
12^-1
v/:=~l
12N/Jl)(2-V^l)
(2+
-10
J-l)(2-J-T)
+ 12 + 29
J~l
4 + 1
2
is of the
Example 2.
29
/"
5+W-1;
requiredform.
Resolve
Since
.'.
x3 +
y3 into
three
x3 +
if (x+ y) (x2-xy
x*
w2=
-1, and w3
l.
y2)
roots,
those
roots
by the
stated,
arithmetical
a.
2 +
The
=w
(9
Example
for
to.
that
see
cube
.to
3m
+2
w=w
therefore
1, and
=to
3m
"
+-,
ordinary arithmetical
which
3m
+ 1
o"
"
om
3m
+
.
110.
the
ofunityis zero.
multipleof 3, it must
-rt"
of 9
0;
2.
two
"
to
are
a"
be of the form
n
o"2
to
integral
powers
If
w2
to
0 ;
therefore
it must
of the
sum
".
3m
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
SURDS
Example
Shew
3.
(a+ wb
In the
AND
IMAGINARY
productof
w26 +
the coefficientof be
(a+
.*.
and
ca
cob+
Shew
Example 4.
toe) a2 + b2 + c2
-
and
+ wb + arc
the coefficientsof
81
that
arc)(a+
QUANTITIES.
a"
or,
ca
ab.
+ orb + wc,
1 ;
or
w2 + o"4
o"2+ o"
or
arc){a+
60
1 ;
1 ;
urb +
o"
wc)
=
a2 + b2 + c2
be
ea
ab.
that
(l+ "-"")'-(l-M+U?)*=0.
Since
1 +
(1+
u-
+ o"2=
w2)3 (1
-
0, we
have
-8o"6 + 8a/{
-8 + 8
0.
VIII. b.
EXAMPLES.
1.
2 \/~~3
+ 3 V3^
Multiply
by
*J^3- 5 a/^2.
2.
3 V ^7
Multiply
by
V^+
3.
A
4.
AT
IX'
Multiplya;
Expresswith
V^
l+V3^
5
rational denominator
0.
"
o.
"
3-V-2
V~l
3-2
2-5\/rl
2 +
+ V-l)a
(.f
.v-V-1
V^l
a/~2~
+ 2 *J~-h
3V-2-2V-5
(W-l)^
.r
12.
the value of
a-x"f-i
a-WisT-i a+a?V^-l"
ia
(a+
V-lja-Cft-V-l)^
+
3,when
( \/ l)4n
Find
V-l)a#
(a \/-l)2-("-
V-1
a+rV^l
5V:rl'
11.
H. H. A.
3
,
3+ 2
V^.
l-V^
by
Jd +
40
V"-T+ V9
is a
40
positive
integer.
V -?.
(j
82
HIGHER
Find
the
of
root
square
ISV^L
14.
-ll-COV17!".
17.
a2-l+2a^^l.
13.
-S
16.
-SV^l.
18.
"ab-2(a2-b2)*/^T.
in
Express
the
ALGEBRA.
form
ZU"
(^ + ^)2
O8
("-^)2
9"*
09
If
1,
"
g"2
co,
the
are
24.
(l+co2)4
26.
(1
27.
(2 +
28.
(l-co
29.
Prove
A3
three
cube
) (1
2co2)6 (2 +
5co +
co2)(l-co2
of
roots
CO4)(1
2co +
io
unity,
(l-co
co5)
prove
co2)(l+co-or)
4.
9.
25.
co-
ib
"
co.
co)(1
+yZ
729.
5a"2)6
=
co4)(l-co4 + co8)...to
2"i factors
22".
that
""
2#gZ
If
30.
(x+y+z)
x=a+bt
(# +
aw
"
Za"2)(x +y"o2
i/a" +
Z"co2,s="co2
az
Za).
if,
6co,
that
shew
31.
shew
1-T
2V3-i\/2'
8V-3.
zu
2-3r
-47
iB
iy*
15.
that
(1)
xyz=a3+b3.
(2)
^-2 +
(3)
a3+y3+s3=3(a3+"3)k
If
ax
(a2
?/2+ 52
bz
cy +
62
c2
6a6.
X,
be
ex
ca
by
I", Zu- +
X2+Y2
ay
z2-yz+
Z2-
zx
gs
xy)
YZ-
XZ-
XY.
84
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
-b
Jb2
by
and
(1)
and
If
'
2a
If
"
reducing in this
to
case
"
77-
(3)
(4)
'
results :
following
is positive,
b2 Aac (thequantityunder the radical)
real and unequal.
Aac is zero, a and
b2
ft are real and equal,each
(3are
(2)
Aac
"
the
have
we
'
,
2a
then
Jb2
"b-
Aac
2a
If b2
Aac is negative,
a and
If b2
Aac is
"
the
and
rational and
/3are
of
nature
without
the
of
roots
any
solvingthe equation.
equation2x2-6a;
the
that
Shew
Example 1.
perfectsquare,
unequal.
By applying these tests
quadratic
may be determined
by
denoted
(2)be
that
/3,so
roots in
In Art.
113.
0 cannot
be
satisfied
x.
Here
2, b
6, c
7;
"
so
that
"2_4ac=(_6)2-4.2.7=-20.
the roots
Therefore
The
equation a?2+
If the
2.
Example
imaginary.
are
condition
for
(k+ 2)x
91c= 0 has
equal roots,find
l\
(fc-4)(fc-l)=0j
.-.
x2
are
A, or 1.
Shew
3.
Example
2p3 +p2-q2
equation
2qr-
r2 =
rational.
roots
,
114.
we
have
D.
Since
by
Jb2
-
a=
Jb2
-b-
Aac
'
?=
2a
Aac
'
addition
-
Jb2
-
Aac -b-
Jb2
-
Aac
2a
__M_b
2a
0);
a
THEORY
THE
and
QUADRATIC
OF
85
EQUATIONS.
have
we
by multiplication
(- b
5
J"~r^) (_.
j,/r^-c)
_
4ac
(2).
~4a2
"
the equationin
By writing
2
the form
"
'
also be
expressedas follows.
of the firstterm
coefficient
**
"**"
qUadratiCe(luation
is
unity,
is
the roots
its
4**5d?
(ii)the product of
the roots is
*"%* """"
115.
the
equal t0
a; +
0 may
also be
the 8nta0"
(1).
0
the form
expressedin
quadraticmay
x2
x + product of
(sum of roots)
contain
any
-
roots
(2).
have
(3).
(x-a)(x-p) Q
=
We
may
form
easily
now
Example 1. Form
an
The equation is
the
roots
are
3 and
2.
""-*-
When
roots
(* 3)(*+ 2)=0,
or
metnou.
with
be written
x2-(a+ f])x+ ap
Hence
"
"
and
__=a+"
equalto
""""**""
Since
equationar+
the coefficient of
are
6=0.
irrational it is easier
to
use
the
following
~"
86
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Example 2.
We
the
Form
have
of roots
sum
product of roots
"
.
the
equationis
By
the
(2)of
by using formula
116.
x-
can
we
^3.
1;
0,
presentarticle.
method
and
4,
Ax + 1
^3
2 +
are
roots.
7
Example 1.
Form
the
equationwhose
roots
2,
are
3, and
be satisfied
requiredequationmust
The
each
by
of the
followingsuppositions
#-2=0,
therefore the
+ 3
0,
"--
();
be
equationmust
(*-2)(*+3)(*-|)=0j
[x 2) (x+3) (5a;7)=0,
that is,
5a;3-2a;2 -37a;
or
Example 2.
The
Form
equation has
equationwhose
the
to be satisfied
42
0.
roots
0, "",
are
by
c
0,
a.
x=}
x=-a,
therefore it is
x
that
is,
(x-J-a)(x a) ( x
-
bx4
The
117.
ex3
generallysufficient
roots of quadratics.In
by
in terms
a~bx- +
results of Art.
singly,but
to
114
solve
the
should
If
and
/3are
a-cx
are
0.
most
problems
be
made
have
(2=p,
a
a(3 q.
=
.-.
a2 +
connected
roots
should
of the
with
never
the
be
relations tained
obtheir product,
equation.
(l)a2+ /32,
(2)as+ /33.
We
and they
important,
of the roots,and
sum
Example 1.
0 ;
questionsthe
such
use
writingdown
are
considered
(x2 a2)(bx c) 0,
or
/32=(a+ /3)2-2a/3
=p*-2q.
+ q
THE
THEORY
OF
QUADRATIC
a;{+ ft =
Again,
87
EQUATIONS.
"
=i"{(a+ /3)a-3a/3]
=*(?"- 89).
Example 2.
If
equation whose
p"are
a,
roots
are
"
"We have
0, find the
of roots
sum
product of
roots
a.
ap
-=1
" + 0/3
apx2 (a2+ p~2)
or
As
in the last
example o2+j8B=
0.
="
and
a/3
=
.,
,.
.*. the
equation
?ji2-2wZ
is
x-
-=
or
Example
When
3.
.r
0,
0,
it
2nZ)x
shew
?i
"
/x-2 (m2
and
.-.
7i
mx
equation/.r'-'-|
+
+ nl
of 2x3 + 2x2-7x+l'2
"-
if
be substituted
for
x.
Form
the
quadraticequation whose
of the roots
the
sum
the
productof
roots
are
3 ;
17
hence
.*.
the roots
the equationis
2x2-6x
17
is
2.r2
-
"
6.r+ 17
0 ;
quadratic expressionwhich
vanishes
3*5^/-"!
,
values
"
Now
2a* + 2.t2
Ix + 72
(2.r2C".c+ 17)+
-
(2.r2Cx
-
17) + 4
=xx0+4x0+4
=
which
is the numerical
value
4;
of the
88
118.
ax2
in
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
bx
To
find Vie
condition
should
equation
opposite
sign,(2)reciprocals.
their
roots will be
The
is
sum
zero
0,
or
0.
Again, the
unity; hence we
their
when
reciprocals
will he
roots
product is
have
must
i
1.
"
or
a.
in Analytical
frequentoccurrence
of
the
more
case
a
a
particular
of
to
applicable equations any degree.
The
Geometry,
and
generalcondition
second
is
be
We
have
+ B=
a8=-
"
If the roots
(1)
are
both
(1)
and
positive,
a/Jis positive,
therefore
and
Also, since
have
unlike
signs.
Hence
and
is that the
signsof
ft
and
should
be like,
oppositeto the
(2)
requiredcondition
sign of b.
the
have
Also since
-
is
of
and
fore
+/3 has the sign of the greater root it is negative,and there-
therefore
positive;
b and
have
like
signs.
(X
Hence
and
the
and
b should
be like,
oppositeto
EXAMPLES.
Form
a.
the
equationswhose
p-q
p + q
p+q
p"y
4.
IX.
7"2N/5.
5.
roots
are
"2"/3~5.
6.
-p"2s/Tq.
THE
7.
|,i.
-3,
13.
Prove
x2
(2) (a
14. If the
values of m.
2ax
+aa
b+
c)
values of
x2
equalroots
9.
value of
will the
Prove
bx
"
equalroots,find
the
+ 1
following
equationsare rational:
(b+ c-a)
2cx +
b2ex
0,
6a2 -ab
+ 2b'1 0.
=
",+".
Find
(3+ 2m)
18.
0 lias
roots
a,
0.
equation
ax-c
If
c)
For what
17.
2""/3, 4.
equation
(1+ 3//0+
x*
have
-m(2x-8)
will the
12.
0,
15
2x
c2
"i(a -b).
following
equationsare real :
(a 6).v + (a
+4
r-
equationx2-
For what
16.
6a
89
EQUATIONS.
|,0, -|.
11.
(1 )
15.
QUADRATIC
-a"ib.
8.
-3"5l
10.
have
OF
THEORY
aW
19.
aV.
20.
(|-f)2.
the value of
21.
a3 + s2
22.
x3
23.
Zx2
+ 22 when
8x +15
.r
1 + 2/.
when
3+
-=
3.
24.
whose
If
roots
and
are
/3 are
the
25.
Prove
26.
I f .'-, x%
,
of
roots
x*+px+q=Ot
form
the
equation
are
-b)
(x a)(.";
the roots of
"
ctx*+bx +
h2
are
always red.
90
times
If
28.
roots
that
the condition
the other.
Find
27.
n
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
are
(3are
a,
the equationwhose
Form
of the difference of the roots of
roots
29.
30.
the
Discuss
2x* + 2
(m + n)x
signsof
the roots
px2+
qx
bx-\-c
shall be
the squares
of the
m2 + n2=0.
of the
+ r
equation
0.
illustrates
useful
application
x-
Example.
have
can
If
is
all numerical
Let the
real
and
sum
113.
provedin Art.
of the results
are
followingexample
The
119.
bx +
of ax2
root
one
that the
quantity,prove
as
lie between
be represented
given expression
by
y,
+ 2x
11
"
expression
""
2 and
-.
6.
that
so
a2 +
2:r-ll_
~y;
2(s-3)
then
multiplying
up
and
have
we
transposing,
+ 6f/-ll
rr2+2.r(l-?/)
0.
is
"
be both positive,
the factors of this product must
or both negative. In the
Therefore
former case
y is greater than 6; in the latter y is less than 2.
have any other value.
2 and 6, but may
y cannot lie between
"
"
This is a
in the next
120.
the
are
of the
case
particular
For
of x
tlie expression
ax2 + bx+c
when
the
the
roots
same
sign a, except
of
equationax2+bx
real and unequal,and x has a value lyingbetween them.
as
Case
I.
Suppose that
ax2
are
generalproposition
investigated
article.
real ; denote
them
by
and
bx
ft,and
has
+ c
equation
0
let
be the
greater.
=0
92
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Find
Example.
be
capableof
all
Ix +
Put
o
i-
then
must
Ix + 5
5x2may
which
=v;
rr
+ (5-a?/):=0.
(a-5?/)a:2-7.r(l-?/)
In order
of
found
from
this
quadraticmay
be
real,the
expression
(1 y)'24 (a
49
that
(49 20a)y2+
is,
hence
positive,
be
be
be
negativeor
zero,
positive
;
and
49
Now
be
20a must
that is,accordingas
zero.
EXAMPLES.
1.
the
IX. b.
which
Determine
must
equation
2ax
may
If
2.
be real,xprove
^"2
3.
Shew
that
If
be
-5
xl
r^
1
3 and
x.
that
sb3
+ 34a?" 71
"
"
"
5 and
1 and
11
bx + 9
"
lies between
real,prove
liebetween
must
"
+ x+\
x-
4.
.774'-
"
-=
'-
that
"=
x1 + 2#
="
can
have
no
value between
9.
5.
Find
the
equationwhose
roots
are
s]a" sja b
-
6.
If
a,
/3are
roots of the
equationx2
"
px+q=0,
THEORY
THE
OF
QUADRATIC
7.
8.
If
be
except such
be in the ratio of p
real,the expression
lie between
as
!":{
EQUATIONS.
2)i and
qt prove that
admits
of all values
(x n)
-
2m.
b*-ae_B*-AC
~
~~a2
Shew
10.
that
the
'
A2
expression
"
"
values when
.#4-2
Find
11.
Shew
12.
2x2 + 3x
n
x.
real,the expression
(x2-bc)(2x-b-c)~i
has
real values
no
b and
between
13.
(a+ c)(ax2+
will be
that the
Shew
values when
*122.
with
c)
We
is
real,if a2
b2 and
shall conclude
and
in his mathematical
is
Functions
c2
this
+ 1)
(ac b2)(.r2
-
"
{-)- ,!will
"
"
d2 have
the
chapterwith
which
be capable of all
a) (ex a)
same
some
will be convenient
the
sign.
miscellaneous
here to introduce
student
will
frequently
reading.
Definition.
value
then
possibleand different,
0 be
expression-fl(ox
examples. It
phraseologyand notation
theorems
meet
+ c
14.
2bx
c.
x, and
function
the form
whose
of X.
f(x),
F(x),"f"(x).
Thus
to
the
statement
equationy =f(x)
that
any
be considered
as
may
made
in the value of
change
equivalent
as
will produce
The quantities
x
consequent change in ;//,and vice versd.
the
and y are
called variables,and are
further distinguished
as
independent variable and the dependent variable.
a
94
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
An
value
we
variable is a quantitywhich
independent
may have any
choose to assignto it,and the corresponding
dependent
of
expression
An
123.
pjs"+ pxxn
where
is
In
x.
pjf
pn_ tx + pn
rational and
shall confine
present chapterwe
the
as
soon
the form
and
integer,
positive
of
as
attention
our
to
of this kind.
functions
*124.
higherpower
of
function
function
x.
is said
to
be
it contains
+
ax
b is
quadratic
no
linear
it
when
no
*125.
variables
symbolfix, y) is used
and
y ; thus
*126.
where
bx
We
resolved
admits
and
j3are
of two
+
ey
+f
"
proved in
of being put
the roots
in
To
120
the
find the
has
form
expression
(x a)(x fi),
bx
"
"
"
0.
bx-\-c is
rational
capableof being
first degree,
whenever
roots ; that
that
hy f(x,y) where
the
is,when
functionofx,y
quadratic
factors.
condition
linear
that
ax2
equation
equationax2 + bx + c
iac is a perfect
square.
Denote
of the
Art.
ax2
quadraticexpression
into two
*127.
may
have
Thus
the
function
...
quadratic,
equations
fix) 0,fix, y) 0 are said to be linear,
the
are
linear,quadfunctions
ratic,..
f(x),f(x,y)
accordingas
The
ax2
to denote
ax
linear and
respectively
are
b2
The
c.
THEORY
THE
this in
Write
OF
QUADRATIC
descending
powers
95
EQUATIONS.
of x, and
equate it
to zero;
thus
ax*
2x
in
Solvingthis quadratic
-
(h
J{hy+ y)*
"
(j)
have
we
(by2+ 2fy+ c)
"
"
ax
"v
hy +
in order
Jy2(h* ab)+
"
"
J\.r,
y)
that
form
Transposingand dividing
by
abc
To
*128.
"
"
have
bx
0,
"
cross
that the
ax2
both
aa.2+ ba
a'a2+b'a
c'
equations
b'x +
satisfied
0,
0;
by
be
; then
"
b'c
ca
c'a
"
ab'
ab
"
'
a,
equal ratios
.'.
"
is the condition
"
'
"
"
and
a
'
which
multiplication
a"
equate
0 ;
root.
common
Supposethese equationsare
To
ch2
"
required.
by
obtain
we
is of great importance
in Analytical
proposition
Geometry.
This
.*.
a,
is the condition
which
may
"
required.
that
the
c'y'may
two
have
06
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
IX.
^EXAMPLES.
values of
For what
1.
will the
y2+ 2xy +
be
capableof resolution
2.
Shew
rational factors ?
If the
3y2 5y
-
expression
of two
equations
x2
have
2x + my
that the
alwaysadmits
4.
expression
to the
equivalent
3.
into two
c.
px
+ q
x2 +
0,
common
p'x+ q'
=
be either
p'l'-p'q
9-q
nr
q-q
5.
Find
the condition
that the
Lv2 + mxy
have
may
6.
can
2Pxy + 2y2+
2ax
4y +
be
must
one
of the
be
8.
Shew
that in the
-
If
and y
Zxy + 2y2
-
9x2
then will
10.
be
two
are
lie between
2x
3y
35
x.
0,
real value
of y, and
connected
real quantities
2xy +y2
3 and
92.r
20y +
244
6, and y between
If (ax2+ bx + c)y-\-a'x2
+ b'x + e'
rational function of y.
my +
y -mx,
equation
9.
expressions
+ b'y2
2hxy+ by2, a'x2 + 2k'xy
divisibleby
respectively
x2
may
m'xy-f-n'y'1
7.
may
l'x2+
ny2,
expression
%a? +
roots
expressions
linear factor.
common
If the
p-p
by
for every
the
real
equation
0,
1 and
10.
X.
CHAPTER
EQUATIONS.
MISCELLANEOUS
In
129.
this
chapter
equations
solved
require
by
the
some
to
consider
propose
it will be seen
of
that many
we
Example
I.
Multiplyby
8x2n-8x~^=63.
Solve
.r2n and
transpose; thus
i.
-
63x2'*-8
8xn-
0;
(a?"-8)(8x^+l)
0;
L
"
"2n
8,
or--;
8'
2n
"=(*)*"(-p)*;
.-.*=""",
Example
2.
Solve
/-+
or
/-
"
A.
6
6a
"
"
.".%+!
""""
+
2"%2-6a2?/-"2"/+
3a"
(2ay~")(ty-3a)=0;
3a
H.
A.
9a2
"2
4a
H.
cellaneous
mis-
equJtions,
others
for quadratic
for
their solution
special artifice
ordinary rules
3_
_
some
the^l Z
'
"l
"a
0;
but
98
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
(x2
have
We
20)(x2
quadraticin
62
.-.
Let
and
as
bx
bx
a2
or
-7.
J ax2 +
bx
shall obtain
"
J ax2 +
bx
obtain
we
ft;
values of
four
c,
that
equation,so
J ax2 +bx
a,
be thrown
can
-56
-a;
Putting y
we
equations
these
336
J ax2 +
from
c +
follows.
ftbe
gives
x,
(x2 x)+
S, -2, 8,
Any equationwhich
be solved
may
0f
whence
ax2
x2
504 ;
42)
(x2-a:-6)(x2-x-56) 0
X*-X-Q
.-.
(a2 x)2
130.
504.
7)(" + 6)(*+ 4)
(*-5)(a:-
Solve
Examples.
x.
understood
to a radical it is usually
signis prefixed
as
hence, if a and ftare both
that it is to be taken
positive;
the originalequation.
all the four values of x satisfy
positive,
the roots found from the resulting
If however
or
a
ftis negative,
the equation
quadraticwill satisfy
"When
no
ax2
Add
"
Solve x2
ox
+ 2
Jx2
Putting
Jx2-5x+3
*Jx2 5x
-
Squaring, and
ic=6
or
J ax2 +
bx
q,
5z + 3
12.
rc2-5a; + 3 +
Thus
equation.
original
Example.
bx
+ 3
+ 3
2N/^-5a;
y,
we
obtain
3,
or
Jx2-6x +
y2+ 2y
S
15.
15
0 ; whence
x^: =
"
or
The
obtain
Jx2-5x +
5.
first
from
the first
pair of
values
x2- 5x -2
-5.
we
ing quadratics,
solving the resulting
12.
100
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
solution of
The
133.
ax4
bx3
"
equationof
an
ex2 "
"
bx
in which
the form
0,
from
equidistant
end
For
its
Example.
reciprocal
tions,
equa-
as
altered when
is
student
completediscussion
more
reciprocal
beginning
the solution of
are
changed into
the
12a;4
Solve
of
570.
"
56.x + 12
56x3 + 89a;2
-
reciprocal
equationsthe
0.
12/W-2)
-56^+^+89
0.
Put
.-.
whence
we
then a;2+
-=z:
x
(z2- 2) -56^
12
obtain
"
z2-2;
0;
x-
or
-=-
89
13
a;
6
2
13
find that
By solvingthese equationswe
134.
solved in
The
Example.
We
have
6a;4
-
.-.
obtain
When
25
"
135.
fx
(^2+^i)
6(a;
we
2,
be
manner.
Solve
whence
whence
similar
(a;
j -25
a; =
2,
of
3,
0.
0;
0;
fx- -]-8-0;
or
12
1+24
"
0,
(^--^-3
=
-\+
quadraticequationis obvious by
often be readilyobtained
the other root may
by
inspection,
of
the
of
of
the
roots
use
properties
quadratic
equations
making
provedin Art. 114.
one
root
MISCELLANEOUS
This
is
(1
Solve
Example.
a-){x+ a)
of whose
quadratic,one
the
the roots is
productof
2a
(1
is
clearlya.
roots
(1 a2)x
1.
and
(1+ a2) 0,
EXAMPLES.
Solve the
ar) 0.
be written
X.
a-2 -2x~1
2jx
"
"
a.
following
equations:
8.
2.
9 + a-4
3.
101
EQUATIONS.
_J
*.
4.
6a?*~7**-8a7
6.
3.f2n-.rri-2=0.
JL
2x "=5-
10a--'.
5.
3"+6=5#".
7-
""/;+Vj-"* \/S+\/?'
9.
6x/a=5a
"2*.
2-13.
10.
1+8.^
11.
12.
13.
22* +
14.
22* + 3-57
15.
,/*"+"-*
16.
^.-#=5A-
17.
+ 1)
(x 7)(a- 3){x+ 5)(.v
1 680.
18.
385.
19.
20.
(2a-7)(a2-9)(2a
21.
A'2+ 2
22.
3a2
23.
3a2 -7 + 3
24.
8 + 9
25.
^-2+s/,,,_-5,+3=^:.
+ 1
32.2'.
(2x+
1 )(.v
-
"/a2
+ 6a
4a +
7){x+ 5)
2)(2a 3)
24
5)
63.
6x.
s/'3xi-4x-6l8.
=
(N/3sa-16a?
+ 21
J("v-1) (x-2)
3.c2
-
9^
(5*+ 5-*)
91.
16a;.
7a.
0.
26.
65(2*-l).
102
HIGHER
26.
ALGEBRA.
W.Y.
7.-^hs"i_c"
\*j x
"Jx2-3x=Jx2
27.
J4x2-7x-lb
28.
+ 4 +
"/2^2-9^
29.
V2^2+
V3(a;2-7a;
+ 6) J7x2-6x-l
30.
+ 2ax-3x2
s/a2
31.
J2x2+
32.
x/3^2 2x
33.
-9a;
V2^2-7a;+l ./2a;2
34.
"/3^2 7^
35.
o^ + a?-4o;2
36.
x*
38.
+ 52a;2
10(o7t+l)-63a?(a;2-l)
5^-7
bx
J%v-l
Ja2+
ax-6x2
V2#2 +
5a;
2o; -4
x/3.r2
-
30
*/2o;27x
a;+l
2\x-l\.
+ 9 +
J2x2+
9.
1.
13.
9a;2.
1.
+ 3ao;
^/Sa2
0.
a?
0.
8
+
+
^x2
9
3x3+3x.
3*+l-3("s+#)=2tf*.
37.
0.
x+J\2a-x _*Ja+\
x
"Jl2a-x sJct-V
a;
sjx2 1
a;
sjx2
-
8x
jx2
43.
44.
2*2: 22*
45.
46
^/a?-5 V3a?-7
+ I) (a?*
+ a*)a.
a2*(a2
=
(7a; 3)
_
x-b
2
+ 4 (a *)"
(a+ a;)3"
49.
"/a;2
+ aa;-l
50.
^B+-"-^El.8a
V^'2
\/a'2
.v4- 2.v3+
a;
Jx2+
"
2a;+l
380.
V^+T
3n/7^3
250
'
48.
51.
"".+
./".
a;2-l
V
18
'
(a2 a;2)"3.
bx-l
3x + 2.
3a;-7
4a;2
1.
"/^+#I
|.
Jtf-x
42.
bx
"
,"
4x2
'
^/.r21
a/^2
J a2
a+2x-
J 'a2
_
~
.1
41.
+ 2a; +
Ja
K/b.
52.
27^
+ 2U- + 8
MISCELLANEOUS
136.
shall
We
unknown
two
discuss
now
108
EQUATIONS.
simultaneous
some
equationsof
quantities.
Example 1.
Solve
J(x+
x+2+y+S+
2)(y+ 3)
39.
+ 3)=741.
+ 2)(2/
(z + 2)2+ (y+ 3)2+ (:r
Put
+ 2
m,
and
y + 3
then
u+v
Juv
w2 + v2 +
we
hence, from (1)and (2),
obtain
From
Sd
(1),
741
(2),
by division,
+ v
wv
Juv
19
Juv
and
wv
or
10,
100;
4, or
whence
25, or 4;
thus
23, or 2; y=l,
2.
u+t?=29;
(1)and (3),
Example
(3)
.r4+
Solve
25 ;
22.
or
(1),
82
y*=
(2).
ar-y=2
Put
then from
(2)we
+ t", and
obtain
v;
u-
l.
in (1),
Substituting
.-.
u4 + 6u2-40
w2
whence
and
4, or
"/~10*
"
or
V^iO;
-l, i"
x=s,
Thus
10 ;
"
"2,
u=
0;
ysal,-3, -li^-10.
JEa;ampZe3.
e
f^
Solve
^
=
"
Sx-yx
7x +
From
+ Sxy + y*
(1),15 (2a;2
-
.-.
.-.
Hence
or
3z2 +
(1),
2A
y10
5y
Axy
(2).
29
38
y-)
=
+ 2xy
(3.x2
y*);
129o;2-29xy-38?/20;
=
{Sx-2y)(iBx+ 19y)=0.
Sx
43#
2y
(3),
-19y
(1).
104
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
From
(3),
__7x+ 5y
y
=
29
1, by equation (2).
.-.
from
(4),
^43
19
3.
7x +
Again,
2, y
5y
82
29
=
551
"*'
by equation (2),
-gg,
_1247
,V~
X~
82
"
82
551
Hence
3;
or
4#3 +
Solve
4.
Example
2, y
x-
1247
,
and
mx,
in both
substitute
"
l.
-^-
3a;2f/
+ ?/3=8,
+ "?/2
2z3-2a;2?/
Put
11=
"
z3(4+
equations.
3m +
z3(2-2m
Thus
m3)
(1).
m2)
(2).
4 + 3m + mz
"*'
2-2m
m2~
-12
m3-8"i9+19m
(/;i-l)(?/i-3)
(m-4)
that is,
m=l,
.*.
(i)
From
'
Take
l, and
#3
1;
.*.
0;
0;
3, or 4.
or
substitute in either
(2),
(1)or (2).
l;
y=mx=x=l.
and
(ii) Take
3, and
substitute in
(2);
3
thus
5:r3 l;
and
.*.
x=
/l
\/
k'-"
3/1
(iii)Take7?"
4;
we
vix
3x
3 */
-.
obtain
3/
10.r3=l;
.-.
x=^-;
3
and
mx
4x=4.
/I
/r^.
MISCELLANEOUS
the
Hence
complete solution is
*=1,
The
of the
equations are
Example 5.
method
ahove
V5'
always be
homogeneous.
of solution
degree and
same
Solve
(2)we
have
-8
x2-
4y2+
(1),
('2).
7 j/4
+
.-.
that
(x2 Ixy
-
Ay2)(Uxy
x2
j/")-0 ;
=
Ixy + Ay2)
=
0 ;
s*-10sy+9y4=0
is,
.'.
hence
cases
ov
"3y.
x=
obtain
in (2),
we
substituting
and
in succession
x
(3).
0;
(x2-y2)(x2-9y2)
x="y,
Taking these
the
in (1),
Ixy + 4//'; and, substituting
31x-y2
when
used
may
3 lx2y2-7y4- 112^ + 64
x2-7xy
From
To*
s\/l"
4\/^*
1'
""=
Note.
L05
EQUATIONS.
y="2;
^J
x=-y="
y="l\
x="3,
3"/-17'^=T\/
-
yj
Note.
It should be observed that equation (3) is homogeneous. The
method
here employed by which
one
equation is made homogeneous by a
suitable combination
with the other is a valuable artifice. It is especially
useful in AnalyticalGeometry.
Example 6.
(x+yft+2
{x
Solve
?/)*
=
y*fi
{x2
-
(1).
(2).
3x-2y=13
i
Divide
each term
of
or
(x+y\s+2(-~yY=3
\x-yj
\.v+
{x +y)* (x y)r;
gj
106
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
[x
This
v\a
equationis a quadraticin (
which
from
find,
easily
we
(x"y-Y2oTl;
^=8
whence
\x-yj
1 ;
or
x-y
7x
.'.
9y,
or
0.
obtain
13
x=9,
7;
or
-^,y=0.
EXAMPLES.
:
following
equations
Solve the
1.
3x-2y
a,4+
6.
#y
3x2
2.
-bf
.r4+y4=706,
x+y
7.
+y2=2275.
4y2
Zlxy
9.
5y2-7^
bxy
,r+i l,
=
17.
+y
x2
+y2
6.
\A?y,
l33-xy.
3.r2+ 165
y2-3
6 +
y2
15.
"+"-",
18.
^-y5
19.
+y
1072,
11
^3+y3=ie.
2.
1.
5.
5
+
5
=
7;
11
11
20.
992,
"e
|+t
?/+-=25.
1 32.
0.
x-y
16.ry,
3.zy,
2.
13y2
7^y+ 3y2
xA+y* 272,
=
25.
+3/2 84,
10.
#2 +
2x2
x-y
l7,
45.
14.
ocy
1,
*Jxy+y=6.
12.
l5,
8.
6x2
12^
x2 +
5.
65,
3x2+xy+y2
11.
16.
25.
19.
4^-3^
3.
3,
931,
3#2-5y2 7,
Zxy
13.
+y2
Jxy +y
#2
8.
xy
bx -y
y2- 6#2
%).
#y+2/4
x2"
2.
7,
xy
4.
X. b.
xy^+yx^=20,
33
^-2+y2=65.
#2+y2 5,
21.
11
6(.i?2+y
2)
=
5.
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
108
from
Also
whence
obtain
we
Thus
(1),
u
6;
or
have
we
+ y
#?/
the solutions
Hence
7.
or
7,1
6,
+ ?/=
"
and
10 \
10
acy
3db\/-l.,
2,'|
5,1 y^W^T,
or
2,
65
.r
or
or
Solve
2.
are
x=5,
Example
=13;
+z
z=l.
y){x+ z) 30,
+
(a;
=18.
[z+x)(z+y)
Write
for ?/+ 2,
m, 1;,w
viv
30,
"
respectively
; thus
+ as, a; + y
tvu
15,
mv
have
we
these equationstogether,
Multiplying
wVu"2
30
3,
.-.
ce=4, y
whence
Example
3.
Solve
6,
y +
5\
or
+ y
l,
y2+ ys
22 +
z:r
-3,
5))
2;
equationsin (1),we
v
have
-6, w=-5;
-d",\
-5,i
z+x
or
62 ;
y+z=-S,\
z=3,\
x
$, "
15*
"90.
of the
each
with
18
uvw
.*.
15
(1).
18
+ y
x=-i,
or
+ 22
+ a;2=
x* + xy +
y=-l,
"=-2.
49
(1),
19
(2),
y2=39
(3).
Subtracting(2)from (1)
(y-x){x +
is,
y +
z)
30
(4).
[z-x){x+y+z)*=10
Hence
from
y-*-3.
"
"-"
whence
3z-2x.
(5).
MISCELLANEOUS
we
Substitutingin equation (3),
10f)
EQUATIONS.
obtain
z*-8xa+8zs=13.
From
x2 +
(2),
xz
z~
19.
Example
jc=
"-ts,
4.
Solve
"
3 ; and therefore y
and
"-t^ ;
2=
.t2-yz
a2, y^ -zx
Multiplythe equationsby y,
c2.r+
Multiplythe equationsby
therefore
2,
a;
(1)and (2),by
a4_^2c2
c2.
add ; then
(1).
; then
(2).
(a6+
suPP"se'
of the
k2
multiplication,
cross
one
xy
and add
respectively
~^"c2V^W ^W2
Substitute in any
-,
"
"
and
respectively
+ "2z
"2//
z, x, y
y=T
62, z2
5;
"
obtain
b6 + c6
1 ;
3a2Z"2c2)
=
11
^4_c2ft2
C4_ai7/j
EXAMPLES.
*Ja*+b*+c*-3a?tP"?
X.
c.
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
110
9.
x*y*zhi=\%#VW=8,
10.
aPy*z=12t^-3=54,
11.
ay+#+y=23,
xz+x
yz
ij
x*yz2u2l, 3xy2z2u24.
=
.*%322 72.
=
12.
4l,
2^-4?+2/
3yz+y-6z
27.
"xz + 3s + 2#=
13.
xz+y^lz,
14.
15.
^2+y2+22=3/^+
16.
#2+y2-M2 21a2,ys
yz +
x=8z,
22
=
a2,#
^-.ry
Indeterminate
+ # +
2
52,
29.
a.
a*/3.
6a2,3x+y-2z
3a.
Equations.
138.
l2.
"2,3.r-# +
+ ."y
2^
y +
17,
proposedfor
tion
solu-
person
horse costs "23
spends ."461
and each
in
buying
"16,
cow
how
horses
23a; +
16^
if each
cows;
of each does he
many
of horses and
and
cows
buy1?
respectively
; then
461.
two unknown
equationinvolving
quantities,
and it is clear that by ascribing
value
to
we
please x, we can
any
obtain a corresponding
value for y ; thus it would appear at first
admits
of an infinite number
the
of solutions.
problem
sightthat
of the question
But it is clear from the nature
that x and y must
be positive
shall see
as
we
integers
; and with this restriction,
Here
have
we
later,the number
If the
number
one
of solutions is limited.
of unknown
us
to express
the solutions in
very
simpleform.
The
in
generaltheory of
Chap. xxvi.
indeterminate
equationswill
be found
INDETERMINATE
Example
Divide
1.
Solve 7#
y+^
anil y
are
to be
we
integers,
5y-S
=31
(1)
...
have
must
l%-9
therefore
+ -;
integer;
and
=31
y+^-~
.-.
Since
Ill
EQUATIONS.
integer;
w-2
that is,
and
*-=-= integer;
%-l+
1/-2
therefore
y-2
.-.
or
y
this
Substituting
that
value of y in
is,
.r
integer
=p
7p,
lp +
suppose.
(2).
(1),
7p +
2 +
5" +
31;
2"-l2p
.(3).
be exhibited
0,
1,
2,
a: =
28,
16,
4,
y=
2,
9,
16.
p=
Note.
When
we
obtained
follows
as
5y-S
we
integer,
multipliedby
in order
the coefficient
to make
of y differby unityfrom a multipleof 7. A similar
artifice should always be employed before introducing
a symbol to denote
the integer.
Example
Divide
2.
Solve in
14x
positiveintegers,
thus
by 11, the smaller coefficient;
Sx
x
i/-2
11
ir;
3x-7
=
11
integer;
11// 29.
=
(1).
112
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
12"
hence
28
mteger *"
integer;
^
^
g*
that
"
is,
""
Qfc
'"
.-.
2 +
integer
=_p suppose;
"
.*. X
\\p+
"
14p +
"
is called the
any
and
y ; thus
This
we
0,
.t
of solutions
be the number
2,
3,
"5
can
ways
be
paidin
half-crowns
florins?
of florins ; then
x+y+\=
x
.'
and
4y 200;
5^ +
"""
1,
beinginfinite.
have
p
the number
.*.
and
5";
"
integer
2^ suppose
x=4p,
y
50-5p.
each
party numbering 43
6d.,and
2s.
there of each?
Let x, y, z denote the number
then we have
of men,
x
10.r +
Eliminating z,
The
we
obtain
generalsolution
of this
y +
women,
z=
5?/+
2z
8x +
By
equationis
x=Sp
y
l,
45-8p;
43
229.
143.
and
children,respectively;
(1),
in (1),
we
by substituting
Hence
Here
from
cannot
p
1 to 5.
be
Thus
5p-3.
x=
2=2,
integralvalues
positive
X. d.
EXAMPLES.
Solve in
have
may
1, 2, 3, 4, 5;
p=
obtain
zero, but
negativeor
113
EQUATIONS.
INDETERMINATE
:
positive
integers
103.
1.
3.i +
4.
l"P+lly=414
8y
2.
5#+2y=53.
3.
7.";+12y=152.
5.
23a?+25y=915.
6.
4L"; +
and
Find the generalsolution in positive
integers,
the equations
of x and y which satisfy
:
7.
5.v-7y
8.
3.
10.
I7y-13#=0.
13.
A farmer
In how
including
zero
What
16.
ways
many
solutions ?
is the
by
56
number
remainder
can
be
"5
77y-3Qa?=295.
12.
who
has
for
one
may
person
be
has
who
only half-crowns
multipleof
only guineas
18.
and sixpences,
paid in shillings
parts so that
simplestway
17. Find
and
8#-2ty=33.
to pay
19y-23a?=7.
2191.
and each
costs "37
14.
11.
9.
6a?-13y=l.
47y
16,
change is to
only?
divided by 5
of which when
19. Divide 136 into two parts one
leaves remainder 2, and the other divided by 8 leaves remainder 3.
20.
at "17
of rams
at "4, pigsat
I buy 40 animals consisting
of each do I buy ?
if I spend "301, how many
"2, and
oxen
half-crowns
which are sovereigns,
In my pocketI have 27 coins,
how
I
coins of
have
6d.
is
amount
05.
and
"5.
the
or shillings,
;
many
?
each sort have I
21.
H.
H. A.
XL
CHAPTER
Permutations
or
some
all of
or
letters a,
a,
b, c,
d two
at
of
at
two
of these
can
thingsis called
which
time
are
be made
in
by taking the
number, namely,
ad,
be, bd,
cd,
ba,
ca,
dc ;
time
different arrangement
which
are
ac,
presentinga
can
be
made
six in number
ad,
by taking
combination.
made
be
can
twelve
by taking
permutation.
ac,
ab,
each
thingsis called
selections which
or
be made
can
ab,
combinations
b, c, d
of
number
presentinga
of these
The
arrangements which
"permutations
the
Thus
each
of the groups
all of a number
Each
some
of the
Each
139.
Combinations.
and
of two
letters.
by taking the
namely,
letters
letters.
whereas
of the
order
letters a, b, c, d
abc, this singlecombination
if from
as
in
four
followingways
we
make
admits
of
selection of
being arranged in
so
givesrise
to six different
three,such
permutations.
the
116
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
1 ways ;
then be filledup in n
these ways, the second placecan
be associated
and since each way of filling
up the first placecan
of ways in
the
number
of filling
with each way
up the second,
be filledup is given by the product
which the firsttwo placescan
-
(n
1).
any
And
third
the
way,
when
be filled up is
be filled up in h
of ways in which
placecan
number
reasoningas before,the
in
And
2 ways.
three placescan
"
of factors is the
in which
of ways
factor is introduced
new
at
any
placesfilled up,
of
the number
as
same
number
the
filled up
(n 1)(n 2).
that a
Proceedingthus, and noticing
with each new
placefilled up, and that
have
been
placeshave
be
placescan
shall
we
filled up
equalto
(n- l)(n" 2)
to
factors ;
and
(r" 1), or
"
"
r+1.
permutationsof
of
the number
Therefore
thingstaken
at
time is
n{n- 1)(n- 2)
The
Cor.
of
number
(n-r
permutationsof
1).
thingstaken
all at
time is
(n 1)(?i 2)
"factorial
read
142.
of
n."
at
time
productby
n\ is sometimes
shall in future
We
thingstaken
Also
denote
by
the
the
symbol \n,which
used
for
so
\n.
time
Let
taken
number
of
also be found
may
at
time.
permutations
that
(n-r + 1);
In
143.
is
\n.
of
symbol nPr
"P
factors,
the number
"Pr w(w-l)(w-2)
also
3.2.1.
Y)(n"2)
"
to denote this
It is usual
to
n(n
or
notice that
of factors in
permutations of n thingstaken
in the following
manner.
number
of
the
permutations of
at
things
PERMUTATIONS
form
Supposewe
at
AND
all the
of
permutations
'
each
With
Each time we
r
of
at
time;
things
do this
at
one
we
time is
for
By writing r"l
of the
shall
therefore
a
thingst;iken
"
r"l
of these put
and
117
COMBINATIONS.
get
nPr_] (n
in this
number
of the
1); that
r +
"
permutation of
one
the whole
x
remainingn
formula,we
tilings.
things
permutations
is,
obtain
"P_1 '^r_2x(n-r-f2),
=
'P
similarly,
'Pr_a (n
x
3),
r +
(71-I),
"P^P.x
"Px=7l.
Multiplytogetherthe
from
each
side,and
(n-r+l).
Four
1.
Example
many
enter
persons
ways
obtain
we
nPr n(n-l)(n-2)
seats ; in how
and
vertical columns
railwaycarriagein
their
they take
can
which
there
are
six
places?
The first person may seat himself in 6 ways ; and then the second person
in 5 ; the third in 4 ; and the fourth in 3 ; and since each of these ways may
is 6x5x4x3,
be associated with each of the others,the required answer
or
360.
Example
of the nine
Here
we
How
2.
different numbers
many
be formed
can
by using six
out
digits1, 2, 3,...9?
have 9 different
of them taken 6 at
we
have
of permutations
time ;
the requiredresult
*
.
thingsand
=
9P6
=9x8x7x6x5x4
=
taken
tilings
Let
find
To
144.
at
"Crdenote
Then
each
60480.
of
the number
combinations
of
dissimilar
time.
the
requirednumber
of these
dissimilar
things which
|rways.
[Art.142.]
combinations
can
be
of combinations.
consists of
arranged among
of r
group
in
themselves
a
118
HIGHER
Hence
"Crx
thingstaken
ALGEBRA.
rata
*C x\r
|
of arrangements
is,
(n 1)(n
"
2)
"
(n
1);
r +
_tt(w-l)(w-2)...(w-r+l)
|r
Cor.
\n
"
This formula
; for if we
obtain
r we
for
\r
The
numerator
numbers
from
1)
\n
"
'"
different
by
"
consists of the
now
to
{n
...
the denominator
and
numerator
2)
in
also be written
nCr may
multiplythe
(n 1)(n
"P
form
of
productof
\n
.'.
It will be convenient
"Cr=.
to
(2).
Note.
both
remember
(2)we put
n,
these
numerical
it in
we
\n
an
for
expressions
result is
required,
algebraical
shaj)e.
have
i
|0'
n~jn|_0"
but
nCn=l,
so
be considered
is to be true for
n,
the
symbol 10
must
equivalentto 1.
12 books in how
selection of 5 be
can
a
Example. From
many
ways
book is always included, (2) when
one
made, (1)when one specified
specified
book is always excluded ?
(1)
have
only
Since the
to choose
Hence
book is to be included
specified
of the remaining 11.
4 out
the number
of ways
n
=
C4
11x10x9x8
~
1x2x3x4
=
330.
in every
selection,we
PERMUTATIONS
Since
the
out
(2)
Hence
AND
book
specified
to be
is always
remaining 11.
of the
the number
of ways
119
COMBINATIONS.
excluded,
have
we
to
nC6
11x10x9x8x7
_
1x2x3x4x5
462.
number
The
145.
at
"
of n thingsr at a time
of\\ thingsn
r at a time.
of combinations
is
"
combinations
of n things,
to each
making all the possible
of r thingswe
there
is
left
a corresponding
select,
group of
of combinations
of n things
things; that is,the number
time is the
of combinations
at
same
the number
as
of combinations
things
time ;
"C =nC
.-.
The
of
also be
proposition
may
"
provedas
follows
\n
"0
[Art.144.1
="
_r
"
(n r)
"
Such
Note.
The
combinations
Put r=w,
result
abridgearithmetical
Example.
useful
just proved is
in
enablingus
to
work.
Out of 14
The
complementary.
ttC0 nCn=l.
have
we
called
are
then
"
men
in how
requirednumber
many
=
can
ways
an
eleven be chosen?
14CU
14
13
12
1x2x3
=
If
we
had
made
expressionwhose
use
of the formula
numerator
and
364.
uCn,
denominator
we
au
120
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Thus
required number
the
Ira+
h=
ra
\7b
Note.
If
the
m,
in this
equal, and
are
groups
the number
case
of
\2m
of subdivision is
different
ways
to
interchangethe
two
~
-
[9
without
groups
for in any
"
"
obtaininga
one
it is
way
possible
distribution.
new
divide
thingsinto two
: the number
thingsrespectively
ra
\m
be done
can
is
of ways
the number
be divided
can
in which
this
n+p
-r=
\m
Then
containingm
groups
of ways
into two
n+p
in which
of n+p
things
group
containingn and p thingsrespec-
groups
the
\n+p
tivelyis
n
Hence
the number
n, p
in which
of ways
containingm,
groups
n+p
\m
n+p
x
,
in
be made
thingscan
m.
\n
into three
the subdivision
is
n
]"
or
-,5
Ira \n
\p
\p
J3wi
Note.
If
we
put
?i=p
we
obtain
r=-|
"
"
as
to
which
each
mode
of
the
subdivision,
can
number
be made
groups
13 such
The
number
of ways
in which
in
occur
can
orders
responding
cor-
of
different
ways
is
|3ot
r^f r^
771 m
|3
15 recruits
in
"
"
"
771
Example.
regards
can
be divided into
115
three
can
equal groups
is
---
,-
and
the number
of ways
in which
-_"
I15
Hr
they
"
[6 J5 [6
PERMUTATIONS
148.
In the
AND
follow
exampleswhich
it is
Example 1. From 7
be formed; in how many
121
COMBINATIONS.
important to
be
not
questionhave
been
a
(1)
can
2 Americans
and
used
notice
until the
made.
committee
of 0 is to
the committee
tains
con-
Englishmen.
\1
li
=
|~2"[2X
TTJ3
17
'J^
210.
|2|2|3
(2)
The
committee
contain
may
4 Americans.
2, 3, or
and
containing2 Americans
and lastly4 Americans
The
number
sum
of ways
results will
of the three
=
[212
=
17
|4
17
X
TTT^
TK
required
[2)5
371.
of the
the
17
rl-^+
210 + 140 + 21
Hence
Example
suitable formulae
possiblearrangements
words
for
of the
can
be
made
is 7C3,and the
of choosingthe three consonants
of ways
number
is
since
each
of the first
2
the
vowels
and
of ways of choosing
number
*Ca;
of
number
combined
the
the
be associated with each of
second,
groups can
and 2 vowels, is 7C3x 4C2.
3 consonants
groups, each containing
The
Further,each of these
among
the
themselves
requirednumber
in
groups
[5ways.
of words
contains
which
letters,
Hence
=
7C3x 4C2x Jo
"
~|3|4X[2]2X
=
5x|7
r
25200.
may
be
arranged
122
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
3.
Example
How
many
that the vowels occupy the
words
be formed
can
out
places?
even
nants
Here we have to put the 3 vowels in 3 specified
places,and the 4 conso3
done
in
the
be
4
first
in the
can
remaining places;
operation
1 ways,
and
the second in
14
the requirednumber
Hence
of words
=|3x[4
=
144.
immediately applicable,
one
way of choosing the
EXAMPLES
XI.
a.
and
and
8 candidates for a Classical,
7 for a Mathematical,
are
the
In
how
Natural
Science
4
can
a
Scholarship.
ways
many
be awarded?
Scholarships
2.
There
for
3.
Find
the value of
8P7, 25P5,24"74,
19CU.
different arrangements
4. How
many
of the letters of the word equation ?
of
If four times the number
number
five
times
to
the
equal
find n.
3 together,
5.
is
6.
many
"
be made
these will
of the letters of
beginwith t and end
out
be made
different selections can
7. How
by
many
different
How
numbers
?
the digits
1
3, 4, 7, 5,8,
many
?
with four of these digits
8.
If
9.
How
10.
2nC3 : nOj
How
many
many
alwaysbeinglast ?
of
of
be formed
taking four
can
3, find n.
changescan
be rung
changescan
how many
nightsmay
crew
24, so that no two watches
be taken?
would any one man
11.
On
44
by taking 5
permutationscan
of
triangle?How
many
How
the word
with e ?
be made
can
with
be rung with
pealof
5 bells ?
the
pealof 7 bells,
tenor
watch of 4 men
be drafted from a
of these
identical
how
? On
are
many
a
12. How
arrangements can be made out of the letters of the
many
wrord draught,
the vowels never
beingseparated?
124
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
boat is to be manned
An eight-oared
by a crew chosen from 11
but canand
the rest can row
cannot
but
not
steer
of
whom
3 can
row,
men,
of
the
be
if
the crew
arranged, two
steer. In how many
ways can
men
can
only row on bow side?
30.
Prove
32.
If
56Pr+
54Pr+
of ways
in which
two
so that no
row
30800
1, find
positiveand n
negativesignsshall
p
r.
ently
6 differbe made by hoisting
different signalscan
How
many
them
of
number
above the other,when
coloured flagsone
any
be hoisted at once ?
33.
may
U^C2r
34.
been
regardedas
or
one
some
24C2r_4225
11, find r.
149.
have
unlike.
sets of
more
have
proved,the things
in which
cases
considering
we
Before
be
thingsmay
like,it
is necessary
like and unlike
to
the words
are
point out exactlyin what sense
used.
When
like,
unwe
different,
speak of thingsbeing dissimilar,
be
to
that
the
unlike,so as
we
thingsare visibly
imply
On
the other hand
from each other.
we
distinguishable
easily
like thingsto denote such as are
alike
shall always use the term
from each other.
For
be distinguished
to the eye and cannot
in
instance,
the
2, Art. 1-48,
Ex.
be said each
to consist of
and thus in
characteristic,
consonants
of
group
certain
and
the vowels
thingsunited
by
to be of the
sense
same
may
common
kind;
because there is an
regardedas like things,
which
the things of each group
individuality
existingamong
from
each
other.
makes
them
Hence, in
easilydistinguishable
considered
each
to
the final stage of the example we
group
therefore capable of [5
consist of five dissimilar things and
but
be
they cannot
themselves.
arrangements among
150.
12
books
the remainder
The
books
on
shelf,5
in different
in each
class,united by
one
from
distinguishable
would
be
of them
languages.
languagemay
common
each
be
regardedas belongingto
characteristic ; but
of
other, the number
they are
possible
ways of arranging
and
being Latin, 4 English,
have
Supposewe
[Art.141 Cor.]
different.
essentially
of
arrangement
if
they were
permutations
among
selves
them-
AND
PERMUTATIONS
125
COMBINATIONS.
tinguisha
If, however, the books in the same
language are not disshould have to find the number
from each other,we
be
of ways in which 12 thingscan
alike of
when 5 of them are exactly
of
second
of the
kind
we
cases
problem which
have
arrangedamong
kind, and
one
is not
themselves,
exactlyalike,
included
directly
in any
considered.
previously
151.
Let there be
b, r of them
to be
number
find the
of permutations; then if in
requirednumber
the_pletters a were
replacedby p
any one of these permutations
of
from
the
this single
unlike letters different from any
rest,
of any of the remaining
the position
without altering
permutation,
could form Ip new
we
permutations.Hence if this change
letters,
should obtain x x \p
we
made in each of the x permutations
were
permutations.
Let
the
be
the
we
\p x
replacedby
q unlike
be
|"7.
the
thingsare
permutationsamong
treated
admit
of \n
Hence
\px \qx
\n;
r-
"
~.
"
"
\p\gp
is the
Any
letters,
r
'
is,
which
and therefore
different,
themselves.
x
that
all
now
letters,
case
requirednumber
in which
similarly.
the
of
permutations.
thingsare
not
be
126
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
have here
the number
We
Hence
be made
permutationscan
?
all together
different
1. How
many
assassination taken
letters of the word
Example
4
13 letters of which
of permutations
s, 3
are
are
a, 2
are
of the
out
i, and
are
n.
~|^[3|2j"
=
13.11.10.9.8.7.3.5
1001
many
Example 2. How
1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, 1, so that the
digits1, 3, 3, 1
odd
The
10800
the digits
with
formed
digitsalways occupy the odd places?
numbers
odd
be
can
10810800.
can
arrangedin
be
their four
placesin
l^2ways
The
digits2, 4, 2
even
be
can
(1)-
13
(2).
y^ ways
Each
in
of the ways
(1)can
14
Hence
the
requirednumber
To
152.
time, when
find
each
times in any
Here
we
of the ways
in
(2).
y^=x--j^
the number
thing may
of permutationsof n thingsr
be repeated
up
once, twice,
at
to
a
r
arrangement.
have
placescan be
each
disposal,
any
to
consider
the
number
filled up when
have n
we
of the n things beingused
of ways in which
different thingsat our
as
often
as
we
pleasein
arrangement.
it has
first placemay be filled up in n ways, and, when
been filled up in any one
way, the second placemay also be filled
not
are
precludedfrom using the same
up in n ways, since we
The
of ways in which
the number
n2. The third
be filled up iswxn
or
also be filled up in n ways, and therefore the first three
n3 ways.
thing again.
two
placescan
Therefore
index
we
shall have
filled up
the number
equalto
nr.
and
as
of ways
that
noticing
the number
of
in which
the
at any
the first
placecan
placesin
stage the
placesfilled up,
r
placescan be
PERMUTATIONS
Example. In
each
is
boy
Any
how
AND
many
of the
one
prizescan
also be
remaining prizes
received
has
who
already
boy
can
away
be given in 4
given in 4 ways,
a prize. Thus
and
make
be taken
or
2x2x2x2
of \\ things.
ways, for it may either
of dealingwith any one
of
with
dealing
eacli
one
factors.
all the
in which
case
"the
as
thingsare
of ways
spoken of
This is often
total number
left,
is 2"-l.
of combinations"
things.
has
to dinner?
A
Example.
of them
more
He
ways
to
the
this includes
this
therefore,
rejecting
of
all
it is possible
of selections is
others,the number
But
in which
ways
thing may
of the
of
tiling
may be
or
left;and
Each
boys,when
ways.
to 4
on.
so
To
153.
to
prizes?
can
ways
127
COMBINATIONS.
man
6 friends ; in how
or
many
ways
may
he invite
one
or
of
This
The
number
result
be verifiedin the
can
be invited
guests may
of selections
6 + 15 + 20 + 15 + 6 + 1
154.
To
of n thingsr
Since
findfor what
at
manner.
following
value
of
63.
the number
1.2.3
=nC
.
"
l)
(w-r
2)
(r-1)
1. 2.3
"C
2)(n-r
(r-l)r
_n(n-l)(n-2)
of combinations
time is greatest.
=^(?l-1)(n-2) (w-r +
"C
; therefore the
x
r
The
which
factor
multiplying
shews
that it decreases
may
as
increases.
be
written
Hence
as
"
1,
receives
128
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
increased
succession,nGris continually
in
1, 2, 3
values
the
71 4-
equal to 1
1 becomes
until
or
less than
1.
1^1,
Now
r
71+1
^
long
so
as
"
"
r.
is,
We
this
"
have
"
choose
to
that
consistent
with
inequality.
Let
(1)
be even,
by puttingr
Hence
is "C
combinations
"
2"
?"
to
up
"
+1
2m
-2
for all values of
then
equalto 2m;
and
and
of
greatestvalue
the
inclusive this is
?n
greater than
greatestnumber
we
"
+s;
r.
of
Let
(2)
be
n
"
but when
of
1 ; then
=-5"
li
"
inclusive this is
greater than r ;
factor becomes
1 the multiplying
equalto 1, and
and
2m
to
up
*C.=nC
that
:
'
mi+I
is,"C n+
'
-nC
thingsare
155.
time
numbes
of
at
Let
r
a,
at
b,c,
or
"
^"
at
is
time;
greatest when
the result
the
being the
cases.
The formula
"
in the two
same
"
of combinations
and
"
7i"l
may
things
for the
permutations.
"Crdenote
time;
d,
and
of combinations
the number
let the
thingsbe
of
denoted
thingstaken
by
the
letters
Take
away a; then
of
combinations
"~XC
r
tilings
at
and
Tlierefore
so
But
1 at
form
cm
time.
With
number
for each of the n letters.
time
we
thus we
see
time, the number
which
those that contain c, and
at
1 letters taken
w~lC x\ similarlythe
is
b is n~xC
remainingletters
these write a;
eaeli of
of
with tin1
n"
120
COMBINATIONS.
AND
PERMUTATIONS
so
on.
in this manner,
by formingthe combinations
will be repeated
r times.
one
For
if
instance,
each ticular
parr=3, the
*c=n-xcr
r"
By writingu
1 and
"
1x-.
i
.,
1 instead of
"
amonir
and
respectively,
ni
r-l"
"-2
-V^
Similarly,
n"
+ 2/~1
^Gr_z
_n-r
and
finally,
n-r+1C1 "-r
=
the
Multiplytogether
from
+ \ri
^i
"
".
;
1.
vertical columns
and
.n(rc-l)(n-2)
(n-r+l)
1
r(r-l)(r-2)
156.
to make
To
a
find the
selection
total number
by takingsome
in which
of ways
all out
kind,q alike
or
alike of one
are
tilings,
ivJierenf-p
third
kind; and so on.
ofa
The p thingsmay be disposed
of
it is -possible
qfip+ cx+r +
of a second kind, r
alike
take
0, 1,2, 3,
disposedof
so
in
p "f thorn.
\ ways;
the
in p
1 ways
; for
may
wo
be
the q things may
Similarly
and
r
things in r+1
ways;
on.
H. II. A.
130
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
is
disposedof
of Avays in which
number
the
Hence
taken
ways
is
the
in which
case
therefore, rejectingthis
case,
Find
Example.
be solved in the
four
of
of
number
combinations,of n thingstaken r
may be somewhat
thingsare not all different,
may
thingsare
of
number
-1.
at
or
case
particular
total
the
the
expressing
generalformula
of the
none
be
tilings
may
(^ + 1)(q+ 1)(r+ 1)
this includes
But
all the
tions,
permuta-
time,when
the
complicated
; but
manner.
following
of ways in which
the number
from
be made
letters can
(1)a selection,(2)an
the
letters of
the
rangement,
ar-
word
proportion.
There
In
are
Three
(4)
Two
Two
alike,the other
The
selection
p, r, t, is
n, can
(2) The
of the three
(3)
3
This
pairs,and
(1) This
selection
pairso,
then two
from
be made
in
3C2ways
in 3
in
be made
the six
o, p, r,
(2) givesrise
to 3
(3) givesrise
to 30
(4) givesrise
to 15
; for
we
6C4ways,
t, i,n.
Thus
as
This
we
have
to take 4 different
gives15 selections.
of selections is 5 + 3 + 30 + 15 ; that
(1) givesrise to
; for each
can
can
This"gives3 selections.
r, r.
p, p;
from
selection
i; n.
different.
two
in 5 ways
be made
with the single
group
can
o;
selection
letters to choose
Thus
can
be taken
r, r; t;
different.
alike,one
(1)
(2)
(3)
(1)
be classifiedas follows
findinggroups
p,p;
or
=
,
20
-^=^ or
,
-=-
j4
,
or
or
letters
we
is,53.
have to permute in
arrangements.
18 arrangements.
360 arrangements.
3G0 arrangements.
132
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
and
has 5 arms
telegraph
includingthe positionof
positions,
t
hat
be made ?
can
signals
A
17.
each
is capableof 4 distinct
is the total number
rest ; what
of
arm
7 persons form a
many
ways can
Americans
sit down
and
7
7
Englishmen
ways
two Americans
beingtogether?
In how
18.
can
many
is it
ways
From
20.
of fruit
cocoa
can
be
and
nuts, 4 apples,
made,
the number
Find
21.
n
at
of money
from
to draw a sum
possible
a
a
a
a sovereign,half-sovereign,
florin,shilling,
crown,
bag containing
and
a
farthing?
penny,
In how
19.
In how many
round table,
no
ring?
of different ways
tions
selec-
of
dividingmn
thingsinto
equalgroups.
22.
colours
at
once
4 flagsof different
signalscan be made by hoisting
of them may be hoisted
above the other,when any number
one
with
5
?
? How
flags
many
How
many
of permutationswhich can
23. Find the number
?
the letters of the word series taken three together
be formed
out of
in a plane,
There are p points
three of which are in the same
no
line with the exception
of q, which are all in the same
straight
straight
of
of
which
result
the
number
find
(1) straightlines,
(2) triangles
line;
them.
from joining
24.
25. There
plane with the
how
many
26.
number
are
There
of ways
are
in which
can
be made
can
be
out of the
of all numbers
29. Find the sum
greaterthan 10000 formed
usingthe digits1,3,5, 7,9, no digitbeingrepeatedin any number.
by
by
30.
If of p + q + r thingsp be
shew that the total number
different,
31.
alike,and
and
q be alike,
of combinations is
the rest
(p + l)(q+l)2r-l.
32. Shew that the number
of permutationswhich
be formed
can
from 2n letters which are either a's or 6's is greatestwhen the number
of a's is equalto the number
of Z"'s.
33.
them
If the
-f 1 numbers
a,
b,c, d,
be all different,
and each of
of differentfactors of the
CHAPTER
XIT.
Mathematical
158.
Many
demonstrated
find
mathematical
Example
formula? are
not
important mathematical
easily
quently
frewe
by a direct mode of proof; in such cases
it convenient
of proofknown
to employ a method
as
induction, which
1.
Suppose
We
as
it is
required
is
numbers
equal
to
"
"
the
that
prove
^"
to
illustrate.
now
was
in all
true
Assume
cases.
of the cubes
sum
'J-
"
is true
easilysee by trial that the statement
3
and
from
this
we
or
or
2,
re=l,
might be
;
the formula
in
simple cases,
led to
such
conjecturethat
terms
are
that is,suppose
13 + 23 + 33+
Add
shall
we
can
when
taken
Induction.
the
term,
("+ l)th
13 + 23 + 33+
to
that
+ 1 terms
itteims=|H(;t+1)j3.
to
is,(n+ 1)3to
each
side ; then
=jn^2+1^|
+(n+iy
\-
l\
iy-('j+n
{n+
(n+l)8(na+4n+4)
4
\(n
-\
which
is
of
the
same
form
as
the
l)(K + 2))\
result
2
we
'
assumed
to
be
true
for
terms,
take
we
words, if the result is true when
n
when
it
is
true
number
we
that
be,
a
may
when
3
terms
it
is
true
are
that
but
increase that number
see
we
by one;
taken ; it is therefore true when
4 terms
taken ; therefore it is true when
are
is true universally.
the
result
Thus
5 terms
are
taken; and so on.
+ 1 taking the
certain
number
place of n ; in other
of terms, whatever
134
To
2.
Example
x
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
productof
determine the
binomial
a.
By
have
we
multiplication
actual
x3 +
(a+
c)x2 + (ab+
b+
b+
In these results
1. The number
binomial factors on
we
(ab+
(abc+
cd)x~
ad + bc+ bd +
ac+
abd + acd +
+ abed.
bed)x
of terms
the left.
rightis
the
on
+ abc ;
d)x3
ca)x
bc +
than
more
one
the number
of
of
the number
is the same
of x in the first term
as
the index is one
less than
binomial factors ; and in each of the other terms
that of the preceding
term.
The
2.
index
term
Assume
(x+ a) (x+b)...
(x+ h)
p1
sides
+ b + c+
ab +
p3
abc + abd+
by
ac
Now
xn +
(px+ k)xn~l
^i +
another
factor
"+
(ab+
letters a,
+l^n-xk.
+...
b,c,...k;
h)
...
productstaken
ac
two
ah + bc +
productstaken
all the
at
k;
...
letters a, b, c,
2?n_1A*productof
=
(p3+ pJc)xn~3
+ "
..+/*)
b+
of the
sum
the
(x + h)(x+ k)
...
letters a, b, c,
p.A+p.2k=p3 + k
=
of the
sum
n
k ; thus
of all the
sum
p.2+p1k=p.2+k (a+
=
+p"n^
...
(p.2
+pxk)xn~*
is,suppose
abc...h.
+
A;:=(a
=
1 factors ; that
+ ah + bc + bd+
...
(x + a) (x + b)
=
...h;
p.2=
pn_x
Multiplyboth
x71'1+p1xn~2
+
+p.2xn~3
+p.ixn-i
where
of
case
...
.)
three at
k;
letters a,
b,
c,
k.
...
time
of all
MATHEMATICAL
If therefore the
laws
hold
they
hold
in the
case
of
factors; therefore
factors ; and
so
of
case
S^the
the
"So=
by
of
products taken
at
8n
time
of these
letters.
often
be
blished
esta-
1 is divisible
From
only
theorems
which
admit
natural
by
by
by^r 1,and
so
of the
the
to
1.
1+3
2.
l2 + 22 + 32+
3.
2 + 22 + 23 +
5+
+ o~q
1.22.33.4
T~o
Prove
by
1.
it will be
chapter
seen
the
on
that
the
cases
be
can
n.
XII.
(2n-l)
+
q-~T
n2.
2(2'l-l).
ton
Induction
n2=i?i(n+l)(2tt+l).
+ 2"
in the
1, 2, 3,
Induction
by
1 ; therefore
by x
propositionis established.
will be found
induction
of successive
numbers
by
the
foregoingexamples
which
1 is also divisible
1 is divisible
; hence
on
kind
same
x*
x3
EXAMPLES.
Prove
1, then
1 ; therefore
"
x-1
1 is divisible
x4,
1G0.
even.
z'l-1-l
xn~l ^
x-1
1 is divisible
5.
letters.
x'1
4.
Js;
...
Shew
Other
examples
Theory of Numbers.
the
in the
for 6
also
n.
if therefore xn~l
+
Stfp-*+ S.Axn~*
two
xn-l
relatingto divisibility
may
ByJ division
But
multiplied together
are
seen
induction.
Example.
values
havo
letters a, b, c
of all the
Theorems
factors
we
,VU_1
x11 +
of the
sum
Sn=the product
159.
(x+ k)
...
of all the
sum
?t-l
But
; thus
on
when
factors.
135
INDUCTION.
that
.rn
terms
"
"
n+1-^
yn is divisible by x+y
when
is
XIII.
CHAPTER
Positive
Theorem.
Binomial
Integral
Index.
be shewn
that
by actual multiplication
(x+ a)(x+ b)(x+ c){x+ d)
x4 + (a+ b + c + d) x3 + (ab+ ac + ad + bc + bd + cd)x*
+ (abc
+ abd + acd + bed)x + abed
(1).
It may
161.
We
down
however, write
may,
examine
being
the
formed, we
is formed
of which
one
letters,
see
(1) the
from
taken
in
way
that
which
each
the
x4 is formed
term
by inspection
; for the
"of partial
of a number
sum
products
four
by multiplyingtogether
of the
completeproductconsists
each
this result
of the
various
four
factors.
If
we
partialproducts are
by taking the
letter
out
of each
of the factors.
(2) the
involvingx3
terms
are
formed
by taking the
and one
possible,
letter
by taking the
and two
possible,
letter
three
of any
factors,in every way
letters a, 6, c, d out of the remainingfactor.
out
(3)the
involvingx2
terms
(4)the
the
",
one
every
factor,and
three of the
remainingfactors.
(5) the term independentof
b,c,
way
remainingfactors.
involvingx are formed by taking the
terms
of any
out
formed
are
is the
letters a,
productof
b, c, d
1.
=
x4 +
(-
2 + 3
+
2)(x+ 3) (x 5) (x+ 9)
5 + 9)z3 + (- 6 + 10 -18 -15
(30 54 + 90 135)x + 270
(x
x4 + 5a;3
47."c2 69z
-
+ 270.
+ 27
of the
of the
letter
out
of
d.
Example
-45) a2
BINOMIAL
THEOREM.
Find
2.
Example
POSITIVE
INTEGRAL
137
INDEX.
product
(x 3)
5)[x 1)(x 2)(x 8).
The terms
involvingx* are formed by multiplying
togetherthe x in any
three of the factors,and two of the numerical
quantitiesout of the two remaining
factors ; hence the coefficient is equal to the sum
of the products
8 taken two at a time.
of the quantities 3, 5, -1,2,
(*+
-15
-39.
b=c=d=a,
G + 2-1- 5 + 10-40-
+ 3-
equation(1)of
If in
1G2.
requiredcoefficient
the
Thus
the
2 + 8-
10
precedingarticle
we
suppose
obtain
we
x4
(x+ a)4
=
iax*
6a V
4a3as+ a4.
of deducinga particular
case
exemplified
result
is
of
in
one
more
a
general
frequentoccurrence
often
Mathematics
for
it
that
it
is
to
more
happens
;
easy
prove
than
it
is
of
to
it.
a
a
case
generalproposition
particular
prove
shall in the next article employ the same
We
method
to prove
Binomial
known
as the
a formula
Theorem, by which any binomial
of the form x + a can
be raised to any assigned
integral
positive
method
The
here
from
power.
163.
To
is
positive
integer.
Consider
the
expression
(x + a)(x+ b)(x+ c)
of factors
the number
beingn.
expansionof
The
(x+ k),
this
is
expression
the continued
productof
x + k, and
b,x + c,
every term in the
plying
expansionis,of n dimensions,being a productformed by multiof
factors.
taken
from
each
these
n
n
one
letters,
together
the
x +
factors,
The
letter
highestpower
terms
any
the
of
each of the
from
The
from
a,
n"\
are
formed
and
factors,
one
by takingthe
letter
k
of the letters a, b, c,
coefficient of xn~1 in the
...
from
by taking the
factors.
xn~l
involving
of the
is formed
is xn, and
b, c,
k;
denote
it
by^.
The
terms
from
xn~2
involving
2 of. the
are
formed
and
factors,
two
any n
from the two remaining factors ; thus
of the
the final product is the sum
a,
b, c,
"
...
k taken
two
at
time; denote
by takingthe
letter
of the letters a, b, c,
the coefficient of xn~
productsof
it by S2.
the
k
...
in
letters
138
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
terms
from
letter
of the
"
...
xn
Sxn~l
SjxT* +
12
the
of terms
(x+ a)n
series
the
"-i
"
x"+naxn
n(n
"
"_"
"
v1
J+
"
a,
b, x
then
can
Binomial
induction
By
so
we
c,
deduce
the
Theorem
may
time ;
on.
Sl becomes
thus
"Ca" ;
\)(n"2)
/v
l
"
"
"
a3xn 3+...
n
an,
the
on
expression
also be
right
follows
proved as
can
...x
at
1 terms.
is
of terms
things2
obtain
n(n"l)
\ r-^oV
l+
n+
containing
164.
nC3; and
is
of terms
we
...
x"
of
number
+ "C^aV"3 +
+ nC2a2xn~2
nClaxn-1
for *CltnC2,
substituting
(x+a)n
S2 the
; in
S
n
...
xn
by Sn.
,x
1
b, c,
k, each equal to a; then
"C\a2: S0 becomes "Cjf: and so on:
Now
"Ca:
is
n"
of combinations
the number
as
same
...+S
number
$j the
In
it
(x+ k)
" x"~r
"""
denote
k;
...
Hence
=
productis abc
in the
last term
The
the
The
165.
...
...
...
If
write
we
(x-a)n
=
x"
xn-
"
placeof
a,
we
obtain
+ Cn(-a)n
C\(-a)xn-l + C2(-a)2xn-2+C3(-a)3xn-3+...
+
C,axn~l+ C"a2xn-2 C,a3xn~3
-
Thus
in the
the
terms
in the
...
is
even
or
odd.
a\
n
"
(- IYG
140
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
1.
Example
The
Find
of
(a+ 2a;3)17.
=17C4a13 (2a;3)4
requiredterm
17.16.15.14
xl6ft13.T12
1.2.3.4
=
2.
Example
The
Find
requiredterm
167.
of Art.
of
This
(l+x)n.
of (3
a)15.
(3)2( a)13
15C13
15C2x(-9a13)
-
[Art.145.]
945a13.
of the binomial
simplestform
The
of
38080a13 x12.
is obtained
theorem
from
the
Thus
a.
+
(1+ x)n l+HCix+ "C2x2
n(n-\)
nx
"
zr"i
"
+
"Crxr
ar +
r"
4+
"Cxn
..+
'
1.2
the
pansion
ex-
generalformula
in the place
x
placeof x, and
is the
generalterm being
(n-r+ 1)
n(n"l)(n"2)
tb
The
expansion of
the
upon
in which
case
binomial
always be made
is unity; thus
may
to
depend
yyJ(X(i+l)J
{x+
xn(l+ z)n,where
Example
1.
Find
expansionof (as22a;)10.
We
have
a;20(1
(a;2 2a;)10
=
2\10
and,
this
since a;20multiplies
every term
expansion to
Hence
the
expansionof ( 1
in the
10
7
xl6
1.2.3.4
=
In
some
cases
the
3360.
method
following
is
which contains
simpler.
we
"
have
in
BINOMIAL
Find
2.
Example
that xr
Suppose
The
THEOEEM.
POSITIVE
occurs
(p + 1)"'term
the
INTEGRAL
contains
141
INDEX.
expansion of
./"-
l),hterm.
(iY
*CP (x-)n-i"
nCp x"'1-*".
2*1
r,
or
"
5
n
g(2n-r)(3n +
=
Unless
"
i'
"
?")
is a positive
integerthere will be
"
term
no
containingxr
in
the expansion.
1G8.
of
In Art.
productof
the
proofthere
163
deduced
we
factors
Theorem
It will be
to obtain
the
(x+ a)(x+ b)
should
in
seen
of the
To prove
one
x"~rar
from
Theorem.
the
product of n factors,each
in the expansionis of n dimensions,
by multiplying
togethern letters,
factors.
Thus
each term
involving
is obtained
of the
out
each of the
is used
)".
c+
the Binomial
similar method
expansionof
is
expansionof (x+ a)'1
The
...
that
Chap. xv.
generalterm
(a+
161).
givenis valuable
the
out
"
of ways
in which r thingscan
be selected out of n ; that is,the coellicient
in
and by givingto r the values 0, 1, 2, 3,
of xn~rcC is "6'r,
n
of
Hence
coefficients
all
the
terms.
succession we
obtain the
terms
which
be
equalto
the number
...
(x+ a)n
=
since
*C0and
xl
4-
"C
+ nC,,xn-"-a2
+
mCJX*-1a
.
are
n
each
equalto unity.
nCrx"-ar+
...+
a",
142
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
XIII.
EXAMPLES.
Expand
the
followingbinomials
a.
1.
(#-3)5.
2.
(3^+ 2y)4.
3.
{Zx-yf.
4.
(l-3a2)6.
5.
{a?+x)\
6.
(1-^j/)7.
"""
Write
NT
12-
n-
simplify:
of
14.
The
10th term
of
(1 2x)12.
(2# 1)13.16.
The
28th term
of
(5x+ 8y)30.
(a? 5)13.
13.
The
4th term
15.
The
12th term
17.
The
4th term
of U
18.
The
5th term
of (2a
19.
The
Vth term
of
of
\10
(a
96
b\8
/
-
-J
(^'^-Y
-
5. 8
20.
The
5th term
of
(
"
V-%
22.
(V^^+^-CV^3^-^)5-
23.
(v/2+ l)6-(N/2-l)6.
24.
25.
Find
cV\10
the middle
term
of
\x
^"
""
26.
27.
Find
28.
Find
29.
30.
term
of ( 1
"
(axA bx)9.
-
middle terms
/
of ( 3a
a3\9
-
"
1\15
-
-g
THEOREM.
BINOMIAL
31.
Find
the term
32.
Find
33.
If x*
34.
Find
35.
If xp
POSITIVE
independent of
in the
occurs
of
Ux
INTEGRAL
(-x2"
in
....
eihcient
of lx+-\
expansion
;/;
in f x"
expansionof
( xr+-
\ 3"i
-.,
1\'-'1
I
that its
prove
co-
\2n
in the
occurs
independentuf
term
"
1 b3
\-\
the
INDEX.
is
\@n+p)
j3(4"-^
170.
In
from
The
distant
of terms equiexpansionof(14- x)uthe coefficients
end
and
are
equal.
beginning
the
the
from
(r+ l)thterm
coefficient of the
beginningis
the
"C..
Tlie
terms
the (n
shewn
to be
it;
equalto
has
countingfrom
therefore
term,
l)th
r +
"
end
(r+1),or n-r
beginningit is
which has been
and its coefficient is "Cn_r,
"Cr. [Art.145.] Hence the proposition
the
from
(r+l)thterm
before
1"
the
follows.
171.
To
the greatest
find
in
coefficient
the
expansion of
(l x)"
+
The
coefficient of the
have
of
generalterm
value of
is even,
(1+x)"
this is
the
is
mCrjand
we
greatest.
greatestcoefficient is "Cn;
i
and
when
is
odd, it is "C
,,
or
"C
; these two
coefficients
beingequal.
172.
We
To
findthe greatestterm
have
since
therefore,
(x+ a)"
=
xn
x"
in the
(l+ -Y ;
multiplies
every
greatestterm
expansionof(x + a)".
term
in ( 1
-j
it will be
144
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Let
The
rth and
the
(r+l)thterm
:
"
(r+l)thbe
is obtained
Vh +
terms.
rth term
by
[Art. 166.1J
factor
The
by multiplyingthe
is,by (
that
consecutive
two
any
decreases
"
increases ; hence
as
the
(r+l)thterm
until
(
\
is not
always greaterthan
/n
Now
\
1
1
"
so
only
becomes
the
Jx
1"j
"
x
.,
long as
"
..
that
is,
x
"
or
"
"
1,
"
(1 ).
If
"
be
"
it
by
j" j then
if
"
]) the
denote
integer,
an
factor becomes
term
1,and the (p + l)th
multiplying
/"th
; and these are greaterthan any other term.
is
equalto
the
71+1
If
"
be
"
not
an
denote
integer,
its
integralpart by
q ;
then
Since
are
term, the
in any numerical
the
(1)is
q\ hence
the
numerically
greatest
for
(x-a)";therefore
example
BINOMIAL
Example
Denote
1.
THEOREM.
If
the ?""'and
POSITIVE
-,
terms
+ l)tu
(/-
INDEX.
in the
expansionof (1+
then
by Tr and Tr"1respectively;
9-r
"
T7^.l
Tr
hence
1 to
INTEGRAL
9-r
.
so
long
"
-"1;
as
36
that is
4r
3r,
"
3G"7r.
or
The greatestvalue of
is the sixth,and its value
3i4
243~
Example
2.
Find
(3- 2^
in the
when
expansion of (3- 2a:)9
3^1
-2|J;
J
(2rV
"
"
Here
9-r+l
10
2*
...
X3^r,.;
X
"
Tr+1" Tr
10~r
so
"
-~o~xTr, numerically,
-*r+i=
iience
long as
2
x
"
i
1
20"5r.
that is,
=3"x"C,x
H.
H. A.
f|
J =36x
84x8
=489888.
10
146
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
173.
To
the
find
the
of
sum
in the expansion
coefficients
of(I+x)".
In the
put
identity(1+ a?)n 1
Ctaf,
1 ; thus
2*=l
Cx+ C2 + C3+...+ Cn
of the coefficients.
sum
C\ + Cg + Cq +
Cor.
12
that is "the
...
=T-l;
of combinations
total number
'
of
things"is 2"
"
1.
[Art.153.]
174.
the coefficients
of the odd
of the
put
is
terms
terms.
even
In the
of
expansion of (1+ x)n,the sum
the
sum
equal to
of the coefficients
that in the
To prove
identity(1
x)n
=
...
C x\
1 ; thus
0
...
+ (74-C6+
l-C1 + a8-(7a
01+c4+ ;.....-01+'Ca + C.+
1
=
(sum of
all the
coefficients)
"
175.
The
Binomial
which
expressions
Theorem
contain
more
2 n-l
may also be
than two terms.
appliedto expand
Find the
Example.
Regarding2x
=
9a;2+ 6x
reduction.
l, on
"
example is instructive.
following
If
+cnxn,
and
series
The
l)3.
The
Example.
2x-
176.
1 as
expansionof (xz+
(l) {c0+ c1 +
=
=2w
+ ?i
2n +
c2+
Jl +
-2n+w.2"-1.
(n+l)cn
J_L
(1),
(?).
+ncn2
+ 2c2+ 3c3+
cn)+ (cx
(/t-l)+v
n(l + l)n~1
+ncn)
+il
HIGHER
148
equal
the
to
the
that
Shew
7.
ALGEBRA.
sum
(l+ x)2n is
terms
of
(1+tf)2"-1.
terms
even
terms
of the odd
in the expansionof (x + a)n,prove
sum
respectively
; find x, y,
1080
in the
2nd,3rd,4th terms
The
9.
the
be
If A
8.
and
that
the
A2-B2
expansion of (x+y)n
Find
the
expansionof (1+
11.
Find
the
12.
Find
2x
(x2-a2)n.
240, 720,
are
end
the
from
x2)\
in
(x + a)n.
2n
(]\
x--j
expansionof (1+ #)43the
are
equal; find r.
In the
of the
n.
10.
14.
sum
coefficients of the
(2r+ l)thand
(r+ 2)thterms
the
Find
15.
(r+ 2)thterms
3rth and
of the
the middle
that
Shew
16.
of
and
in order that
be
(l+x)2n may
in the
term
the coefficients
equal.
expansion
of
(1 +x)2n is
1.3.5...(2n-l)sn^
hi
^ +
18.
c0+i
2^
c,
-
n+\
~
"
O
A
cn_x
N
2n
+
"
cn(n+l)H'-
c,c,
-1-2
(cn.1+ cn)
"
n{n+\)
ncn
+
C2
cx
1-l
"
n+l
20.
21.
H
+
3c8
c.2c2
c0
"
2n
cn
4o24-
4+
+ncn=n.2n-1.
303+
c,
iy.
expansion
that
17.
io
"?n denote
...
"
1cn
-p^
+ l
3'1 + 1-1
-=-..
+ l
|2w
22.
c(f+c1+c2+
c"
i7i]^
"
\2n
23.
c0cr + CjCr +
+ c2cr + 2+
+cn_
rcn
--
=~~
.
of
(1+x)n,
CHAPTER
Binomial
In
177.
the
Theorem
when
consider
whether
of
Theorem.
last
chapter
the index
Any
investigatedthe
positiveinteger;we
was
fractional
Index.
Binomial
we
any
formula?
there
the
negativeand
XIV.
values
obtained
hold
shall
in the
of the form
actual
By
and
actual
by
(1
V 1 +
one
to
(1+x)n.
have
evolution,we
(1 + xf
case
of the index.
be reduced to
Since, by Art. 167, every binomial
may
it
will
sufficient
be
to
confine
attention
common
our
type,
binomials
now
1+
X2
x3
yr.
division,
x)~2
-x-a=
7^
2x
3x*
ix3
in each
In these
have
we
of terms
is unlimited.
by independent processes
obtained
an
This
178.
mx+
l+n.v
the
any
Newton.
by
expressions
arrangedin ascending
two
as
(m
1)
'x-+
and
have
Suppose we
of x, such
powers
discovered
was
We
"
(m
1 ) (m
/x
"x-+-"] J
K-
2)
,
'a?+
a?
(I ).
(2).
150
productof
The
these
of x\
powers
it is clear that
then
will
expressions
it by
+Bx2
Cx3
will
case
are
;
functions
of
and
of
in any
in that
A, B, C,
the values
depend upon
series in
preserve the
the form of
If therefore
invariable form.
same
But
(2)
n
determine
can
A, B, C,
A, B, C,
we
n,
particular
case.
in other
cending
as-
and
in which
the way
combine
that
Dx4
A, B, C,
and
be
two
denote
1+ Ax
and
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
will have
n.
here explained
is often referred to as an example
principle
of equivalent
forms ; in the present case
of "the permanence
we
the fact that in any algebraical
have onlyto recognise
product the
whether
the quantities
volved
inform of the result will be the same
whole
fractions
are
or
numbers, or
negative.
; positive,
of this principle
We
shall make
in the generalproofof
use
for any
Theorem
index.
The
the Binomial
proof which Ave
giveis due to Euler.
The
"
179.
To
Theorem
the Binomial
prove
is
fraction.
positive
Wliatever be the value
let the
fractional,
m
+ mx
will
then.y(n)
or
of m, positiveor negative,
integral
stand
for
series
the
symbolf(m)
(m
stand
n(n
nx
"
-x-
"
y" ^
1)
"
(m-Y) ' (m
v
v
"
2)
'
"
s
x3+
...
l)"
'
x2
n(n
v
"
l)(n
' v
"
2)
'-
"
x3
....
we
To determine
this invariable
expanded form of
(1+x)n; and therefore
is the
are
convenient
may
give
THEOREM.
BINOMIAL
ANY
1.51
INDEX.
but when
and
are
(m
-,
n) (m
This
is the
then
for
and
ofm
all values
1)
"
and
it may
previousnotation
our
of the
tlie values of
cases, whatever
with
form
"
and
n
may be;
be denoted hyf(m
o#
in agreement
+
n) ;
fore
there-
Also
=f(m
Proceedingin
tliisway
we
may
shew
") x/( p)
that
k factors =/(""+
f(m) xf(n)x/(j;)...to
Let
quantities
m,
of these
each
+p), similarly.
+p
be
?i, j),
+...to
terms).
equal to
"="
rC
where
h and
but since h is
but
integers
positive
;
are
y*(y ) stands
k\k
(1
vi
,,
.*.
a;)
=
index.
proves
the
Binomial
k \k
x
x-
1.2
"
which
Theorem
for any
fractional
positive
152
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
To
180.
the Binomial
prove
Theorem
when
the index
is any
quantity.
negative
provedthat
It has been
f(m) x/(w)=/(w*+ n)
of
and
n.
Replacingin by
"
n
(wliere
is
have
we
positive),
=/(0)
=%
of the series
"'"
but/(w) (l + x)'\for
/hr/(-n)'
any
of n;
value
positive
(1+ *)""=/(-*)"
or
f("n)
But
stands
(-n) x
'-f",
L
1
=
ar
...
which
(1+ ".)=
the
proves
the theorem
Hence
not
appear
to
shall
now
(_W) a. +
Binomial
is
(rg)"" "
Theorem
"
*"g"
for any
negative index.
established.
completely
The
181.
may
ficultie
difwe
refer.
of terms
is finite when
iov f(in)the number
expression
See
is a positiveinteger,
and unlimited
in all other cases.
vi
Art. 182.
It is therefore necessary to enquirein what
sense
we
In the
BINOMIAL
T11EOUEM.
ANY
153
INDEX.
are
whatever
finite value
have.
may
[8eeArt. 308.]
Example
Expand (1
1.
2.
four terms.
Id-1),,.J(H(S-)
Example
xf2to
^)~4
2-"(l
(2+ 3z)-4
182.
In
findingthe
four terms.
general term
we
must
now.
the
use
formula
m(w-1)(w-2)
(n-r
l)
written
when
Also
one
generalterm
no
can
longerbe employed
vanish
never
unless
stop
at
the
fore
is zero; the series will thereis
that
1
zero
is,when
n
r +
;
never
can
positive
integerthis equality
l ; but since r is a
hold except when
the index
r=oi+
cases.
is
"
positiveand integral.Thus
Theorem
to
an
extends
to
infinite number
w+1
terms
of terms
the
when
in all
154
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Find
Example 1.
the
term(r+l)th
The
"
in the
generalterm
expansion of
(1+x)'\
L"
-5)
(-2r + 3)
af.
2rlr
The
;
number
therefore,by taking
--
expression
(-i)~1-8-6-""-V
i
Example
2.
the
Find
term
(r+ 1)'-
A"
V"
"
The
in the
generalterm
expansion of
(l-nx)n.
" ( "")r
-
(1-F^Un)
!(!-") (l-ar.)
=
wr Ir
l(l-n)(l-2n)
(1-r-l.n)
(n-l)(2n-l)
( i)r( i)r-i
(n 1)(2" 1)
-
since
(r-l.n-1)^
....(^l.n-l)
Example
The(r
3.
Find
the
generalterm
in the
expansionof (1 x)~3.
-
irterm="-3'(-4"'-_5)^-(-3-'-+1)(-,)
r
(1)r3.4.5(r+2)(1)ffa,
~[
1.2.3
_(r+l)(r+2)
~
1.2
by removing
*"
the numerator
and denominator.
156
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Suppose,for instance,that
=
equationput
2 ;
(1-x)~r
in this
"
"
+ x
22
l;
then
we
x2
x3
x*
have
(1);
obtain
then
we
(-l)~1=l+2
This
expansion of (1 + x)nmay
the
equivalent.
its true
as
conditions
what
23
24
is sufficient to shew
contradictoryresult
that
we
cannot
take
n(n-l) '
l+nx+"
as
\
"
from
know
we
for the
formula
the
the
that
(1)
series
of
sum
geometricalprogression,
first
terms
of the
"x
1
1
is
the
cases.
xr
of
sum
all
-z
'
and, when
of (1+ x)nin
equivalent
x2
~"
xr
numericallyless
1, by takingr sufficiently
than
xr
largewe
a
make
can
sufficient number
little
as
of terms
pleasefrom
we
small
as
as
the
we
sum
But
be
can
made
when
to
is
differ
as
numerically
xr
greater than
1, the value of
no
such
approximationto
increases with
the value
of terms
number
in the
It will be seen
of Series that the
(1+x)" in
if
by taking
vC
Xs
X3
4-
gency
Convergency and Diverexpansionby the Binomial Theorem
telligi
inascendingpowers of a? is alwaysarithmetically
when
But
therefore
of the series
1
of
and
is obtained
of
JL
any
r.
is
chapter on
is less than
greater than
1.
1, then
since the
the series
n(n-\)
1 +
nx
.j
I
.
"
x" +
-
generalterm
of
BINOMIAL
xr, it
contains
THEOREM.
be made
can
large; in
taking sufficiently
value of the above series;and
which
Unite
there is
quantityby
limit to the
therefore the expansionof (1 +
x)n
infinite series in ascendingpowers
of x has no
meaning
an
when
intelligible
arithmetically
case
is
We
x"
we
obtain
accordingas
the
is
the
expressionin
('*!)'"
'(""ff.
expansionfrom
the
first
or
second
of these
y.
form
find in its simplest
expansionof (1 x)-u.
185.
no
greaterthan 1.
remark
that we
can
may
by the Binomial Theorem ; for we may
forms :
either of the two following
184.
and
157
INDEX.
as
ANY
To
the
general term
in
the
"
The
term
(r+ l)th
(-iy
"(*+1Hw+2) -(**
+ ""-
1)
+ r-l)
ttv*+l)(tt+2)...ytt
(_ I)*
n
(n+ 1)(n + 2)
From
this it appears
(1-x)~*is positive.
(n +
...
that
1)
term
every
(-*y
xr
in the
expansionof
n(n-
l)(n-2)
...
t
only in
the
case
of
indices.
positive
(n
1)
x
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
158
the
Find
Example.
(l-3x)
"
.
_
-13.
1
"
term
(r+ l)th
The
(3r-2)3rrr
1.4.7
(Sr-2)^
1.4.7
^H
"
_i
If the
formula
The
186.
x2
2x
3x + 6x*
=1
(I x)~3
-
+
+
3x2
x3
+
"x3
10x3
same
3x.
be remembered
(r+ 1)xr +
+(r+lJ%"Kr+
is unrestricted
used the
student
in Art.
applyingto
xr
following
expansionsshould
(1 x)'1
(1 x)~2
should have
we
example
the
value, will be
in
will have
method
no
in
difficulty
explainedin
172.
Art.
Example.
Find
in the
the greatestterm
expansionof (l+a;)~nwhen
2
x
and
"
20.
fi
We
have
j_
"t'
^V+i"
,xxTr, numerically,
19+r
"""
2
so
long as
that
is,
"
"'r+l"-'r"
(19+ r)
"
"
"
38
1 ;
"r.
BINOMIAL
ANY
useful
of
applications
following
examples.
Some
188.
THEOREM.
in the
explained
Example 1.
two
binomials
/3
2\
55
13
1
1 +
far
as
are
expansion of
_i
as
0/8
Theorem
3.
3*)r-(l-2x)
(l+
Expanding the
the Binomial
in the
159
INDEX.
the term
containingx'\ we
have
-QX + 72X"'
of decimals it would
in 1 +
x,
neglect-
ing the
term
x2.
involving
and
higherpowers
may
J("+ xJ*
Since
retain
x-
the
terms
be neglected,
it will be sufficient to
Therefore
expansion of each binomial.
may
in the
the
expression
_tl"""l
b(i+|.)
-K-S-).
the term
160
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Example
3.
Find
the value of
placesof
to four
-rj=
decimals.
x/47
_i
-^
--
1 /
2 \
*=(7*-2)*=-(l-n)
--
(47)
1/
-7^
+
-7
73
72
-74
75
*77+""
:L_
-7G+--
proceed as
we
1)1
follows
) -020408
) -002915
=t,
-142857
'
7-3,
7 ) -000416
"000059
5
and
5
we
can
see
that
the
term
^;
is
decimal
ciphers.
-i-
.-.
-142857
-002915
+ -000088
\/47
=
and
Example
4.
"14586,
placesof decimals.
to at least four
placesof
Find
decimals.
5
1
/t
~5V
3"5:J
1
~
1_
'
52~ 9
1^1^
5-1
^
-04
-00032
W_
81 *107
"""
"
81
-
...
"""
-0000128
h
=5-f -013333
=
1
+
'")
81 *57
55
81*59
J.+ _1
'
+3*"l029'105
9'5"
-000035
...+...
BINOMIAL
THEOREM.
ANY
EXAMPLES.
Find the
(r+1)"1term
XIV.
in each of the
INDEX.
101
b.
following
:
expansions
-I
!"
(l+#)2.
2.
(l-.t-)-5.
3.
4.
(l+#)
J
3.
5.
(l+.r2)-3.
6.
(i-2.v)~*.
7.
(a+fo?)"1.
8.
(2-.r)~2.
9.
tt{rf-x*)\
10-
(l+3.e):].
3
7=A=.
"/T+2*
11.
12.
3/
Nf/(l-3.^
in each of the
V"Z^
following
:
expansions
13.
(1 + .v) 7 when
~
x="
lo
2
"
14.
2 when
(1 + a?)
15.
(1 74?)4wheu#
a?=
-1-1
1
=
"
-.
16.
when
+ 5J/)12
(2a?
17.
(5 4.v)7
when
a?
8 and
tv=-
3.
25
when
18.
+ 4/)
(3-r2
Find
of
to five places
19.
v98.
20.
^=.
9, y
2, "
24.
1 5.
4/998.
21.
\3/1003.
25.
(630)*.
23.
(1^)3.
22.
\4/2400.
26.
tfilla
and
higherpowers
may
be
neglected,
162
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
V^+C+jj
31.
'
^T^-^1^
32.
(1+5*)*+
Prove
that
31
Prove
that
(1+*)*=2-
35.
33.
is
v2
(4+|Y
expansionof (l-4r)
'
|l
-"
"
-^
(f^)
expansionof
in the
1
'
(1 + x)2Vl
in the
36.
+ 4x
expansionof
37. Shew
double of the
bx
that
expansion of (1 x)~n is
-
(n-l)th.
greatest term
find the numerically
of (1+ x)n,
for any rational value of\\.
189.
Since
To
greatestterm, we
Case
The
by
terms
Let
I.
shall consider
n
be
(r+l)thterm
.
continue
with
only concerned
are
we
; that
the numerical
is obtained
by multiplyingthe
1
is, by f
to increase
; and
longas
so
(n+ l)x
is.
,
"
"
or
value of the
integer.
positive
'n+
.,
expansion
throughoutas positive.
Or1-1)-1'
that
in the
+ 1 )x
(n
*"
"
1+02
"r.
x,
rth term
therefore the
164
If
(1)
If
(2)
greaterthan unitywe
greatestterm.
be
that there is
no
1, so long
shew,
may
as
in Case
unity,the multiplyingfactor
be less than
greater than
II.,
will be
as
(m
that
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
1 )x
is,
"
"
x,
(m"\)x
or
"
lyn.
^"
If
"
-x
1 ) CC
be
"
"
denote
positiveinteger,
(fjr
*
is
1)
"C
'
the
equalto
be
"
gralpart ;
If
pthterm,
p \ tlien the
and
these
are
greater than
positivebut
not
the
then
'-
be
"
(q+ l)thterm
is the
negative,tlien
190.
that
q be
its inte-
it is
To
can
greatest.
is less than
in the
integer,let
an
-x
by
other term.
If
see
it
term
(p + l)th
any
r.
"
"
-.
form
(1
each
hence
first term
unity;
"
by
J x,
we
is less than
term
is the
and
greatest.
sions
find the number of homogeneous productsof v dimenbe formed out of the n letters a, b, c,
and their
powers.
By division,or by
=
"=
the Binomial
+ ax
a2x2
Theorem,
+
a3x3
have
we
ax
"
1
=
bx
b2x2 + b3x3 +
ex
c2x2 + c3x3 +
bx
"
1
=
"
ex
BINOMIAL
THEOREM.
ANY
KJ5
INDEX.
Hence, by multiplication,
1
1
(1 +
(a+
aV
b
...)
(1+
+
+
ax
bx
"
bx
+x2 (a2+
...)
c +
Slt"S'.,,
SaJ
ex
"
b*x* +
+ Saxa
+
Stx+ Sjfx?
where
ax
ab
...)
(1+
suppose
the
are
ac
obtain
the number
4-
...
)+
...
of the
sums
homogeneous pro-
that
formed
be
can
of
of these
1 ; each term in
of Sl9 S2, S:i,
equalto
values
b'2+ bc"c2
...)
c"x2 +
ex
homogeneousproductsof
each
products,put a, b, c,
becomes
and
the
now
JSl9
1,
S2,S:i,
obtained
so
give the
two, three,
one,
number
of the
dimensions.
Also
1
ax
"
becomes
Hence
Sr
(1
or
"
(1
bx
"
"
x)
"
a;)".
coefficient of xr in the
n(n+ l)(n+ 2)
~
ex
expansionof (1 x)~
"
(n+r- 1)
jr
n
r"1
\r \n" 1
191.
To
multinomial
In the
find
when
of
the number
the index is
terms
in the
expansionof any
integer.
positive
expansionof
+ar)",
(at+ aB + aB+
can
powers
be formed
; and
out
therefore
of the
by
the
quantities
a,, a
article
preceding
r
I?'
+
"
"
1
1
is
...
of terms
is
dimensions
ar, and
equalto
their
166
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Consider
letters a,
all the
of the
represent
letters,when
any
one
up to
...
are
repetitions
productsof
when
the
letters
allowed
is
which
+
product
time, of
be
can
such
occur
the
twice,
once,
+ r"
things r
the
at
number
of homogeneous
be formed
of
out
of
it
time
thingsr
the
equal to
at
*C
or
is
time
thingsr
n+r
to
allowed
can
of combinations
number
are
repetitions
of
which
"
\r n"\
when
of
equal to
dimensions
is,the
at
to write
were
every
might
of combinations
\n
That
we
times.
the number
Therefore
powers,
combinations,
of
one
if
dimensions
theorem
things.
; then
their
deduce
may
of
b, c, d,
letters and
would
thrice,
we
homogeneous productsof
of these
formed
190
of combinations
the number
to
relating
down
result of Art.
the
From
192.
at
number
when
time
of
binations
com-
are
repetitions
excluded.
193.
We
conclude
shall
this
chapter
with
few
laneous
miscel-
examples.
Example
The
The
1.
Find
expression (1
=
(1
Ax +
4.x2)
(1+PyC +p^xr
expansionof
+
...
2a;)2
~
+prxr + ...)
suppose.
pr-x, pr-"
by 1,
and adding
-4,4 respectively,
the
requiredcoefficient=pr
But
pr=(- iy
Hence
the
4pr_x+ 4pr_2.
fe"afc"9
[Ex. 3,
182.]
requiredcoefficient
(.1)r(r+lHr
2)_4(_1)r.1rJ^
4(_ira(I^r
+
Art.
^-[(rl)(r
+
f-l)r
BINOMIAL
Find
2.
Example
ANY
TIIEOltEM.
5.7
5.7.!)
"
,
2 4-
The
expression
v
0
2
+
3
|3.32^
14
|_2.
"
1
.
"
13
2
z
2
z
34
5
'
2'
2
'
1)
'
24
*35+
""'
2*2*2
2
2
/2\a
/2\-
2Ll?2~ 2 2 2 2J 2 2 2
~|3~ '3:i+ ]i~
|2 '3?*"1
3
1
-
"
14
3;!
'
'
3.5.7.9:
3.5.7
3-
"""
3:J
"
"
[2
-4+
3
.
mU
Hi?
INDEX.
/2V
*3+ "~J2~
"o-.r-ffl"1
35=V3-
If ?t is any
3.
is an odd number.
Example
(3+ Jl)n
shew
positiveinteger,
that the
integral
part of
Suppose I
Then
to denote
the
of
is positive
and
it
fraction;denote
by/';
3-N/7
Now
less than
1, therefore
(S-^)'1
is
together(1)and (2);
I+f+f
since/and/'
are
proper
:\
an
But
2 (3"
+ C2 3'1"2 7 +
even
and
disappear,
)
.
integer.
XIV.
EXAMPLES.
Find the coeflicientof
1.
xm
in the
expansionof
2.
an
in the
expansionof
3.
"* in the
must
odd integer.
I=an
expansionof
X
"T" X
c.
be 1 ;
proper
(2).
(3+ a/7)'1.
(1).
we
have
168
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
4.
4- x
+ X2
expansionof
Find
(1 + ^J
5.
Prove
that
1
2
6.
1.3.5
2*
2.4.6'23
1.3
+
271
'
3
1 +
Prove
2n
Prove
7'
3.5.7
\ \n
~3
2n(2n + 2)(2n+ 4)
2)
3.6.9
3.6
+
3
_3T6~+
h
J
Ji
?i+ ^(^-1)
7+
7.14
that
that
7.14.21
n(" + l)(n+ 2)
"(*+!)
%
.
n{n-\)(n-2)
j.
+"
2.4
2.4.6
when
approximately,
is very
\2
2(1+r6'V
Shew
3.6.9
that
"7!
10.
4.8.12
"+
(2
Prove
3^5
t^~;+H~
4. 8
2n(2n
9.
H'
+
+~
~2
"n
3'
that
8.
1^
2.4.6.8'2*
that
Prove
N/8
7.
1-3.5.7
2_+
integralpart of (5+
the
integralpart
small,
'
256'
the
"
"JQ)nis odd, if
be
V/7)His odd, if
be
positive
integer.
11.
Shew
that
of
(8+
integer.
positive
12.
Find
the coefficient of
xn
in the
expansionof
(l-2.v+ 3.v2-4.v3+
13.
Shew
of xn in the
14.
expansionof (1-Ax)
Prove
that the
(1 xfn +
-
3nx
)-*.
/
of ( x
^"
1\4'1
1 is equalto the coefficient
2
.
be
expansionof (1 x^)nmay
"
(1 xfn
-
put into
3n@n-3) xi (i xyn
_
the form
BINOMIAL
Prove
15.
THEOREM.
coefficient of
the
that
ANY
at*
L69
INDEX.
ill the
expansion
is
"
1,0,
accordingas
(2)the
be
that if n
Prove
an
1,or
expansion of (a +
the
sum
17.
3m, 3m
3//".+1.
b + c)s find
of the coefficients of the terms.
In
16.
is of the form
integer,
even
111
2""1
\n
\'S
l\n-l
'
\b\n-5
|rc
\u-\ ,1
18.
of terms,
the
expansion of
(1+.f)u,when
I//-1
a)
+(-mv-(-i)'-1/,|;^
c0-cl+c2-c3+
(2) ^-2^
3^-4^+
(3) c*-c*+c"-c*+
accordingas
is odd
(-1)^,
(-l)"cn2=0, or
even.
or
the
If *" denote
19.
(_i)n(/i4.1)t.M0"
of the first
sum
(1) (l-;r)-3
=
^ + %^
natural
^.^+
numbers, prove
+V"~1+...
j2^+
(2)
If
fr-
?2n
(2)
+ "Mj"
{?2n
-
the
sum
Man
+
proper
l)
8n8n +
g^a. _2+
of the
products,two
n
is
at
1)"
(-I)n_1fn
+ ?"?"
1
+1
5-
are
tjn #"
_
and |9
integers,
positive
l.
If c0, "?!,c^,
the coefficients in
rn are
where
shew that
?i is a positive
(1+#)*,
integer,
c\
23.
integer.
positive
If
c2
"
+ 2n- \"ln+
-"
that
P*""
?1y,(l
22.
2n
2.4.6,8
(!)
Find
(2)i-l)
T.
21.
1.3.5.7
"
20.
in the
(*!*,B + 82*2,_j
that
the
expansionof
1
,11
2
XV.
CHAPTER
Theorem.
Multinomial
already
have
We
194.
In
expression.
much
so
obtain
to
to obtain
Theorem
the
in
seen
the
Art.
the
175,
how
expansionof
completeexpansionof
assignedterm.
we
a
may
multinomial
objectis
not
multinomial
as
Find
Example.
(a+
The
b+
d)u.
expansionof
term
every
letter out of each of these factors. Thus to form the term a4b2c*d5,
maining
of any four of the fourteen factors,b out of any hco of the rethe
But
number
the
of
of
three
out
eight.
of
remaining
c
ten,
any
of ways of arbe done is clearlyequal to the number
ranging
in which this can
be a, two 6, three c, and five d ;
must
four of them
14 letters when
taking one
take
we
ways
that
out
is,equal to
114
151.]
[Art.
J
L
TTralg.
A
412
This
of times in which
the term a4b2c*d5 appears
coefficient
the
and
requiredis 2522520.
consequently
product,
in the final
To
195.
of
The
a
ft+
find
(a+ b +
the
c
expansion is
c +
taking one
cZ +
and
the
every
of each
...,
factors each
of p
product
in the
term
letter out
equal to
expansionis formed
of these p
by
in which
of ways
pansion
ex-
any term
of ways of arranging
in the final productis equalto the number
be a, (3 must
be c;
be b, y must
must
of them
a
p letters when
and so on.
That is,
the
number
the coefficient of
aabPcyds
...
\p
is
~f~^
"
...
where
j3+
...
\y
=p.
"
...
172
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
And, by
Art.
of the
195,the generalterm
+ ex'
(6a;
dx3
expansionof
...)''
\P
\pjy_\o_"
where
ft,y,
Hence
the
whose
positive
integers
are
expansionof
in the
general term
is p.
sum
the
pression
given ex-
is
/?+
where
bx
(a+
Since
197.
y +
ex2
dx3
/?.
=
...
be
..)"
may
written
in the
form
6
"A
ail
Thus
the
the
in which
case
the
hrst term
unity.
of
generalterm
bx
(1 +
is
...
is
-x+-ar+
a*
+-x
ex2
dx3
.)"
(n-p+l)bpcyd8
^+9f+u+
(n-l)(n-2).
\p\v\8
fi+
where
Example.
Find
"-\-...=p.
expansion of
(l-3z-2.r2+ 6x'3)3.
The generalterm
is
S(S-0(t-")...(|-*+o
V
,.,
,,
iO-sA-^e)8/-^^
(i).
values of /3,
have to obtain by trial all the positive
integral
7, 5 which
from
the
found
is
then
the equation j3+ Zy + 35 = 3 ; and
equation
p
satisfy
of the corresponding
2"=/3+ 7 + 5. The requiredcoefficientwill be the sum
values of the expression
(1).
We
MULTINOMIAL
173
THEOREM.
...
the values
are
found
to be
8=1,
5=
0, 7=1,
5=
0,
18 0, p=l;
0,
0=1,
p=2;
0, 0=3,
3.
^)"^)(-")"-3"-2"+
(-3)s
4_4_4
3~3
Sometimes
198.
it is
expeditiousto
more
the Binomial
use
Theorem.
Example.
The
Find
1 + 3
stop
at
the
{2x Sx2)+
-
this term
+
(2.r 3x2)2
-
10
other
+ 15 (2.r 3.r2)4
{2x 3.r-):J
;
-
involve
terms
powers
than x*.
The
requiredcoefficient
=
9 + 10
(2)2( 3)+
-
15
(2)4
-66.
EXAMPLES.
Find
3.r2)-3.
requiredcoefficient is found
of
the first few terms
Theorem
; that is,from
we
expansion of (1 2x
XV.
the coefficient of
in the
expansionof (a-b
1.
a2Pc4d
2.
a2bryd in the
expansionof (a+
3.
a?bsc in the
4.
x~yhA in
the
5.
x3 in the
expansionof (l+3#
6.
xA in the
expansionof (l+
7.
8.
A"8 in the
"
c+d)w.
"
"
d)s.
(1+
expansion(if (1
2a2)3.
"
2.r +
3.r2)10.
2.v
x2)'\
2.r + 3#2-
4.r'!)4.
of
higher
174
HIGHER
Find
coefficient
the
9.
.r23 in the
ALGEBRA.
of
expansion
of
(1
10.
x5 in the
expansion
of
(1 -2x
11.
x3 in the
expansion
of
(1
12.
x8
expansion
of
(
(1
2x
3x2
3x2)
x4
.i/')5.
2.
i
in the
13.
x*
in the
expansion
of
(2
14.
Xs in the
expansion
of
(1
2x
3x2
X2
X*\
4x
'-")
"
4a3)2.
3x2) 2.
3
"
15.
x12 in the
16.
Expand
expansion
of
(3
1 Ox4 +
Ax2 +
15x*
20^G)
*
.
18^') l.
-
(1
2x
2x2)* as far
x2.
as
(1 + 3x2
17.
Expand
18.
Expand (8
19.
If
6x*)
far
as
as
x5.
4
-
9^
+ x2 +
(l+x
+xP)n
far
x8.
as
a0 + alx +
a.^v2+
allf"xnr",
that
prove
+a^=(p+l)n.
(1)
a0+a1+aa+
(2)
a1+2a2+3a8+
+"p.a"p=5"i"(p+l)*.
20.
are
"""
a2-a2
21.
If the
be
shew
8a4)3"
as
a2-a2+
expansion
a0 +
the
of
of the
expansion
(-l)n-1aU1=^an{l-(-l)^an}.
(1 +x
alx+a2x2+
coefficients in order
...
x2)n
+arafr
+
...
+a2nx2n,
that
"o + a3 + a6 +
...
=al
+ a4 +
a-+
...
="2
a6+a8+
=
...
3n_1.
CHAPTER
XVI.
Logarithms.
199.
base
Definition.
in order
the
of the
index
is the
equal the
to
logarithmof
power
34
base
numbers
natural
to base
1000,
The
200.
so
that
the
same
an
these
Let
JV,x
given
is called
a.
102
100, 103
of 81 to base 3 is 4.
=
1000,
1, 2, 3,...are
N;
useful.
is sometimes
the
\ogaN.
deduce
equationswe
Find
be the
be raised
identitywhich
Example.
if ax
to
must
10.
ax
From
number
the base
Thus
to which
given number.
to the
(1) Since
Examples.
logarithm of any
The
logarithmof
32
to
"/"!
base
by definition,
(2x/2)"
=
32
4/4;
1
.-.
(2.2*)*
=
2s. 2* ;
2
3
.-.
2^
25^;
hence, by equating
the
indices,
.'.
27
x
-r
"
3-6.
2N/2.
176
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
it is understood
When
201.
in use,
in arithmetical
that
suffix
logarithmsis
the
Thus
calculations
particular
system
denotingthe
in which
base
10
of
is omitted.
is the
base, we
instead of
2, logl0
3,
log10
taken as the base of logarithms,
and
base a system of logarithms
of all
before
found.
But
could
be
the
numbers
discussing logarithmic
shall
we
generalpropositions
prove some
systems commonly used,
of any particular
which are true for all logarithms
independently
base.
TJie
202.
a"
For
The
a1
For
To
201.
is 0.
of
; therefore
log1-0,
Let MN
logarithmof the
; therefore
is 1.
itself
base
logaa
=
of a product.
find the logarithm
be the
product;let a
suppose
a:
so
that
a*
Thus
the
log.J/,
M,
MN==ax
product
MN
whence, by definition,
loga
\ogaJ\T;
a*
N.
ay
ax+y;
100^1/"+low N.
and
so
for any
on
number
of factors.
log42
Example.
To
205.
log (2x
7)
of a fraction.
find the logarithm
M
Let
-zz
be the
fraction,and suppose
x
so
that
whatever
be.
of 1
logarithm
ax
\ogaMi
Mt
2/
ay
logaiT;
N.
system, and
177
the fraction
Thus
loga*"-=x
whence',by definition,
"
log J/
Xos^N.
30
log(if) log
Example.
"
log30 -log 7
=log(2x3xo)-log7
=
Let
and
be required,
loga(J/'')
x
then
21
"
(aj
suppose
that a"
\ogaM,so
log7.
number
of a
logarithm
or fractional.
integral
:Z'ofindthe
206.
aT;
whence,by definition,\oga(JP)px\
"
that
\oga(M")=p\o%aM.
is,
Similarly,
207.
It follows from
the results
a
of its factors ;
logarithms
(2)the logarithmof a
the
(J/r)
loga
J/.
logtt
we
productis
provedthat
equalto the sum
have
of the
of
logarithm
the number
of
(4)the logarithm
of the
of
logarithm
fraction is
number
is equalto -th
the number.
of
the operations
that by the use of logarithms
and division may be replaced
by those of addition
multiplication
of involution and evolution
and subtraction ; and the operations
and division.
by those of multiplication
Also
we
H. II. A.
see
12
178
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
ra3
Example
1.
terms
"^
of
loga, log b
and
log c.
a2
Ja*
3
=
-log"-(logc5 + logfc2)
Example
Find
2.
loga
.-.
logc
2x
(loga
logc
loga
log ".
(Sx+ 1)log6
lo2 6
log c
logb) logb
=
'
logb
XVI.
a.
logarithmsof
1728 to base 2
J2, and
1.
16 to base
2.
125
to base
stt.
to base 2
3.
have
EXAMPLES.
Find the
logc
equation ax c~2*="3a!+1.
the
from
a;
log a
5v/5,and
x/2,and
v'3.
*25 to base 4.
'3 to base 9.
256
4.
'0625 to base
2, and 1000
to base -01.
5.
-0001
to base
'001,and i
to base
6.
kI gp
4/~*r i
"
9^/3.
r~-^
*/
to base
a.
a?
7.
Find
the value of
l0g8128,l0g6^,log-frgj,
log34349'
seven
Expressthe following
logo.
8.
log(N^)fi.
9.
in
logarithms
terms
log{Va2xybs).
of
10.
loga, logb,and
logflcFW).
180
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
-06
Again,
.*.
log *06
characteristic of the
The
10
base
To
210.
fraction.
logarithmis called
number
logarithmof any
as
we
by inspection,
shall
to
now
the
shew.
logarithmof any
determine
greaterthan
number
down
be written
can
10_l ;
the
"
part of
integral
The
Definition.
209.
10~2 and
"
unity.
101
Since
10,
102=100,
103-1000,
it follows
that
10' and
between
102; a
digitsin
two
with
number
three
its
integral
part lies
in
digits its integral
with
number
Let
be
and
10"_I and
integralpart
whose
number
Hence
contains
number
10".
digits;
then
fraction
J\T" in(tt-l)+a
.*.
Hence
the
the
logiV= (n
"
1)+
fraction.
the characteristic is n
"
logarithmof a number
in its integral
number ofdigits
part, and
To
211.
decimal
determine
the characteristic
is positive.
of
the
logarithmof
fraction.
Since
10"= 1,
1(rs=iJcr01'
=i='001"
10-8
181
LOGARITHMS.
it follows that
decimal
decimal
point,such
with
after the
cipherimmediately
one
-01 and
less
than -1,lies between
10~2 and 10-1;a number
with two ciphers
after the decimal pointlies between
10_:i and 10""; and so on.
decimal fraction with n ciphersimmediatelyafter the
Hence
a
decimal
as
Let D
be
decimal
logJ)
.-.
Hence
number
1)
and
beginningwith
/)
of the
10~(" +
pointlies between
+ l) +
1 f)~(w
"
the characteristic is
ciphers
; thou
fraction.
"
(n+ l)+
10~".
fraction.
negative.
The
212.
logarithmsto
200000
placesof
10 of all
base
and
tabulated
decimals.
This is the
givento
seven
use, and
it has two
great advantages:
From
results
(1)
the
characteristics
can
j in
integersfrom 1 to
Tables they are
most
system in practical
alreadyproved it is evident
be written down
so
by inspection,
in the Tables.
to be registered
that
only
logarithmsof all
which
numbers
have the same
significant
digits;so that it is
of
sufficient to tabulate the mantissse
the logarithms
of integers.
This proposition
we
proceedto prove.
(2)
mantissse
that the
Let
213.
are
the
same
for the
be
dividingby a power
decimal pointwithout changingthe
that
numbers
sequence
10''.and N
107,where p and q
whose significant
the same
are
digits
Now
-~
log(N
In
(1) an
as
those of N.
logJ\r+p
logN
logiV-7
1 09)
integeris
subtracted from
are
Again, log(AT
of
multiplyingor
positionof the
it follows
figures,
are
any integers,
logN
added
; that
remains
of the logarithm
to
(1).
log10
and
logiV^,
is,the mantissa
unaltered.
(2).
in
or
(2)
an
integeris
decimal
portion
182
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
this and
In
precedingarticles
three
the
mantissse
the
have
the advantagesof
In order to secure
supposed positive.
Briggs'system, we arrange our work so as always to keep the
of any logarithm
the mantissa
that when
mantissa
so
positive,
is prefixed
characteristic
the
the Tables
has been taken from
with its appropriate
given.
signaccordingto the rules already
been
In
214.
written
the
the
over
of
case
and
characteristic,
before
not
and
the characteristic alone is negative,
it,to
both
from
distinguished
be
must
logarithms
negative
expression.
to make
necessary in order
result such as
a
negative,may
characteristic
-
Other
cases
Example
1.
and
adding
3-69897
be
positive.For instance,
which
the whole
expressionis
by subtracting1 from the
transformed
be
the mantissa
3*69897, in
are
arithmetical
an
that
-30103,
in which
4*30103,an expression
"
the decimal
integerand
the
signis
indicate
of -0002,is equivalent
to -4
4-30103,the logarithm
Thus
and
minus
negativelogarithmthe
mantissa.
1 to the
(1
Thus
-69897) 4-30103.
=
Examples.
In the Tables we
find that 3859636 is the mantissa
of log2432
decimal point as well as the characteristic being omitted)
; and, by Art.
the characteristic of the logarithm of the givennumber
is
4;
(the
211,
.-.
Example
2.
Find
the value of
log 165
Let
denote
log -0002432
given
^-00000165,
2-2174839,log 697424=5-8434968.
the value
then
required;
loga-
4-3859636.
l"g(-00000165)5
=
log (-00000165)
i
=
the mantissa
characteristic
Now
of
;
(6-2174839)
same
as
that
2-8434968
of
log 165,
and
the
183
LOGARITHMS.
and -8434908 is the mantissa
of these same
digitsbut with
of
Thus
x is a number
after
the
decimal
cipher
point.
a:
The
215.
of
method
to another
it will there
be
that
seen
base,and
consisting
[Art.211. J
-0097424.
will
calculating
logarithms
and
chapter,
in the next
found
log007424; hence
one
be
explained
they are first
common
rithms
loga-
to base 10.
It will therefore
be
to investigate
for
method
a
necessary
transforminga system of logarithmshavinga given base to a
new
system with a different base.
216.
known
are
to base
b.
Let
Let
be
number
any
that by
so
log6iV,
logarithm to
base
N ;
ylog"
1/
J
"
log,JV;
N.
log
0u
loga6
'
C1)-
k"^wK*10^
1UOa"
since N
Now
the
from
constant
given, los:N
are
Hence
to base
and
we
have
that
only
J
quantityand
quired.
re-
is,
or
is
log.("") logJT;
"""
that
whose
to
is
known
are
logarithmsfrom
all
them
multiply
r
J
the
log b
be found.
to transform
given by
and
by
J
log b
';
base
this is
Tables; it is known
as
the
for
N\
modulus.
217.
Tn
equation(1) of
precedingarticle put
the
thus
Oa
On
log/t log8/j1
x
184
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Let
then
that a*
so
log/?,
follows
as
proveddirectly
also be
base
to
by taking logarithms
b;
have
b,we
\ogba \ogbb
loga6xlog4a l.
.-.
The
the
of
utility
; but
the
reader
Example
Given
1.
log 3
requiredvalue
formatio
inis
27
The
for
logj=
81
log
log 90
-=
1Q
3(l"^3"-l)+|oog3*-2)-|(
KM)"*a-K+t)
=
The
powers
4-6280766-5-85
2-7780766.
notice that
log
log10
"
2.
log2
of
log2 ; thus
log2
-3010300,log 7
(log7+
log5)
16(log7 + 3-31og2)
16x2-9420080
=47-072128;
hence the number
of
is 48.
digits
-8450980.
16
log2.
digitsin 8751C,given
logarithmof
the
from
always be obtained
log5
Example
should
student
can
^log3-5H
[Art.210.]
and
its
185
LOGARITHMS.
from
log 3, find
3.
Example
value of
have
(3 4a)logG
(x+ 5)log4
log 8
(log2
(3 4.r)
.-.
.-.
.r
log2
log3
to two
log2)
+ 2
10
.r
log2
log 2
log 2
log 3
10
log 2
log2 + 3 log 3
log 2 + 4 log 3
4-4416639
_
~2-al054a2
=
1-77...
XVI.
EXAMPLES.
b.
the characteristics of
Find, by inspection,
1.
the
logarithmsof
log7623 is '8821259
7-623,762-3,-U07623,762300,'000007623.
The mantissa
2.
of
3.
whose
of
; write down
the
part of
digitsare there in the integral
logarithmsare respectively
How
many
logarithms
the numbers
4.
whose
of
position
the firstsignificant
figurein the numbers
logarithmsare
2-7781513, -6910815, 5-4871384.
Given
value of
log2
5.
log64.
6.
log84.
8.
log-0125.
9.
log14-4.
11.
log^l2.
12.
logW
"
14.
Find
the seventh
root of
log44092388
15.
Given
log194*8445
-8450980,find the
7.
log-128.
10.
log4^.
13.
logN4/:0l05.
-i
-00324,havinggiventhat
=
7-6443036.
root
of
(39-2)2.
186
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Find
16.
given
product
the
of
that
log 37-203
1-5705780, and
log!915631
Given
18.
Given
19.
Calculate
log 2
/(
and
20.
//325**\
17.
6:28231
"y
log 2 and
log 3,
also
20.
/294
125\2
32
42
log 9076-226
places of
to six
to six decimal
find
'
3-9570053.
decimals
the
value
of
(330^-49)4^\/22x70;
; also
1-0413927, and
21.
Find
22.
Shew
23.
Determine
number
the
of
logl7814-1516
digitsin
312
4-2507651.
28.
/21\100
that
is
"
how
greater than
many
100.
there
ciphers
between
are
the
decimal
/1\1000
point
the
and
Solve
first
3*~2
27.
2F
29.
2x
22*
3*
25.
5.
the
24.
significantdigitin
=3
5*
1.53-.
"I
6" '
22,
10l
28.
2*. 6*-2=52*.
30.
3l~x-y=4-y
22x~l
ij-
26.
find
55~3*=2*
log 7.
+
2.
71"*.
=33j/_a;J
log25200.
31.
Given
log102 -30103,
32.
Given
188
HIGHER
1 +
of the series
xih power
(1)is the
the seizes
hence
ALGEBRA.
(2);that is,
rz
,"
and
this
however
is true
increased
indefinitely
x3
x2
1+*
great
/-'ill
xA
by
series
usuallydenoted
"
x,
cV
",
then
6**
let ee
"
"5
for
; hence
x-
ex
be
1
+
"
,=l+"+
Write
have
we
Now
If therefore
be.
may
The
is
CX
that
so
tjj-
cV
+
-ry
for
log/*; by substituting
we
obtain
a'
l+x\ogea +
"
Vo
+
,"
If
This
is the
Cor.
When
lr
ExponentialTheorem.
n
is
the limit of ( 1
infinite,
e.
[SeeArt. 266.]
Also
when
it may
precedinginvestigation,
is indefinitely
increased,
as
in the
x\n
X2
x3
x4
(,
1+n)=1+X+Y2
]3+\i
-
be shewn
that
EXPONENTIAL
tli.ttis,when
is
AND
LOGARITHM!*!
limit of
the
infinite,
(1
180
SERIES.
cT.
"
nj
l"yputting
"
have
we
H)--K)~={K)7
Now
is infinite when
the limit of
In
221.
have used
But
restriction is
no
is less than
is another
notice.
point in
have
We
1\7
nj
limit
*.
e~\
also since
/
the
"
unity,the expansionswe
2\
nj
foregoingproof which
the
assumed
that
when
xr
-r-
\r
\r
Let
of r.
denote
us
is infinite
is
or
all values
r-V
:)"""("
J
for
placedupon
giveresults arithmetically
intelligible.
[Art.183.]
there
deserves
"
precedingarticle
the
the value of x;
infinite;
J
(x\n
(1
)
("-.')'
1
Hence
is
the value
of
iB(a!"3(a,~3
"{x-r-^r)
by
u
",
Then
1 /
H(*^)
z-
"
-lx
Since
is
U
u
as
1
+
"
nr
have
X
"
1\
we
infinite,
"
r"
ur.
; that
is,
ur
"
,-x-;that of uA is ."
the
is r^-; hence
r-
; and
that
generally
of ut is
."
limit of u3 is
190
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
series
The
222.
ii111
~@
'
denoted
have
we
When
logarithms
remembered
that
the
base
From
work
it is to
is
10 is
of
approximatevalue
requireddegreeof
to any
in theoretical
used
are
the base
work
arithmetical
e, is very
by
accuracy
; to 1 0
can
placesof
as
Find
1.
the
sum
decimals
-,
We
and
have
by puttingx
"
-rg
+
"1=1-1+i2-i3
n-
of the series is
sum
--
hence the
l + l+
(e+ e~x).
Example
Find
2.
expansion of
ex
o
-
ax
"
x
=
(1
-
x2)e~x
""
fi
"*
(l-a,-^)|l-,
-^-n
ax
in
be determined
found to be 2-7182818284.
Example
be
(-l)rxr
...+L_L_
+
j.
it is
coefficient required
The
101
SERIES.
LOGARITHMIC
AND
EXPONENTIAL
"
r-2
r-1
-l)r
{l+ar-r(r-l)},
tt)iraascending
powers
223.
Art.
From
a"
=-"
of \.
220,
1
y 1""ger6
/r
"
4'
a)8 y3(log.
(loge
v
'
^
+
|c
L2
thus
for a;
(1 +x)'J
1
+ y
Also
by
" {loge
+
+
(1 + a;)}3
(1).
*)}"
f2{log,(1
log,(1 + *)+
...
Theorem, when
the Binomial
"
have
we
(2).
(i+"y-i+"+g^*+yfr-1"fr-8)rf+
in
Now
,+
(2)the
coefficient of y is
"
is,
"
rp"
""""*
\K/
--
"C"
"
"
2i
"
l0gt,(l
+Ct')t7J--+
=
This is known
Example.
If
to the coefficient of y in
Equate this
the
as
(1);
thus
we
?/(!/-!)
r2
LogarithmicSeries.
that is,double
of
1, expand {log,,
(1+ x)}9in ascending powers
x "
have
-+
--
'
1.2.3.4
r**^
%K/
that
1.3*+1.2J
(y 1)(y 2)
-
,y(y-i)(y-2)(y-3)
^+
1.2.8
see
1.2.3.4
.t.
that the
'
the coefficientof y in
y-1
1.2*
(y-l)(y-2)
+
1.2.3
(y 1) (y 2)(y 3)
"1.2.3.4
-
l)"*-}.
Thn8{log.(l+*)P=2{^-i(l+l)^
+
192
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Except
when
+ x)
loge(l
however,
of
ithms
Logar-
be constructed.
may
By writing
for
"
log.
obtain
we
"
hence
(1)-
loS.(n+1)-lo"w S"2?+3^"
=
for
By writing
both
signson
obtain
we
sides of the
1)
s"
#7"
(2).
From
+ l)-log,(n-l)
log.("
=
2(-
...J (3).
+_+__+
this formula
From
by puttingn
the
by effecting
obtain
we
calculation
loge2 ; and
of log62- -69314718...;whence
logeSis
is
value
hence,by changing
equation,
log8n loge(n
that
loge
Again by puttingn
we
obtain
we
4
loge
"
2,
loge
find that
the
known.
loge10 loge8;whence
"
we
findloge102-30258509....
=
To
we
Napierianlogarithmsinto logarithmsto
convert
multiplyby
=-j=,
which
modulus
is the
base
10
[Art.216]of
the
system,and
common
its value
is
"
^' oOJjOoDk)
we
shall denote
this modulus
by
or
'43429448...;
/x.
In the
Proceedings
of the Royal Society
of London, Vol. xxvn.
has given the values of e, /x,
page 88, Professor J. 0. Adams
5
than
260
to
more
loge2, loge3, loge
placesof decimals.
225.
obtain
Thus
If
we
formulae
from
+ 1)
(1),
/x loge(ra
-
"
/* loge?i
=
JL
-.
"
...
that
LOGARITHMIC
AND
EXPONENTIAL
193
SERIES.
is,
n
+ 1) log,
logI0(M
-
"
-t- + Jt.
from (2),
Similarly
l^-log]"-l)^+^+^+
From either of the above results
of two
one
the other may
we
be
consecutive numbers
be found,and thus
ot
that if the
see
known,
table of
(2).
logarithm
logarithmof
the
can
logarithms
"
be
constructed.
that the above formula
"*""*"*
onlyneeded
Sl;0"ld+^e
J2
of prime numbers, for the logarithm
calculate the logarithms
are
to
to
ot
number
compose
of its
be obtained
may
by addingtogether the
component factors.
logarithms
formula
but
(1)or (2),
endeavour
to find
value
some
which
be
division
that
and
such
by
easily
performed,
may
either 7^+ 1 or n-l
factor. We
contains the givennumber
a
as
then find log(n+l)or log(w-l)and deduce the logarithm
of
"
ot
we
10 in
log3
and
have
we
(2),
the value of
log10- log9;
thus
log3 =-045757488,
log3
PuttingM
4
log3
80 in
log2
(1),we
=
obtain
-005428681
-477121256.
log2
-908485024
log2
-301029997.
-000000003
-005395032,
series for
shall give another
is often useful in the construction of
+ l)-\0gen which
iog9{7i
For
further information on the subjectthe
LogarithmicTables.
In
reader
the
is
next
article
referred to Mr
we
Glaisher's article
on
Logarithmsin the
Britannica.
hncyclopcvdia
H. H. A.
I ""
194
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
223
In Art.
226.
proved that
have
we
loge(l x)
+
into
changingx
3"-~-"'
have
cc, we
x~2+
log.(l
-")=-"*" 2
J"
"
By subtraction,
{
Put
oeV
so
that
so
l-x
los* (n
n
log.
"e
"
Zn
2"
(2w +
va
j-t=
^-r.
rapidly,but in practiceis
followingexamples
The
thus obtain
; we
777^
227.
-x
"
\)
;
x5
"-
"
x3
not
...}-.
J
always
subjectof
illustrate the
the
chapter.
Example
that
If a, 8
1.
\og(a-bx
the
are
equation ax2
of the
a2
roots
,02
-J"x2
cx'1)loga+(a.+ p)x
a3
+ 8
a/3
=
"
bx + cx2=a
bx +
log (a
-
log (1 +
loga +
\oga + {a +
x2) is
0, shew
x3-...
ax-
or
(1+ px).
(1+ cur)
a3x3
_-...
x2 +
the
coefficient
according
as
is
B3x3.
Bx-'^-+^--...
B)x-a^^a*+^
Prove
that
1
2
"
ex2) log a
a-x'2
=
2.
have
we
Example
.-.
+ bx +
ffi
"^-
Since
x3-
of
...
is not
xn
or
in
the
expansion
multipleof
3.
1-x3
log (1 +
x2) log-=
"
X6
Q
"
X9
X3r
X2
X3
xr
of
19G
HIGHER
3.
ALGEBRA.
that
Shew
a?
.+_+
hge(n+a)-logt(n-a)=2l+
^
*\*"
/""o
%A/
""/
4.
if
y=*'-2 +-3
that
5.
that
Shew
+
a
6.
+""""
+^-+ ^
=y
O"**
*t/
-
shew
a?
(-
:)+^P
+
V~^"/
'
) +...
Napierianlogarithmof
Find the
logea-logeZ".
to sixteen
correct
"
"
places
of decimals.
/ 1
7.
Prove
that
8.
Prove
that
e"1
.-
.-="
nr
+....)
.
("
iog,d+xr"(i -"")'-'="
9.
''-2 f
-
10.
11.
j2 (-'4#4)
given ^
Shew
-43429448,log2
"
Prove
find the
13.
Prove
+
-//,m
"
"
"
"
logarithmsof 7, 1 1
common
'30103000.
each less
are
unity
3.r-
"
"
"
...
of the series.
generalterm
that
generalterm
Expand
5x2
1 + 3.?
14.
"
that
+ 3a-+2^2)
logc(l
and
^
|i
of the
values
the numerical
Find
12.
+"""")
o+o
H
and 13;
"
^"
in
S5X3
65.iT4
"
of the series.
series of
ascendingpowers
of
x.
Express
15.
LOGARITHMIC
AND
EXPONENTIAL
in ascendingpowers
+ e~ix)
(eix
197
SERIES.
"
1.
25
16.
Shew
17.
If
that
/3 be the
and
of x2 -jtxr +
roots
tf
0, shew
n3
a2 4- ft2
If
18.
i\n
A
log,(1 + -) =1
nj
i
2(" + l)
2.3("4-l)2
-,
log,.,
If
that
Shew
20.
"
19.
ft3
4-
of the series
Bum
that
expanded
De
,3
^,^^,2^
x
l+.r
+ .^ + .t-3
3.4("t+ l)3
in
series
""
of
ascending
be
odd, or
powers
coefficient of o:n is
the
that
of #, shew
if
"
the form
21.
4m
+ 2. and
Shew
that
if n
be of the form
23
22.
23.
log,n
Shew
]2 J3 (4+-=5e-
that
Prove
2
that
"
"
"
+ 1
log,2
and
7a
calculate
",
loge
2?i2
3n3
81
"
1_
1()S"
?;'
go
25
26 + 3c, log,3
"
3(7i+I)3
24
")
log,Yq
+'
2(?i+l)2
1
If
ft
24.
43
33
+,
1+
4m.
1 1a
to 8
36
C' sheW
5c, log,5
placesof
that
1 6a
decimals.
Ah + Vc ;
of
XVIII.
CHAPTER
AND
INTEREST
In this
connected
questions
229.
by
the
shall
the
use
convenient
To
230.
given time
at
on
,"100 for
the interest
on
instead
one
"1
amount
be
simplified
of
year,
for one
we
Value in
takingas
for
year is
one
year.
in
of a givensum
Also
or
P,
(1)and (2)we
?i, r,
231.
due in
M,
any
years
I;
see
three be
(2).
if of the
that
giventhe
P,
quantities
fourth may
n, r,
7,
be found.
Let P be the
r
one
(1).
M=P(l+nr)
is,
From
is,
/ =Pnr
that
the
shall find it
of years, I the
The interest of P
is Pnr ; that
may
solution of
in pounds,r
principal
the number
; but
sense
Let P be the
year,
to take
the
Interest,
Discount,Present
terms
explainhow
with
ordinaryarithmetical
their
shall
chapterwe
use
"We
ANNUITIES.
givensum,
for
one
V the
year,
of years.
INTEREST
Since
is the
time will in
AND
which
sum
years amount
P=
199
ANNUITIES.
at
the
present
V(\+nr);
1
nr
P
D
And
'
nr
Pnr
'
nr
Banker's Discount
Discount
Pnr.
Pnr
True
1 + nr'
Example.
discount
Let
on
"1
for one
1900r
year;
~~
^~
1900''
"
is
"
and
"
".
a-
"
is
"
i*
1900r
~3~
1900r
"""
7~T~3;
l+ir
~3~
1900r2=3
whence
1
*'"
t,
"
r~
"
"Jl +
.-.
232.
giventime
To
at
the number
the
1"151
22800
_
'
3800
3800
152
nave
f"aSui
Let P denote
+ "-;
100r
amount
and
of years, I the interest,
"
4.
of
amount
7? the
principal,
o?
given sum
of "1
in
the amount.
one
in
year,
200
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
year is
\ that is,
years is PR"
at the end
third
of the
end
of P
amount
PR3,
and
so
; hence
on
in
the amount
M=PR";
I=P(Rn-l).
.'.
If
Note.
the interest
denote
In
233.
fraction of
business
a
fraction
of
reckoned
on
"1
for
one
have
we
year,
l+r.
transactions
year it is usual
the year.
Thus
when
allow
to
the
time
the
contains
interest
simjyle
of ,"1 in
amount
for the
is
year
(1
the
"
4f years
Similarlythe
at
compound
of
amount
in
m/
If the interest is
distinction between
in
of P
amount
(In
is PR"
years
"
; and
is PR*
interest
than once
a
year there is a
annual
rate of interest and that
payablemore
the nominal
which may be
received,
actually
if the interest is payabletwice
annual
and
rate of
therefore
the
interest,
in the
amount
whole
year
of "1
in half
year is 1
of ""1 is (1
the amount
+-^
-J,
r2
1
or
r +
that
so
"
the
true
annual
rate
of
interest
is
r2
If the
234.
the nominal
interest is
annual
payableq
rate,the interest
year, and if r is
."1 for each interval is
times
on
and
In this
(ftimes
case
year.
of P
in
years,
or
qn
is
intervals,
into
principal"
AND
INTEREST
interest is convertible
If the
then q becomes
1
r
put
"
rx
the amount
thus
(l+-Y
=P(l-Y" P {(li)T'
+
235.
due in
q is infinite.
is infinite when
Let P be the
givensum,
V the
for
year,
of "1
the amount
Since
Penr,[Art.220, Cor.,]
principalevery moment,
find the value of the amount,
since
into
To
infinitely
great.
that q
so
201
ANNUITIES.
V is the
time,will in
one
sum
years
of years.
interest at the
present
P=VRn',
it
and
P(l-R-).
log2
-47712.
Hol)iI' *"**=!'
Here
Let
-30103, log3
be the number
of years ; then
672=126
25
672
"'"?ll0g24
1"gi26-'
=
100
?ilog
or
.-.
(log100
96
16
=logy;
log96) log 16
=
4
n
log3,
log2 log3
5 log 2
log 3
-
"72700
"
-01773
'
Veiy
nea
'
202
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
XVIII.
EXAMPLES.
logarithmsmay be used,
requiredthe following
log2 -3010300, log 3 '4771 213,
log7 -8450980, log11 1-0413927.
When
1.
a.
interest;givenlog114-674
3.
years will
?
many
Find, correct
4.
8 years hence
to
at 5 per cent,
log67683-94
of money
is
and at the
6. Shew that at
between the sum
become
What
8.
sum
to "1000
of money
at 6 per
in 12 years ? Given
log106
"2500
at 10 per cent,
due and
amount
due
simpleinterest
Shew
7.
of "10000
4-8304856.
In how many
compound interest ?
5.
time
of money
sum
sum
compound interest
cent,
mean
compound
2-0594650.
than
hundredfold
compound
cent,
2-0253059, log49697
in
interest will
4-6963292.
"What
10.
compound
is the
of
amount
interest? Given
log106
a
=
farthingin
200
2-0253059,log11 5-0270
2-0611800.
Annuities.
*
annuity is
An
236.
fixed
year
stated
or
we
at
more
sum
payment may
frequent intervals.
shall suppose
the
annuity certain is
under
paid periodically
be made
Unless
either once
it is otherwise
payments annual.
the survivor of
number
an
of persons.
of
an
of
204
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
In
subjectof
the reader
annuities
consult
may
the
on
Value
240.
Jones
Let
the number
of ""\ in
be the annuity, R the amount
V
the
of years,
requiredpresent value.
of A
presentvalue
The
one
year,
the
present value
of A
due
in 2 years
is AR~'J ;
the
present value
of A
due
in 3 years
is AR~3
and
so
[Art.235.]
on.
Now
payments
is the
.-.
of the
sum
V=AR-1+AR-3
present values
AK-3+
tow
of the
different
terms
R~"
AR~l
l-R-1
1-R-"
A
R-l
also be obtained
This result may
in
Art.
Rn.
238,
by
[Art.232.]
given
by dividingthe
Note.
Cor.
of
If
make
we
infinite
for the
obtain
we
value
of M,
present value
perpetuity
R-V
241.
If mA
is the
is said to be worth
In the
case
of
presentvalue
of
an
annuityA,
years'purchase.
'
perpetualannuitymA
100
1
m
rate
per cent.
"
"
; hence
the
annuity
INTEREST
of
perpetualannuityis
of
annuities
perpetual
arisingfrom
by
c.
years'purchase of
Government
many
Debentures.
A
2| p.
205
ANNUITIES.
by dividing100 by
instances
income
AND
Securities,
CorporationStocks,and
good test
the number
Consols
4 p.
c.
Stock
5 p.
c.
Stock
we
mention
the
may
in irredeemable Stocks such as
investments
96
80 is
at
Railway
Government
is furnished
of
at
at
of the credit of
only worth
16
years'purchase.
find
To
Let A be the
annuity,R
the amount
of "1
in
one
year,
V the
present value.
first
The
is made
payment
at
the
end
of
(;"+ l)
years.
[Art.236.]
Hence
are
the
respectively
AR-{*+l\AR-(p+2\AR-(p+3\
.'.
V=AR-(p+l)
AR-{p+"+AR-(1,+3"+
Cor.
The
terms
(p+1)
-
"
"
AR-p-"
AR~V
present value of
after p years is
ton
7?~"
AR~
...
givenby
deferred
perpetuityto
commence
the formula
V~R-V
243.
freehold
estate
is
an
estate
which
yieldsa perpetual
the estate is equal
annuitycalled
It follows from
Art. 241
that if we
know
the number
of
years'
purchase.
of
the number
farm,
we
years'
obtain
by dividing100
206
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
reversion
Example.
The
rent
years, which
Let "A
of the
value
"20000.
deferred
perpetuity,
for 6
'
annuity; then
since .R =
have
l-05,we
20000^* ^"5'-6;
"0o
.-.
.-.
-6
logA
lias obtained
Let
to the
for p
estate
an
is "1340.
Is. lid.
by paying down
tenant
wishes
he
that
sum
rent
to
the
annual
is called the
pay
p of the p +
value of a deferred
to continue
for
annuityA,
years ; that
AR-*
to
is,
AR-p~n
.
"
EXAMPLES.
The interest is
A
2.
4.
b.
unless the
contraryis stated.
stalment
person borrows ,"672 to be repaidin 5 years by annual inof ,"120; find the rate of interest,
reckoningsimpleinterest.
interest at
log1-045
so
XVIII.
supposedcompound
1.
"
[Art.242.1
"
-=
after
commence
be let
fine for
estate ; then
since the
be equal
years, the fine must
3.
sum
of the
value
paid for
n
the fine
compound
certain
renew
must
present
p years and
elapsedhe
be
has
tenant
log1340-09G.
years ; the
renewingn
3,
3-1271358
lease of
have
q years
n
log 1-05
Suppose that
244.
p +
log A
~6= 1000;
(1-05)
of
4|
=
an
annuity of ,"100 in
per cent.
20 years,
allowing
Given
rate of interest.
"120
INTEREST
estate,
If
of
an
6.
amount
7.
annuity
annuity
to
continue
the
paid now
having given log 104
Find
interest
If
years,
find the
30
rate
per
the
borrows
amount
of
ruined
has
log 2
The
annual
rent
calculate
the
years,
have
elapsed allowing
14.
n,
2-0253059,
If
payable
"30
at
interest
be
a,
at
log 675565
log 3
the
is
end
being
2 per
annuity
an
to
cent.,
continue
to
continue
2?i
years,
of
estate
an
fine to be
interest
at
is "500
paid
log4-688385
the
end
of
taken
5-829667.
'4771213, log 7
to
"
present
of
the
at
the
if it is let
the
lease
worth
year,
and
so
per
paid for
an
on
when
log3'118042
be
interest
he
will
be
'8450980.
ab + b2
cent,
that
'6710233,
first
third,
5 per
receives
having given
per
=
renew
cent.
b, c years'purchase must
respectively; shew
the
hence;
cent,
per
lease
7 years
'4938820.
annuity
to
tinue
con-
of
"10
that
What
e_1
paid for
annuity
an
and
a2
15.
given
at
years
'3678.
for which
he
capital of "20000
shew
spends "1800
every
year,
of the 17th year;
having given
of 20
logl06
must
be
70333
=-01
'3010300,
at
"5000
to
; if he
the end
per
before
13.
1-04
man
cent.
in 50
to "500
the
interest ; if the
compound
annual
are
repaid by 10 equal
instalments,
each
instalment
having
given
;
interest
12.
5
be
moment;
every
20
can
amount
the
for 2 years.
cent.
man
log
at
will
sum
freehold
estate
2-0170333,
and
principal
interest
freehold
25
and
11.
find
what
being payable
10.
n
of
rate
for
given
25
is worth
which
for 3 years
receive
to
per
continue
to
perpetual annuity
If
be
9.
of "625
be
cent.?
is worth
perpetual annuity
When
8.
should
many
interest
207
ANNUITIES.
years' purchase
being calculated at 3i
How
5.
AND
ac.
of
"20
on,
annum
perpetual
the
at
end
annuity
of
increasing "10
?
the
each
second,
year;
XIX.
CHAPTER
INEQUALITIES.
Any
245.
is said
quantity a
be
to
greater than
another
quantity b
when
is
-b
"
accordance
In
greater than
any
this
zero
definition,
negativequantity.
with
must
be regarded
shall suppose
(unlessthe
that the letters alwaysdenote real and
is directly
stated)
In the present
chapterwe
as
contrary
positive
quantities.
If
246.
"
b, then
it is evident
a
"
"
"
"
be ;
ac
that
c
"
that
side has
same
been
positive
quantity.
If
247.
by adding c
a-ob,
to each
side,
a"b+
shews
which
from
"
b,
is,
an
inequality
any
term
may
be
transposed
evidently b a ;
be transposed,the sign of
sides of an
inequality
then
if the
must
inequality
that
in
one
If
that
c;
be reversed.
"
209
INEQUALITIES.
If
is,
"
"
b is positive,
and
b, then a
is
a
nd
therefore
("b) negative,
"
"
"
"a
"
"
ac
"
b,and
"
is
negative;that
b;
"
the terms
of an
be reversed.
the
Again,if a
"
b-a
be changed,
inequality
therefore
be ;
"
that
be multiplied
inequality
by the
the signofinequality
be reversed.
must
negative
quantity,
If
248.
a."b,,
a.
boi a^"b.,,
"
"b
same
it is clear
that
al + a2
a3+...+
and
...
bm;
a:a2a,--'a,n"hAK-'-b,"r
If
249.
a"b,
and
if p, q
11
or
6,+ b^+ba+
"
am
a1
b9 ; and
"
therefore
then ^/a"^Jb,
positive
integers,
are
b' ; that
a'1"
is,a'1
"
b'\where
is any
positive
quantity.
Further,
250.
"
"
=-
; that is a~n
of
The
square
therefore greaterthan
zero.
every real
Thus (a
-
a2
"
is,the
arithmetic
-"
mean
b2 "
Similarly
that
2ab
"
a2
"
b~".
"
"
and
quantityis positive,
is
b)2 positive
;
b2 "
0 ;
2ab.
Jxy ;
is greater
of tivo positive
quantities
The
becomes
inequality
an
when
equality
the
are
quantities
equal.
The results of the
251.
article will be
preceding
in which
in
the
of
case
useful,
especially
inequalities
involved symmetrically.
are
H.
H.
A.
found
very
the letters
li
210
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
If a, b, c denote
1.
Example
quantities,
positive
prove
a2 + b2+c2"bc
and
ab;
ca
b3 +
(a3+
that
ab
(a + b).
"2 + c2"2bc
For
(1);
c2 + a2"2c";
a2 + b2"2al);
whence
a2 + b2 + c2 " be +
by addition
It may
b2-bc
.-.
+ a".
be noticed
b3 +
(a3+
"
c3)
be
real values of a, b, c.
c2"bc
(2);
c3"bc(b+c)
(3).
b3 +
similar
the two
By writingdown
ca
(b+ c)+
[c+ a) + ab{a+b).
ca
It should be observed
that (3)is obtained from
factor b + c, and that if this factor be negativethe
longerhold.
2.
Example
.r3+l
x2 +
or
If
have
may
is the greater,
(x 1)
(x2-l)(x-l)
+ l).
(.r-l)2(*
accordingas
x"
252.
1 is positive
or
"
Let
their
and
product;
b be
two
then from
=
or
x2 +
"
negative;that is,accordingas
becomes
1, the inequality
4a6
we
x2
(x2+ x)=x3-
x3 + 1
find which
hence
[x l)2is positive,
Now
and
real value
any
(2)by introducingthe
inequality(3)will no
x.
x3+l-
If
obtain
and adding,we
inequalities
"
or
1.
equality.
an
$ their
positive
quantities,
the identity
(a+ bf
"
sum
(a b)\
have
iP
Hence, if S
given,S is least
S2
is
(a b)2,and
-
given,P
is
is,if the
sum
"P+(a- b)2.
greatest when
"
b\
and
if P
is
when
a=
that
S2
b;
is given,their product
of two positive
quantities
and
the
if
productof two positive
equal;
is least when
sum
theyare equal.
is greatestwhen theyare
is given,their
quantities
212
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
254.
To
when
find the greatestvalue q/'amb"cp.
beingpositive
integers.
m, n, p,
is constant;
Since
m,
"
\mj
( )
\nj \pj
) (-)
)+
"
all
( )+
"
.,
..
is greatest.
"
or
...
ni
...
this last
therefore
.,
is
sum
con-
the factors
Find
the
m+n+p
...\M4*4*+"
a.
is greatest
when
givenexpression
of the factors of this
hence {a +
c +
less than
numerically
sum
greatestvalue is
the
Example.
/a + b + c+
the
But
and
greatestwhen
The
c +
factors whose
...
c +
mmnnpp. (
equal,that is,when
Thus
of
\pj
ambncp... will be
Hence
stant.
are
(") +
\nj
\mj
ambncp... will
constants, the expression
are
n, p,...
"
...
greatest when
be
"
expressionis
"
^"
"
(
"
j"
j is greatest;
( "^- J+ 4 I
"
^"
or
x=
"
^"
or
but
2a;
63. 84
Thus
255.
The
a7.
determination
often be
may
the greatestvalue is
of maximum
simply effected
more
equationthan
by
the
this
have
alreadyoccurred
illustration.
Example.
is
odd
an
minimum
by
foregoingmethods.
in Chap. ix. ; we
integerinto
two
values
solution of
ratic
quad-
of
Instances
add
further
a
integralparts whose
product
maximum.
Denote
the
Divide
and
the
the
integerby
product by y
then
(2n+ 1)x
2x
I)2-^
and
2n + 1
and
213
INEQUALITIES.
but the
be
must
and therefore
positive,
y cannot
11
be greater than
value must
and n+1.
be
256.
in which
+ n\
n-
Sometimes
Find
Example.
n'2+
or
+ l)2,
(2/t
we
case
minimum
the
since y is
1, or
n+
the
use
may
and
value
..
parts are
method.
following
'
'
of
'
"
"
then
(a-c
the expression
Put c+x=y
its greatest
integral
+ y)
y){b-c
^-^
-
(a c)(b c)
+y+a-c+b-c
-
( a~CJyb~C)-^yy2j(a-c)(b-c).
+
Hence
is when
Thus
the
expressionis
y=J(a -c)(b- c).
the minimum
the
when
+ b-c
value
corresponding
of
+ 2
the square
is
*J(a c)(b
-
XIX.
2.
Prove
that
of any
that the sum
less than 2.
never
5.
If "2 + 62 +
l, and x2+y2
c2=l,
and
b, shew
that
6.
If
7.
Shew
that
8.
Find
which
9.
Prove
that
a36
10.
Prove
that
6abc
11.
Shew
"
real
positivequantity and
that
l, shew
x2+y2+
by+ cz
ax
that
a.
that
If a2 + b2
zero
Prove
4.
is
c);
1.
Shew
is
reciprocal
term
EXAMPLES.
3.
value is
a-c
and
minimum
+ b-c
a-c
z2
"
ax
l, shew that
loe
"
ab3
"
"
be
"4
or
aP+263.
64.
losr=
D.'-'-V2.
"
greater 3"62
by"\.
1.
+ y2z+ z2x)
(.r2^
(xy2+yz2+ zx2)
is the
"
abc
ab
(a+ b).
(a+ b + c).
its
214
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Which
13.
Shew
that
14.
Find
the
x3 + lSa2x
9a3,if x
hax* +
"
greatestvalue of
"
in order
values
positive
+ 2 for
x2+x
or
of x%
a.
that
7x2 + 11
may
be
x^ + Hx.
greaterthan
value of 24?
maximum
(\nf
that
16.
Shew
17.
Shew
that
(x+y
18.
Shew
that
n*
19.
If
be
?i
of x2-
value
the minimum
9x2.
8
Find
15.
greaterx3
is the
12.
+
1
"
and
""
"
6.
(w+ l)n.
2?i"
"
,s)3
27^^.
.(2n
1 ).
positive
integergreaterthan 2, shew
that
2ft"l+?iV2,7_1.
that
Shew
21.
27
(y +
(2) xyz"(y+z-x)(z
22.
7 and
23.
y)(x+y
z).
(7 x)A(2+ #)5when
liesbetween
2.
no
x-y)(x+y-z).
value of
the maximum
Find
x)(z+
z-
"
T7v xu
Find
the
1
value
"
minimum
(5+ x)(2+ x)
off
=-*-*
1+*
To
*257.
am+bm
/a +
"
"
We
since
"
"
~"
if
and
is less than
-y"
6m
unequal,
xs
-^-J
we
action.
positive
proper jr
"
g-J;
-^
expand
may
each
of
and
these
in ascending
powers
expressions
+
and
positive
are
exceptwhen
a"
"
a1" + 6m
have
"
that
prove
b\m
/a
b\m
"'""~2~ =v~2-J
(m
(m
1.2
-
of
"
"
1)(a +
b\""-
\~r)
[Art.184.]
fa
b\*
\~r)
\)(m -2)(m-3) fa +
1.2.3.4
"A 2
bV"-4
fa
b\4
12 j+'"
215
INEQUALITIES.
(1)
If
is
the
on
a"
b'n
fa
fa
the
(2) If m
rightafter
is
the
on
--
fa
fa
1, all the
terms
on
therefore
fr
b\m
"
"
positive,put
1 and
"
bm
"
If
'
(3)
bsV"
6
\2~)
"
where
1 ; then
"
76
fam
bm\m
bm\m
fd"
fan
b7l\H
bn\n
{-"2) (-2-)
'am
"
(a*)m (b")H
bm\m
"
o"
/ox
]jy(2)
i
"
b'"\"1
"
"
"
.*.
Hence
the
fi-7
"
"
If
established.
proposition is
inequalitybecomes
*25".
"
If there
are
am+bm
cm +
'positive quantitiesa,
+
km
/a
b,
c+...+k
"
rt
Consider
a
....
and
a
quantities
..
the
,
i
value
expression
"
"
any
unequal ; if
a + b
are
"
altered,but
have
to
the
b
)"
positiveproper fraction.
Suppose on
that
1, the
c, ...k,then
"
or
equality.
an
...
unless
0,
am
we
lyingbetween
not
bm
c"1 +
and
replace
or
k"\ and
by
"
,
value
...
0 and
c+...+fc
k'" is
1.
suppose
the two
equal
remains
un-
-j
the value
of a"1 + bm
cm
...
diminished, since
216
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Hence
long as
so
...
of a"1 + b'n+ cm
a,
are
b,c,...k
km
be
diminished
and
therefore
can
...+k;
least when
all the
each of the
case
km
will be
In this
equal.
quantities
unequal
a, b,c,..."are
c +
the value
quantities
is equal
quantities
...
without
to
;
n
and
the value of am
bm
cm
fa
n{
Hence
when
am
bm
+km
then
...
c +
"
a,
are
b,c,...k
cn+...+lem
becomes
k\m
"
unequal,
"
/a +
fa
c+
c +
...+fc
+ k\m
...
If
lies between
?n
that the
signof
may in a similar
in the above result must
inequality
0 and
The
proposition
may
The
arithmetic
we
be stated
prove
be reversed.
follows
quantities
of the mth powers of n positive
in all cases
of their arithmetic mean
power
mean
the series
verballyas
manner
of
consisting
1.
1 terms
; and
('^""""("-^"("-{)("
the series
After
of b +
consisting
the second
term
corresponding
is
greaterthan
is established.
1 terms.
term, each
of
(2);
the number
of
term
moreover
of terms
the number
in
(2); hence
of terms
the
in
the
(1)
proposition
INEQUALITIES.
X
*2G0.
if'xand
To prove
are
/lhV
+
/I
'I"^-
that
"
i-x'
i-y5
and ])ositive,
and
fractions
proper
1
.
,.
-lo"?-n
l-x
as
or
"
"
log
"l-2/'
Ilog^2(l+!\
5
\
1-2/
and
"
2/
1
.
log
*
thus the
"261.
i' "
To
prove
that
"
,
'
-
(1-x)1_x"l,if x"l,
(1+ x),+x
,
/a
"
and
b\a+b
then
JO
**s
*C
i//
2x^+3 ^+...)-2^
1
_
--.
is,
log
"
l-x
aabD
r\
that
\+y
"
(1 +jb)1+*
(1-a)1-*by P;
Denote
Hence
4- a;
'
is proved.
proposition
luce that
logP
y.
+? ?+""")"
tAAM^
S^lzS"2^
But
777
"
.71"f"flr"//g*|
according
and
x/l+x
For
217
JC
"*/
log P
is
Jit
and
positive,
+
therefore P"
(1+*)1 r(l-*)'-'"!.
1;
SI/
-6
...)
to
218
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
f9
In this result
put
where
"
; then
"
u
Z
sY+w/,
z\l~u
%1;
{1 u) ^-i)
+
y-^Y-"r"rl.
J
\
'u +
z\
(u+ z)u+*(u-z)u-z"u2u.
.'.
Now
put
+ z
a,
"
that
b,so
"
"
"
(TJ
*
1.
Shew
that 27
2.
Shew
that
3.
Shew
4.
If
EXAMPLES.
and /3are
b+
c4)" (a +
(n+ l)3"
"4 +
(a4+
XIX.
c)\
23 + 33+
(l3+
b.
n3).
...
of the firstn
and
positive
quantities,
"
even
bers
num-
/3,shew that
("-SM-jrHence
shew
that
if
1 the
"
of
value
(1 +
lies between
2-718...
5.
If a,
b,c
are
in
descendingorder
6.
Shew
7.
Prove
that
that
'a +
(a
'
~v
^.
c+...+k\a +
'
v~
If
ii
is
+ c +
--
"
aabb"*..""*.
.
log(1+ an),if m
Ih
positive
integerand
1
#n
?"
"
A.n
"
+ 1
that
+ ,i
lib
8.
magnitude,shew
fb+ c\b
\b-cj
/a + c\a
\a-c)
of
1,shew
that
"
n.
and
XX.
CHAPTER
FRACTIONS.
VANISHING
AND
VALUES
LIMITING
If
262.
be
finite
constant
quantity,the
fraction
--
can
be made
small
as
increasingx
pleaseby sufficiently
we
as
; that
is, we
make
can
approximate to
this is
by takingx largeenough ;
"
when
zero
as
nearly as
usuallyabbreviated
we
please
by saying,
is zero."
Again, the
fraction
increases
as
decreases,and by making
small
as
as
pleasewe
we
make
can
"
as
largeas
we
please;
when
thus
is
zero
has
no
is
finite
limit;
this is
usuallyex-
JO
"
pressedby saying,
263.
or
is
When
we
mean
we
infinite,
greater than
any
smaller
The
which
denote
we
that
mean
than
say that
that we
quantitywe
Similarlywhen
limit, we
when
any
say
we
zero
is infinite."
can
name.
that
can
quantitywe
the limit of
can
name.
LIMITING
The
204.
follows
as
symbolically
of Art. 2G2
statements
two
if
221
VALUES.
be written
now
may
is
co
then
is 0
if
is 0
then
is
co
in
But
making
be remembered
must
of such
use
that
concise
it
expression,
of
modes
abbreviations
only convenient
they are
the
use
but
as
student
The
26~".
of the word
limit and
limitingvalue
Mathematics
had
wherever
limit,
conceptionof
clear
will have
the
in understanding
difficulty
have alreadyemployed it;
no
we
ideas
is necessary
conveyed by
words
higherbranches
their use
precisely
of
in the
proceedto explainmore
we
the
and
meaning.
266.
If y
Definition.
if when
=f(x),and
be made
a, the function f(x) can
pleasefrom a fixed quantityb, then
approachesa
by as little as
differ
value
to
we
b is called the
y when
1+2
as
n
we
2~J
22
Here
of
a.
"
if S
instance,
For
limit
is
'";
denote
then
function
the
'S'
=
of
sum
n ;
pleaseby increasing
and
that
^"
series
tArt 56*1
2~2^-
of n,
of the
terms
be
can
is,the
made
as
small
limit of S is 2 when
is infinite.
267.
shall often
We
of
consisting
common
some
series of terms
such
letter,
a0
where
the
have
coefficients
independentof
x, and
axx
expressions
arrangedaccordingto powers of
occasion
to
deal with
as
aax"+ a3x3
+
...
are
of terms
finite
may
quantities
be limited
or
unlimited.
It will therefore
connected
with
the
certain conditions.
be convenient
limitingvalues
to discuss
of such
some
propositions
expressionsunder
222
limit
The
268.
of the
a0
when
b be
Let
axx
a2x2+ a3x3+
is a0.
the
given series by
S"bx
a0
...
; and
S ; then
bx2 + bx3
of terms.
number
infinite
an
the
denote
us
series
diminished
indefinitely
is
Suppose that
let
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
...
bx
and
if
Thus
small
"
-=
"
we
is
series consists
If the
in the
than
"
when
as
have
we
case
of
have
we
as
of terms, S is less
the proa fortiori
position
finitenumber
considered,hence
a
is true.
the series
In
269.
a0
a,x
,3
a2x
a3x
The
of
the
term
xn
the
to
of all that
sum
follow
it is
xn
a
or
'"
an+1xn+l+an+2x"+'2+
an+1x
...
When
as
small
as
we
is
x
as
we
au+2x*+..
can
made
as
large
please.
Again, the
precedeit is
ratio
of the
term
the
anxn to
xn
sum
of all that
a
or
a
n"l
where
be made
y
u
,ccnl+a
n
"
2+...'
"xn
2
a
n
"
+
,y
lts
ay2+...'
n"2"J
LIMITING
223
VALUES.
small ; hence,
largo, y is indefinitely
indefinitely
be made
in the previous case, the fraction
can
large as
please.
When
is
as
as
we
270.
The
is very
In
the
of
foregoing proposition
the
useful.
expression
H-i
ii
,x
H
"
a.x
a
0 ",
Example
n4
make
the first term
of
can
large enough we
of all the other
please compared with the sum
?i4as the equivalent of the whole
take the first term
small as we
as
please provided n be taken large
By taking n
large as we
5/i3 -7/i + 9 as
terms
; that is,we
-
expression,with
enough.
may
an
error
3.t3
2x'2
"
Find
2.
Example
the limit of
"
=-=
"
"
when
(1) x is infinite
(2) x is
zero.
(1)
In
the
and
numerator
denominator
3a;3
the limit is
^-s
we
disregardall
may
or
OXr
-4
When
(2)
is
small
indefinitely
the limit is
Find
3.
the limit of
/1
Let
the value
denote
of the
+
"
or
when
"
"--
Example
but
terms
is
zero.
we
have
Hence
the
limit
required is e'2.
of
log P
[Art. 226.]
is 2, and
therefore
the
value
of
the
limit
224
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
FRACTIONS.
VANISHING
x2
ax
x2
when
If
to
Supposeit is required
271.
2a2
"
a2
a.
put
we
h, then
approachesthe value
h will
2a2
ax"
3ah
h2
3a
=
x2-a2
h is
as
a.
x2 +
when
zero
h for x,
a +
Substituting
and
value
approachthe
2ah
small
indefinitely
2a~+h'
h2
limit of
the
expression
this
is
-.
a
There
is however
x2
ax
x2
and
^r
if
as
we
another
2a2
the
value
2a
'
"
put
now
regardingthe question;for
(x a)(x+ 2a)
(x a)(x+ a)
a2
"
of
way
of
expressionis
the
before.
-j
If in the
fi
given expression
^
x
pat
we
"
before
"
0
it will
simplification
value
of which
form
in
be
approaches
Art.
long as
as
may
fraction
is indeterminate
to
the form
assumes
; also
Now
is not
removed,
the
it
factor
the
consequence
and denominator.
but
factor,
-
that
0
of
numerator
found
be
value
that
see
Ave
it has
appearingin
-a
divide
cannot
we
absolutely
equal to
and
then
we
", the
nearer
by
this
both
zero
the factor
find that
the
does
value
the
the
nearer
of
the
approximateto
or
in accordance
with
the definitionof
266,
i
when
ax
a, the limit of
x~
Jia
"
"
-^a"
is
VANISHING
225
FRACTIONS.
becomes
fraction
^~
If
272.
form
the
takes
and
Ki
"f)
(a)
called
is
Vanishing
Fraction.
Example 1. If x
"T3-5:r2+ 73-3
'6
.T3
x-
When
becomes
ox"
"
When
denominator,the fraction
and
numerator
S this reduces to
x2 + 2x + 1
requiredlimit.
Example
2.
find its
fractionJ'^-a-Jx
The
becomeg
when
and denominator
a;
"Jx+
+ Jx + a)' J'6x-a+
[x-a)(Jdx-a
a
we
Example
3.
The
fraction
jugate
con-
2
or
by puttingx
by the surd
(Sx-a)-(x+ a)
whence
%_a
limit,
multiplynumerator
J'dx-a-Jx +
to
is therefore the
which
x-a
To
^; but by
21x
when
expand by
l + h and
1_%xbecomes
(1+ fe)*
"j=
x=l.
the Binomial
Theorem.
l-(l
/0i
l-(l+J*-^"F+-.)
1
1,
9;"--
-5
25/l5
Now
273.
between
0 when
limit is
*ael; hence the required
Sometimes
the
roots
of
an
equationassume
form
in consequence of some
the coefficientsof the equation.
H. H. A.
relation
an
determi
in-
subsisting
lo
226
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
example,if
For
ax
(a c)x
=
"
d,
ex
b,
"
d-b
x
if
But
a, then
becomes
"
"
"
j-
or
great if
simpleequationis indefinitely
small.
indefinitely
solution of the
The
by +
ax
be'
ab'
If ab'
=
"
"
a'b
"
0, then
suppose
"
a'x +
b'y+
b'e
ca'
ab1
ab'-a'b
and
"
of
is
0,
c'a
both
are
'
infinite.
by substitutingfor
root
equations
0,
is,the
coefficient of
the
274.
; that
go
In
a', b\
this
case
second
the
becomes
equation
ax
by +
"
0.
cIf
equationsax
c, the two
equal to
is not
"
by +
0 and
c'
ax
+ b Jii H
differ only in
J
absolute
their
terms, and
being
Ml
be satisfied
inconsistent cannot
If
is equal to
^
"
have
c. we
any
-=-=-,
a
m
are
by
finite values of
and
b
the two
and
y.
equations
identical.
now
Here, since
be
"
b'e
0 and
ca'
"
c'a
"
0 the values of
and
Q
each
the form
assume
fact,in
the
involvingtwo
by
an
and
we
present case
unknowns, and
unlimited number
solution
is
have
such
of values.
an
is indeterminate.
In
[Art.138.]
reader who
the
228
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
EXAMPLES.
the limits of the
Find
when
(1)
XX.
followingexpressions,
(2)
#=oo,
'
#4 + 9
j \f-
y^-r^^
0.
(3r?- I)*
(2s-3) (3-5*)
when
"j
(a?-3)(2-5.v)(3a7+l)
(2a?
-I)3
(3 -*?)(*+ 5)(2-7*)
(7.r-l)(#+ l)3
_^_^:L^r
'
2^-1
'-a
"
2#2
when
x"
#2-l
when
8.
ginx
when
-"
1.
"
,.
/n
0.
v/#-\/2a+ V^-2a
when
,
when
a?=2a.
4a2
log(l+#2+#4)
l^(i-sto)-'whena,=ft
l-a?+loga?
13.
1
\/2x
when
a?=l.
x2
"
,.
14.
(a2-x2)2+ (a-xf
^,
^
when
"
x=a,
(a?-afi)*+(a-xf
\fa2+
+ x2
ax
*Ja2
18.
when
.
\Ja +
17.
ax+x2
"
"
15.
16.
"
-{
\j
"
when
log
A'
0.
Qtna
.r-"
11.
V #2
10.
log(l+#)
12-
gjc
9.
'
the limits of
Find
7.
'
i_1
when
,
"
when
,
0.
cc
00
0.
#=a.
'
CHAPTER
NVERGENCY
^
by
some
some
unfimitfd,it
is
In
lt: lb
the
is called
n2
that
Suppose
terminate
series
infinite
an
we
shall
+
i/-3
have
we
usually denote
An
of
the
series consisting of
An
greatn
the first
terms
can
If
978
series
we
we
may
ascertain
examining
whether
when
is made
For
example, the
numerically
exceed
the
sum
finite
some
be.
be
to
divergent
when
of the first
sum
whether
the
sum
any
series
the
it is
convergent
remains
of
terms
finite,or
or
of
finite
of the first
sum
terms
x2
x*
of the series
...
is
"
".
_a.
given
divergent
becomes
indefinitely
great.
1-*"
1
certain
sufficiently
great.
find the
can
terms.
increases
when
numericallygreater than
be made
quantityby taking n
may
convergent
be
to
cannot
terms
quantityhowever
by
series
infinitely
great.
else it becomes
fcmi*,or
q{
B^J.
series.
of n; if n
of the series will be a function
The
sum
either tends to become
the sum
equal to
indetinitely,
finite
at
number
formed
are
form
"ue
ux
ca'iea
preset chapter
expressionc-
series ; if the
^e
SERIES.
OF
which
called
is
w
reguJ"
terms
an
Ax
!
lrlaw
^
assigiMglt^m
DIVERGENCY
AND
in
expression
076
XXI.
finite,
in-
230
If
is
finite limit
j"
is
terms
is
If
n
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
sum
converge,
and
of t" first
greater than 1, the sum
numerically
and by takingn sufficiently
great,tk can
y
"
""*
"n*e
"Y
""
thus
l""*^
cUve?gednet.greater
serie's
rdi^entUm
*
If
x=
**
"
"" *"d
-1+
of
sum
,;Lthe
number
even
an
X ^
t,fe
"
be called o-iBo^
which may
A^c^
or
in
,many
/^' ?ihere
of the first
of finding
0ases
are
sum
the.
of
terms
"f
S:
4n
tra/mfeseries
M,
where
"
are
u, +
be
Written
....
in each
of the
".-K-"J-("4-",)-K-"r)(1) we
is
following
^
(2).
of terms is
of any number
(2)that the sum of any nnmber
less than ", ; hence the series is convergent.
that the
positivequantity;and from
of terms
alternately
hod
We p"
the cTt
its
effecti
,".
K-",)+(",-"0+(".-",)
From
^1
by
for,"6
test
can
-*Hout
w*
w1"^"^a"w,"M
series.
we
"*"
sum
""
we'haic
which
rules by which
therefore to investigate
280.
**"*"
of terms is I
and thiw +\L
of terms is 1
odd number
of an
Ac
between the values 0 and 1. Thi
is
*"""
1-1+1-1+1
The
; -,0 the
appro.
see
sum
281.
example,the
For
OF
DIVERGENCE
AND
CONVEltGENCY
231
SERIES.
series
11111
,
is
f-
is
1 in Art.
-"
223,
we
the series
23
4
+
T~2
is
term
_5
3"4
less
numerically
series is therefore
_7
~6+
than
'
precedingterm, and
givenseries is the sum
the
1-2+3-4
and
1-1+1-1
Now
2 if an
log,,
odd
of
number
even
number
For
if each
sum
of the
odd.
or
the
Hence
is taken.
is
term
first
greater than
is
terms
283.
Before
and
vergency
If
may
series is
almost
then
are
the terms
We
exceed
to
series in which
the series is
; for the
all the
is
when
add
we
or
are
some
remove
terms
is
positive
or
are
is
vergent,
con-
all of the
clearlygreatest when
terms
con-
important
of these
sum
terms
convergent
negative
; for the sum
have the same
sign.
shall suppose
contrary is stated.
tests of
convergent, and
will remain
when
divergent,
finite
any
two
lay down
regardedas axioms.
be
number
of its terms
any finite
a finite quantity.
If
na
quantitya,
and this,by
shall
convergentit
II.
made
further
to investigate
proceeding
divergency,we
which
principles,
terms
of the same
finitequantity
are
finite
some
greater than
be
taking n sufficiently
great,can
quantity.
I.
according'
or
small.
however
if
(2).
the
(1)'
'
An
282.
of
given series
continuallyapproximatestowards
2
1 + log8
terms is taken,and towards
of terms is even
as
is convergent, and its sum
an
1-1
the
5"6+
the number
if
its
that
see
loge2.
Again,in
each
convergent. By puttingx
sum
unless
positive,
all
the
232
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
An
284.
r,
"
"
"
u.
~1
since
u9
u.
"fa ux
"
ua
u3
u2
Ul
);
r2 + r3 +
1.
givenseries
the
Hence
is
convergent.
of the
In the enunciation
285.
/_.
it,(1+
"
is,"
"
Us
U2
should
r,
1.
Then
tliat
"
"
U:
where
UA
-*
U1
U0
let
by
u,12 +
and
be denoted
beginningfrom
notice
of
significance
the
precedingarticle
the
words
"
from
the student
and
after
fixed term."
and
to
series is
But
convergent.
the
ratio
be less than
will not
"
"
1, until
u
n"1
that
is,until
"
Here
may
we
increase
have
up
to
example, if
beginto
1:
"
of
case
a
certain
x^^-r",
100
the terms
begin to decrease.
pointand
then
99
For
"
=-
n"\
then
"
100, and
the terms
do not
CONVERGENCY
286.
infiniteseries in which
An
it iffrom
signis diverge)
to the 'preceding
term
term
unity,each
of
terms
DIVERGENCY
AND
and
aftersome
be denoted
by
t*
of the
are
fixedterm
is greater than
'2Xi
SERIES.
OF
the ratio
unify,or equalto
If the ratio is
same
of ea"-li
unify.
equal to
of the
sum
If the ratio is
fixed term
than
In
287.
having to
greater or
the limit of
"
when
is
this limit
increased;let
indefinitely
n"\
be denoted
If X"
If \"
If
and
"
"
"
A.
by
the
X=l,
series may
test will be
further
1 but
[Art.284.]
either
be
convergent
required
; for it may
continuallyapproachingto
as
divergent,
or
happen
that
n
is
"
increased. In this
indefinitely
quantityr which is itself less
case
1 and
than
any finite
greater than X.
cannot
we
name
yet
Hence
fails.
If,however,
"
"
"
1 but
con-
u
H
tinually
approachingto
its
as
"
Art. 286.
We
shall
"
use
"
Liin
abbreviation
an
as
"
"
of the
words
u
n
"
,
1
"the
limit of
or
"
1.
is infinite."
Example
1
when
"
"
u
"
Find
whether
the
series whose
nlh term
is
"
"
.,
vergent
di-
divergent.
?/n
('"_!
(n+ l)a:n
n2
ru^1
(n +
{h 1)2
him
"x\
"
"
"n
l)(n-l)n*
is
con-
234
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
hence
if x
"
if x
"
1 the series is
If
l, then Lim
2.
Example
=1, and
"
"
divergent.
Is the series
l2 + 22x + 32x2 + 4?xs+
convergent
or
divergent?
un
n2 xn~l
un-i
(n-l)-xn2
T
Lim
Here
if x
Hence
"
if x"
If
7jL=Lim-.
"
convergent ;
1 the series is
divergent.
l2 + 22 + 32 + 42 +
and
is
divergent.
obviously
In the series
3.
a+(a
d)r+{a
"=Lim T
"
n-1
2d)r2+...+ (a+
wn
,
Lim
1)d
(n-2)d
-t-(n
"
"*-i
".
d)rn~1+
...,
-^--.r
thus if r"
9=x.
"
1 the series is
Example
".0
r;
sum
If
288.
or
both
there
two
are
divergent.
and
ua + w4
v,12 + v, + v,3 +
The
lies between
the
u,
is therefore
if
one
a,
+nn
ua^
-*,
series is finite in
value, so
[Art.14.1
-",
L
finite
quantity,
series is infinite in
proposition.
Hence
v.
and
ua
by
say ;
is the
other; which
proves
one
the
236
Prove
Example.
is
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
n+1
divergent.
Compare the
given
1 +
with
series
"
"
"
un_n
"^
""""""
"
of the
the
+ 1
.
_
'
n2
i'n
re
?i
7/
hence
Zi-m,
"
series
two
both convergent
are
both
or
completesthe solution
limit of
should
"
series
auxiliary
Take
the
in the
of
is finite by Art.
Art. 287.
it is necessary
288
Art.
following
way
highestpowers
u
be
1.
Example
of
application
In the
291.
of
270, and
the result
by
and
we
retain
find
our
as
onlythe
the limit of
vn) then
be taken
may
if
case
the
given series
of the
Denote
n.
the
that
the 7ithterm
of
series.
auxiliary
3/2n2
-
1.
Example
r
Shew
that
the
series whose
nth term
is
1
=
,,
is
Z/S?vi
+ 2n+5
divergent.
As
l/w
Hence, if
1
v"=-r,we
have
'
or
4/3
n12
3/2
Lim
^r,
"
n1-
which
is
finite
quantity;
v/3
vn
therefore
the
series. But
divergent.
series whose
nth term
is
"
may
be taken
as
the
the
auxiliary
given series is
Find
2.
Example
whether
-n
^/;":}+l
vn=
is
convergent
237
SERIES.
OF
DIVERGENCY
AND
CONVERGENCY
divergent.
or
Here
\\/
* +
""="
//
*J
tf
(1"-"+-;"1)
+
~3n2
If
take vn=
we
have
we
9""5
Luti
=x.
"
v"n
the
But
9n'J
vMN
auxiliaryseries
JL + JL + Jl
P
To
292.
ur, ur+l
; then
is convergent.
expansionof (1 + x)n by
n1+"-
'"
given series
that the
shew
32+
22
the Binomial
1.
"
terms
(?-+l)th
of the
pansion
ex-
n-r+1
r
r
When
is
this ratio
r"?6+l,
7/
when
Now
since
same
the
1 the
"
of
To
"
shew
that the
1"#"^
W
"
*-
""_,
numerically ; therefore
"
n-1
"
of the
some
of
negative. [Art.283.]
some
in
expansio?iof ax
"
sign;and
and
terms
are
positive
293.
is infinite,Lim
of
ascendingpowers
x.
; and
"
7-
11
"
therefore Lim
"
=-
"
"*__,
tlie series is convergent.
1 whatever
be
238
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
294.
To
of x
powers
shew
-i
n't
ni
value of
the numerical
Here
in the limit
which
x.
"
"
n
,
is
equalto
If
a5
1"
is less than
an^
77-t+--"
4
3
is
1.
con"
[Art.280.]
vergent.
If
\ hence
x~
1,
"
series becomes
the
"
-"
"
an(^
q_t" 4:
""""
*s
295.
and
Put
\q"jx
the limit of "2-- when
Find
Example 1.
following
examplesare important,
of the present chapter.
is infinite.
ev; then
logs
y
~
y*
eV
yi
y'2
also when
Shew
2.
Example
Let
3+"
\2
x=-
so
that when
that
y"l;
that
n\ogy
zero.
0, when
x"l.
if
so
logz;
fu^="
when
i ^^
logz.
"
z'logy logy'
yn
Now
then
is infinite z is
and
infinite,
"
s_
0;
also
logy
is
finite;
Lim
therefore
296.
0.
an
whether
necessary to determine
infinite number
of factors is finite or not.
consist of
uMAia
if
It is sometimes
productof
then
nxn
as
be
order that
the
by
mately
u
""1, the productwill ultiindefinitely
in
hence
zero, and if un " 1 the productwill be infinite ;
tend to the limit 1
the productmay be finite,
must
un
increases
Writing 1
DIVERGENCY
AND
CONVERGENCY
239
SERIES.
OF
productbecomes
(l+*1)(l+*,)(l+*8) (l+Othe
Denote
logP
productby
P and
take
logarithms
j then
log(l+ vJ
log(l+v1)+ log(l+v8)+...+
and in order
tlie
that
be
productmay
(1),
be
convergent.
Choose
as
an
series
auxiliary
+
v,+v2
v3+
_1
2**+"
r-
log(l+ t;)
^
r.
Lim-2-l
Now
(2).
+vn
_.
/==1,
Lim\
the limit of
is 0 when
if
is 1
Hence
the
given
productfinite.
Shew
Example.
is
of
infinite,
2n + l
2n-l
~JT~'~2ir
2' 2 '4*1*6' 6
is finite.
The
productby P,
P
we
**n=
"
logP
but
and
we
"
2"+l
"
uxv2u3
2n-l
where
have
"
2m
-5
"
,
1
n"
2n
1
t-?;
4"-
(1),
log"n log
Now
therefore
is finite.
297.
as
(l-^)=- ^
~
32/i-1
In
mathematical
'"'
infinite
investigations
series
occur
of determining
their convergency
that the necessity
frequently
is
and
unless
take care
that
we
divergency very important;
series
we
use
are
convergent,we
may
be led to absurd
so
or
the
conclusions.
[SeeArt. 183.]
240
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
For
example,if we
Binomial
Theorem,
find
we
(1
But
if
in Art.
the
3ar
of
sum
...
of this series
terms
*"
n-l
4a3
as
plained
ex-
that
60, it appears
9
O
2.*;+ 3ar
in
2x
obtain
we
a;)-2 1
nx
t=
^^
ra
"
"=
(1 x)
4-
whence
3x~
I +'2x+
-'"'""
(l-x)2
...
nx
-
7z
1-*
(1-a?)9
i
ByJ
making"
gardedas
we
infinite,
of
equivalent
the true
ri
is
aj"l,
or
that
the
true
diminishes
x
"
ix3
=*
1 that
2x
if the series is
2x
4#3
3x2
conclusions
other
...
to
were
we
Theorem
as
if it
introduce
can
reasoningwithout
our
do
cannot
we
if
words, we
into
convergent,but
that
to inf.j
the Binomial
In
x.
x=l,
a,*"l,[Art.295],so
assert
can
erroneous
of
we
3x2
expansionof (1 x)~2by
for all values
infinite when
when
indefinitely
be led to
should
infinite series 1
is
3x2
infinite,this quantitybecomes
and
it is only when
we
2x
l-x
Ta
and
vanishes.
="
(1 -x)~
n
re-
nx
x
-rz
If
only be
can
-a
-z
(l-x)2
1
when
that
see
so
when
use
were
the
error
the series
divergent.
many
terms
as
we
pleaseof the
l
be, and
series
2a;+3"2+4a;3
in
certain
whatever
called its
algebraical
equivalent
; yet,as
does
may
not
so
reallyexist
except
sense
we
when
-p.
have
the
seen,
niay be
the
series is
valence
equicon-
CONVERGENCY
AND
vergent. It is therefore
DIVERGENCY
OF
to speak
appropriate
more
241
SERIES.
of
"
"
(l
as
the
generating
functionof the
"
X)
series
1 +2a,- + 3a2+
function which
Avhen
rules will givethe series in
being that
developedby ordinaryalgebraical
question.
The use
of the term generating
functionwill be more
fully
the
in
chapteron RecurringSeries.
explained
EXAMPLES.
Find
whether
the
XXI.
a.
Ill
1#
1
x
and
1
+
1.2
_1_
and y
1
+
273
371
475
quantities.
beingpositive
x*
x3
x2
1
1.2^2.3^3.4^4.5
/)"2
/""
tf
o"o
\Mj
T72
o***
%A/
\Mj
3T4
22
n
6-
(*+3)(y+3)+
(*+i)(y+i)4"+a)(y+*)
+ 3a
'
xy
x
.v
beingpositive
quantities.
1
6-
4.
x-^-2a
576
778+
42
32
1+I+I+I+
7-
\/l+\/i+\/f+\/1+
8.
1 + toe+ bx2 +
y*
1
2__
+
"i^ 2/'
ia
1 +
11.
.,
5
H.
H.
i.+ A
3p
4p+
2+5+Ib+-+,^TT+
3
la? + 9af*+
A.
x2 +
-x* , +
10
n2-\
15
"
17
xA +
-.,"-..
xn +
nl + 1
16
242
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
2
-.n
12.
14
2'l-2
-,
l +
+
g*+5*"+I^P
".
*p-i+
"
1
"
14.
"
2.r+"
--
/22
"
..+
-,"
2 7
/33
2\-!
3\-2
/44
4\-3
15'
/4_4_4\
="
+"="
(p-l)+(2-3-2)
\34 3^
16.
1 +
17.
1C
--
generalterms
Jn*+l-n.
(1)
18.
44
33
22
(2)
are
jtF+l-Jnt-^i.
.r
A+l
a+2
x+3
"-+
5+"
-2
/1N
11
-+
/on
(2)
Ax
?t3
-1
r-+"
A+l
T5+
+ 2
fraction.
beinga positive
19.
Shew
3^
4"
1+I+I+E+
is convergent for all values of
p.
20.
Shew
ux + 2i2+ u3
is
+ u" +
as
convergent or divergentaccording
Lim^funiti"1,
21.
Shew
that the
2
2
*
"
is finitewhen
22.
Shew
or
"1.
product
4
3' 3' 5
2ti-2
2tt-2
271-3'
2"-l"S^Ti
'
2n
is infinite.
that when
infinite,
except when
x=\,
is
no
term
negativeand
in the
expansion of (1+#)" is
numericallygreaterthan unity.
244
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
that is,
"
^-series is
Hence, if the
have
We
*300.
(vl+ v2 + v3
"
...).
seen
vergent
it-series is also di-
divergentthe
series is
convergent
divergentaccording
is less than 1, or greater than 1.
term
'preceding
convenient
remainder of the chapterwe shall find it more
as
or
In
to the
form
this test in the equivalent
series is
or
less than
Similarlythe
enunciated
to the
of
theorem
series whose
The
case
the
compare
general term
"When
"
is
generalterm
-
"
the
be
convergent
it-series will be
is un is
1 \ ""
"
di-
1, or
with
"
the
vergent
convergentor di-
1.
auxiliaryseries
"
series
auxiliary
the
un
(n+iy
Un+l
n?
is
convergent, and
if
or
(l
iy.
JSB."l+g+-J"CP-lV+"
/
2n~
,\
nKCrlrp+
is,if
may
^.
Lim
given series
un+i
that
the v-series is
; and
"
thatis,if
1.
"
divergentprovidedthat
\n (
Lim
as
according
"
^^
Lim
us
Lim
"
"
"
the v-series is
vergent when
whose
1, or
1,
Let
"
greaterthan
*301.
"
"
the limit of
preceding article
the
The
is
term
succeeding
is,according as Lim
that
use
convergentor divergentaccordingas
to
the
Lim
\n (
"
I Wh
(p-l)
^+
1 )1"")".
J)
in this
CONVERGENCY
AND
DIVERGENCY
OF
245
SERIES.
But
a;
is convergent
1
=-;
it
"
"
un+l
the series is
2.4*
1.3.5
x[
+2~i.d'T+'"
divergent.
or
Lim
x=
L3
2* 3
Here
the series
Find whether
Example.
hence
if x"l
if x"l
x"
divergent.
u
If
x=
1, Lim
"
In this
1.
"
case
un+l
1-3-5
M"
a;
is
term
"
'
'
J" (2n-l)2'
compare
the
generalterm
(n log
Lim
as
according
us
'
......
T/ie serieswhose
*302.
Let
"Urn
'"
when
2n(2n+l)
(2n 1)(2n 1)
un+1
hence
wn
and
1
(2w- 3)
(2n 2) 2~/T=T
_
~
j 1, or
"
"
is un is
givenseries
with
"
convergentor
vergent
di-
1.
general
nl
When
case
the
"
auxiliaryseries
the
givenseries
is
-sn+
log
if
"
log
ij
this
[Art.300.]
**
or
in
lv
/"
1
"
"
"
convergent, and
convergent if
that is,if
is
log (1
P
"
"
'u
'
"
"
., 1
71+
):
7J
^-5 +
2n2
"3
246
In log
Lim
is,if
that
When
p " 1 we
series is
auxiliary
similar
proceedin a
divergent.
; in this
manner
case
the
the series
Find whether
Example.
)"p.
"
"
is established.
proposition
Hence
22z2
is
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
3sx3
55x5
4*r4
convergentor divergent.
un*-
"
Here
"
nnxn
'-
n+l
(n
+ l)
v
'
|n_
wn+l
.-.
3l
Lim
(n+l)** A
lyV
H)'
-1
[Art.220
Cor.l.
"?*
if a?"-
7^
[n+
wn+1
Hence
/pW+1
"
the series is
#"-
divergent.
^St"
If:r=-,then
e
un+l
".log
-n"
loge-wlog( 1 +
_1 J_
3n8+"
~2n
un
".
hence
when
*303.
Lim
the series is
-^-
If Lim
[n
log
"
givenin
To
Arts.
discover
series whose
1, and
300, 301
further
general
term
divergent.
also
wn+1
tests
"
'
not
are
test
is
1, the
applicable.
shall make
we
"
Liminf-^- l))
) \un+i J)
r-
use
In
of the
order
to
auxiliary
establish
(logn)p
the convergency
of this series
or divergency
in
the
article.
next
proved
we
need
the theorem
AND
CONVERGENCY
DIVERGENCY
OF
247
SERIES.
If $ (n)is positive
integralvalues of n
for all positive
diminishes
a
nd
ive
as
n increases,
if a be any posit
continually
then
the
series
two
infinite
integer,
*304.
and
+
+ "/"(3)
+ ""(2)
"/"(l)
+
+ a3"/"
(a3)
a""(a)+ a2""(a2)
and
are
both
+
"/"(n)
...
...,
+
an""
(an)
us
+ S),
+ 2),"f"(ak
"/"("*+
"M"i+1)
1),"f"(ak
beginningwith the term which follows "/"("*).
number
The
of them
is
is ak+l
of these terms
0)
ak,or ak(a-1),and
hence their
greater than ""(a*+1);
is
sum
each
greater than
that is,greater
ak(a-1)"f"(ak+1);
By givingto
than
ak+lcf"
(ak+1).
0, 1, 2, 3,...we
have
++W"^x"*W;
+
+ 4"(3)-f"M4)
4"(2)
Co
+ 1)+ ""("
+ 2)+ "f"(a+
"]"(a
3)+
therefore,
by addition,
$!
""("*)"
"
""(1)
"
a2"f"(a2)
;
S2,
ct
", S2 denote
where
therefore
the
sums
of the firstand
series tively;
respecseries is divergent
also is the
so
if the second
second
first.
Again,each
sum
of the series
By givingto
of
and therefore
(1)is less than ""("*),
is less than (a" 1) x ak"j"(ak).
term
k in succession
+ ""(3)
+ 4"(4)
+
"j"{2)
the values
we
have
+ I)+ "f"(a
+ 2)+ "f"(a
+ 3)+
"f"(a
therefore,
by
0, 1, 2, 3...
the
"
1)x a"f"(a);
+"f"(a2)"(a-
addition
4-+(l)"("-l){4 + *(l)};
hence
if the second
Note.
generalterm
To
series is convergent
"'
so
248
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
The serieswhose
*305.
generalterm is
"
is convergent
u
r"
n(logn)p
if p
if p
1, and divergent
"
divergentfor the
of p
values
same
1.
"
series will be
the
precedingarticle
the
By
1, or p
as
convergent
general
is
term
1
ft"
\l
11
(\V
c\y
np'
factor
constant
fore the
givenseries
of
values
is
term
"
for
divergent
is
general term
"
; there-
term
the
Hence
generalterm
\\\(
"
"
givenseries
with
is un is
1
"
vergent
convergentor di-
logn
"
"
1, or
(w + l){log(n+l)}'
n {log
n)v
un
M,+i
when
is very
log(n + l) logn
the condition
log(1 +
V
.
,
+ l
'
?i
u
.,
n + l
nlog
n
"
log n
,
'
l)(l+P
log n)
u
-
nj \
uH+l
"
J logn
nj V
^"(l\
thatis,
(1)becomes
is,
1.
general
wlogw
o
in this
"(!)"
large,
+
Hence
"
(logny
When
Now
the
-.
case
same
[Art.290.]
Lim
the
compare
to every
common
will be convergent or
follows.
accordingas
us
is
r_
*306.
Let
7=
as
requiredresult
that
or
'
nearly;
)" 1
240
SERIES.
OF
DIVERGENCY
AND
CONVERGENCY
l0g?4
CSr1)-1}10*"^
"n
or
second
first
the
Hence
proved in
be
part may
is established. The
part of the proposition
the
indicated
manner
in Art. 301.
Is the series
Example.
22
22.42.62
22.42
^32^32.52^32.52.72
convergent
divergent?
or
A.
Here
*"*
ti
*-
Lt"i
.-.
=1, and
"
proceedto
we
In ( -1-
Lim
the next
I+
(1).
test.
"fe-l)=l+5
Fromfl),
.-.
1 +
and
-1)1=1,
we
"2"-
test.
ffe-1)-1}108^'^
*-"
"""^"[ffe-1)-1}108"]30'
^"
since Lt/u
"
is
divergent.
*307.
shewn
have
We
series in mathematical
But
exercise caution
For
in
lead
to
of
use
erroneous
divergent
results.
convergent it is necessary
to
instance,the series
convergent when
by
Ou
%)C
JC
series
are
that the
usingthem.
is
183
reasoning may
when
even
in Art.
Jb
4/2~J/3 474~^5+
x=l.
[Art.280.] But
'""
if
we
multiplythe
productis
1
1
+
250
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
this
Denote
since
a2n ; then
by
a"2"
"
,
'
Jn
If
and
"
"
no
of two
Let
enquireunder
If
denote
us
axx
4-
the two
+
a2x
conditions the
what
product
convergent.
infinite series
+
a3x
a2x
+
b2nx2n
.,
respectively.
series
multiplythese
we
'
series is also
...,
are
...
._
convergent
a0
by
a02/i+.,.1' affl
ol,
2;i+2
2h'
to
us
infinite
*308.
...
meaning.
leads
This
aBf
+a3-
%-ax
and
is infinite.
productbecomes
the
x=l,
J^
obtain
togetherwe
result of
the form
a"A + (aA
a(A)x
have
2w
2/1 ",
1 terms
If
we
of each
B"2"
of
the
x2+
+ afiz)
+ afii
(aJ"o
continued
to examine
,
'
what
let
equivalentof
B
are
us
conditions
the
positive.
A, B, C respectively.
x2n is the
highestpower
of
in
x2" ; but
the term
of x higherthan
C2
"
2/i
form
C2nincludes
the
product A B
in the
A2nB,n
x2n,whilst
2/1
the
last term
is a b x2n ; but
and
other terms
some
product
besides ; hence
C. "A
%n
in
C0n;hence
^o B*2/1
we
...
and
infinity
under
in A and
of x in C as far as
the like power
there are
terms
containingpowers
If
to
arithmetical
true
First suppose
A"
be
to
denote
Let
B
ii
ii
252
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
^EXAMPLES.
the
Find whether
.r2
XXI.
series
following
#*
1.3.5
b.
convergent or divergent
are
1.3.5.7.9
""
1.
1+2*4+2.4.6'8+2.4.6.8.10' 12+
2.
1 +
3.6.9
3.6
22.42
22
o
3.
62
o
"
32.?2
^1
12
,5
14
13
12.32.52
2
+
22.42'r
22.42.62^+*
22
|4
12.32
l2
54^
1
|3
43^
^1
|2
7'"
42
.
^+374^+3.4.5.6^+3.4.5.6.7.8*"+
n
22
G
2#
4
*'
3.6.9.12
+
^+7. 10^ +7.10.13*+7.10.13.16A
g(l-a)
"T
12
(l+ a)"(l-g)(2-g)
,
"*"
l2 22
.
(2+ q)(l+a)q(l-a)(2-,a)(3-q)
I2 22
.
beinga
32
fraction.
proper
a+x
8*
IT*"
9.
1+^+^MM, (y+1)
1
+"13""
12~
'
1.2.3.y(y+l)(y + 2)
(log2)*+ a?3(log3)i+ a?4(log4)*+
10.
x1
11.
i+a+__^+"
12-
If
^; '^r^w^S^'
integer,shew
^
_-^
that
the
and
i js positive,
series
w1 + ?^2+
divergentif A
"
"3+
-
1 is
where
is
* is
convergent if
negativeor
positive
zero
CHAPTER
XXII.
Coefficients.
Undetermined
309.
In Art.
230
if any rational
it is divisible by x
be
"
p0xn+ pxxn
rational
vanishes
Elementary Algebra,it
'
pjf
integralfunction
x is equalto each
when
of
[Seealso Art.
a.
"
Let
of the
integralfunction
that
"
by
al ,
function
the
514.
Avas
proved
when
a,
Cor.]
of
+pn
of
of the
"!" "*, %i
Denote
vanishes
dimensions, which
unequalquantities
"""
hy f(x);
tlien
since
f(x)
is divisible
have
we
f(x)=:(x-al)(p0x"-i+ ),
the
quotientbeing of
"
1 dimensions.
since f(x)is
Similarly,
2Wn~X+
the
quotientbeingof
Proceeding in
divisible
"
-a,7,
(x-aj-(pjf-+
by
this way,
we
shall
for more
of
than
the variable
Let
rational
values
must
the function
f(x)
be
)"
finallyobtain
If a
have
dimensions; and
f(x)=p0 (x a) (x-a}(x-aa)
310.
we
after
visions
di-
(x- aH).
integral
functionof\\dimensions vanishes
the coefficient
of the variable,
of each power
zero.
be denoted
hyf(x),where
!"x" +p)x"~x+p,c'-'+
+pn
254
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
vanishes when
x
suppose tha,tf(x)
unequalvalues alt a2i a3
an ; then
is
and
Let
since f(c)
which
therefore
makes
Po
factors is
of
(x a,)-
f(x) vanish
p0
Hence
zero.
f (x)reduces
this expression
vanishes
By hypothesis
In
therefore px
similar
If
more
we
be
may
than
the
other
to
+Pnfor
than
more
values
equalto
shew
zero.
also be enunciated
follows
as
rational
of
0.
manner
Vn must
2"o,P3,
0;
none
0, since,by hypothesis,
equalto
(c-"J
+ 2)3X"~3+
+p2xn-2
2\xn-x
of x, and
; then
have
0, we
and
value
another
be
of the
each
equal to
dimensions
integral
functionof n
values of the variable,
it must
vanish
vanishes
for
for
every value
of the variable.
If the
Cor.
of x, the
than
functionf(x) vanishes for more
than n roots.
equationf (x) 0 has more
values
"
Hence
roots it is
equationof
identity.
also,if an
an
Prove
Example.
(x c)(x a)
{b-c) (6 a)
than
more
that
b)(x c)
(a-b) (a- c)
(x
has
dimensions
(x a)(x b) 1
(c-a) (c-b)~
"
satisfiedby each
This equation is of tivo dimensions,and it is evidently
of the three values a, 6, c ; hence it is an identity.
rational
If two
311.
equalfor
every value
than
more
integral
functionsof n dimensions are
values of the variable,
they are equalfor
of the variable.
Supposethat
functions
the two
2)0xn+p1xn-1+2"2x"-2+
qoxn+ q^"-1+ q2x-2+
are
equalfor
more
than
values of
qmt
; then the
+pH,
expression
+
(p* ?.)
-
UNDETERMINED
vanishes
for
than
more
255
COEFFICIENTS.
of x;
values
and
therefore,
by
the
precedingarticle,
is,
that
2\
the
Hence
Pi=9li" Pi^Vv
%"
l"n
and
identical,
are
expressions
two
"ln"
therefore
is the
of lower
This
still holds
proposition
dimensions
than
the other.
l
p0x"+ pff~
have
only to
0, and
then
of the
one
For
suppose that
Ave obtain
is
functions
if
instance,
+pn
+qn,
in the above
investigation
0,
qo
=
Ps=q3"
p,,
q"-
precedingarticle is usuallyreferred
The application
the Principle
as
of Undetermined Coefficients.
this principle
is illustrated in the following
examples.
312.
of
ElementaryAlgebra,
pjf~2 + pjf~*+
to
if
+ q3xn~3
+
q2xn~2
in the
may
227.
Cor.
we
assumed
we
principle
are
Find the
Example,1.
of the
theorem
The
of the series
sum
1.2 + 2.3
Assume
that
1.2 + 2. 3 + 3. 4 +
where
+n(n+l).
3.4+
...
+ Dn3 + Eni+...,
n(n + l)=A + Bn+Cn2
quantities
independentof n, whose values have
A, B, C, D, E,...are
to be determined.
Change
1. 2 +
into
+ 1 ; then
+ l)(n + 2)
2.3+...+?i(;i+ l)+ (?t
A+B(n
By subtraction,
(n+ 1)[n+2) B+C
{2n+ l)+
l)3+ E(n
+ 6ri-+
{"-n*
"n +
iy+....
l)+
..
1;
3D + 2C
D + C + B
3;
whence
1) =
"
(7=1,
3D
2;
256
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Hence
the
=A
sum
n2 +
"
To find A,
put
l;
Note.
rational
function
series.
1 .2 + 2
2,
A +
3 + 3. 4 +
0.
n(;i+ l)
...
or
is a
the nlh term
It will be seen
from this example that when
the
for
sum
a
integralfunction of n, it is sufficient to assume
of n which
is of one
dimension higher than the wth term of the
Example
2.
x2 +
x3
Assume
+px2 +
qx +
ax
k + a=p,
r=(x + k)(x2+
the last
equation k
ak + b
be divisibleby
may
b.
q, kb
ax
of x,
Equating the
From
Hence
n3.
6).
we
have
r.
hence by substitution
obtain
we
b
r
that
is,
are
the conditions
which
a=p,
and n
(p-a),
and
ar
,
ar
by the
method
q;
(q-b);
XXII.
l2+3* + 5*+7*+...to
2.
1.2. 3 + 2. 3. 4 + 3. 4. 5 +
3.
4.
I3 + 33 + 53 + V3 +
5.
l4 + 2* + 34
.to
a.
Coefficients the
of Undetermined
1.
required.
EXAMPLES.
Find
+b
"
of
terms.
..
terms.
.ton
n
terms.
terms.
44 + ...to?i terms.
x3-3px + 2q
be
may
7.
8.
Find
conditions that
the
,sum
a2AA + bx3+cx2 +
divisible by
be
cube.
perfect
dx+f2
may
be
perfect
square.
9. Prove
if b'1 ac, d=
that
a/,e2
ax2 +
cf.
+ 2tlv + 2ey +/
2bxy+ cif-
is
perfectsquare,
10.
If a.":i
+ bx2 +
11.
If 3tP
12.
Trove
+ d is divisible
cx
by x2 + h2,prove
shew
f"qx+4ris divisible by (x c)2,
"
g*=r*,
b2 (x-c)(x
"
a)
c2 (x
a)(x b)
-
"
~(b-c){b-a)~~Jc^aJ(c-b)
(.?-")
("y-^")(^-c)".y-cQ
(ff-c)(#-eg)
(rt-6)(a-c)(a-J)"t"
(b-c)(b-d)(b-a)
/0n
(x d)(x a) (x~b)
(x a)(x b)(x c)
-
{c-d){c-a)(c-b)
be the
\d-a){d-b)\d-c)*
'
Find
ax2 +
may
bc.
the identities :
(a-6)("-c)
13.
that "id
that
"
a2(x-b)(x"c)
( }
257
COEFFICIENTS.
UNDETERMINED
productof two
+ ^'y
+ r'.
jfctf+gy+r, jt/.t'
If
14.
same
"
lx
+ nz, r)
+ my
equations
with xt y,
l2+2mn
15.
l, m2
that the
Shew
nx
ly+
"=mx
mz,
true
are
+ 2ln
of the
sum
l~,and if the
changed
",77," are inter-
+ n// +
when
0, n2 + 2lm=0.
products-//
/"
togetherof
the
quantities
a, a2,a3,,..an is
+
a-l)...(a"-l)i("-r)("-r+l).
("y+ 1-l)(tt*a
.(a*-'-1)
(a-1) (a2-1)..
by S,
and
let
pression
S\ stand for the exthen
S
and
therefore,
al + a2x + a:ix2
;
a0 + xSt,
for
0
all
finite
values
of
But
since S
+
x.
xSt
l"yhypothesis,
a0
is convergent,#, cannot
exceed some
finite limit;tlierefore by
takingx
In this
aQ must
small
case
be
equalto
Removing the
x; that
is,ax
a2x
we
Similarly,
coefficients an
H.
ir.A.
zero
term
+
identically.
a0,
we
ajc2
may
a.,, a0
have
xSx
vanishes
prove
is
in
succession
equalto
zero
that
each
of
identically.
17
the
258
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
series
If tivo infinite
314.
value
finite
of the variable
then
the
"o
vanishes
series
+
axx
A0 +
and
A xx
)x
denoted
are
for
every
convergent,the
are
equal.
series are
by
+
a3x3
A2x2+ Aj? +
a0x2+
expression
"
Ao + ("i
"
within
assignedlimits
the
; therefore
by
a0-A0
that
is,
aB-Aa
Ot a.-A^Q,
"0
proves the
which
^0" "i-^n
a2
0, a3-Aa
0,
proposition.
2 + x2
as
both series
for which
the two
a0
another
one
of like powers
coefficients
Suppose that
equal to
are
Expand
Example
1.
the term
involvingx5.
in
-=
series of
"
2 + X2
ascendingpowers
of
as
far
'-
Let
where
"
r"
(1+
"
+ a.jx?
+
a2x'2
whose
constants
a0, fla,a.2,a:i,...are
2 + x2
a0 + ax
"
values
x2)(aQ+ Oj a; +
...,
to be
are
a2 ar + oa re3+
determined; then
)
.
of x on
In this equation we
may equate the coefficients of like powers
is
coefficient
of
side
the
xn
the
On
each side.
right-hand
an + au_1
an_2 ,
of x on the left,for all values of
and therefore,since x2 is the highestpower
?t"2 we have
-
this will suffice to find the successive coefficients after the first three
obtained. To determine these we have the equations
been
a0
2, a1 + a0
whence
a0
Also
and
X~
=
"
l + ic-a;2
a2 =
a5 + a"-a3
2 +
thus
~~
0, a.2+ a1-a0
2, ^=-2,
a3 + a2-a1
a4 + a3
a3=
0, whence
a4
0, whence
a5
l;
a2=5.
0, whence
2x + 5x2
7.t3+ 12x4
-7;
12 ;
19 ;
19a5 +
have
260
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
XXII.
EXAMPLES.
3 +
2
as
"'
l+x
"*
i_#_6#2-
2+.r + .r2'
l-
5
1 +
x2
"
ax
ax2
"
.r3
"
Find
Find
b, c
a,
+ bx + cx2
"
"
(l-.r)3
8.
9.
so
in the expansion of
-4-b
7-
v
--,
(l-.r)-
7.
a
and
"
(Sn-2)xn~1.
be
may
far
1_^_^.2-
'
l-"g
1+2^;
of
in ascendingpowers
followingexpressions
the
Expand
b.
may
be
If y2+
If cxz +
n-
-y
expansion of
0, shew that
value of
one
i"
"'"
a7
a4
Hence
value of y is
one
e?/3 3c2;/512c3;/7
shew that x=
equation x3 + 100.? -1
in the
xn
+ l.
+ 1),shew that
(3/
|.r+ s.r-jsSA
=#
ax
so
is
-00999999
0. To how
approximate solution
placesof decimals
many
an
of the
is the
result correct ?
10.
number
1S
When
"
nhr(r-l)
xn
(1)
is
shew
integer,
positive
that
nn+1-n(n-l)n+1+n^~1'
(n-2)*+1-
(2) nn-(n+l)(n-l)n
the series in each
(3)
expansionof
'
"
If
in the
to inf.
case
"
^"
beingextended
(l-O
(l-a)(l-a2)(l-"3)
11.
the
that the coefficient of
a\c)(1 + a\v)
(n-2)"to
terms
=jn\n+.l;
=1;
; and
=(-l)w \n;
l"-"2"+7t^~1"3a-
(4) (n+p)n-n(n+p-l)n+
^"
"
'
"
(n+p-2)n-
cases
beingextended
\n;
'"
l"
to
+ 1 terms.
CHAPTER
XXIII.
Fractions.
Partial
of fractions connected
In
elementaryAlgebra,a group
by the signsof addition and subtraction
simple form by being collected into one
315.
is the
denominator
fractions.
a
group
lowest
is reduced
wish
we
of x,
ing powers
obtain
^--
we
iX
"
in
of Art.
the method
might use
express
the
given
series of ascend-
"
in
fraction
if we
as
simplerto
wish
to find the
and it is
inapplicable,
the equivalentform
1
1-
term
given
OXT
-r
terms as we
please.But
many
generalterm of the series this method is
can
the
5a;
"
expand
to
"
whose
the
of
more
converse
a fraction into
process of separating
of simpler,
or
jwtial,fractions is often required. For
But
example,if
so
singlefraction
denominator
common
to
Each
"
expanded by
be
now
of the
expressions
(1"a;)-1and (1 3aj)-1
"
ox
"
Theorem, and
the Binomial
general
the
obtained.
In
316.
the
the
illustrating
shall
present chapterwe
of
decomposition
examples
partial
give some
rational fraction
into
subjectthe reader is
to treatises on
referred to Serret's Cours d'Algebre
or
Superieure,
In these works
it is proved that any
the IntegralCalculus.
of partial
resolved
series
rational fraction may be
into a
fractions;
fractions.
and
For
that to any
a
of
fuller discussion
linear factor
partialfraction
"
the
in the denominator
form
of the
"
factor
partial fractions,
times, there is
an
"
linear
; to
any
there
correspond
7?
l-jand
"
responds
cor-
cc
two
"
there
additional
If
*__
"
-.
(x
.
"
"
three
occurs
by
fraction
.
hnl
(x-b)"
aud
so
on-
To
262
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
quadraticfactor x2+px
any
Px
fraction of the form
x'
+])x
factor x2
if the
"
Here
the
vx
Q L"
s
y"~
+ q)
(x-+2)x
occurs
; and
so
P, Q, Pv Qx
independentof
We
partialfraction
second
'
q
P
twice, there is
partial
correspondsa
there
on.
are
all
x.
shall make
of
use
results in
these
examples that
the
follow.
5x
Example
1.
11
"
Separate=-^
2.r2+
into
partialfractions.
5.r-ll
B
+
2x2 + x-"
A and
where
determined.
2.c-3'
+ 2
quantities
independentof
are
assume
whose
values
have
to be
Clearingof fractions,
5x-ll
Since this equation is
of x ; thus
powers
(2x-S) + B(x
identically
true, we
2A+B
whence
5,
~SA
3,
B=
-1.
Resolve
2.
Example
";
x-6~
2x2 +
2x-B'
+ 2
r~.
into
r,
may
2B=-U;
5.r-ll
'"'
2).
partialfractions.
(x a)(x+ b)
-
mx
Assume
=-r
(x-a)(x+ b)
.'
mx
z-.
-.
x-a
{x + b)+B
might now
equate coefficientsand
simpler to proceed in the followingmanner.
Since A and B
In
(1)put
independentof
are
x-a
0,
ov
(x-a)
we
giveto
may
(1).
of A
ma
r-
+ b
nib-n
putting x
+ b
0,
or
x"
-r,
B"
b,
"
CI
mx
"T*
/ma
+ b
mb-ii\
(x a) (x+ b)
-
x-a
and
any value
then
a;
x,
b'
We
is
+ b
B, but it
we
please.
23
Resolve
3.
Example
11 r'2
y"x
I) (J
"
"
23x-ll.r2
Assume
^-^
ABC
=
rm
2.c-l
(2.c-l)(3+ x)(3-.r)
"
.
23x
lLc2
By puttingin
succession
23.c
2^-1
1,
0,
3 +
'
"
"
3s2 + s-2
(x
."
Let
2x
2)-(1 2x)
-
%x- + x-2
~k
"
2x
"
0, then
find that
fractions.
partial
B
k~
(x 2)2+
0, we
3 -a:'
3+x
"
s-7
1_
into
"
"z-^-n
"x\
")" (J.
"
^"
[x
"
'
"
-.
3.t2+
Resolve
i1)
5
w
3-x
-1.
C=
i,
lis2
0,
x"
(2.c-l)(9-x2)~2x-l
Assume
3 +
-
"'"
4.
Example
r+
.1
partialfractions.
mto
"
-.-rrx-
7^7"
203
FRACTIONS.
PARTIAL
"
x-2
'
(x 2)2
-
(1 2x){x
-
2)+
(1 2x).
-
let a; -2
To
0, then
C=-4.
2B ; whence
3.r- +
'
'
3(1- 2x)
42
Example
1
5.
Resolve
"
"
-7-3
-r
42
.-.
tt,
r;
19.r =
absolute
terms,
42
"'"
sometimes
The
+ B
"
x-+l
r-
C
+
.i--4'
C
(x*+ l).
C=-2;
317.
"3
4, then
equating the
into Lpartialfractions.
Ax
"
(.^+ 1)^-4)
'
(x 2)2
19a;
-r-,
42-19.C
2)
[x2+l)(x-4]
Assume
Let
3 {x
42
-
A +
19a
C, and .4=2;
4Z? + C, and
2s -11
p+l)(x-4)"^TT
artifice
be found
employed in
useful.
11,
*-4*
the
followingexample will
2G4
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
9x*
Resolve
Example.
r
24rc2+ 48#
"
-;
(a:-2)4(a:+l)
9z3-24;r2+48;c
Assume
rrv
9x3-24"2
.-.
l)
48x
24s3 + 48x
"r3+ 16
-
"
"
\x"2)
put x-2
2;
+ 24
24
12
+
z^+~z^
~z4~
~z
1
+
12
+'
24
+
nva
/.
-\
=
"
-i
(x-2)4(x+ l)
+ 1
n\n
/_
12
1,1,
9x-3-24j;2+ 48*
x-2
"
+,
Svi
(x-2)"
TZ
24
^-J
(x-2f
(x-2)4*
precedingexamples the
In all the
than
dimensions
has been
numerator
if
this
is
not the case,
;
until a remainder
is
the denominator
the denominator
by
6r3 + 5#2-7
-zr-=
"
ox-
=-
2x
than
dimensions
is of lower
Resolve
Example.
to
z*
obtained which
remains
"3 + 16.
Z*
(x-2)4
we
value
x4 + x* + 16* + 16 ;
23 + 6^2+122
(2+ 2)3+ 16
.r3+16
of lower
whose
fractions correspondingto
partial
the
then
318.
1.
.'./(*)
determine
of
transposing,
and
^4
"
{x-2)4'
(x-2)*+(x + l)f{x).
,l
1, then
Substitutingfor
To
x+1n
"
where A is some
he determined.
x=
f(x)
A
"
"
^tx~?
".
(x-2)*(x+
Let
partialfractions.
into
=rr-
7^t~.
into
the denominator.
partialfractions.
By division,
3a:2 2.x
-
v-
2x + 3 +
Sx2
8a; -4
and
"
^-=
pr
3x2-2x-l
6^
'*
319.
fractions
We
="
5^-7
3x2-2x-l
now
x-1'
3.c + l
shall
5
^
2x
0
0
2.r
+ 3 +
1
-
3.T+1
explain how
*-l'
resolution
into
expansionof
partial
rational
PARTIAL
265
FRACTIONS.
;;,"'--|- ;"
Find
Example 1.
the
of
generalterm
"
"
"
"
when
"
.
in
expanded
l
series of
Ex.
By
of
ascending powers
x.
have
4, Art. 316, we
3.r2+ .r-2
15
(*-2)2(l-2*)
3(1-2*)
(*-2)2
3(*-2)
15
4
+
3(1-2*)
the
Hence
6
+
V
Example
expansionis
of the
generalterm
7+
2.
Expand
"
r+l\
2r
sr
in
r-^r"+
(1 + *) (I
the
(2-a?)a
3(2-*)
ascending powers
of
and
find
*~)
generalterm.
7+
Assume
.4
*
=
-"
(1+ *) (1+*J)
.\
Lctl
7 +
J(l
absolute
*).
3;
A +
C,
whence
A +
B,
whence
B"
+ (4
3(1 + .r)-1
3*)(1+
3{l-*
(4-3*) {l-.r2+
i ;
-
3.
4-3*
+
*^
(1+ *)(1+*2)_1 +
To
*2)+ (E*+C)(l
terms,
1 + *2
1+x
then A
*=:0,
equatingthe
JB* + C
+
"
1+*2
*2-
x2)~l
(_l)P;CP+...j
*-"-
(-1)p*'^+...}.
:
r
(1)
If
/"
is even,
series is
4(-l)2;
( 1)2.
-
r-l
(2)
If
second
series is
( 1) '-
r+l
and
the
requiredcoefficientis
( 1) 2
-
3.
EXAMPLES.
Resolve into
fractions :
partial
lx-\
46+13.r
l-bj;
XXIII.
+ 6jf-
'
12.t2-lU--15'
l+3.r
+ 2.r2
(1-2.r)(1-.//-')'
266
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
2x*+x2-x-3
(x-l)(x2-5x+6)'
x(x-l)(2x
x*-
3x* -3a;2
(a;-l)(^+ 2)2'
(#+l)2(#-3)
2^2-lLr
26^2 + 208o;
(^--3)(^2+
5^
3^-8x2+10
(^2-l)(^+l)3'
(07-1)*
of
ascendingpowers
when
followingexpressions
of the
generalterm
the
4 +
."
"
5tt^
3 + 2x-x2
ttx*
18.
"
w,
1-*+i*
*"*
19.
20.
3
(1-tf)
(^-1)(^2+1)"
"-"""
21.
"
22.
*
-
Find the
(l)
[ }
24.
'
of
sum
(i+^2)(n-^)
(1 ax)
When
a?
1, find
"
(l-x) (l-x3)
Sum
to
"
(i+^)(i+^4)
the
terms
(1 a2x)
+
+
(1 ax) (1+a%) (1+ a3.r)
-
of the infiniteseries
sum
x2
25.
ax
a2)2
3.r +
of the series
terms
(i+^)(i+^2)
x
(2
'
'
23.
2x2)
(2+ 3a;)(l+.r)2'
(l+a?)(l-4a?)2*
.
4 + 7x
no
"
7,
3^+2a'2
(1 x) (1 +
tf2+ 7a-+ uy
16.
"
*
(1 x2)(1 2.r)
17.
(2+a?)(l-#)'
2#-4
t^
#2 + 7;f+ 3
5a; + 6
'
l + llo; + 28^*
15.
expanded
x.
l + 3#
12#
5)
2^-
6.r2+ 5.r
,,
*
Find
+ 5
+ l)(^+ 5)'
(a;2
+ 10
"
7*
6*
in
3)'
xA
+
pthterm
xp(1+xp + 1)
(l-^)(l-.^ + 1)(l-^
is
2)'
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
268
terms
however
scale of relation
the
terms
many
illustration will
following
1
If
procedureis
of
method
the
As
known.
are
the
of, the
consist
may
same
be sufficient.
px
rx3
qx2
aax2+ ajc3 +
a"x
have
we
+ rx3
+ "lx"an-2x'l~2
an-3x'l~3i
anx*=px an-ix"~1
+
am =pan_,
or
coefficient
thus
any
three
precedingterms
series be
when
coefficients of the
the
known.
are
of the
sufficient number
of
terms
be found.
of relation may
recurringseries
Find
Example.
"".-" + m"-3 5
found
be
can
Conversely,if
given,the scale
323.
"
2 + 5x + 13x2 + 35x3+
13
equations
whence
5, and
5p
q=
2q
to obtain p and
qx*-,then
0, and 35
6, thus
13p
5q
we
have
0 ;
5x + 6a;2.
it involves
If the scale of relation consists of 3 terms
termine
have
2 equationsto demust
constants, p and q ; and we
324.
2
at
least 3
have
must
relation
know
must
To obtain the first of these we
q.
and
second
of
obtain
the
the
to
we
terms
series,
and
given.
term
more
one
two
involving
'O
constants
obtain
Thus
to
must
have
we
at
scale of
least 4 terms
given.
If
the
3 constants
these
we
of
relation
must
have
scale
must
we
be
3
"
"
series,and
of the
at least 4 terms
know
px
to obtain
terms
have two more
must
the other two we
given; hence
3 constants, at least G terms
scale of relation involving
a
series must be given.
find
to
Generally,
we
must
know
scale of relation
at least 2m
if 2m
Conversely,
consecutive
consecutive
terms
l\x
l\x* lhx*
~
of the
involvingm constants,
terms.
are
given,we
to find
-PJ**
may
assume
RECURRING
325.
To
find the
ofn
sum
2G9
SERIES.
series.
of a recurring
terms
of findingthe sum
is the same
The method
whatever
be the
shall
scale of relation ; for simplicity
it
we
to contain
suppose
onlytwo
constants.
let the
be
sum
Now
S"ait+
...
S=
px
"
pa0x
qajt?
a0
"
...
{ax-pa0)x
xn
+ qan_a)
{pan_x
of
is
qa^x**1,
in consequence
zero
an-Pan-l-"2a"-2=0'
x" + qan_}xH+l
+ qan-3)
-P"-Qx
(Pa,t-,
% + (",
1 px
1 -px"
qx2
qx2
of a recurring
series is a fraction whose
sum
Thus
"
\
-qaH_3x*-1
-qaH_ixn-qaH_lxu
px
x*t
2^"ciH_2xn~
pa
"
...
"
'
"
(1)
qx*;
,x"~\
1
a
/""
paxx*
"
S
qtf)
...+
qa?S=
(i-px
a,x2+
a.x
"
+ aj" +
a2x2
axx +
the
"
nominato
de-
fraction in the
If the second
decreases
as
n
indefinitely
of terms
infinite number
increases
reduces
the sum
indefinitely,
to
"
"
px
"
"
"
"
of
"
qx"
"
we
1 "px
is called the
327.
generating
functionof
the result of Art.
From
an +
-",
(a,
"Pa.) X
v
'
1 -px
qx2
"
""%"
"
"
qx'
the series.
325, we
obtain
.xi+ l
+
alt
"
a.x
'
ax-
...
xn
+a
"-1
px"
qx
an
as
the
270
HIGHER
from
which
we
function
althoughthe generating
that
see
ALGEBRA.
px
"
only if the
as
we
please,
a2x2+
remainder
+ (2an-^"+l
(I**,.-,
+qan-2)xn
1
qx2
poj
increased ; in other
is indefinitely
"
"
when
vanishes
of the series
terms
alx
qx2
"
words
only
when
functioncan be expressedas a
generating
of a recurring
fractions the generalterm
series
group of partial
be easilyfound.
Thus, suppose the generatingfunction
may
fractions
be decomposedinto the partial
can
328.
When
the
ABC
h
1"
Mr
{Aar+ (-l)r
In
this
case
the
(I" ex)2'
bx
is
Then
ax
of
sum
x\
(r+ 1)Ccr}
terms
may
the method
Example.
to
terms
Ix
x2
without
using
l, 5
Let S denote
then
"/.r2;
-43
+ 2"+
the
sum
6.r2.
-xS=
(l-x-6x2)S
x2-4Sxs-
l-lx-
7x2+
x*+
-6x2 + 42.r3+
-Qx2S=
=
l-8x,
J"8*
sis the
7"/ 0;
.-.
43.-C3
7j"-"z 0,
1
which
be found
of Art. 325.
generatingfunction.
sum
RECURRING
If
separate
we
the
whence
8.r
to
sum
=
{2
"
1-305'
1 + 2a;
]."""".
0, 1, 2,...n-1,
1_-3*
xn
(1+ 3a
3%*
3"-1 xn~
l)
xn
find the
To
a;'1"1
}
(- I)""12"
-...
329.
terms
2n+1
( I)'1"1
l+lte
2 +
_
obtain
"
1-x-U.r-
22x + 2%2
we
partialfractions,
(r+l)tUor generalterm is
{(-lyw^-v
?i
into
^-"
Putting
the
271
SERIES.
3x~
'
and
generalterm
of n terms
of the
sum
series
have
find
to
+
the
+
we
a_,+
recurring
ai
only
a0
,
and put
+
generalterm and sum of the series a0 + alx + a2x2
,
1 in the results.
x
"
Find
Example.
the
generalterm
and
of
sum
of the series
terms
1 + 6 + 24 + 84+
The
the
and
This
1 +
is
function
generating
"
Hence
n terms
"
partialfractions
3
3r
We
330.
of the
article the
'
-
2a;
(3'1 1)
the
the general
3r-3.
sum
student
generatingfunction
(2'1 1).
of
2r)xr.
given series is 4
remind
may
Ooj2,
OX"
the
Sx
(4
2
"
OX
"
the generalterm
is
ox
is equivalentto
expression
If these
term is
*"
of
is 1
.
that
in
be taken
cannot
the
as
preceding
the
sum
of
the series
1 +6x
except when
Hence
when
has such
24:x2+8"x3+
+
a
value
the
1 (inwhich case
function
is not
generating
But
the
the series
convergent.
the series is
obviously
divergent)
of
the
series.
equivalent
true
of
generalterm
1
is
to make
as
qfx, and
independent
24
84
whatever value
may
have it will
always
therefore
generalterm
Gx
treat
24*2
this
as
84a3
and
then
put x
1.
find its
272
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
EXAMPLES.
Find
series
the
generatingfunction
XXIV.
and
the
general term
following
2.
2-.v
4.
7 -6x
9.r2+13.r3 +
1.
l + 5.r +
3.
2 + 3x + 5x2 + 9x3 +
5.
3 + 6a? + Ux2
+
+ 36.r*+ 98.^ + 276.1-5
Find
and
the
to
sum
8.
2 + 7^ + 25^
9.
2 + 0 +
11.
Shew
that
+ 30.v3 +
the series
+
22 + 32 + 42 +
13 + 23 + 33 + 43 +
how
to
n2,
+n3,
recurringseries,and
Shew
8+
12
12.
followingseries
+ 91^+
-^
+
9x2 + 27x4 +
-l+6.v2
7.
2 + 5 + 13 + 35+
5.r2-7.r3 +
of the
terms
6.
10.
are
of the
the
deduce
of the
sum
first
of the
terms
curring
re-
series
a2x2+ a^v3+
a0 + axx +
the
from
13.
infinity.
sum
to
Find
the
of 2n + 1 terms
sum
3-1
14.
The
scales of the
+ 13-9
of the series
+ 41-53+
recurringseries
a^x2+ a3.r3+
a0+ avv+
b0+ b1x+b^c2-{-b3.v3+
1
are
+px+qx2,
is
generalterm
l +
If
series whose
of the
rx
sx2, respectively;shew
("xn+6n)^"is
(p + r)x + (q+
scale
given series.
of relation
that
recurringseries whose
s
+pr)
x2
15.
of
l +
(qr+ps) x3
the
series whose
scale is
+
qsx*.
the sum
its nih term
it will also form
will consist
of
one
more
term
of
a
terms
recurring
than
that
CHAPTER
XXV.
CONTINUED
331.
All
FllACTIONS.
of
expression
form
the
is called
c +
e +
the
simplerform
ax +
integers.This
will be
a3+
where
an
...
positive
...
usuallywritten
1
in the
compact form
more
a, +
a2+ a3
When
332.
continued
of
the number
fraction is
quotientsis unlimited
quotients
a0 a0, "3,... is finite the
said to be terminating
of
; if the number
the fraction is called an
contirmed
infinite
fraction.
to reduce every terminating
continued
fraction
possible
the fractions in succession
to an
ordinaryfraction by simplifying
beginningfrom the lowest.
It is
To convert
333.
givenfractioninto
continued
fraction.
tn
Let
"
be the
quotientand
fraction ; divide
tnven
n,
let
be
p
"
by
; thus
m
"
in
a.
+-
=a,
n
"
P
si. H. A
18
the
274
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
divide
quotientand
"" be the
by ^", ^
'
'
; thus
q the remainder
P
9.
quotientand
"
rn,
a.
i
a.
; and
the remainder
.so
a2+
a3
"o +
a3+.
If
is less than
put
we
7)1
ti
"m
and
proceedas
before.
and
where
every
are
commensurable
the
division
fraction
we
is exact
whose
and
Thus
process terminates.
and denominator
are
positive
the
numerator
be converted
can
integers
that
as
process is the same
of m and n ; hence if m
shall at lengtharrive at a stage
into
continued
terminating
fraction.
251
Reduce
Example.
Finding
process,
we
the
have
^^
to
continued fraction.
greatestcommon
of
measure
251
and
802
by the
usual
3, 5, 8, G; hence
1
3+
5+
8+
802
334.
third,
The
fractions obtained
of
quotients
6'
by stoppingat
continued
fraction
are
the
first,
second,
called the first,
in
convergents, because, as will be shewn
second, third,
Art. 339, each successive convergent is a nearer
approximation
to
the
true
value
of
the
precedingconvergents.
continued
fraction than
any
of
the
the
The
the
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
27g
quotient
an
"
placeof aj
in the
ft*
hence
only in having
("+ 1)-"*
the
vergent
^n-n ^"+^"-i
?
"n+1 ?"
If therefore we
we
co.
^
by supposition.
?"_!'
put
denominator
and
^* the
^^numeratorwhich
th"t
^ftttVs
hence
inPthe
holds universally.
337.
the
We
It will be
at
quotient
complete
partial
quotient;
a"+1+ ""+24
at'any
shall usuallydenote the completequotient
stage by ft.
We
have
seen
that
; then
quotient
a"
differs from
of the
partial
; thus
ftj^i-l+ ff"-2
_
X~kqn_x qn-2'
+
338
// Eb 6e
tfl6nth
convergentto
then
continuedfraction,
Let the
aQ+
a3+
a4
277
FRACTIONS.
CONTINUED
then
^-2)1similarly,
(" 1)2(P.-9"-a-iV,
But
p2 qx -]\ q,
hence
("h%
1)
"x
we
0, and
that ax =
suppose
(- l)2J
unity,this
the continued
stillhold if
a,
(- 1)".
/""g^, -#,_, g, =
When
"
result will
is zero.
When
Note.
are
we
furnishes
an
of the
value
calculatingthe numerical
successive
of the
work.
Cor.
1.
Each
divisor it would
qn had a common
which is impossible.
Cor.
a
2.
divide pn qnl
difference between
The
fraction whose
is
numerator
unity;
successive
unity;
convergentsis
a.
convergentsto
'
6+
1+
1+
11+
2 +
pn_l qni or
q,,qn-i'
XXV.
EXAMPLES.
"
iipnand
for
qnqn^
?"_i
q"
two
; for
terms
1111111
2.
2+
3+
2+
1+
44-
2+
111111
3.
3 +
3+
1+
2+
2+
1+
9"
as
quantities
Expressthe following
fourth
continued
fractions and
find the
convergentto each.
729
7.
11.
2318'
4-310.
278
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
..
A,
18
-,
the fractions
ratio of
nearlyequalto
is very
kilometre
14.
23
64
==
kilometre to
in
that
miles; shew
"62138
""*""*
the
approximations to ".
are
^z
excess
successive
mile.
15.
Two
16.
If
scales of
"
n3 +
is converted
nu
equallengthare
quotientsare
convergents.
that the
17.
Pn
(2)
\~Pn
9.n
+ 1
1 and
"
find the
is the nth
"
9.n
Pn
denote
convergent to
the
cJn
g"-l
continued
and
fraction,
continued
to the continued
and
fraction,
fractionthan
*" "-
^-*"J
""-"2
?" +
^+2
9*
consecutive
convergents;then
quotientin
(n+ 2)th
takingthe complete
this
and
by k: thus
Pn+1
^^
"
+ 1
+Pn
?n+l
differs from
the
a;
placeof
*-a"l
?"+
(%"+l+ 7.)
y.+ ,
(%"
+ ,
"
only in
; denote
Pn^l^n-Pn^l
~
an the
that
three
cessive
suc-
Pn
shew
quotient,
corresponding
and
alternately,
n+l
(^-O^-fH-vr-2-1
\ Pn
Let
shew
fraction,
continued
2n
If
that
Shew
(!)
18.
into
+ l
?")
CONTINUED
Now
greater than
k is
difference between
and
therefore
that
x:
fraction than
than
fortiori
Combining
and
"
"
tlie continued
to
unity,and qm
botli accounts
270
FRACTIONS.
is less than
' '
--"
and
is,every
the
lience
is less than
is
convergent
on
the
nearer
precedingconvergent,
next
precedingconvergent.
any
it
.""3.",
follows that
tli^ convergent
odd
of an
order
tin' covrergents of an
To
findlimits
the continued
for
order
even
Y-^1
r_n"2
"
k denote
to the
made
error
in
takingany convergent
^^t
"ln(k"ln+"+nJ
"ln
+9i)
'.(*""
and
let
convorgents, and
complete(n + 2)th
quotient;
the
k is
are
fraction.
then
Now
hut
decrease,
continually
fraction.
Let
are
fraction
;
hat
increase,
continually
"
and
"
..
greater than
Again, since
the
"7,1
+ l""7",
"
and
greater than
?.
From
341.
taking
p
"
in
taking
-"
instead
of
the
77-0"
v.+,
"
that
the
(I
of the continued
?.?.+,
;
.,
II +1
ai+l is,the
in
error
1
instead
(a
is
qm
or
1
less than
error
7ill
+q 2
nearer
Ft"
3:
hence
the
larger
"
,)
1/
"
.
11+
does "2
/"
approximateto
.7
I ili
the continued
fraction;
280
HIGHER
convergent which
immediatelyprecedesa large
to the continued fraction.
approximation
therefore,any
is a
quotient
near
Again,since
to find
by
the
is less than
error
less than
givenquantity
"
calculate the
only to
have
we
fraction
the continued
convergent which
ALGEBRA.
successive
to
convergents up
"
qn2is greaterthan
where
a.
342.
The
Find
Example.
to 3* 14159.
series of fractions approximating
and
of 14159
In the process of finding the greatest common
measure
are
7, 15, 1, 25, 1, 7, 4. Thus
100000,the successive quotients
3-14159
3+1
7+
15+
111
1+
25+
7+
1+
this last
convergent which
the
approximation,
25TP5)-
'
106
355
'
error
'
113
near
very
and
is
""00004-
"
343.
Any convergent
other fractionwhose
any
333
22
'
is
fractionthan
to the continued
nearer
denominator
is less than
that
of
the
convergent.
Let
be
the
continued
fraction,
P
'-*=*"
two
"
consecutive
?.-,
"n
r
convergents,
"
fraction whose
denominator
possible,let
be
nearer
to
than
to
than
7)
-Ji^1
In
"-5=?
9.-X
it follows that
then
"
"
nearer
and
since
lies between
must
P
--
I"
must
lie between
and
"
be
?"
[Art.339];
"
If
is less than
'
"
?"-!
and
CONTINUED
281
FRACTIONS.
Hence
r
.'.
that
fWi"5^
spn_x"
than
"
";
fraction ; which
impossible.
is
Therefore
rqn_x
integerless
is, an
Pn-i
P"-*P.
be
must
"
to the continued
nearer
fraction than
"
P'
P
-
"
fractionx, then
greater
be two
consecutive
is greater or
"
less than
or
If
344.
gents to
conver
less than
continued
x2,accordingas
is
"
q
Let
k be
the
to
complete quotientcorresponding
succeeding
immediately
J
"
"
"
'
''
"
lience
factor
pp'
"
"
that
or
pq is
-f".'
"
"
lcq+
+ qY
"' w
{hq'
"
q
+
pY]
and k"
I;
or
as ]iq'
negative
x2,according
;
"p'q is positive
is,according as
Cor.
vergent
con-
(tfp'q,-pq)(pq'-2"'q)
+ q)2
qq'(kq'
ky'q'
"
then
q"
WW^YY
The
the
"
or
"
"
the
above
-
sign.
XXV.
EXAMPLES.
b.
222
1.
a
metre, giventhat
metre
error
in
taking
is equalto 1-0936
"
to
yardsas equivalent
yards.
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
282
Find
2.
to
approximation
an
7+
5+
3+
value
the true
JL
JL J_ J- JL
11+
9+
less than
by
-0001.
99
by
Shew
3.
by
1*41421
Express
1
a4+6a3+
,
"
,.
convergent.
the firstand
a"
'
to s-5
quotientcorresponding
'
'"
Pn-1~
(2)
9n-l2n
Wh
Ms
that if an is the
Shew
convergent
...+
Mi
nth
(-l)n
6.
L_
_i-=an+_L_ ^2
a2+
"1
J_
1.
"3+
"2
...
ttn-3+
""-2+
an-l+
"3+
0"-3+
"n-l+ "u-2+
qn-1
1111
7.
shew
"
a+
"+
(1 ) Pn +P\
(2)
8.
If
Pn
=Pn
+ 1
lPn +
1+
"
""""""+
"
that
2"
qn-l-
"
fraction
111111
"+
b+
b+
a+
6+
a+
shew
that
9.
q2n =p2n
q2n
+ u
#"..
br-n-
=
-
"
shew
6+
"+
'
6+
that
Pn
2~
+ 7
Shew
5.
,.
and
continued, fraction,
as
rs
1K
14a--+15a
,A
differs from
=-
a3 + 6a2 + 13a+10
"
4.
than
quantityless
fractions that
theoryof continued
the
(ah+ 2)Pn+Pn-2
"i 9n +
(ab+ 2)?u +
"?"*2
"-
XXVI.
CHAPTER
In
345.
Chap. X.
shall
and
a,
6,c
be
can
the
reduced
positive
integers.This
are
the
positive
first
degree involvingtwo
to the form
ax"by
equationadmits
c, where
"
of
knowns
un-
unlimited
an
number
x
now
equationof
Any
to obtain
efficients;
equationswith numerical coof
fractions
continued
properties
of any indeterminate
equationof
the
346.
how
apply the
generalsolution
first degree.
to obtain
the
shewn
have
we
DEGREE.
FIRST
THE
of indeterminate
solutions
integral
we
OF
EQUATIONS
INDETERMINATE
and
limited.
It is clear
that
equation ax + by
that the equationax
the
solution
integral
to
by
ax
"by
If
the
and
ax
"
"
by
; and
c) hence it will be sufficient to consider
=
"
"
and
b have
factor
which
does not
be satisfied by
c can
equationsax"by
y ; for ax " by is divisible by m, whereas
=
347.
To
find
the
equation
is equivalent
the
equations
generalsolution
ax
by c.
divide c, neither of
values of x
integral
is not.
be removed
no
in
common
by division;
factor,and
integersof
positive
the
"
"
be converted
into
continued
and let
fraction,
6
the
positive
no
c.
"
Let
has
"
denote
"
q
; then
aq"bp
"l.
[Art.338.]
EQUATIONS
INDETERMINATE
If aq
I.
since
by
a(x
and
by
"
common
no
cq
"
"
"
b have
b ; hence
bt,where
cq
from
be
cP.
"
bt + cq, y
x
factor,
cq must
is an integer,
"
is,
l"e written
(aq b]j)
;
"
285
DEGREE.
cq)-b (y c/").
"
x-
that
FIRST
"
.-.
divisible
THE
"
ax
Now
OF
at + cj) \
"
which
to t any
en
smaller
numerically
also t may
"
bp
ax
"
by
"
"
x
"
="
(y+ cj))
',
y + cp
cq
=
lience
from
t, an
bt
"
cq, y
"
at
CO
III.
If either
into
integer;
cp;
"
solutions
integral
positive
value which
positive
integral
CD
of solutions is unlimited.
quantities-=-,";
two
"
which
to t any
"
"
"
(aq bji)
;
a(x + cq)
.'.
cd
have
1, we
"
"
quantities
-j-
of solutions is unlimited.
If aq
II.
than
or
continued
b is
fraction
unity,the
fraction
unit
with
j-
be
cannot
numerators, and
verted
con-
the
"
to x
ascribing
any
value greaterthan
positive
integral
Note.
two
respectively.
286
Example.
In
is
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Find
the
into
converting
"
13
-jr ; we
have
generalsolution
29xl3-42x9
29x65-42x45
generalsolution
ax
by
obtain
be
29"
42"-65,
.'.
of
positive
integers
by
"
(x
c; then
ah
"
"
bk
t.
an
integer ;
"
at ;
in
integers
of the
positive
into
be converted
continued
and let
fraction,
D
"
; then
convergentjustpreceding
j
If aq
c.
y"k
=
"
bt, y
I.
"
To
ah
generalsolution.
equation
Let
equation
bk ;
"
349.
the
h) b(y k);
"
x"h
.'.
is the
20t~4o.
ij=
ax-by
ax
.'.
which
mte8er
*"an
generalsolution.
solution of
.'.
45);
45
u
=
-"j-
solution in
one
c, to jind the
h, k
Let
"
is
a:
Given
65
x
"*"
"
5;
65)=42(#
29 (* +
348.
42*/ 5.
-l;
the
therefore
.-.
hence
29.r
justbefore
continued
integersof
positive
in
"
bp=l,
bp
"
"
1.
have
we
+by
(aq bp);
a(cq x) b(y + c2));
ax
.'.
cq
.
-=-=
"
y
=
"
b
x
"
cq
"
cp
=
"
"
an
integer
';
"
'
"
.'
aq
"
bt,y
'
"
at
cp ;
be the
THE
FIRST
may
be
solutions
integral
positive
which
from
OF
EQUATIONS
INDETERMINATE
obtained
CI)
to
integralvalues greaterthan
positive
If aq
II.
there is
conditions
these
fulfilling
bp
"
by
ax
"
co
integer
(aq bp);
"
en
=
"
t.
integer
0
an
'
"
x=bt
"
"
cq, y
"
cj)
solutions
positive
integral
"
at ;
be
may
by giving
obtained
co
As
no
before,the
of solutions
number
less than
and
-~
limited,and
is
there
may
be
solution
may
be
solution.
III.
found
If either
b is
or
Given
by
solution in
one
c, to find the
A, k
Let
be
equal to unity,the
in Art. 317.
as
by inspection
350.
ax
solution.
no
"
JL
to t
j-
"
which
CO
.-.
from
less than
have
1, we
and
by giving
limited,and if there is no
of solutions is
the number
Thus
"
287
DEGREE.
of
positive
integers
solution of
'
by
-f
ax
by
ax
.'.
"
"
"
is the
351.
To
bk
c.
bk ;
"
=-
"
t,an
-"
integer;
bt, y
at ;
"
generalsolution.
find the
number
equation
Let
(k y);
which
equation
"hk"y
ah
; then
"
ah
"
(x h)
.'.
.'.
Ike
generalsolution.
be converted
of solutions
+
ax
into
by
of the
integers
positive
c.
fraction,and let
continued
in
q
; then
aq
"
bp
at
1.
be the
288
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Let aq
I.
-bp
l ; then
x
the
cq-bt,
integralsolutions
Positive
values
positiveintegral
generalsolution
y
at-
[Art.349.]
ep.
will be
obtained
by givingto
"f
greater than
not
is
and
not
less
than
"
a
c
and
Let
"
m+f.
J
-"
of solutions is
cp
cq
n-vi
-"-
"r-
this is
of solutions is the
accordingas/
or
g is the
(ii) Supposethat
In this
case
"
or
fraction,
ab
Thus
less than g.
integernearest
to
"
greater or
the
less
greater.
is
z-
be written
may
number
j.
ab
and
integer,
an
+fg=-"+f-g.
J
J
J
"
b
Now
a.
y'
are
m,
where
integers.
"
not
are
0, and
integer.
an
value of
one
is
If
zero.
include
we
this,the number
of solutions
is
which
-r+f,
must
be
an
in-
ao
teger. Hence
the number
^7+1
or
-j
as
according
include
we
exclude
or
the
zero
solution.
(iii)Supposethat
is
integer.
an
cc
In this
this,the
the
number
case/=0, and
least value
of t is
of solutions
is
If we
of y is zero.
include
hence
and the greatest is n;
value
one
71
"
l.
or
"r
ab
q +
1.
Thus
the
OF
EQUATIONS
INDETERMINATE
TJIE
FIRST
289
DEGREE.
of solutions is the
number
cordingas
include
we
greatest integerin
exclude
or
(iv) Supposethat
the
zero
-7
or
ab
ab
solution.
and
both
are
integers.
0 and y
0, and both x and y have a
If we include these,
the least value t can
have is m,
value.
of solutions is 11-111+
the greatestis n ; hence the number
this
In
-y
If
1.
f"
case
exclude
we
ae-
"=".
the
zero
zero
and
1, or
of solutions is
ab
4-i.
ab
If aq
II.
-bp=
1, the generalsolution is
bt
cq} y"
"
cp
"
at,
352.
+
ax
To
by +
d, we
"
integersof
positive
proceedas follows.
may
+ by
ax
By transposition
cz
"
; from
which
353.
If
we
have
+
ax
simultaneous
two
by + cz=d,
of the
ax
the equation
by givingto z
equationsof
alreadyexplained.
obtain
equations
d\
b'y+ cz
=
say, we obtain an
of the form Ax + By
C.
Supposethat x "f, y g is a
solution can be written
then the general
one
by eliminating
unknowns, z
x=f+Bs,
where
is
an
integer.
for s, we
Substituting
x=f+Bh
the
solution,
g-As,
and
equation
"
values
of x, y,
of the
+ Gz
=
given
II, of
obtain
+
z
BGt,
are
g-Ah-AGt;
obtained
by givingto
suitable
values.
integral
H.
H. A.
19
290
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
If
354.
ax
be
can
of
integers
positive
solution in
one
by +
cz
d,
b'y+
ax
solution
particular
h be the
ch
af+ bg +
d',
follows.
as
; then
d, a'f+ b'g+ ch
equations
be obtained
Lety, g,
c'z
the
d'.
By subtraction,
a(x-f) + b(y-g)+c(z- h) 0,
=
a'(x-/)
b'(y-g) + c'(z-h) 0;
whence
x-f
z-h
y-g
be
where
be
is
b'c,ca
"
b'c
"
ca
"
"
"
c'a
"
integerand
c'a,ab' a'b.
an
ab'
"
'
of the
H.C.F.
Thus
generalsolution
the
(ca' c'a)
"
="
fc
generalsolution
a'b
k is the
solution, of
the least positive
integral
and
775.r-711y
l.
2.
455#-519y=l.
3.
4.
In how
ways
can
paid in
many
is
(ab' a'b)?.
fc
1.
denominators
XXVI.
EXAMPLES.
Find the
436#-393y
5.
half-
florins and
crowns
5.
of solutions in
the number
Find
of
positive
integers
lLe+15y=1031.
Find two fractions having 7 and
that their sum
is 1 "-"-.
6.
such
7.
Find
two
proper
fractions
and
and
9 for their
in their lowest
and
denominators,
having 12
terms
"
24
8.
of y
certain
sum
consists of
pounds shillings
; find
x
Solve in
9.
the
and
pounds y shillings,
it is half
sum.
:
integers
positive
6#+ty
lhr +
8y-
21
4s=122\
6^=145
5J
10.
1 \y + 4z
1
2x
4^=22221
12.r-lly
=
'
-4.v+
5y+
z=ll)
XXVII.
CHAPTER
CONTINUED
RECURRING
FRACTIONS.
that a terminatingcontinued
Chap. XXV.
rational quotientscan
be reduced
fraction with
to an
and denominator,and
numerator
ordinaryfraction with integral
shall prove that a
be equalto a surd ; but we
therefore cannot
continued
fraction
quadraticsurd can be expressedas an infinite
numerical
We
shall first consider
a
whose
quotientsrecur.
example.
We
355.
Example.
fractions
have
in
seen
Express ^19
as
fraction, and
continued
find
series of
its value.
approximatingto
4 +
x/19
4+Tl93-+-;
(v/19-4)
=
v/19+ 4_
^19-3
N/19+ 2_1j_
=1+^
3'
5
.
3
+,
5
+ 2
8 +
N/
1
iN/19-4
2 +
0i
~
\/19 +
(N/19-4)
=
quotients2, 1, 3, 1, 2, 8
V19-4
\/19 +
\/19
3'
^"9-8
N/19+
1 +
/L9
2'
2
,
=
"
V19
,/19+
2,x/19z_2_
recur;
Jl_"
2+
1+
1+
8 +
hence
1
2.
""""
3+
2+8+
as
It will be noticed that the quotients recur
In
361
first.
Art.
we
the
of
quotientwhich is double
always the
case.
4'
soon
as
we
shall prove
come
to
that this is
CONTINUED
RECURRING
293
FRACTIONS,
"
; this is
"
is
^
o
then
We
"
and
multiply numerator
denominator
the
2, that
"
is ^"
series of
same
first find
the
by
surd
conjugateto ^19-2,
line with
new
The
that after
so
rational
4
1
in
eiTor
less than
seventh
'
11
61
'
14
and
39
denote
to at least four
the continued
and
"
than
b, c,...h,
k, m,
a,
-,
be
n,...u,
the
x"
Thus
-00001.
the
one
of the
rational.
are
coefficients
y the
periodic
part,
y'
correspondingto
since y is the
the
completequotient,
p-qx ""
"
qy+q
r
to
-V
qx-p
positive
integers.
are
convergents
wlience
have
the
is therefore
placesof decimals.
fraction,and
then
h, k respectively;
quotients
p'y+p
Let
+
n
Let
and
'
that
suppose
where
'
326
fortioriless
are
continued fraction
is equal to
Every periodic
1421
'
Let
we
170
'
of a quadraticequation of which
roots
begin
we
Art. 336
or
356.
and
taking the
"
.
'
explainedin
as
48
13
9
'
result
denominator.]
convergents formed
first seven
The
invertingthe
be
"
tlie
convergents
to
r
quotients
u,
respectively
; then
Substitutingfor
of
quadratic
correspondingto
the
which
y in terms
of
y=
i/ +
-~
and
we
simplifying
rational.
obtain
294
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
+ {s
r)y
equations'y2
The
v'y +
be substituted
in
givesthe value
value
positive
0, which
of
of
of oppositesigns
; if the
real and
"
"
"
the denominator
rationalising
on
"
-,
qy+q
the value of
is of the form
~-
since
beingpositive
Example.
A, B, C
where
"
,1111
l +
s
Express
integers,
are
"
"
~"
as
^-"
...
surd.
Let
fraction ; then
1=
""
2x2 + 2x
continued
whence
The
is therefore
7 = 0.
fraction is
equalto
the
equal to
"
of this
+ \X
"
1)
and
equation,
^"
-
"
XXVII.
EXAMPLES.
positiveroot
1
"
"
convergent to each
a.
continued
as
hnd
and
fractions,
the
1.
v/3.
2.
^5.
3.
y/6.
4.
s/8.
5.
v/11.
6.
x/13.
7.
x/14.
8.
V22.
9.
2^3.
10.
4v/2.
11.
3^5.
12.
13-
j"-
14-
15-
\/s-
16-
\/n-
17.
V33-
N/10.
268
when
error
"
"
is taken
for
N/17.
is taken
for
v/23.
65
916
18.
wThen
error
19. Find
of decimals.
20. Find
of decimals.
Express as a continued
following
equations:
21.
x* + 2x-l
24.
Expresseach
25.
Find
0.
'"-
N/101that
VI 5
that is correct
fraction the
positiveroot
a8 -4*?-
22.
root of x2
the value of 3 +
5^ + 3
6+
6+
"
1+
x-
x"
5"
6 +
"
3+
1+
23.
3=0.
Ill
26.
3 +
as
to five
places
of each
of the
la?- 8x-
3=0.
continued fraction.
RECURRING
CONTINUED
295
FRACTIONS.
111111
Find
27.
the value of 3+
2 +
1+
3+
1+
1+
10 +
2 +
3 +
3+
2+
1111
Find
28.
the value of 5
+
,
1+
Shew
29.
that
*+i+6+
Find
30.
1+
e+""~*\1+a+
i+
and
5+
1+
3+
To convert
Let
"
fractions
111111
3+
*357.
111111
1+
2+
be
let ax be the
N/iV
=
", +
Let b be the
""'
5+
3+
1+
surd
quadratic
5+
into
3+
1+
continued
positive
integerwhich is not an
contained in J N
greatestinteger
(Jff-a,)
-j""
", +
contained
greatestinteger
if r,
fraction.
exact
square,
j then
W-
",\
'
in
""
5+
"
; then
ri
JM+al
=
JN-bxrx
ax^h
where
"2
bir1 ax
"
and
JN-a2^h +
rx r2
a"2.
"
Similarly
2
where
and
"3
so
on
; and
"
"
"
a./
a32;
"
"
"
"
+
,
"-'
'
H"
JN-a
v
M-l
an
r2r3
generally
JN+a -s=i
where
as and
bf2
JN
"*2
r2
(1-1
jy
'
"
""_,/""_,
a"_1 and
-
?""_,*"" N
=
it
a/.
1111
*JN= a, +
Hence
and
thus
"We
any
JN
shall
can
be
expressedas
an
infinite continued
fraction.
curring
presentlyprove that this fraction consists of reever
periods
; it is evident that the periodwill beginwhencompletequotientis firstrepeated.
296
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
We
JAr+
JAT.
quotients
JN
a,
r2
*358.
av
that the
From
"
q
"
The
the
"..
"r.
be the
be three
this
"
Clearingof
also
convergents
"
integers.
positive
and
JN.
x
to
fractions
and
; hence
"
=P JW+a"P+rvp
equatingrational
and
irrational
have
parts,we
"y
an
(pq
rnP
pq) =pp*
and
pq'"p'qssdslf
sign [Art.
344];
But
same
Since
stage is
r,t
v^=
the
consecutive
to the partial
convergent corresponding
quotientbn.
completequotientat
whence
P"
completequotients.
precedingarticle it appears
are
we
positive
integers;
rv bv b0,b3
are
quantities
a2, a3, a4,
r8,r3,r4,
Let
r3
second,third,fourth
first,
the
JJST+a
a2
rx
let
two
^Y"
ck"l + rnq =p
'^j rn {ptf"p"i)
"Z"7
=
ATq'2
"p'2.
p2 have
pq "pq-, pp'"qq'N, Nq2
hence an and rn are positive
integers.
"
r*
this
holds
investigation
*359.
To prove
In Art. 357
rn_l
that the
provedthat
positive
integers
; hence an
are
greaterthan 1.
and partial
recur.
complete
quotients
have
we
rnrn_l
must
Also rn and
thus
be less than ^/JV,
=
N"a2.
have any
greater than av and therefore it cannot
values of
that is,the number
values except 1,2, 3,...ax'}
ofdifferent
an cannot
an cannot
be
exceed ax.
that is rnbn an +
Again, an+1=rvbu-ah,
rnbn cannot be greater than 2al; also bn is
=
hence
rn cannot
values
except 1, 2, 3,...2a1
; that
ofi\cannot
be
exceed
greater than
2ar
an+v
a
and
therefore
integer
positive
;
RECURRING
Thus
the
CONTINUED
297
FRACTIONS.
completequotient
have
cannot
"
"
than
more
rn
2a*
is,some
all subsequent
therefore
ones,
Also
must
and
completequotient,
one
recur.
"
; hence
"
the
partial
r
n
quotientsmust
each
We
be greater than 2a
']
To prove that a,
have
",_,
an
+
or
"?,t,-i5
N"-a;=rnrn_l-i
the
proves
*361.
Since,as
rn ,
"
an
proposition.
To shew
quotientand
that the
terminates ivith a
have
we
let us
place,
a.
shall prove
in Art.
seen
that the
suppose
then
the (*+l)th;
r,
359, a
must
recurrence
completequotientrecurs
(n+ l)th
and
b. b
=
take
at
that
a,4
We
;
bH_1rn_l
a"=
ai
we
rn
ive integer
6"_lis a posit
;
But
which
au
"
""_i
since
in
of partialquotients
cyclecannot
*3G0.
the number
.
"
=a
rm""
,
1'
"
=
,
ii
b,
1',
,
"
*"
ii
,
1
"
have
r.
*
r
"
,
i
'
-a,2
iV
"
"
"
it
"
,r
i
"r
ii
"
r,* ;
'
Again,
.-.
"
,'
a*
~
-b
7
"
n-1
om
=
.
zero,
or
an
integer.
298
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
'
a. -a.
"
"
aa
"
n-
therefore
unity,and
than
Thus
",_!
""_!, and
be
must
also
is less
-^
; hence
is
that
al-as_l"rs_i;
zero.
6#_1 6fl_i.
=
plete
completequotientrecurs, the ?^thcom(n+ l)th
therefore
the
(n- l)thcomplete
quotientmust also recur;
if the
Hence
and
also recur;
quotientmust
so
on.
This
hence
quotient
1
rx
the
beginswith
with
second
"be
therefore
the
that
shall
partialquotientbx; we
a
quotient2ax.
partial
second
that it terminates
Let
follows
It
"
recurrence
shew
now
completequotientwhich justprecedesthe
the
when
completequotient
-
it
; then
recurs
a
"
"
ancj
l are
consecutive
two
completequotients
; therefore
"",
but N-
a*
Again, ay
r, ; hence
aH
"
"
rn
1.
?'", that is
""
Also
an +
rn bn
"
"
bn;hence
1 ; hence
ax
an
0, that
is
","
bn
establishes
2ai; which
the
proposition.
*362.
that in any
the beginning and
To shew
from
beingexcluded.
quotient
Let the last
distant
equiperiodthe partialquotients
the
last
end are
partial
equal,
completequotientbe
denoted
by
; then
"
r.
rn=l,
We
shall prove
cin
ax,
bn=2ar
that
^-2=^2)
"h-2="3"
^.-2="2^
ALGEBRA,
HIGHER
300
equalto
is therefore
and
parts,we
; hence
equatingrational
and
fractions
Clearing of
J 'N
ax +
and
irrational
obtain
*iP.+JV-i
Again
can
"
ai9,H 9rn-i=^"
-jfy"i
(!)"
from
be obtained
-^
and
"
quotient
1
2*1+
which
is
equalto
rtj+
V?V^
Thus
"
in
"
2^
"
from
,
U+%)qnq^
**
P"
%.qn
l(A *")
(1);
(2)"
?2"
In
like
we
manner
that if
prove
may
"
is the
penultimate
icn
period,
convergent in the cth recurring
"i ^c" +Fcn-i
Nqmi
we
by usingthese equations,
and
obtain
may
suc-
"
cessively.
It should
of
be noticed
equation(2)holds
that
for all
multiples
; thus
Ol
proofbeingsimilar
the
*365.
fraction
with
In
can
Art.
be
to that
356,
we
have
expressedas
rational coefficients.
alreadygiven.
the
seen
root
that
of
periodiccontinued
quadraticequation
RECURRING
of
expression
and
integers,
the form
not
fraction.
with
the
and
rieure,
as
to
Continued
to
The
pamphlet on
Fraction,by
to each
periodic
part
Muir, M.A.,
XXVII.
and
fractious,
2.
J a*
4.
V/T7T.
5.
y""^f
7.
Prove that
3a+
-a.
find the
3.
N/"--l.
6.
^l
-i
"
"
6a +
2a +
6a +
8.
Shew
that
2
p
9.
V
Shew
1111
i+
i""
i+
p+
10.
If
r-
that
\
111
+
=Pa\
P9Cl2 +
"
/111
a\-\
tt3+
Ja'2+1
be
P9Ct4 +
"
aCLl+ PaZ
expressedas
2(a*+l)qn=pn_1+pn
2pn
qn_l + qn
1,
11.
Tf
If
.%'=
"
ax +
"2+
ai+ a2 +
...,
1111
"?/~2a1+
2"2+
""'
2ax+ 2a2+
1111
~3tf1+~3a2+
3^
shew
that
3"2+
'"'
+ 3z {a? y1)
{f- z-)+ 2y (z2 .r2)
-
"
OCl\+
shew
fraction,
continued
1111
11
will
F.R.S.E.
will
b.
continued
as
2a +
and
into
N/a2
+ l.
positive
converted
the
case
1.
J9a*+
be
can
are
subjectof recurringcontinued
Serret's Cours cVAlgebre
Supe-
^EXAMPLES.
fourth convergent
-"4"
B, C
that
partialquotient,nor
Thomas
of Art. 357
the first.
the
on
we
where
second
double
"
In this
the
usuallybegin
last partial
quotientbe
not
tt~~
the method
perfectsquare,
recurringcontinued
"
301
FRACTIONS.
might prove by
we
Conversely,
an
CONTINUED
0.
l.
that
302
HIGHER
Prove
12.
that
b +
a+
V""""
'")\b+ a+
Jl J_
JL J_
ALGEBRA.
a+
1
13.
J_
J_
b+
b+
a+
J_
J_
shew
that
(ab2 +
If
14.
"
be
the
(a2b+
b)x-
J_
J_
nth convergent
P22+P32+'"+P2n
Pn
b)y
Ja2
to
"""'
b+
i+
a+
""'
a+
+
a+
a+
J_
X~a+
y-b
^
'")"b
=
b+
l. shew
lPn
a2-b2.
that
2-PlP2
that
Shew
15.
("
1
c
"
\a+
va+
If
16.
'
b +
c+
denote
"
the
"/
^+
c+
a+
rih convergent
17.
Prove
"~+P".n-l=P2n-p"L,
that
the
difference
is
equal
to
="
1 +
18.
number
19.
denoted
If
of
b+
l+ctb'
"
?3 +
of the
b+
c+
"
""
=
-
continued
infinite
i
"'
?5 +
that
shew
"
_i_j_2_
a+
l +
^"
to
"
qr
Pi+Pi"+
bc
?8"
ft.
fractions
i
'""'
a+
c+
ao
s/JV is converted
quotients in the
into
period,
continued
shew
fraction, and
if
is the
that
into a continued
\/^ De converted
fraction, and if the penultimate
convergents in the first,second, ...kth recurring periods be
that
by nlt n2i...nk respectively, shew
If
XXVIII.
*CHAPTER
THE
OF
EQUATIONS
INDETERMINATE
SECOND
DEGREE.
positiveintegersof indeterminate
though not of much
equationsof a degreehigherthan the first,
because of its connection
with
importance,is interesting
practical
shall confine
In the present chapter we
the Theory of Numbers.
second
of
the
two
attention to equations
degree involving
our
in
solution
The
*366.
variables.
to
the
obtain
values of
positiveintegral
the equation
satisfy
arid y which
ax2
a,
Iww
shew
To
*367.
0,
b, c, f,g, h beingintegers.
Solvingthis equationas
quadraticin
as
x,
in Art.
127, we
have
ax
Now
hy+g
in order
the
that
py2 + 2gy +
be
r, must
Solvingthis equationas
+
(hg af)y+(g2-ac)...(l).
-
of
the
"
square ; suppose
t and
are
may
we
be
positive
may
denote
be
perfect
; that is
z2,suppose.
quadraticin
y,
we
have
Jq2-jjr+pz2;
the radical must
t2
where
and
which
radical,
perfect
square
py2 + 2qy +
py
values
expressionunder
the
integers,
kv
"J(h2-ab)
y2+
pz2 q2
variables,and
j\ q,
pr^
r
are
constants.
304
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
the
integers,
equationcan be solved in positive
solution.
integral
equationdoes not admit of a positive
original
374.
shall return to this pointin Art.
We
this
Unless
If
b, h
a,
the left
on
expression
of the
[Art.2G9],and
values of
and
thus
be
for
zero
the
x
of
number
and
that of ax2 +
dependsupon
cannot
of
largevalues
for
limited,because
solutions is
is clear that
it
positive,
all
are
y the
sign
2hxy + by2
large positive
integral
y.
Again, if h*
and by
negative,
ab is
negative,the
similar reasoningwe
"
coefficient of
y2 in (1)is
see
of
solutions is limited.
Solve in
Example.
integersthe equation
positive
4xy + "y* 2x
a;2
-
Solving as
quadraticin
x
x,
we
2y +
29.
20*/
=
have
^30 +
"
24// 2y\
-
102
2 (y G)2
=
30 + 24?/ 2j/2
(y 6)2cannot be greaterthan
; hence
under
the
the radical becomes
that
find
a
51.
expression
By trial we
thus
the
when
integralvalues of y
positive
(y-6)8=l or 49;
perfectsquare
are
5, 7, 13.
But
When
x
29
or
21
have
We
1; when
7,
25
5; when
or
13,
in
the solution
that
seen
positive
integers
equation
ax2
be made
can
or
25.
*3G8.
of the
5,
?/=
depend
to
the solution of
upon
equationof
an
the
form
x2
where
iV*and
Ny2
"
"
a,
integers.
positive
are
equation x2 + Ny*
equationx2 + Ny2 a has a
The
"
has
limited
no
shall therefore
-
Ny2
"
real
number
roots, whilst
of
solutions,which
confine
be
JN
2_
l-
'"
be
any
converted
hito
three
consecutive
our
attention
a.
the
continued
can
always be
fraction,and
convergents; suppose
let
that
INDETERMINATE
EQUATIONS
THE
OF
SECOND
305
DEGREE.
t 17"a,/
,n
is the
to
completequotient
corresponding
*. (/"/
~
But r"
V'q) W
]"
..
-P"2
[Art.358].
"
JVq
"
; then
[Art.
period
.'3(51]
"
"
])(2)
]}(1
"
convergentof
beingthe penultimate
recurring
period.
of
If the number
any
greater than
and therefore
p
Since
x=]"\y
is the
"
the
period,
thus
"pq
pq
1.
q is a solution of the
and
v/iV,
this
Jn
i.san
-,
therefore
p'* N"q'aJ,
case
"
equationxr
penultimateconvergent
even
of any
Ny*
"
1.
recurring
of solutions is unlimited.
number
in the period
is odd,the penultima
If the number of quotients
11
is
odd
but
the
an
tirst
in
the
period
convergent,
convergent
is
second
the
in
period an even convergent.
convergent
penultimate
solutions will be obtained by putting
Thus integral
x=p', y q\
"
where
is the
"
convergent in
penultimate
the
second, fourth,
also in this
periods.Hence
recurring
sixth,
case
the number
of solutions is unlimited.
To obtain
*370.
in the
As
we
article,
preceding
f"
If the number
~KT
-Jq
have
'
'2
quotientsin
of
=pq-pq"
the
if
"1
"
is an
penultimate
convergentin
odd
'
and therefore pq
"pq
In this
equationx2
p'2 Nq2
where
case
"
is the
"
"
"
"
y1
"
any
period,-,-"-,
recurring
1.
-
-\, and
integralsolutions
1 will be obtained
x =p\
by putting
of the
y
"
periods.
recurring
,,
"
A.
',
third,fifth...
penultimateconvergent in the first,
11. n.
nappeu
i.H.10
we
can
discover
,irv
1:0
2fc U
"
306
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
We
13y2 "1.
=
that
shew
can
integersx2
positive
Solve in
Example.
11111
^13-3
the number
Here
1+ITl+
1+
6+
of
the
solution of
penultimatecon-
18
hence
-=-
18, y
a; =
is
x2-13y2=-l.
By Art. 364, the penultimateconvergent in the second recurringperiodis
1
/18
2U
hence
By
649, y
obtain any
can
x2
*371.
When
found,
lias been
solution in
we
13y2=l.
of solutions of the
x2
one
649
"
the
penultimate convei'gents of
number
13?/2= 1, and
,u
periodswe
io\
18Xl3J'thatlS'180'
obtain
may
lSy2
recurring
equations
1.
of x2
Nif
positive
integers
as
as
wre
pleaseby
many
"
th
method.
following
"
x2
Thus
Put
yJN
2x
to
ascribing
of
and
found
(h-kJJYy;
(h+ kjiry
(h kJN)" ;
(h kjNy.
-
and by
positive
integers,
solutions as we please
as
1, 2, 3,...,
many
so
the values
are
be obtained.
can
"
Similarlyif x
1, and
Xy2
=
"
k is
y
is any odd
hi
if n
x*
Thus
n
JN
(h+ kJN)n
2Usin
Tlie values
(h+ kJX)'1,x-y
.-.
x2
".
the values of
Ntf
and
become
solve.
"
the
equation
positive
integer,
-
are
the
same
as
alreadyfound,but
1, 3, 5,
ax',y
By puttingx
d= 1, which
IFyf*
of2
of
(h2 Nk2)\
solution
ay
we
the
have
x2
Ny2
equations
alreadyshewn how
"
"
"
a3
to
308
is not
one
When
equation#2-7?/2
the
x2
Ny2 a
JSfy21
=
in
Supposethat
*376.
and
let
h, y
g is
Ny2
By putting
solution of the
(fh"Ngk)2-N{fk"gh)\
-fh
*377.
square ;
form x2
if,however,
=
Supposethat
"
Kgk,
-fk
gh,
"
explainedin
b is the
ny
b and
be,where
greater; then
b, x
ny
ny)
"
; if the
be.
of
values
these
Example.
equal to 60.
Find
60 is the
integers
; then
,xr
2,30; 3,20;
+ y
x-y=
obtained
y2 60
=
the
30,
that
2;
the numbers
are
16, 14;
8, 2.
obtained
+ y
10,
and y.
by
squares
6,10;
x-y=
or
one
y found
solution
is
+ y) (x y) 60.
is, (as
equations
#
4,15; 5,12;
from
and
difference of whose
1,60;
and
the
integers
positive
two
371,
positive
integers,
two
are
are
integerswe have obtained
equations
be
of the equation
; the remaining solutions may
values.
to b and c all their possible
ascribing
from
Art.
(x + ny) (x
Put
equation
equation
is
a, which
n2y2
of which
9.
of
it has been
Hitherto
obtain any
may
easily
we
article.
the next
ascribingto h, k
and
; thus
solution of the
k be any
a, when
; then
x*
we
=f, y
=*=
by y=2, #
found, any number
has been
integers
in
obtained as explained
be
solutions may
is satisfied
53
solution
one
Ny2
"
denominators
mentioned
of the above
find that
equationsx2
of the
solution
integral
positive
x2
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
6;
INDETERMINATE
In like
Cor.
OF
EQUATIONS
manner
we
THE
SECOND
obtain
may
309
DEGREE.
the solution in
positive
integersof
+ c
2hxy + by1+ %jx + *2/'y
ax'
resolved
be
can
into
k,
two
rational linear
factors.
If in the
of
instead
Solve in
Example.
it is
positiveintegers
4a-2+ V2x
2.ry
-
in terms
Expressingy
zero,
of x,
11
have
we
4a;2- 12* + 11
V=
5y
"
"
=2tf-l+;2x
"
^r-r
2x
must
The
of
equal to
obtained
whence
the values
of
2, or
"
may
2x
be
must
an
integer;
hence
2.r
G.
"
clearlybe rejected;hence
5
5
" 1, 2x
" 3 ;
the admissible
values
3, 2, 4, 1.
.x- are
S, y = ll; s=2,
"
3, or
"
Taking
and
from
integer
an
2iX
1, or
"2, "6
cases
are
"
be
-3;
solutions
a;
3, y
we
9; ar=l, y=
4, ?/
-1;
are
11;
4, y
9.
principles
alreadyexplainedenable us to discover
values of the variables given linear or
for what
quadratic
of this
Problems
functions of x and y become
perfectsquares.
Problems
because
called DiopJiantine
kind are
sometimes
they
mathematician
first investigated
were
Diophantus
by the Greek
The
*379.
of the fourth
the middle
about
century.
Example
Denote
1.
the
integersby
and
x-
-xy
.-.
This
equation is
satisfied
mx=
where
and
are
y ; then
+
y'2 z'2suppose
=
x(x-y)
by
positiveintegerswhich
the
{z+ y),
z2-y-.
suppositions
n
integers.
positive
(x-y)
(z
y),
of their
squares
the
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
310
Hence
mx
nz
0,
(m-n)y-
nx
obtain by
equationswe
these
From
ny
0.
multiplication
cross
mz
.
_
2mn
m2
ri2
n2
m2
+ ri1
mn
Here
?n
7,
and
4,
2mn-n2,
are
arithmetic
m2
-vin
general
n2.
have
we
Example
may
two
any
m2-n2,
we
'
"0, y
SS,
37.
2.
square.
integersby
the
Denote
2x
2x-y=p2,
and
+ y;
x,
x-y,
q2,2x
r2 =
let
+ y
2q2,
then
p2 +
or
i*-q*=q*-p".
equation is satisfied by the suppositions,
This
where
and
are
(r q)
(q j"),n (r+ q)
-
obtain
by
r
_
we
may
the three
generalsolution
2mn-m*,
x
m2 +
{m2 + w2)2,y
n2'
m2 + 2mn-
m2 + n2
p=n*
whence
(q+p),
multiplication
cross
"l
V
w2 + 2mn-m2
Hence
integers.
positive
equationswe
these
From
and
r2;
n2, r
inin
)u2+ 2mn-u2;
(m2 w2)
-
be found.
integerscan
From
the value of x it is clear that m
be such that
odd ; also their values must
both
(m2+ n2)2"8mn{m2-n2),
mz(m
or
which
If
Sn)+
2inn2 + 8m n* + n4
"
0 ;
9, w=l, then
The
squares of
6242.
sums
a-
of these taken
in
pairsare
the numbers
are
482, 33G2,
are
the
INDETERMINATE
EQUATIONS
OF
THE
*EXAMPLES.
Solve
in
3.
y2-4.ry +
5.
3.y +
5.r2-10.i=
7.
.r2-14y2=l.
x2-
61/
the
+ 5
4.
14.
3.ry-4j/
the smallest
12.
solution
in
x2-3xy
18.
Find
the square
to
Find
represent the
are
20.
Find
such
that
21.
being
"
other
There
4^2-y2=315.
and
16.
by
is
S.
9.
x2-7y2-9
14.
y which
.t-2
=
4iy2-l.
0.
that
.v2-
17y2
each of the
make
1.
following
5^+y2.
17.
afi+2xy+ 2f.
the square
of
exceeds
one
105.
for three
sides
general formula
result
2.v
x2-5y2=l.
general formula
lengths of the
the
of their squares
6.
positiveintegerssuch
two
of the
xy
positiveintegersof
in
13.
3y2.
4.
11.
general values of
expressionsa perfectsquare :
15.
7^-2^+3y2=27.
positiveintegersof
0.
.r2-3/=l.
the
2.
^-19^=1.
8.
general solution
Find
19.
XXVIII.
Find
Find
311
DEGREE.
positiveintegers:
1.
10.
SECOND
to
obtained
of
integerswhich may be
right-angledtriangle.
express
two
by adding
taken
positiveintegerswhich
their
product
the
to
sum
perfectsquare.
three
came
of my
wives
Dutchmen
latelymarried
acquaintance
with
them.
to
see
The
me,
men's
; they brought
Geertruij,
Hendriek, Claas, and Cornelius; the women's
man's
wife.
of each
They
Catriin,and Anna : but I forgot the name
told me
had
each
as
market
to
been
at
bought
buy hogs ;
they
person
Hendriek
23
bought
hogs
hogs as they gave shillingsfor one hog;
many
than Geertruij; likewise,
than Catriin; and Claas bought 11 more
more
I desire to know
the
laid out 3 guineas more
his wife.
each man
than
of
each
man's
Mathematical
wife." (Miscellanyof
Problems, 1743.)
name
names
their
were
22.
Shew
that
the
of the
sum
square, if n is equal to k2
and k' the numerator
of an
or
k'2even
first
1, where
numbers
natural
k is the
numerator
convergent to N^2.
is
of
perfect
an
odd,
XXIX.
CHAPTER
SERIES.
OF
SUMMATION
60.
Art.
(iv) Sums
Series,Arts.
by
Summation
(v)
of the
of the powers
68 to 75.
Natural
Coefficients,
of Undetermined
means
allied
and
Numbers
312.
Art.
proceedto
now
in the
course
that
of
;
greater generality
may
of
is of
series
sum
be
can
of which
1 , the
seen
that
some
employed.
usefully
stillbe
one
quantities
the other
methods
methods
of the foregoing
381.
discuss
expressedas
is the
same
ference
the dif-
function
be
of
readily
found.
let the series be denoted
For
and
its
the form
by
sum
and
vr-vr_1;
suppose
by
that
any
term
ur
can
be
put in
then
^.=("i-0+(w.-"i)+(*.-"f)+"-+(w.-i-0!+(
=
vn.
OF
SUMMATION
Example.
Sum
to
the series
terms
1
+
the series
denote
we
""v"
"
+ 4ar)
+ 3.r) (l+ 3j-)(l
(l+ 2u-)(l
(l+ s)(l+2s)
If
313
SERIES.
by
*-"("-"\
1
2x
a;\l+
"
4*,/
'
a;\l+ 3#
1 +
x\l
i+n+i.x/
nx
ar\l +
a;
SL=-
b}'addition,
_!/
Ws
3*/'
I^
"
l+w
l.a?/
(1+ x)(1+
Sometimes
382.
Example.
the
Find
partialfractions by
a2
z~r
x~n
n,
t-,
.,
"n_1
ft*
nth
term=
By putting1
an~x -A
1 +
""_1.r,
l + a"-1^
equal to
in
zero
B=
1 -a'
u,
"
1 -a'
a
"
\1 +
/
a:
1 +
ax
a2
....
similarly,
t**=;
"
-5
"
a"-1
aw
Wn~l-a Vl+a*"1*l +
'""
*~l-o\l
terms.
suppose:
**
we
succession,
"
1/1
Hence
to
.
l + anx
nn
an-l
A=-
(1+ a7'-1*).
(1+ a**)+
aux
B
+
t-
".
w,
5"
,,
A
=
"
"
"
(l+ ax)(l+a*x)
may be obtained
the methods
explained
of
sum
nu,
The
..r)
suitable transformation
into
u
by separating
in Chap. XXIII.
+ l
l +
anj/
anx)'
obtain
314
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
To
by
ux + u2 + us +
un
where
(a + nb)(a+
Replacingn by
n"
u"
""k"-i !
(a+
("+
.'.
"
?i
"
Replacingn by
b)(a +
b)un
1
(a+
(a+
...
b).
"
/"
"
6)
.
(a+
..
b)?."."_!
=
"
b);
vn, say.
have
we
(a+
b)
have
1, we
")(a+ nb)(a+
.
6)tf" "Il+1j
+ r.
therefore,
by subtraction,
(r+l)b
Similarly,
(7+1)6.
un
wB_,
vn+i-vn.
r/(
/""_,,
1 "
(a 4-
"A un
(r+l)i
C
where
is
to
ascribing
The
quantityindependentof
value.
some
particular
above
result
the number
and
It
however
add
may
givesus
may
convenient
following
be found
rule
by
be
constant.
noticed
better not to
indicated.
the
n, which
Write down
by
+6'S'ly;
that
"
-,
\
"
(r+l)b
quote this result,but
"
-,
5t-t
(r+l)b
to obtain
m,lf ;
as
it is
above
316
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
To
386.
sum
by
it, +
ux +
u:i+
un
where
(a
"
nb)(a +
b)(a+
r-l
+ n
b)...(a
r"2
b)
(a+
.b).
4i
Un
Replacingn by
=
"
(a +
1,
b)(a+ nb)(a+
b);
M"_i
ln-l
.'.
(a+
r-l
Replacingn by
b)un
b)un_x
vni
say.
have
1, we
(a+
(a+nb)un
=
vn+1;
therefore,
by subtraction,
(r-l)b.
(r 1)b
Similarly
un
vn-vn+1,
un_x
vll_l
(r l)b
(r" 1)b
Wj
(r 1)b Sn
By addition,
v.2
vx
u.2
"
"
vx
vSt
"
vn
v.2
"
vn+1 ;
"
(a + nb) un
*"-(r-l)6~U (r-l)6
^i
tnatis
where
C is
to
ascribing
?W
quantityindependentof
value.
some
particular
n, which
'
may
be found
by
*
Thus
Hence
Sn
the
C-,
sum
be found
may
by
the
b)
r-l.
rule
following
value of C=
-,
Vv~7
(r
each
case
to determine
add
constant.
tti
1) 6
1)
(r
to
C by ascribing
"
"
ui
n
'""
but ** is advisable
some
in
value.
particular
SUMMATION
1.
Example
Find
the
of
sum
1.2.3.4
OF
of the series
terms
re
2.3.4.5
317
SERIES.
3.4.5.6
The
re'1'
term
is
have
3(n+l)(w+ 2)("+ 3)
rut
^=0-3^;
then
"=1,
"
Example
18
+ 3)
+ 2)(re
3(re+ l)(re
"
By making
obtain
indefinitely
great,we
Find
2.
(7=1;
whence
the
to
sum
a"
1.2.42.3.5
"
of the series
terms
fi^
T7"
"
r"
rt
3.4.6
(n+2)2
+ 3)
n{n+l) (n+ 2) (re
+ 2
+ 3)
re(re+l)(re
(re
4-1)+ 3re + 4
:re(re
+ l)(re
+ 2)(re
+ 3)"
re
+ 2)(w + 3)
(re
Each
to which
of these expressions
may
the rule is applicable.
l
"
now
be taken
as
the ?ithterm
of
-c
n
put re=l,
+ 3)'
w(re+l)(n+ 2)(re
+ l)(re
+ 2)(re
+ 3)
(re
+ S
+ 3)
2(re+ 2)(re
+ 3)
(re+1)(re+ 2) (re
'
then
3-13
17271=
0
n
4
C
_29
36
re +
372.3
27174
+ 2) (re
+ 3)
(re
.4'
36;
3
3
29
Whence
"
"
"4
+ 2)(re
(re+ 1) (re
+ 3)'
series
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
318
387.
where
cases
of Subtraction.'
Method
Find the
Example.
arithmetical
of the series
terms
+ 8.11
+ 5.8
2.5
The
of
sum
this
in
progression
11.14+
is
case
2, 5,8, 11,14,
factor the next term
of the given series introduce as a new
In each term
and the given series
this
series
denote
"",
by
;
of the arithmetical progression
by S; then
S'
.-.
"'-2.5.8
2. 5. 8 + 5. 8. 11 + 8. 11.
+ 8. 11.14
5.8.11
+(3w-l)(3n+2)(3"+5);
14+
14.17+...
+ 11.
to
(u-1) terms.
By subtraction,
11.14+...to("-l)terms]-(3n-l)(3n+2)(3n+5)
+ 8.11 +
_2.5.8=9[5.8
2
5
.
9S
[S
5] (3/i 1)(3n+2)(3n+5),
-
+ 5) -2.
+ 2)(3/i
(3/i 1)(3/i
5. 8 + 2, 5.0,
fif=n(3n3+6n+l).
of
nth term
the
When
388.
series is
in a form which
be expressed
function of n it can
to apply the method
givenin Art. 383.
readily
"j"
(n) is
For
suppose
dimensions,and
cf)(n)A
=
where
will enable
of
function
integral
rational
integral
rational
us
of p
assume
+Bn+
A, JB, C, D,
undetermined
are
constants
l in
number.
This
of n, we
may
thus obtain ^" + 1
identitybeing true
Example.
the
of
sum
of n; we
1 constants.
terms
n*+6n3
equate
simple
is
generalterm
+ 5w2.
Assume
Gn [n +
obvious that
obtain C
we
successively,
it is at
once
"4 + 6"3
Dn
1)+
En
1 ; and by puttingn
,4=0, 2? 0, E
6, J) 0. Thus
=
+ l).
+ l)(n+2) (?i
+ 3)-6/t(/i
5/"2=//(n
2, n
SUMMATION
Hence
Sn
sn
OF
310
SERIES.
+ 4)
+ l)("+ 2)(n+ 3)(?i
2n(n+ l)(n+ 2)
(/t
-
\n(n+l)(n+2){n'i
2).
+ 7n +
Polygonal
Figurate
and
Numbers.
"
If in the
389.
of
terms
and
we
n+
expression
\n(n" l)b, which is the sum
of an arithmetical
whose
first term is
progression
difference b,we
give to b the values 0, 1, 2, 3,
common
1
""
get
u,
which
are
\n
The
orders
fourth,fifth,
square,
orders;the
unity.
third,fourth,fifth,
each term
1)
"
first order
are
second,
beingthat in which
polygonalnumbers
sometimes
of the
of the
called
second,third,
linear,triangular
pentagonal
390.
To
find the
of the firstn
sum
of the
terms
rth order
of
numbers.
j"olygonal
The
nih term
.-.
$i=$n
=
391.
If the
as
1)(r 2);
"
l(r-2)%(n-l)u
\n (n+ 1)+
(r-2)(n-l)
(n + 1) [Art.383]
sum
of the series
terms
1, 1, 1, 1,1,
be taken
\n (n
the ?*thterm
of
obtain
we
series,
new
1,2,3,4,5,
n
If again
we
take
in
1)
which
"
is the
of
sum
terms
of the
-j
last
the ?tthterm
as
series,
of
new
we
series,
obtain
1, 3, 6, 10, 15,
this way, we
obtain a succession of series
of the
such that in any one, the nih term
of n terms
is the sum
precedingseries. The successive series thus formed are known
By proceedingin
as
Figurate Numbers
of the
second,third,
first,
...
orders.
320
392.
order
second
(n
n(n+l)(n+2)
'L"
-"
of n
sum
1
tIl
term
the uth
..
"
~M
,
order
of the fifth
,
is
2,
1.2.3
that
is
"
Tims
2)(M + 3)
^-n
"
"
it is easy to
see
; and
so
of
n
01
"
"
"
rule
"
1 Ir
"
terms
(w +
1)
order.
l)th
of tlie (r+
applyingthe
In
of
(n+ 1)(n + 2)
Note.
any order
(n+2)
n(n+l)
*-=
^5
1
2
r-1
sum
is
|rc+r-2
.
which
on.
tnat
"
0
.
w(w+l)(n
xl
of ilierth
terms
"V
order is 2
of the fourth
ntYlterm
1); the
the
of the
first order is 1; the nth term
of the third order is Hn, that is
the nth term
is n;
order
and
term
of the
nih term
The
\n
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
of Art. 383
to
terms
is
of
always
zero.
393.
The
interesting
on
his Traite du
propertiesof figuratenumbers
account
use
made
of them
in
arithmetique,
published
triangle
followingtable
form
simplest
The
of the
exhibits
are
the Arithmetical
historically
by Pascal in
1665.
Trianglein
1
...
its
SUMMATION
Pascal
rule
constructed
the numbers
in the
number
is the
of
sum
immediatelyto the
left
of it;
thus
15
From
the mode
the successive
10,
of
28
that
immediatelyabove
21, 126
vertical
or
rows,
first,
second,third,
.
line drawn
top
bases
Thus
the
ing
follow-
so
and
row
the
6th
left-hand
the
base
the
in
hgurate
orders.
.
an
of units from
equal number
is called
column
that
70.
columns, are
numbered
are
off
to cut
as
56
it and
it
construction,
horizontal
of the
numbers
the
triangle
by
Each
321
SERIES.
OF
base,and
left-hand
numbers
corner.
1, 5, 10,
six of these
terms
the
bers,
num-
in the
pansion
ex-
(1+ x)5.
The
of these numbers
discussed
were
properties
by Pascal
skill
in
Arithmetical
used
his
he
:
great
Trianyle
particular
to develop the theory of Combinations, and
to establish some
in Probability.The
interesting
propositions
subjectis fully
treated in Todhunter's Historyof Probability,
Chapter n.
with
304.
no
which
is to be
will
effected,
be
convenient.
more
Let
the summation
(x)be
cf"
any
function
of x, then
"f"
(x)denotes
the
sum
x=l
integral values
obtained
from
I to
'a1
For
terms
instance,suppose
from
m
it is
"f"
(x)by givingto
all
to
required
from
the
find the
sum
of all the
expression
(p-l)(p-2)...(p-r)
by givingto
H.H.
A.
p all
tive
posi-
inclusive.
values
integral
from
r +
1 to j" inclusive.
21
322
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
(p r)(p
*=*
the
in
Writing the
required sum
"
ascendingorder,
+
1)
...
(p 1)
-
"
"-
i{1.2.3..
..r+2.SA....(r+l)+...+(p-r)(p-r+l)...(p-l)
l(p-r)(p-r
l) "(p-l)p
[Art.
383.]
J
L
\r
y~(-l)(y-2)...(^-r)
=
jr+1
i
givenexpressionis zero
Since the
we
inclusive,
may
%p (p-l)(p-2) """(p-r)
p(p-l) (ff-2)...(p-r)
_
\r
v-\
|r
XXIX.
EXAMPLES.
Sum
series
following
the
1.2.3
2.
1.2.3.4
3.
1.4.7
+ 4.7.10
4.
1.4.7
+ 2.5.8
5.
1.5.9
the
+ 2.3.4
+ 2.3.4.5
+ 3.6.9
+ 3.7.11
to
+
4.
7+77l0+
1
+
1.3.5
1
1_
5.7.9+
3.5.7
1_
1.4.7+4.7.10 7.10.13
4
10
1.2.3^2.3.4
J_
3.4.5
1
_1_
4.5.6
"
"
1.2.3
1-
io
\9,
5
1
11
and to
terms
II
174
3.4^
1.2^2.3
7'
2.3.4
4-
.3.4.5^
_JL
5.6.7+
*""'
5
-l
"
a.
+ 3.4.5.6
series
following
+ 7.10.13
2.6.10
terms
+ 3.4.5
1.
Sum
to
"
3.4.5
4.5.6
:
infinity
1 to
324
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
From
this series
the
we
may
orders
third,fourth,fifth,...
these
of formation
the law
From
Ujt
u.2,
u3,
of the series
u",
A2w2
A3Wj,
that
u.2 =
since
By addition,
"j
in
to the term
below
+
Au.2 u3
A.m^
it
term
the left.
on
have
we
the
equal to
2Au"
A.2ux
fourth
Au3
since
By addition,
?f4
So far
the
series is
any
=
t^ +
ii.j
In
4-
u.2 +
Au5,
A3u3,
immediatelyprecedingit added
Thus
u6,
A2ui
term
any
Aw4,
A3u,,
it appears
u5,
A.m3
of
we
law
same
by
prove
as
as
have
2A.2u1+ A^.
u3
Au3
ux
ZAux
have
we
u4i
SA^
of the Binomial
A^
numerical
proceeded,the
those
induction
Aux
coefficients follow
theorem.
always be
We
the
shall
For
case.
now
pose
sup-
that
un+i
"i +
mAmj
then
A,ul+
9
X
"
"CVA^j
...
AnWj i
-J
series
by usingthe second to the (n + 2)th
have
we
series,
(n+ l)th
in the
placeof
the
first to the
it (11
Aun+1
A%!
Mj
"
By addition,since
M"+a
"
+ -A.
jr-fnA.2u}
A3Wj+
fa + 1)Awj
Aun+1
un+l
.
+
BCfr_1A^w1
un+2i
we
An^uY
obtain
Arux +
(nCr+ *Gr_j)
...+
A"+1",
.
SUMMATION
(" ^
*Cr + HJr-i
But
OF
32.",
SERIES.
l) "Cr_x
?i"i
"C,,.,
(n + l)w(w-l)
...(w+l-r+1)
3... (r-l)r
1.2.
of formation
in the
f"n+8, hut
it is true
therefore
universally.Hence
""
,
(n
Ui +
39G.
1X
find the
To
"
of
sum
of the differences
in terms
(w-l)(w-2)
*"
""*_
1) A?^
case
holds
An.iWi.
...
of ul.
Suppose
A2?^
of the series
terms
if tlie law
Hence
of differences
of the series
Vl,
then
vn+1
v.2)
v4,...,
+
(vn+1 vn)+ (vn vn_t)
'"
"
^"+l
ua + un-l
...
"""
(v2 vx)+
u2 +
u\ + vl
identically
;
vx
"
in the series
Hence
0,
va1
1 )
v3i
the law
of formation
"'"
that
is,Wj
w3
n
nux
The
"
is the
uz
...
same
of
in the
as
-4
Aw3
"
s"
Awx
precedingarticle;
+
this
-^
-"
and
the
A2M!
of
differences,the nth
the formula
preceding article
from
A"?^
n(n"l)(n-2)"
t
AWj
"
un
(n"\)
y"r
Aw2,
"Wi
v5
orders
obtained
formula)
in
of
""+i
v4,
2 )
Aw1?
term
v3,
term
if
terms
of the
A"?f ,
be expressed
may
is the first
of the
given
cessive
suc-
series is
326
HIGHER
and
the
of
sum
is
terras
ALGEBRA,
n("-l)(tt-a)(n-3)
,"("-l)("-2)f/
^i"^"1)^
2
j3
and the
Example.
of
sum
of the series
terms
?*
The
are
of n
The sum
62re.
2re3 + 52re2 +
obtain
",
12 + 28
terms
Or
(re 1)+
-
we
found
II
by writing down
"M"-D
("-2) (-8)
46),
It will be
397.
when
differences
the
seen
series is such
eventually
will always be
that
to
come
we
equal.
series is
the value of
present article and
of the
in(re+l)(3n2
23re
46).
succeed
69re +
l"
+ 26re +
^(3re2
-3)'
M (re-2)(re
M
-v(re-1)
the formula
use
may
~P
be
now
may
22(re-l)(re-2)
'
K"
22"'"-1)("-2"
S^ia^28"'"-1'
are
,x
,c
Hence
This
the
only
of
case
of
will
series in which
function
rational integral
^"j
of summation
in
of the
n.
For
the
Let
the series be
ua2 + ua+
3
u.
1
where
ii
An3
.,+u
+u
Bn2
n+2
Cn
+
"
u
,
"
+ 3
D.
"
and
let
n'
orders of
,
ii*
denote
%
ii
differences;
the
?ith term
of the
first,second, third
*
SUMMATION
then
vh- mm+1" un
that
is,
vn
Similarly
3Au2
the
=w
pthorder
if
Conversely,
equal,the utu term
ii
11
C ;
I) + 3A
211
=6-4.
ii
in the third
terms
in the
(2n
iv
."
"ti
the terms
3A
Thus
(3A + 2B) n
"
and
and
3n+
A(3n*+
327
SERIES.
OF
order
of differences
equal;
are
of the
givenseries is of p dimensions,
differences will be equal.
of
in the
the terms
of the series is
]jthorder of differences
rational integral
function
are
of
of p dimensions.
Find the "th term
Example.
The
6, 6, 0,
Thus
the terms
assume
where
have
A, B, G,
Putting 1, 2, 3,
equations,from which
hence
the
ari is
in n, the series
If
for
4
we
in
7i
of the series is 3
Let S denote
the
(1 x)
--
here b
12
...
scale
may
a0
btx+ bjc2+
so
that
...
6n is of
""
Multiplyingthis
simultaneous
four
2,
\ ;
"
dimensions
xn
is
(I
"
x)p+1.
,
,
'
1
have
=
ofrelation
"
we
"i
it
hence
2n2 + n9.
ao
"a
=a
n
sum
3n
ajx2+
ax
integral
function of
rational
ivhose
recurringseries,
succession, we
-3, C
obtain A =3, B
a,0 +
a
equal;
Dn3,
to be determined.
generalterm
398.
is
A+Bn+Cn2
itH=
last series
bx"
p
..
(a,
-
ax"+\
,_""
ax"
say;
1 dimensions
in
n.
by
x,
we
have
S(i-xy
=s+(^-a")*+(^-^K+..-+(6n-6"-iK-("J,+6""+l
=
here cn
+ ai:c,+%
+ cix^...+cX-{ai+biy,^
say;
c^+{b-a0)x+c^2
-bn-bu
so
that
cn is of p
2 dimensions
in
n.
328
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Hence
1
"
are
of the coefficients.
is
By hypothesis
an
arrive at
of
terms
of p
1
shall
we
x
exceptionof p
of
form
and p terms at the end of the series,
beginning,
each of whose coefficients is the same.
progression,
geometrical
terms
a
series the
multiplications
by
with
the
which,
after p
; therefore
dimensions
integralfunction
rational
at the
[Art.397.]
S
Thus
k
where
is
(1 xf
beginningand
the
x")+/(a?),
for
of the
at the end
p terms
...+
f (x) stands
constant, and
x"'+1+
k(xp+
the p
terms
at
product.
r.Sil-xyJ^l^K/ix);
kx"(l-x"-^) + (l-x)f(x)^
that
is,
thus
the
'
(1 -x)p+l
series is
recurringseries
scale of relation is
whose
(l-x)p+1. [Art.325.]
If the
found
readily
by
Find
Example.
given,the dimensions
explainedin Art. 397.
is not
generalterm
the method
the
function
generating
3 + 5a;+
of an
are
of the series
have
we
Forming the successive orders of differences of the coefficients,
the series
2, 4, G, 8, 10,
2, 2, 2, 2,
are
S
-
SxS
Sx2S
3 + 5x +
-
9.r
15a;2
27.x-3 45a;4
-
69^
-xsS=
By addition,
3^-
(1
S
a;)3
5a;4-
3-4.r
"*"
9a;5
4a;+ 3a;2;
+
3a;2
b~
(1-a;)3
equal; hence
; and
an is a
therefore the scale
OF
SUMMATION
399.
have
We
of
function
in
seen
Chap,
recurringseries is
329
SERIES.
that
xxiv.
the
generating
nator
denomi-
"
"
ABC
-
to rm
1,
Each
ax
of
series
ex
of these fractions
in the form
bx
"
a
can
be
can
series.
geometrical
If however
ax
any factor 1
factor there will be
than once, corresponding
to this repeated
more
A
A
: which
partial fractions of the form -^
r=,
-7,
scale of relation
the
contains
"
"
...
(1 -axy
when
expandedby
series;hence
as
the
sum
400.
of
The
the Binomial
in this
case
of
number
the
successive
(1
ax)
do not form
Theorem
series cannot
recurring
geometrical
expressed
be
geometricalseries.
geometrical
progression
a,
ar,
ar2,ar3,ar\ arn,
"(r-l), a(r"l)r,a(r-l)r2,a(r"\)r?'
are
a(r-l)2,a(r-l)2r,a(r-\fr2,
which
are
themselves
ratio
common
401.
where
Let
us
the
as
geometricalprogressions
having the
same
series.
original
is a rational integral
function
"/"(rc)
of
of p dimensions,
and from this series let us form the successive orders of differences.
Each term
in any of these orders is the sum
of two
parts,one
from
of
the form arn~\ and the other from terms
of
terms
arising
the
form
in
""(?i)
is of ;;
series. Now
since "f"(n)
original
from "f"(n)
will be zero in the (p+ l)th
dimensions,the part arising
and succeeding
orders of differences,
and therefore these series
will be
the
whose
geometricalprogressions
common
ratio is
r.
[Art.400.]
330
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
of a series are
if the first few terms
form
of differences of these terms
Hence
pth order
given,and if the
geometrical
progression
ratio is r, then we
may assume
is
ar""1
+f(n),where
generalterm of the given series
1 dimensions.
function of n of p
rational integral
whose
that the
common
f(n)
is
of the series
Find
Example.
The
are
the
common
un"a
To
in which
geometricalprogression
for the generalterm
Thus
the constants
determine
then
+ b+
c=10,
un
a,
Sn-^ + bn +
b, c, make
3a + 2b+c
whence
Thus
3'1"1+
+ 3
equal to 1, 2, 3 successively;
23, 9a
6, 6=1,
c.
3b +
60;
S.
3" +
n +
3.
of the
402.
each
of a
recurringseries is equal to the sum
whose
of geometricalprogressions
ratios are
number
common
of
form
Aa"'1
Bbn~l
is
the
term
its
+
+ Ccn~\
general
", b, c,
therefore
the
and
generalterm in the successive orders of
If, however,
the
...,
differences is of the
follow the same
form
same
law
; that
as
of the series
generalmethod
explainedin
coefficients
are
largethe
considerable arithmetical
while
to
whether
write
down
we
have
must
Chap.
orders
recourse
But
xxiv.
of differences
found
case
to
to the
when
the
without
labour ; hence
it is generally
worth
of the orders of differences to see
few
shall arrive at
we
the
the original
series. In this
is,all
series the
law
of whose
terms
is
evident.
403.
We
add
some
principles.
preceding
examples
in
further
illustration of the
3.32
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Hence
""=("
2m
1)(a+ 2) {2m(m+3)+ 1}
S"=ln("+l)("+2)(n+3)(n+4)+|(n
"'"
Example 4.
Find
the
2.2
+ 6.4
of
sum
hence
un
+ m)2'1
(rc2
(An2+
Assume
dividingout by
At 2
whence
.-.
wn
and
Sn
(2?i22n
-
0=C-A
B=
-2, 0=4.
4) 2n
(2m2 2m
{A (n-l)2+
C)2n-
2A+B,
A=2,
and
the
4) 2n
(na
of
sum
terms
2.
3.
4.
8, 16, 0, -64,
5.
generatingfunctions
7.
8.
9.
21a4 + 31a6 +
7Xs + 9a4
11a6
10.
Find
the
11.
12
1Z"
sum
+
3
37a-5+
32
33
g4
i2_?-2
+
+ ??_iV2_62
+
5+52
*
53
5"
5*+"
of n,
1)+
2)2*"
} 2"-1
4.
b.
of the series
of the series
1 + 3x + 7x2 +13.^
3a + 5a2
-200, -432,
6.
(n 1)+ C\ 2"-1
we
B;
(n
XXIX.
the
1.
Find
like powers
+
{2 (n l)2
EXAMPLES.
Find
{n2+ n)2n.
equatingcoefficientsof
2'1_1 and
is n2 +
the ?ithterm
Bn+
+ 30.32+
+ 20.16
+ 12.8
In the series
of the series
??. terms
have
Find the
13.
the
and
generalterm
333
SERIES.
OF
SUMMATION
of
sum
of the series
terms
14.
-3,
15.
16.
17.
Find the
of
sum
of the series
terms
18.
1 + 8* + 3."/+ 5.t-1
+
+ 4./,-';
19.
1+ 3.i-+ 6x2
+ 1 5.r* +
+ lO.f'5
onJLi
4.5'24
1.2*2+2.3 "2:2'f3.4'2!
21'
i-4S+4^
2T3-4+i"
5-4'+0-44+
22.
3.4
23.
24.
1.5 + 2.15
4.24
3.23
14-+-T5- -T6-+
27.
2.2 + 4.4
28.
3 + 3
4-
"
1.3.5.7.9
^-
4
k
1.3.5.7
2.2-'
1.2
26'
3
A
1.3^1.3.5
nn
+ 5.81
+ 3.31+4.53
'
16.21+25.31
1
oC
25
+ 24.31+35.44+
+ 8. 11 + 15.20
+ 7.8
32 + 5
+ 11.16+16.32
33 + 7
3" +
...
1.3.5.7
1.3.5
1.3
34+9.
rtr.
'
-"
30
^
+"
+
1.2
4. 6. 8. 10
6. 82.
4. 62.4.
2. 42.
ll
2+i5L 92, +4.5"2
23+
+
2.3'2+3.4'2
_5_
2.3.4'
32
_4_
1.2.3*3
(J
5" 33
3.4.
"+A + H ^
(3^ |4 |5 |6
32
19
33
'
'
28
I+
4
1
+
"
_39_
*
4
.
16
52
J_ +
'
4
.
32
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
334
There
404.
under
brought
foregoingmethods
of the
such
expansions,
certain known
cases
some
can
be
cation
skilful modifi-
be necessary ; in others it
of
dependson the properties
may
summation
the
that
found
Avill be
In
generalrule.
no
of which
many
are
by the Binomial,
those obtained
as
Theorems.
and Exponential
Logarithmic,
Example
Find the
1.
sum
50
28
12
78
|I+|5+
[I+|2 |3_+
""
-2; hence
3h(h-1)+4"-2
3h2+j"-2
a
is 3n- +
of the series 2,
term
]n
|n
2
Put
In"
n-1
;i-2
2
",
we
"2
3 +
have
4
4--;
then
ri-r2; "3=ji ^
-gj
and
so
on.
Whence
Se + 4e
,Sf"
=
Example
5e + 2.
{e 1)
(1+ a;)nc0 +
If
2.
+
c2.r2
crr +
cnxn,find
the value of
+ 22c2
+ 32c3+...
+ n\v
l-c1
As
in Art. 398
we
may
easilyshew
that
Also
cn + cn_xx +
n-xn~l +
=
.
+ c^11'1
+ c0xn (1+ .r)n.
.c.2"n-2
=
Multiplytogetherthese
in
."
,.,
(1 x)A
that
is,in
2"+!
.-.
the
this
given series
2"+i
fL^+3
-n(w+l)2"-!.
+
(1 .r)-3 (n + 1) 2"l (1 .t)"2
-
"
7-
containingjcn-1 in
only terms
J=
"
(1 x)3
The
"
\!l"Jll
%*-i
("+ 1)gn
(i
l)
?ii"":
2h-i
^-l.
to
METHODS
MISCELLANEOUS
IP
If b
3.
Example
is
)i
"-""("-""
(n 1)",,.
l, and
Theorem,
we
(n-5)(n-4)("-3)
expansionsof (1 x) ',
(1-.t)-2,(1-x)-*, (l-.r)-4,
respectively.Hence the
the
coefficient
in
the
to
x*
of
e"pial
expansion of the scries
ax*
required is
sum
a*x6
a-x4
+'
1-bx
that
see
\6
(n-8)(n-2)
are
|2
By the Binomial
the value of
C-3)("-4)("-5)
rfj.
integer,find
positive
335
SUMMATION.
OF
'
the
of the series=
sum
(1 +
""
"
1-bx
1-bx
"
of terms,
1-bx
+ ax"
Hence
the
given series
(a + l)x
a+1.
"
in
coefficient of xn
since b
ax-
(l-x)(l-ax)
coefficient of xn in
H+l
_
\1
1
"
a-1
Example
If the series
4.
x3
xe
X*
X8
X5
x'2
X7
1+
are
denoted
If
is
an
J3 JG
by
a,
"r
'
|8_+
]5+|7+ |2_+|5
a3 + b3 + c3
Sabc
of
root
{a +
b +
1+x
unity,
c)(a+
.t2
'lA~h +
Now
that a8 + 63 + c8-3o6c=l.
shew
b, c respectively,
imaginarycube
wb + w'-c) (a + w-b +
+ lob +
"/
OJ-C-1+
C0X+
"
Tl
-r^-
~\5
w4.c4
ur\r+
"T-
w'.r'
-r=~
similarly
0)=X
+ io'-b+
a
".
.,
,
wc
,
bc
uX
(l+u" + w!)x
co2X
1, since
l +
ojc)
Xs
.t4
xz
+
~\9+\3
w-.r-
and
'
ur
0.
1"x)
-ax
336
HIGHER
405.
To
find
the
ALGEBRA.
rth powers
of the
sum
n
of the first
natural
numbers.
Let the
be denoted
sum
by Sn; then
SH=V+2r
Assume
S
n
...
nr.
that
=Annr+i+Anr
0
where
3r
+An
A0nr-1+Anr~2+
2
A0,A^ A2,A3,
r +
+
whose
quantities
are
...
...
(1),
/
\
'
1
1
values
have
to
be
determined.
Write
1 in the
placeof
and
subtract;thus
+Ar...(2).
...
efficients
(n+l)r_1, and equate the coExpand (?i+l)r+\(n + l)r,
of
of like powers
n.
By equatingthe coefficients of nr,
...
we
have
1
l=A.
By equatingthe
A
r
"
(r+ 1), so
that
Aa
coefficients of nr
!,we
(r+ l)r
"
have
1
Axr;
"
whence
Ax
for
A0
and
AJfand
\P
{r-2)+ 1)
r(r-l)(r-2)
...
we
thus obtain
i~p
In
(1)write
A'r
^
A'r(r-l)
1 in the
"
placeof
r(r 1)(r-2)
"^
and
subtract;thus
+
+ A2{nr'1-(n-iy-1}
nr=A0{nr+l-(n-iy+i}+Al{?ir-(n-l)r}
...
Equate the
o
p
coefficients of nr~p,and
substitute for
A0,A1; thus
'4+^-^gzi)+i/^;);^)-....w
(?" 1) (r 2)
(?" )
METHODS
MISCELLANEOUS
From
(3)and (4),by
p + 1
"r
OF
.addition .and
337
SUMMATION.
subtraction,
r(r-l)(r-2)
o^/_^)^/0'-i)(p-g(^-3)+
(6).
(r 1)
(?" 1)(r 2) (r 3)
3
"
to
By ascribing
from
(G) that each
from
and
to zero;
r
6"
1^
absolute
by puttingn=
expressedby
nr+x
result of the
the
r_x
"
0.
precedingarticle
is most
r(r-l)(r-2)
l2
r+1
Ar+l;
conveniently
formula,
"
+Ar-
equation(1),we have
+Ar
A0 + Al + Aa + A9 +
=
The
equal
obtain
(2),we
A% + AZ+
Ar+1
406.
see
1 in
thus
"
in
terms
\=A^AX
1
___1_ r(r-l)(r-2),
30'
li
_J_ r(r-l)(r-2)(r-3)(r-4) ;
8~42"
|6
By equatingthe
and
r_3
r(r-l)(r-2)(r-3)(r-4)
'6
7?
w}lprp
i
"-
7?-1
7?
the
...
Example.
n6
ttt
We
5
"
quantities
Bx,B3,2?5, are known as Bernoulli's Numbers;
of other series
to the summation
examples of their application
advanced
student may consult Boole's Finite Differences.
The
for
7?
7?
,
have
n5
r.
S" ^-+ ^
=
_?t6
n5
_5
^,5
^ -^n*
5?i4
+ n5.
-f
Ba
.
"
j"
3
"
n* + C,
n2
~6+"2+l2~r2'
the constant
being zero.
II. ii. A.
22
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
XXIX.
EXAMPLES.
Find the
of the followingseries:
sum
^
JL
5.
l +
6.
pr
*rz
c.
^+-\T'T
pr-i
(1+ .r)
7- TX^"
1+tm;
""
"^"2)
"'
_
"
X +
ii
|1
A^
r/3
-3
f^l.2-
to
2^
""(1+^)"
_
12
1+3a?
?i(?i-l)("-2)
to
2n + l
+ xY
/2/i
...
to
W2 (7l2
terms.
terms.
12) 7i2(ft212)^2^2)
+
12.2*.32
i-j[i+-ii7?
o,2
9.
1 terms.
to
+ 1 terms.
1 + 23
1L
r2T3+3^T5+5T677
+
12.
ji
3^6
18
11
+
]|+[3+|4
|5
2a8
23s5
121s6
is.
1+-J2-|3
"[7-'|r 16
14
Without
fuming
!"+*+*+
the
formula,find the
+"""
"
sum
of the series:
17 + 2; + 3? +
"-
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
340
coefficient of
If Ar is the
24.
*A2
2/
of
expansion
in the
xr
^.\2
(i+,f(i+|)2(i+|)2(i
2~3J
+
prove
If
25.
is
(^4r-i
2^
n-^~\i
^4
that each
"3^5
-3
If
equal
to
n(n-l)(n-2)(n-S)(n-4)
*3
""'32
|5
"-
zero.
is
pti
If
27.
"
[3
26.
"
of the series
equal to
that
positiveinteger,shew
qn
1
.
(n-r+^-1),
Pr=(w-r)("-r+l)(n-r+2)
(r+^-1),
"=r(r+l)(r+2)
shew
andj
[5
w(w-l)(w-2)
11
is
^r-2)"
-3+
"
is
multipleof 6, shew
'
1072
2s,,
^lr
that
that
ho k
P"
If
28.
P2Q2
?i
is
P3Q3+
1"^"
P"-i^-i=
H
(n-r-l)(w-r-2)...(tt-2r+ l)
or
"
1_^2
according
as
is odd
or
is
xz
proper
fraction,shew
x5
even.
l_#6Tl_a?io
that
x
Xs
x3
+.v2^1+^
"'""""'
u.
If
(-!)
29.
g+l|n-2
(w-5)(w-6)(w-7)
to
|"+
+ q
"~
|3
is equal
u
\n-l+p
that
multipleof 3, shew
(m-4)(w-5)
"-3
,
'
l+.r10
CHAPTER
Theory
407.
In this
in
A
Numbers.
of
shall
chapter we
meaning
XXX.
the word
use
number
as
which
number
valent
equi-
positive
integer.
to
number
prime;
is divisible
number
unity is called
and
35
common
thus
24
408.
(i) If
number
b,it must
factor
since
For
since
shall make
is
(ii)If
divide
must
to
are
of the
one
prime
divides
number
productbe
factor of
found
in
number
factors
divides
; that
of that
b", where
is found
is,a
divides
and
is
prime to
one
c.
b, no
prime
prime
the factors of
divides
is found
in
divides
b;
in
be; but
therefore
all
c.
divide b.
b and
c.
it is
b, c, d,
prime to each of the numbers
is
to
if a
prime any
prime to the productbed... ; and conversely
number.
it
factor
of
that
is
number,
prime to every
Also
if
is
...,
342
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
of
This follows at
(v) If
are
from
once
is
and
(iv) If a
integral
power
prime
(iii).
fractions
b, the
to
and
=-
in their
are
j-
bo
ft
lowest terms,
are
beingany positive
integers.Also
equalfractions,and
two
any
and
and d must
of a
equimultiples
be
and
and
terms, then
respectively.
ofprimesis infinite.
The number
409.
is in its lowest
if
divisible
number
p
formed
number
the
it is
any of these factors ; hence
itself or is divisible by some
prime number
case
the number
formula
algebraical
rational
No
410.
that
product is not
either a prime
greaterthan
number,
and
fore
there-
represent prime
can
only.
If
when
their
by adding unity to
by
in either
numbers
np the
b (m
bm
is,
"
or
cm2
ex2 + dx3
that when
dm3
+
m
represent
...
the value
of
becomes
expression
np)
cm2
p
thus the
bm
bx
{m + np)2+
dm3
+
+
(m
np)3+
...,
multipleof p,
multipleof p,
is therefore not
prime
number.
A number
411.
can
be resolved into
in only one
prime factors
,
way.
Let
denote
the
number;
suppose
abed..., where
are
b,c, d,
Suppose also that JV
prime numbers.
Then
other prime numbers.
where a, /3,y, 8,
are
a,
...
...
abed...
a/3yS...
;
a/3yS...,
THEORY
hence
is
prime,therefore
343
NUMHEHS.
must
OF
divide
must
one
are
a
a
prime ; therefore
Hence bed. =/3yS.; and as before,
/?must
factors of bed... J and so on.
Hence
the
and
But
both
Let
b,c,
a,
find the
To
N
denote
is
a' +
equal to
factors in
iV
are
a/3y"$...
only be
can
a.
of the
equalto one
resolved
of divisors of a compositenumber.
and
where
N"=apbg"f...,
suppose
and p, q, r,
are
positive
of the product
it is clear that each term
integers.Then
(l+a
the
number,
different
are
...
number
therefore
be
must
be
and
equal to those in abed...,
into prime factors in one
way.
412.
prime numbers
+ b2 +
...+a'')(l+b
divisor of the
...
...
and
V) (I+
c2 +
...+cr)...
other number
is a
of divisors is the number
of terms in
givennumber,
that
no
the
+ l)
(f"+l)fe+l)(r
This includes
413.
find the
To
N" denote
Let
b, c...
each
integers.Then
(I+
is
a2
iV;
in which
requirednumber
in which
number, and
N
suppose
and ]), q,
prime numbers
term of the product
of)(1+
...
divisor of
each way
the
different
are
of ways
factors.
number
can
a,
as
b2 +
(1+
b'1)
itself.
compositenumber
a'tyc'
r...
c +
c2 +
where
positive
are
cr)
.
divisors corresponding
but there are
to
two
iV can
be resolved into two factors ; hence the
is
}(!"+l)"
l)(r l)
+
This supposes
not
perfect
square,
is an odd
quantities^,
q, r,
If N is a perfectsquare,
so
that
one
at least of the
number.
...
l)(r l)...-l},
!{(p+l)(?
+
and
to this
for the
we
must
add
the
one
way
JN
N/iV;thus
requirednumber
l)!)("/+!)(""+
lj
\{(P
+
we
obtain
344
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
number
can
which
of ways in
factorswhich
number
the
find
To
414.
composite
prime
are
to each
other.
before,let
As
in
factor and
one
in
occur
is
of
the number
Let
(1 +a
required
1.
Example
the
in which
the
factors;that is,the
2""1,where
of a
is
number.
(1 +
b'1)
c2 +
c +
of the divisors is
sum
Then
each
...+cr)...
equal to
this
cr+1-l
the number
63
102
of divisors
"
b-l
-1
Since
,.
...
sum
23
33
52 = 23
33
3*-l
"
"
"
?
"
63x40x31
78120.
"
52,
72 ;
"
.
"
factors
53-l
of the divisors
can
22
Also 21600
c-1
21600.
26-1
..
the
"
prime
to each
other
in
23_1,
4 ways.
2.
Example
We
If
is odd
have
Since
one
Hence
on.
or
so
in N.
...
i ""+'_!
"_
a.
sum
bq
Similarly
other.
of ways
two
divisors
b2 +
...+ar)(l+b+
the
factors
some
before.
as
by apbqcr...,
be denoted
be
or
1)(1+ 1)(1+ 1)...
of the
sum
two
product
a2+
into
different
prime factors
the number
of the
term
-(1
find the
To
415.
is
number
resolved
be
the
power of
in the other factor,
and thus
prime to each
only; and
the
equal to
can
of ways
number
there would
factors
of the
one
requirednumber
product abc...
....
of
power
not be
factors would
the two
must
some
Of
avbqcr
contain
must
one
number
the
shew
that
n(n2- l)
7i
(n2-1) is divisibleby
{n- 1) (n+1).
is odd, n
1 and n+1
two consecutive
are
is divisible by 2 and the other by 4.
of them
even
numbers
24.
hence
of them
product of 2,
one
the
Find
3.
Example
34".
NUMBERS.
OF
THEORY
in
is contained
of 3 which
highestpower
J100.
of
divisible by 3 as the number
Of the first 100 integers,
are
as
many
99.
times that 3 is contained in 100, that is,33 ; and the integersare 3, G,9,...
contain the factor 3 again,namely 9, 18, 27,...
Of these, some
99, and their
number
is the quotient of 100 divided by 9. Some
again of these last
of
integerscontain the factor 3 a third time, namely 27, 54, 81, the number
the
contains
One
number
of
100
27.
the
them
only,81,
by
quotient
being
factor 3 four times.
the highestpower
Hence
This
article.
example
416.
is
33 + 11 + 3 + 1
required=
of the theorem
case
particular
in
investigated
number
of a prime
To
48.
the next
which
is
contained in In.
n
Let
the
in
contained
greatestinteger
by /
1,2,3,
2,
the
numbers
so
a,
( jwhich
are
the
Hence
on.
contain
tJ
"
...
CL
at least once,
are
highestpower
contained
the numbers
among
there
Similarly
...
and
a2 at least once,
contain
and
Then
/(-"),...
] /(-,],
--
there
n.
...
respectively
"
Ct
Cv
be denoted
iii
"
-,
namely
I[-A which
at least once;
in \n is
'""'")*'6)+~
In
417.
to express
418.
divisible
Let
To
of this
the remainder
multipleof
that the
prove
chapter we
by
the
shall find it
venient
con-
symbol Jl(n).
prodicctof
consecutive
is
integers
by |r.
for the
stand
Pn
least of which
is
product of
consecutive
the
integers,
; then
Pn n(n+l)(n + 2) (u + r-l),
Pn+l (n+l)(n + 2)(n+3) ...(n+r);
nPn + rPH ;
nPm+i (n+ r)P
=
...
and
"
.-.
1"
-P
=lsxr
=
times the
product of
"
1 consecul ive
integer-.
346
1 consecutive
"
Pm+1-Pm
Now
also P.
is divisible by
integers
have
1, we
"
product of
if the
Hence
\r
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
P,
P
M(\r).
are
rM(\r-l)
therefore
and
|?',
is divisible by \r 1,the
productof r" 1 consecutive integers
product of r consecutive integersis divisible by \r; but the
product of every two consecutive integersis divisible by 12 ;
is divisible
therefore the productof every three consecutive integers
by 13 ; and so on generally.
the
"
By
also be
proposition
may
This
in \n
is contained
This
leave
we
416, we
of Art.
means
as
shew
can
often at least
as
proved thus
exercise
an
as
that
to the student.
of every term
If p is a prime number, the coefficient
is divisible by
+ b)p,
exceptthe firstand last,
expansionq/*(a
419.
the
"With
exceptionof
the
last,every
term
has
in
p.
efficient
co-
of the form
p(p-l)(p-2)...(p-r
l)
'where
have
may
this
is an
expression
is
divisor
of
any
it,and
since p
factor of \r ; that
any
divisible by |r. Hence
the last is divisible
420.
If
(a+
Write
p is
+ c +
ft for b
+ c +
By proceedingin
greater than
1)(p
"
"
2)...
(p
coefficient
every
it cannot
r +
of
\r
divide
1) must
be
by p.
prime number,
d
a5
...)p=
J3p (b+
=
is
-is,
(p
; then
(a+ py
Again
Now
"
bp +
d+
this way
b1'+ cp
by
a*
.
to prove
the
that
dp
M(p).
precedingarticle
p' + M(p).
)p (b+ y)psuppose
=
M{p).
we
may
establish the
requiredresult.
348
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
XXX.
EXAMPLES.
1.
the least
Find
of
multipliers
a.
the numbers
2.
will make
the least
Find
the
productsperfectsquares.
of
multipliers
the numbers
7623, 109350,
which
respectively,
will make
the
539539
productsperfectcubes.
aud if x"y
If x and y are positive
integers,
a?"y2 is divisible by 4.
is even,
3.
4.
is
Shew
number
any
and
shew
that
its square
even.
5.
by
If
2y2is divisible
9.
6.
7. In how
factors ?
two
many
can
ways
the
8.
Prove
9.
Prove
that
10.
the
of divisors of 8064.
the number
Find
same
Shew
number
by
15.
+ 1)(n+ 5) is a multipleof
(?i
number
that every
be resolved into
7056
6.
divided
by
6 leave
remainder.
11.
If
12.
Shew
13.
If
is even,
that
is
shew
that
+ 20) is divisible by
(;i2
greaterthan 2, shew
that
n5
"
48.
24.
120.
14.
Prove
15.
If
multipleof
16.
240
if n
that 32n + 7 is
is
multipleof
prime number
8.
greater than
3, shew
that ?i2 1 is
-
24.
Shew
that n5
is odd.
"
Shew
that
19.
Shew
no
square
number
is of the form
is of the form
of any
3?i
"
9?i
two
1.
or
9n"L
by
prime
THEORY
Shew
20.
is 0, 1
if
that
cube
number
is both
square
21. If a number
form 7n or 7?t+l.
Shew
is divided
that
and
24. Shew
may be.
number
triangular
no
that ax
or
26. Prove
13ft+l.
or
I7n"l.
27.
that
28. If n is
divisibleby 240
n
a*
even
the
8th power
prime
is any
number
prime
are
remainder
that
3u
1.
when
l2,22,32,...n2
always even,
odd
whatever
number
and
is of the
of any
number
is of the form
I3)i
of any
number
is of the form
I7n
greaterthan
number
that it is of the
be of the form
can
of every
power
Prove
If
and
+ a
that every
25. Prove
form 8r + l.
5, shew
that
n4
1 is
"
that
1 is divisible by 168.
nG"
Show
30.
and 37.
by 33744
When
both
p + l and 2p + l are
1 is divisible by 8(p + l)(2/)
+ l),if
31.
"**
by 7, the
cube,shew
29.
349
NUMBERS.
6.
or
22.
OF
"
if
is
prime to 2, 3, 19
2p+h
32. If p is
divisible by pr.
If
that
33.
prove
is
prime,and
multipleof
423.
If
prime
am-2
is
to p, shew
a, b two
am~3b + am-4b'i+
that
numbers
xp1~pV
less than
1 is
m,
+ bm~2
m.
350
forms
of
value
of
number
r.
Thus
iV, each
form
to modulus
3,
3"7,3q + l, 3q + 2; or,
equalto 3 (q+ 1) 1.
one
If
424.
the
leave
same
we
(mod.a),or
of these formulae
Either
If b, c
425.
and
])b
pc
"
426.
If
"
is
; which
pna
prime
if
when
ma
qb +
(m
b divides
prime to
less than
Thus
(m
; but
the
a, then
"
the
m'a
1 )a
different.
q'b+
and
ma
quantities
remainder
same
r,
"
of the
two
integer;
some
proposition.
all
are
is
quantities
(b
that
r,
so
divide
that
a
7/1')
(q-q')b;
=
m')a
this is
; hence
it must
since
impossible
and
"
m'
m', since
are
each
b.
the
remainders
are
of the series
1, 2, 3,
of
and since none
different,
by b, the remainders must be
in
b
1, but not necessarily
all
is exactlydivisible
quantities
terms
respect to modulus
the
proves
b, and
to
possible,
suppose
divided by b leave
then
it is
this
express
(mod.a).
?za, where
the remainders
by b,
ma
therefore
"
the
the
this
order.
Cor.
of the
a.
congruence.
2a, 3a,
a,
divided
c=0
congruent with
are
For
by
be congruent with
of a, and
a multiple
to
is
shall sometimes
is called
b
For, by supposition,
are
divided
when
numbe^
are
pc
therefore
case
of Gauss
"
2 is
3q +
5 any
pb
different
2.
In this
a.
notation
since
to modulus
manner
of the form
numbers
two
are
have
we
integers,which
remainder,they are said
6,
the
following
correspondingto
more
In like
will be
as
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
If
is
prime
to
b, and
number, the b
is any
p.
c,
c +
a,
c +
2a,
(b
"
1)a,
terms
THEORY
divided
when
OP
by
351
NUMBERS.
remainders
same
as
the
terms
of the series
though
will be 0,
wn7A
(o-tf
1, 2,
b.jb3,
-(/"b.,
are
...
modulus
regard to
a,
also
congruent.
For
by supposition,
b1-cl
nxa,
where
nlt n2, n3
.
are
...
(b- 1),
in
necessarily
not
427.
2,
1, c+
c, c+
therefore
respectively
congruent to cn
//te
"/te?i
products b,baba
...,
the
mainders
re-
c", c},
^c.c.^
...
...
...
+ w:ja)
+ rc2")
+ ",")
(ca
(ca
bxbaba =("?!
+ M
(a),
c,c2c3
".
...
...
which
proves
We
428.
If
a
p be
proposition.
the
and
number
prime
giveanother proofof
now
can
prime
Fermat's Theorem.
p, then N1'-1
to
"
1 is
multipleof p.
Since JV and p
each
prime to
are
if, 2tf,3.V,
divided
when
by p
other,the
numbers
(p-l)iV
(1),
(p-1)
1, 2, 3,
(2),
divided
but
is,|^"1
by p
i^"l
N''~i and
number
is
prime
We
a
remainder
same
to
p ; therefore
shall denote
the
it follows
when
that
(j").
number
of
integersless
(a); thus
prime to it by the symbol "f"
"/"(18)G; the integersless than 18 and
and
""(13) 12;
=
1 leave the
; hence
JP"1
429.
\p
it being 1, 5,
consider unityas
7, 11, 13,
17.
It will be
seen
that
than
1 ;
=
"f"(2)
prime to
we
here
352
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
each
if the numbers
To shew that
430.
b,
a,
d,
c,
prime
are
...
to
other,
(b) ""(c)
(f"
(abccl.) ""(a) "/"
=
Consider
product ab
the
line
in b lines,each
written
; then
k,
2,
be
can
; thus
numbers
containinga
1,
a,
2,
k,
a,
2a
2,
2a
k,
2a
a,
2,
(b 1)a
a.
a+l,
+1,
2a
Let
k is
prime to
prime
have
to
of which
...
"
in the
contains
column
""(a)numbers
in each
there
of these.
one
divided
when
by
Cor.];hence
[Art.426
that
the
This column
b leave remainders
the
column
contains
b.
"/"
(a)vertical columns in which every
contain ""(b)integers
prime to b ; hence in the
(a) cj"
(b)integerswhich are prime to a and
"f"
each
Similarly,
is prime to a
term
also to
number
row
k is
beginswith
which
0, 1, 2, 3,
prime to
""(b)integers
table
beginswith h ; if
will be prime to a ;
vertical column
A.
the first
...
""(a)vertical columns
\ therefore there are
is prime to a ; let us
term
suppose
every
to
of which
an
Now
a.
which
no
divisor,
common
k,
of this column
prime
will be
(b-l)a
...
us
but if k and
is
are
of the
by and therefore
to ab ; that is
(bed .)
(a) "j"
cf"
(abed...) "f"
Therefore
"j"
(cd...)
(a) (f)(b)
cj"
"f"(a)."t"(b)."t"(c)."}"(d)....
JV
a,
denote
b, c,
the
are
...
...
ap"
a,
of positive
integersless
number, and
different
positiveintegers.Consider
1, 2, 3,
1, ap,the
2a, 3a,
To
431.
the
that
prime numbers,
only ones
not
prime to
a,
(a*-1 I)a, (a1"1)
JV
apbqcr
and
...
suppose
than
p, q,
natural
a
are
...
r
bers
num-
...
THEORY
OF
4"(av) a"
=
Now
that
and
a'-'
ap,b'\c\
=a?(l- -^
.
of all the
sum
is any integer
less than N and
less
than
N
and
integer
prime to it.
integers
by 1,p,
the
S
l+p
+ q + r+...
of 0
the seriesconsisting
Writingthe seriesin
S
.-.
{N-l)
by addition,
2S
the
q, r,
From
which
integers
less than
prime to it,then
N-x
is also
an
their
by S; then
sum
{N-l),
order,
reverse
(N-q) + (N-r)+...+r
N + N + N+
S
less than
q+p
l;
to "p(N) terms;
...
$N"p(N).
the
are
are
and
...
integerswhich
.-.
432.
(N) terms.
(N-p)
Denote
other ;
-H)-H)-H)^""K)H)H)iir(i-i)(i-J)(i
^W
is,
each
primeto
are
...
"/"
"/"
(a)Vcr.) "j"
(a1')
(b1)0 (cr)
353
NUMBERS.
J" and
that
the
not primeto it is
number
of
'-'(".4"("-i)(":3("i)
tliat
is,
N
_++_+..._
a
ao
be
ac
....
abc
N
Here
the term
"
givesthe
a,
of the
number
la, da,
integers
.a
"
...
(t
N
which
contain
as
factor;the
term
"
givesthe number
ao
H.
II. A.
23
of
354
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
the
and
multipleof
ab, which
contain
reckoned
integeris
Further, every
on.
so
-j
ao
...
ab
as
only; thus,
of a, once
multiples
among
the multiplesof ab,
among
ab
and
is thus
and
once,
will appear
once
of b,and once
the multiples
each
factor,
negatively
once
only.
reckoned
among
the
which
jo
ab'
ac'
and
among
each
multipleof
cases
"
the
b, c respectively;
among
are
be
may
433.
which
terms
=-
"
"
"
iV
"
JV
multiplesof a,
are
"
terms
the
among
iV
Again,each multipleof
once
the
of abc;that is,since
multiples
-jabc
occurs
and
once,
3-3+1
1,
other
only. Similarly,
once
be discussed.
Theorem.] If
[Wilson's
be
-p
prime number, 1
\p
is divisibleby p.
By
have
we
'
Jp-l)(p
and
by
Fermat's
each
Theorem
of
is of the form
...
=M(p)
=
M(p)
Therefore
expressions
(j) l)p~l,
thus
+M(p)-,
tlie
1
+fl-(p-l)(P~l)(P~2)
M(p)
-...top-
terms!
{(i-iy-"-(-iy-"}
1, since p
"
$y-"
2)(p-3){p_irl+
top_lterms.
(p-2)p~\ (p-2"y~\
p-l
^z^ipD(p
Ip
"
1 is
even.
(p).
This
has
1
theorem
is only true when
p is prime. For suppose p
factor q; then q is less than p and must divide \p 1 ; hence
of q, and therefore not a multiple
of p.
\p 1 is not a multiple
a
"
"
Wilson's
result
Theorem
quotedfrom
Art.
may
also be
314, as
in the
proved
without
using
article.
following
the
356
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
the
to
Many theorems relating
induction.
provedby
435.
be
can
Example
Let
xp
If p is
be denoted
prime number,
xp
=pxp~l
by p.
f(x
1)=f(x) +
2*5~ 2
+px
ifp is
prime [Art.419.]
multipleof p.
also
is divisibleby^i,so
therefore/^)
/(2)
x)
"
multipleof p,
{xP
*p"2
+P"f~01)
J.
If
numbers
by f(x); then
.-.
is divisible
propertiesof
+ l); but
is/(.r
(1+ 1)^-2,
universally.
This furnishes another
1 is a
it follows that xp~J
proof of
2.
Let 52n+2
that 52,l+2
Prove
24?i
if
is
prime to
p,
25 is divisible
by
576.
by f(n);
then
52.52w+2-24n-49;
.-.
f(n+l)
(24n+ 25)
25/ (n)=25
24u
49
see
24/i
25 be denoted
theorem,for
multipleof p.
Example
Fermat's
The
above
also be
result may
52n+2
2in
25
provedas
25M+1
25
25 + 25
576n +
i)/(576).
24;i
Shew
that 10n + 3
2.
Shew
that 2
3.
Shew
that 4
4.
Shew
that 8
4"
+ 2
5H
6n + 5n
7n + 4"
+ 2
25
24 + M
(242) 24n
-
25
b.
+ 5 is divisible
5 is a
when
iW(576)
XXX.
7n+ 3
(1+ 24)"-24rc-25
EXAMPLES.
1.
follows
by
9.
multipleof
divided
is of the form
by
24
24.
20 leaves remainder
(2r 1).
-
9.
THEORY
5.
If p is prime,shew
6.
Shew
7.
Shew
that 2
the
OF
357
NUMBERS.
\p-3+
l is
multipleof p.
is divisible 1"y30.
of
highest power
contained
2r
in
is
2''-;--l.
+ 52'1+* is a
8.
Shew
that 34'1+
9.
Shew
that 3**+6+160"a
multipleof
243
56n-
14.
is divisible l"y512.
11. If n is
divisible by 504.
If
12.
prime
is
an
odd
number
greater than
number,
7, shew
that
prove
that
n"-l
?i*5
+ 3"i4+ 7"i2- 11
is
is
multipleof 128.
If p is
13.
of
shew
prime number,
greater and
alternately
(H-a?)*-*
are
of p.
of the (p-l)th powers
If p is a prime,shew that the sum
of
wherein
the
numbers
arithmetical
in
ence
differcommon
progression,
any p
of p.
is not divisible by p, is less by 1 than a multiple
14.
Shew
15.
and b
are
both
prime
to 91.
If p is
16.
prime,shew that
\p-2r 12r
1 is divisible by p.
18.
highestpower
nr"
is
that the
equal
nr
19.
l(p-D
a2
20.
is contained
in
\nr~1
r-
Find
which
to
n-
number
of
the
prime
a
"
by p.
generalsolution
98a;-
1=0
of the congruence
(mod. 139).
358
that the
Shew
N and
number
21.
a
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
given
of the
sum
squares
less than
to it is
prime
?(i--30-J)0-9-+?ci-."a-.)
and
the
is
cubes
of the
sum
?(i-3(x-])(t-9-+?a-^ci-"a
a,b,c...being the different prime
If jt? and
22.
divisible
given by
\pq is
that
positiveintegers,shew
two
any
by (|"")".
|#and by (\q)p.
\p.
that
Shew
23.
are
of iV.
factors
the
the square
of the
squares
of
an"^ ^hat
r-
pentagonalby
the
the
also
are
of
powers
triangularare
of
numbers
square
2"
\)X -f"X
"
numbers
which
coefficients of the
in the
which
in the
are
pansion
ex-
also
expansion of
1_
that
Shew
24.
less than
and
the
prime
of the
sum
fourth
powers
of all the
numbers
to it is
-"*)...,
-gg(l-"*)(l-i")(l
a,
prime
factors
of A".
If
25.
prime
different
to
26.
of integerswhich
(iV)is the number
(f"
it,and if x is prime to JV,shew that
If
dv d2,ds,
^^-
denote
the
less than
JV and
(mod. JV).
divisors
of
...
+ ""(d3)
+
(dj + 0 (c?2)
(f"
Shew
are
number
JV,then
=iV.
...
also that
(!)r-;
"t"
"
9~0(3) r1;
"
fi
0(5)T^
"
"----
odinf.
=
"
-?~l
kJ.
Theory
General
The
*-436.
In
Continued
XXXI.
CHAPTER
Chap. xxv.
Fractions
Continued
of
have
we
of the form
Fractions.
the propertiesof
investigated
where
a
a
2'
3'
",+
%+
and a^ is either a positiveintegeror zero.
positive
integers,
shall now
consider
continued
fractions of a more
general
are
We
a, +
"
type.
The
*-i37.
~'
a1
=*=
any
"
"2
where
"i rZl
*
a3
general form
most
of
'
""""
continued
*,"K
fraction
is
represent
"""
=*=
whatever.
quantities
The
fractions
"
fraction.
continued
(i)that
in which
that
(ii)
in which
To
*438.
convergents to
We
the
the
first three
formed
a3, and
see
together;
manner.
our
sign
signis negative.
each
b2
a2bx
attention
to
component
two
is
the
cases;
positive
;
the successive
b3
a3.a2bi+b3.bl
also
of
components
convergents
ergents are
the
by multiplying
the
6,
AVe
before
bi
The
a3
shall confine
a2
called
are
"
"
a,
that
of
the
of the
third
convergent may be
of the second convergent by
numerator
the first by b3 and adding the results
denominator
may
be
formed
in
like
360
HIGHER
successive
the
Suppose that
let the
similar way;
denominators
and the
by
the
law
that
Assume
; that
-a
nl
b p
n-l
p
n
,
\
"
place of
in the
"
"
denoted
be
numerators
formed
are
in
...
formation
=a
q
J- n
",
2"
"
holds
n-Ln
differs from
(n+l)thconvergent
convergents
for the
nth
vergent
con-
is,suppose
In
The
ALGEBRA.
+
"
,
1
bq
h-Ih"2
wth
the
_.
only
in
having
; hence
a
n
the
+ \
convergent
(n+ l)tb
If therefore
put
we
+b
nP
?" ^,=a
,,p
,,
+,
+,q
+b
,,q
,,
and denominator
of the (u+ l)th
that the numerator
convergent
follow the law which was
supposedto hold in case of the
of the third convergent ;
?tth. But the law does hold in the case
fourth
and
holds
the
it
for
hence
on
so
;
; therefore it holds
see
we
universally.
*-439.
In the
of the continued
case
b2
b,
"1
we
may
anPn-l
kPn-*
In the continued
have
""?"-!
k"ln-2
',
that of the
precedingarticle
fraction
h
a1
Qn
from
may be deduced
changingthe signof bn.
*440.
we
CC3
result which
by
b3
that
prove
Vn
a2
fraction
a2
"3
",
2'
qJ-n
that
seen
J-
=a
n
nl
,+bp
ii
"
n-L
"
^a
n-ln
"
,+bq
n-J-n"2
1
a.
GENERAL
THEOHY
OF
?"+
CONTINUED
Qn-J'
\9n
Ml
FRACTIONS.
but
and is therefore
fraction:
proper
hence
"
1
"
".+1
less than
"
"
"
is of
and
"
In
ft
sign.
opposite
In-}
By reasoningas
of
is numerically
"
odd
an
in Art.
shew
that every convergent
may
is greater than the continued fraction,
order
335, we
and
2--'^ ^
-
is
and
positive
"ss=l ^2"
less than
Also
?*=i
-
22/1
"
2---1
is
2/1 +
2/1 +
continued
the
of
but
"
2 2/1-1
2/1
2/1
2 2/1
convergents of
even
"
"
odd
an
"
order
"
are
are
hence
22/1-2
all
greater than
decrease,and
continually
but
order
2/1
"=s
^=*
less than
22/1
fraction
an
2/1
22/1
the
and
positive
Hence
; hence
2ft*-J 2*2/1
32/1+] 9 an
the
the continued
vergents
con-
fraction
increase.
continually
Supposenow
of
then
components is infinite,
to
finite limit,
some
also tend
to
some
to
one
limit,and
that
case
the continued
the
even
convergentstend
fraction may
fraction is the
of which is the
one
quantities,
of the even
convergents.
to
different
be said to be
in
oscillating;
of
symbolical
representation
limit of the
odd,and
the other
362
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
To shew
*441.
fraction
+
ax
has
value if
definite
greaterthan
when
of rf""n+I
and
is
infinite
W"
?"+!
when
is
zero.
?"
Pn-1
fPn
n+lffn-l
Now
""-!"
obtain
Pjt+X ""
_
a3 +
is equal to
"
9n+l
we
is
definite value
whence
zero.
continued
The
the limit
a2
(_ 1 )-l
"2n+l
k.-i?
But
k.-M?
n+lin-1
+
li+1 !7u
^B+lS'n-l
an+l Qn
k^g
a.
an+lqn
"i
K?-i
""""-*)"*""+!
an(
^n+lSn-l
"n+lSn-l
case
n+1
is
greater than
the limit of
zero
-J**^
b^xqK
^n+1
be
can
^n+A^-2
"+
so
if the limit of
negative;hence
is less than
and
therefore
Qn+i
the limit of the
and
must
same
infinite number
an
therefore be equal to
.For
limit ; which
example,in
zero
proves
the
the continued
^"i_ -^ "a
q"+i
productof
that
of proper
is,-^
and
?"+:
the
; in which
T-
qn
fractions,
-"-
tend
qn
proposition.
fraction
3-
n~
"
3+5
2n+l
"
"
a. a
Lim
and
-f-^-1 Lim*"+i
=
7\,2
(n+iy
-' =
fraction tends to
definite limit.
to
364
vergents form
order of
tend
to
If the number
Cor.
an
magnitude;
and
in this
*443.
as
determine
we
9n
succession
Pn
have
we
are
"
"
18
if
Similarly
S'
find
^=___
whence
3"-1
3*-1
"""
method
will
of
...
a+
successive
the
we
5form a recurring
series
the relation
by
'
2x
(3" 2").
-
qnxn~x+
i___r_;J
2*-1
S'^1
2'l+]
6(3"-2w)
yw_
'
3n+1
in the
2?l+1
when
a"
and
of the
case
shew
may
12
1
2'1"1=
q3x*+...+
only succeed
Thus
n.
5-
l-3x
12
ffn
This
5-
=-^ ;
18
qx + q" +
gn= 9
"
5x + 6a;2
hx + Qx-
c
-
+pnxn~1+
"
6
1
general
(P2~5Pl)X
Pl +
S=
pn
vergent^
con-
5p"-!+ "Pn-2'
"
whence
of the
many
however,
connected
are
as
the numerators
Let
"."_""
cases,
we
unity.
a"n-,
certain
We have pn
Sp,^ 6pn_2; hence
any three consecutive terms of which
But
fraction must
be found
expression
Example.
in
please. In
can
exceed
cannot
hPn-t*
"*nPn-i+
always
may
the continued
case
the formula
From
Pn
we
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
that
the
bn
constant
are
continued
fraction
of the
numerators
a+
convergentsare
expansionof
coefficients of the
the
7-2
and
the
denominators
of
are
in
the
ft
of
powers
in the
expansionof
^
1
-I- ti/Y*
7-2
~
OjX
"
ox
THEORY
GENERAL
is
the student
cases
special
be found
will sometimes
following method
12
the value
Find
Example.
of
="
either of them
; then
un
un
or
Similarly,
whence
(n+ 1)""_!
i^j
us
+ nun_2,
-
("u_2-ra-
"n_3).
l)un_1 (-iy^(u2-3ui).
=
first two
convergents
pn-(n
Tims
let
qn;
obtain
we
by multiplication,
un-(n
The
(uB_, ?wn_2).
RUtt_s=
for pn and
nun_x
5"
z +
holds
law of formation
same
useful.
-"
1 +
The
are
2
T ;
hence
-A
l)Pn^=(-l)n-\
(" !)?l-l
Pn-1
^n
0n
I)""2
j"+ l
(~
gn-1
_
7i
+ l
lra+1
iw+l
to
(~ l)"-8
ffn-1
9"-2
Art
At!
'
In
In
|n-l
In
?3
Ps_Pi
In
"h
_
|2'
13
3i
2'
'2
[3'
|2'
whence, by addition
|n + l
n+1
By making
we
infinite,
1-7^+1
jn+1
"77
obtain
of the
e)
'
(- l)n~a
|2 |3 |1
2n
is therefore the value
i-
Lit1.
,
=
|3+|4
12
7a
which
305
FRACTIONS.
For the
*444.
in
CONTINUED
OF
e-V
given expression
+ 1
366
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
If every component of
*445.
numerator
fractionwith integral
fractionis incommensurable.
if
For
and
equalto
-^
"
"
is
"
"
...
denominator,the
proper
continued
fraction
continued
A and B
where
,
a3 +
ao+
3jj+
and
that the
possible,
suppose
mensurable
"
"
is
com-
positive
integers
;
are
XL
then
; hence
^-
*
"
...
integersand f
are
Similarly
J
fraction
*"m , where
-7
"
"
C is
therefore
positive,
is
Now
suppose.
*-=
"
positive
integer.
"*-
*-
"
; hence
S^
"
7*
infinite continued
the
fa denotes
where
a2+f
a3+
than
"=
which
"
is
jy
a
are
...
proper
fraction
Thus
"
; and
...
above
"=
For
that
-*
is less than
less
is
as
is
-^
O
an
commensurable.
suppose
-j
if
some
of the
not
,
; tor
series of positive
integers
infinite
Hence
the
absurd.
magnitude; which is
form
order of
descending
givenfraction cannot be
in
The
on.
so
on.
so
A, B, C, D,
..
tractions
proper
ax
less than
as
B
.
Again, -7
; and
suppose
A, B, "x, 6X
-=
"
*"-
fraction
and
"
all the
components
after
fixed
are
ponent
com-
succeedingcomponents
are
we
tinued
just proved,the infinite con-
have
beginningwith
is incommensurable
-s
; denote
a
n
7)
it
by k, then
the
to
completequotientcorresponding
n
"
is
in
and
fraction is ^-^
9n-l +
"
"~2
hn-2
THEORY
GENERAL
This
CONTINUED
commensurable
be
cannot
OF
unless
P
l-^^
n_1
=
"
tfn-l
condition
hold
cannot
finallyH=
"
; that
?n-3
""60 0, which
is
Qn-z
;ultl
9n-4
is impossible ; hence
the
?,
%
.
givenfraction
be incommensurable.
must
*446.
this
P^*t
?n-a
and
"
?"-"
unless
3G7
FRACTIONS.
//*eirarycomponent of
1
-
"
"-
"
*-
"
?'s
...
ai
and
aa
""
a3
proper
""
fractionwith integralnumerator
denominator,and if the
the
continued fractionbeginningwith any comvalue of
ponent
infinite
is less than unity,the fraction
is incommensurable.
The
demonstration
1.
Shew
EXAMPLES.
XXXI.
article.
preceding
a.
_h
ax-
a2-
h_
'
Pn
2.
Convert
"
3.
Shew
4.
anPn
m
|
^nPn
~
-
'^-
into
a3Qn
2J
an9.n-\~
"?i?n
-
"
fraction with
continued
unit
rators.
nume-
that
"
V*+6="+^^
(2)
V^="-2|_"r.
.......
In the continued
fraction
"
"
"
"
"
"
....
"1~
of every component exceed
pn and qn increase with n.
5.
the numerator
^"2^
a%~
in harmonical
1
2^
2~="
if the denominator
a3~
shew
by unityat least,
shew
progression,
1
2^
"2
SJ'
that
that
368
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
that
Shew
6.
cc+
and
"
"
\/
:
"
"
...
2a+"7\
2"+
pn
+ x
that
.v
bqn
Prove
is
equalto
Shew
a+
ak
"
A_
roots
of the
equation
0.
_1_
,7
J_
J_
-6+
-c
fractions
_x_
-0?+
-a+
'"'
that
1
1-
5-
13-
-L JL
(?i2-l)2
64
^2~1
_?*fo+3)
2" + l~
7-
+ 3)
(n+ l)(w+ 2)(2/i
"2+("+l)2
25-
_"_
5-
'
3-
4-
!"
?i
+ l"
"*
1-
3-
4-
1+
2+
3+
5-
3.4
I"
+ 2
!
"
L_
=.-1.
w+l-
2(e2-l)
2/i + 2
14.
3.3
?i
-2=1
13.
e2+l
n+
3(n + 2)
3.5
15.
_'6(2e3+l)
"
1+
16.
^n
px
"
/3the
a,
'"'
a+
"
1-
12.
"
8P
"
the continued
10.
11.
2a'2
"
productof
d+
c+
ax
components, and
_L
2a2-
%n
+ 1
6.-^7
ax
a+
that the
J_
6+
apn
1-
k2
9.
"7
of
2a2,
a+
number
beingthe
a+
,
"
a+
6an
b
Shew
8.
...
2a-
o^--)=a~
2a-
"7T2a-
a+
that
2a-
) (a
shew
fraction
In the continued
7.
2a +
2a+
[a
V
...
If
2+
u,
3+
v,
Ucy
a
5e3-2
n+
Uo
"*
e"
"f
+ 26
that
"=**"=
"
OF
CONVERSION
17.
SERIES
INTO
CONTINUED
J'
y'H+1
")'
y.
is
r+l-
18.
r+l-
"
20.
Shew
"
'
a.,+ l-
'
a3+l-
the (2m
v
"*+1-l
r+l-
cij+ l-
19.
309
FRACTIONS.
to
1 )lh
convergent
;
6
Shew
convergentto
"
"
"
1+2+1+
"
is
equal to
"
2 +
convergentto
1111111
n
is
2-
5-
21.
Shew
hence shew
2-
5-
1-
5-
3-d
2+
3+
4+
e-2
that
that
Conversion
*417.
1-
lies between
of
Series
3"i + l
'
Continued
into
Fractions.
Put
then
uur+
x ,
u
r
r+
24
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
370
Similarly,
+
"
"
"="
us
ux
u3
u2
ux
11111
+
uy
-
"
"
"
ux
ux-
x2
u2
xa
12
UQ
ux
'
ux
and
so
Example
1.
1
Express
as
u3
x2
xn
,._
(-!)n
a0
u2
u2"
generally
; hence
on
ux
a0a1a2...an
a^a.^
a0ax
an
anan+l
an + Vn
Put
(an+ yn)(an+l x)
then
anan+1 ;
a"x
*
"'"
Un=
"
"
an+1
aux
Hence
a0
1
X2
a0
a^
a^-x
Again,
a0+
a0 + y0
a0ax
axaj
a0 \aj
a0
fl0"V2
"
+ Vi)
a0(a1-
a0
a0x
a1 + y1-x
"o+
axx
rt0.r
a0+
:
generally
a0
a2-x'
^'^
X2
and
ax
...+(- l)n
"
a0a1a.2...an
o,q(Ii a^a-^ac,
ao
Example
We
have
The
fraction
2.
"h
Express log(l+") as
log(l+ a;)
=
.T---
x2
/y"2
+
"2
a2
an~x
continued fraction.
/""3
"
"
"j*4
+
simply deduced
xs
xx
a3
a4
"!
an-\x
a^
a0x
+
from
the
continued
ALGEBBA..
HIGHER
372
that
Shew
1111
1.
"
un
m3
u2
Wj
UQ
"0 +
?"
...
i"+oa+
'
22
7-
2n+l
1-
2-
3x
2x
l+
x+4-
+ S-
n*+(n+Yf'
l2 + 22-
1-
la
1111
+
l+-
5",
-i
-i
b-l+
a+
c"
"
...=
abed
abc
ab
9.
n2
?i4
(n+ 1)2
1114
l2
5-
3-
1-
?i+l
"
8.
quotients.
1114
11
l+ s +
+
3
2
1-4-1"4-
ex
to
"
-.
"
7.
*^
11
6.
+ 2-
"
-.
"
^"^
"
n+l
5.
^n
?' +
+ 1-
"
iX-xJu
Ctry.0
1111
.2^
4.
"
"
r+1
"~
lvn-l
-iCt-v "JI
CIqCC
Cl^Qz-tCto
r
~~
a?
J.
r"\
Unn
ClfiCCt
3.
+
U.2 ?""!
UQ +
X2
X
"
"n
Mj
u2n_
n-1
ut2
ic02
1
-+-
,.
(-l)Jl
2.
b.
XXXI.
^EXAMPLES.
r5
"
?**
r3rn+ 1
"
"
,5 , ,1
r5
+
if
u.
shew
a2+
a3
1+
an
,4-c+4-
p=4a+
that
(a+
q
c
"
'
b+
1 +
Q)
b+
a
c+
"""
"
'
"("_
H-l
"2-f "3+
"x +
yr-r 1
r
+
"
'
'
ax+
7-3
...=i+
+ -a + -iB+
?,J rlb
d"l
1+
'
d+
Q.
12.
that
Shew
9*
fraction
denominators
"
/""
"
of the successive
...
is equal to the
con-
Mt
Ms
M2
9i
tinued
\-
1
/""
where
....
convergents.
#.,
q",
a*.
...
are
the
CHAPTER
XXXII.
PROBABILITY.
and
b ways,
or
If
Definition.
449.
each
event
an
of these
can
is
ways
the
and
"
of its failing is
G
that
'
a +
instance,if in
For
the
that
chance
lotterythere
person
holding1
are
prizesand
25
blanks,
7
prizeis
"
25
and
his chance
of not
winning is
"
Oa
The
450.
may
If
be made
event
an
for
reason
clear
the
by
happen
can
in
mathematical
the
a
definition of
considerations
following
fail to
and
ways
bability
pro-
happen
in b
if the
Thus
k is
of its
chance
happening is represented
by ka, where
then
the
chance
of
its failing
constant,
undetermined
an
represented
by kb.
chance of happening + chance of failing k (a + b)
.-.
Now
is certain to happen or to fail ; therefore the sum
the event
of the chances of happening and failing
must
represent certainty.
If therefore we
take
to
a
s
our
unit, we have
certainty
agree
will be
+ b),
(a
v
'
or
"
.-.
the chance
will
happen
is
a
b
and
the chance
will not
happen
is
a
of the happeningof
probability
of its not happeningis 1 p.
probability
Cor.
the
If p
is the
"
+
an
event,
374
Instead
451.
is
event
an
in
event
b to
or
these
are
will
event
are
to b
happen
is
to occur, and of
beingequallylikely
that the
event, then the probability
and
event.
in
probability
of cases, each
favourable to the
total number
againstthe
which
different form
slightly
it is sometimes
,
definition of
The
happeningof
favour of the
452.
of the
the chance
sayingthat
of
in
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
the
it will not
that
probability
is 1
happen
are
an
the die
possibleways in which
to the event required
;
There
are
favourable
From
Example 2.
3 at random
what
and
fall,
can
draws
greaterthan 4
What
Example 1.
with
of these two
the odds
are
man
be drawn
is 9"73,
3 balls can
of ways in which
and
The total number
is
3
black
balls
therefore
the
chance
of
of ways
the number
drawing
5C3;
of drawing 3 black balls
~*C%~9.8.7
Thus
the odds
The
with two
event
the chance
Find
dice.
Example 3.
throw
againstthe
number
possible
of
cases
is 6
'
42
37 to 5.
are
of
throwing at
least
one
ace
in
single
6, or 36.
requiredchance is
the
"
.
3b
Or
we
reason
may
as
follows
at least
is
do
or
^,
oo
375
PROBABILITY.
Example
the chance
Find
4.
of
than 15 in
throwing more
with
throw
one
3 dice.
Thereforo
the number
of favourable
1 + 3 + 3 + 3,
And
of
10.
or
is 63,or
cases
is
cases
21G;
108
may
draw
prizesin
1 way
draw
1 blank
prizesand
in
6 ways
prizeand
2 blanks
in 3
win
prize. Also
is 64, which
of these numbers
sum
he
is the number
9.8.7
3 tickets in
,
"
success
of
success
in which
of ways
"
or
84 ways
r=
can
"
is
21
84
Z""schance
'
'
draw
can
-r-^r
ways
JL
the
6
draw
"^"
JL "
he may
2 blanks
he may
prizesand
clearly
-
1 C
chancer"
B's
:
L
"
16
7.
6.5.4
Or
we
20
20 waysJ
;
'
is
"-.
84
of
success
of which
a,
b,c,
to
occur
The
and
one
there
must, and
or
"
21
-"
-".
are
ZL
onlyone
of events
number
can,
occur
A, B, C,...,
that
; also suppose
these
in which
of ways
respectively
is
of
that each
these ways
can
equallylikely
of
eacli
find
event.
t
o
it
is
the
chance
required
;
...
events
Suppose that
'
5
or
"
453.
thus:
are
the
numbers
happen, and
total number
of
equallypossible
ways
favourable
to A
is a;
is
hence
+ c+
...,
the chance
376
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
that A
is
will happen
rr
is
will happen
ri
-.
c +
+ c+
...
and
so
on.
...
From
454.
have
exampleswe
EXAMPLES.
1.
In
XXXII.
with
singlethrow
a.
two
of
throwing
(2)six.
(1)five,
2. Prom
are
a pack of 52 cards two
chance that one is a knave and the other
drawn
a
at random
; find the
queen.
two
one
is two-thirds
5.
One
7.
8.
one
can,
the odds
Thirteen persons
9.
10.
are
Compare
12 with
In
are
shew
placesat a round table,
particular
together.
persons sitting
the chances
three dice.
of
throwing 4
four
a pack of cards,
shuffling
are
be
missingcards
should
with
1 ; 6 ; 18,
of
with two
die,8
one
dropped; find
accidentally
one
from
each suit.
are
respectively
that
three events
the odds are
that the
Shew
they
suit.
that
take their
happen;
againstC.
the chance
11.
againsttwo
one
There
dice,and
be
of two
6.
it is five to
should
throwing six
with
4, 3,
9 blanks ;
:
compare
or
2 dice
377
PROBABILITY.
13.
and
3
18
'
140
throwinga
15.
row
In
by
what
at whist
are
Clifton
vowels
come
is the chance
placedat random
together?
that
the
in
kings are
is
crowns
hand
throws
specified
player]
17.
line
dice ; if A
The
what
16.
held
-1 and B
14.
of
of
case
and
shillings
half-crowns.
455.
We
have
hitherto
which
in the
languageof
When
two
more
the
jointoccurrence
For
and
made
of
or
considered
of these
occur
is called
example, suppose
in connection
Confound
have
with
each
other,
event.
chawing
first 3 white
dealingwith
In
such
we
and
compound
case
the
then
3 black
w^e
balls,
should
be
event.
result of the
second
drawing might
or
are
Events
the
occurrence
others.
definition
following
Dependent events
are
sometimes
said to be
contingent.
378
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
456.
If there
of which
happen.
Suppose that
are
are
first event
may
aa
that both
events
happen
is the chance
that both
events
fail ;
is the chance
is the chance
(a+ b){a'+b')
bb'
(a+ b)(a+b')
ab'
(a b)(a'+b')
the second
fails ;
a'b
is the
chance
that
the
the
second
(a b)(a'+b')
+
happens.
if the
Thus
chances
respective
p\ the chance
reasoningwill apply in
and
that
the
it is easy
respectivechances that a
Hence
events.
separatelyhappen,
pxp2p3
the
(1
"
will
both
independentevents are
happen is pp'. Similar
of independent
number
of any
that if plf p2, p3,
to see
are
of independent events
number
case
the
...
that
chance
they
will
all
will
happen
is
; the chance
...
fail is 2\Po
of two
that
case.
If p is the chance
will happen in
that an
event
in
t
he
chance
it
will
that
cession
trial,
happen
any assignedsucof r trials is pr ; this follows from the precedingarticle
457.
one
'
by supposing
P1=P2=P3
To
some
one
at
least of the
happen
is
that
=P-
we
events
events
some
-.-j
of
is
will
fail
one
380
HIGHER
events
ALGEBRA.
can
the
of
probability
their
aa
concurrence
is
"
-.
tr
o
("+ o) (a +
"
of the
if p
is the
of the two
concurrence
is pp
events
that
Denote
playerby A
for this
^;
The
to A.
card
particular
chance
the chance
then
13
specified
player
has the
that A
can
he has the
that,when
king,he
king is clearly
13 of which
fall
can
is
12
then
"
ol
12
13
m
Or
,
the chance
"
Therefore
fall to A.
required
u
might reason
we
12 of which
be dealt in 51 ways,
can
"
follows
as
---
ol
52
17
number
to the
13
Therefore
the chance
*.
12
=
52.51
17
before.
as
"
""
"
Two
taining
drawings,each of 3 balls,are made from a bag con5 white and 8 black balls,the balls not being replacedbeforethe
second
that the first drawing will give 3 white and
trial: find the chance
the second 3 black balls.
Example 2.
At the firsttrial,
3 balls may
and 3 white balls may be drawn
be drawn
in
in
13C3ways
5C3ways;
5.4
13
1.2"
3
and
been
in
of the
The
student should
compare
143
in
10C3ways
compound
143
1.2.3
trial
15
1.2.3
'
event
7
x
10.9.8_ 1_
'
11
.
8.7.6
12
.
be drawn
8C3ways
"1.2.3
therefore the chance
and
drawn
=-=
15
When
2 white
429
1, Art. 457.
381
PROBABILITY.
459.
which
the
If
sum
regardedas
This is sometimes
follows
provedas
Suppose the
; and
event
let
or
chance
self-evident
proposition
arising
probability.It
ever,
how-
may,
happen
can
in
two
the chances
"=* be
ttvo
definition of
of the
out
immediately
be
can
mutuallyexclusive,the
are
concur
happen in
more
different
ways
that it wilt happen is
of the chances of its happeningin these different
ways.
event
an
Avays
of the
which
cannot
happening of
the
in these
event
there
Then
of bfi2cases
out
two
respectively.
ways
the
in
which
in
the
event
first way,
happen
axb2
may
are
and
a0bJways
and
tlieseivays cannot
there
the
that
the
event
may
Therefore
concur.
favourable
a,b"+ ak,b,cases
are
chance
in which
will
to
in
one
+ a2bx
axb2
a_x
a,
event
happen
happen
in the
second;
cases
all,out of blb2
in
the
hence
event:
other
or
the
of the
two
ways is
bh
bf
6,
12
Similar
ways
if an
Hence
the number
reasoningwill applywhatever be
in which the event can
happen.
event
can
happen in
of
clusive
ex-
which
are
mutually
ways
the probabilities
that the
exclusive,and
if plt pa, p^
will happen in these
---Pn are
different ways
the prorespectively,
bability
of
these
that it will happen in some
is
one
ways
event
+Pn-
Pi+Pl+Pa*
Example
with two
Find
1.
the chance
throwing 9
of
at
least in
singlethrow
dice.
4
be made
can
up in 4 ways,
and
throwing 9 is
of
10
can
be made
up
in 3 ways, and
11
can
be made
up in 2 ways,
12
can
be made
up in 1 way,
of
of
throwing
10 is
Now
the chance
separate chances
of
throwinga
and
number
not
of
throwing 11 is--
throwing
9 is the
less than
.*.
=
"V/.
ou
lb
12 is
sum
-^
of these
382
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
One
2.
Example
contains
purse
sovereignand
4 shillings,
and
purse contains 2 sovereignsand
coin is taken
a
that it is a
chance
find
the
random,
and
Since each
the firstis
chance
x
j
4
of
,
or
; and
far
Similarlythe chance
12
it
as
of
the second
on
is
purse
or
of
drawing
sovereignis
or
"
of
precedingarticle
the
In
event
an
series of events
events onlywhen
a
the
of
occurrence
third purse
the
-.
tc
have
the
the
as
sum
probability
of
it is very
other of
; but
separate events
more
that
seen
considered
be
of one
or
probability
of the probabilities
of the separate
is the sum
that is,when
the events are mutuallyexclusive,
of any
with the occurrence
is incompatible
one
notice
important to
or
we
sometimes
may
of
two
probabilities
the
it
as
x*5
460.
the
from
requiredchance
the
.-.
the
1
x
far
sovereign so
; and
13
chance
; hence
1
x
selecting
of
depends upon
drawing
12
depends
be
drawing a sovereignis
of then
sovereignso
one
sovereign.
equallylikelyto
the chance
drawing
=^
is
purse
of
out
shilling. If
3 shillings,
second
a
third contains 3 sovereigns
of the purses selected at
the
that
of the others.
From
Example.
drawn
at random
The
chance
multipleof
3 is
"
is
one
that
it is
multipleof
7 is
"
; and
these events
6
if the
multipleof 3
Because
or
is
"
question had
of 5, it would
that
the chance
-^
or
number
the
is
it is
multipleof
5 is
might
are
not
or
be
a multiple both of
mutually exclusive.
461.
simpleand
It
should
be
compound
5 is
multiple of
3 and
as
reason
is
number
follows
3 is
"
and
"
the
that
1
,
or
For
of 5,
observed
events
the
that
multiple of
4
chance
the
requiredchance
But
mutually exclusive,hence
are
so
the number
that
is in many
the
on
events
distinction
cases
the ticket
considered
between
purelyartificial
383
PROBABILITY.
one
between
two
A bag contains
is the chance that
Example.
what
drawn
(i) Regardingthe
than
distinction
occurrence.
balls
arc
one
occurrence
nothingmore
viewingthe same
to
of
different modes
as
simpleevent,the
chance
(5*7H.=C2=6-6.
be regardedas
(ii) The occurrence
may
followingcompound events :
the
happening of
one
or
other
of the two
12
(2) drawing a
black and
then
7
11
a
132
of which
is
of which
is
35
i2Xir0r132'
And
are
the requiredchance
mutually exclusive,
j$5+ ^5__35
-132
two
132~66'
EXAMPLES.
XXXII.
b.
ace
2.
that
one
will
happen.
5.
What
one
the
odd?
bag contains
384
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
of
with
throwingsix
ordinarypack: find
no
cards
two
singledie
are
at least
of
once
in five trials.
will be favourablyreviewed by three
is
; what
independentcritics are 5 to 2, 4 to 3, and 3 to 4 respectively
that of the three reviews a majoritywill be favourable ?
the probability
9.
The
odds that
book
pairof dice,find
the chance of
throwing
taken at random
are
12. If 4 whole numbers
multipliedtogether
shew that the chance that the last digitin the productis 1,3, 7,or 9
.
1S
16
625'
10 coins,all shillings
a
except one which is a
purse are
Nine coins are taken
all
in
coins
another
ten
are
shillings.
sovereign
;
and
the
from the former purse and put into
latter, then nine coins are
taken from the latter and put into the former : find the chance that
is stillin the first purse.
the sovereign
13.
14.
will be
In
If two
5 heads
coins
If 8 coins are
will turn up head?
16.
cut,on
their
times,what
that there
is the chance
and 5 tails \
15.
one
tossed 5
are
is the chance
tossed,what
A, B, C in order
cut
that
one
them
pack of cards,replacing
cuts
spadeshall win
and
only
after each
: find
prize
chances.
respective
18.
two
party of n
^persons sit at
individuals
specified
next
sitting
round
to each
find the
table,
odds
against
other.
A is one
of 6 horses entered for a race, and is to be ridden by
of
two jockeysB and C. It is 2 to 1 that B rides A, in which
one
all the horses are equallylikely
to win ; if C rides A, his chance
case
is trebled : what are the odds againsthis winning?
19.
385
PROBABILITY.
The
462.
trial
beingknown,
exactlyin
...
be the
requiredthe
three times,
twice,
Let
the
of
probability
trials.
of
probability
the
and let q
1 -p\
singletrial,
will happenexactly
event
r times
in the expansion
of (q+ p)*.
a
For if
number
these
a
of
set
we
trials
be
can
selected in
to the
equallyapplicable
in
case
Crp q
If
the Binomial
+ q)"by
expand (/;
we
have
Theorem, we
2f +
+ nC0jS'-2q2+ +"Cn_rprq"-r
+
"C12)n-1q
the
terms
thus
are
...
qn;
...
of
"
...
If
463.
(n
twice,
"
...
the
happens
event
r) times,it
times
happens r
chance
Pn + "Cy-*q
or
times,
the
of
sum
the
"CaPn-Y+
first
r +
"
or
n
of the
terms
pair of dice,what
is
-^
do
are
thrown
doublets
is
Now
the
or
^
o
requiredevent
sum
H.
the chance
H. A.
"
of
of
expansionof
h+d
5\4
.
19
Thus
is the chanco
follows if doublets
/l
is the
expansion of
i
,
5
throw
to
failing
once,
tv^r.
...
of doublets
only
; therefore the
trials is
more
In
fails
or
(1+ 4.5
6.5-)=
-^
25
386
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
of balls,some
of which are
A bag contains a certain number
and
is
then
drawn
another
replaced;
white; a ball is drawn and replaced,
find
of drawing a white ball in a singletrial,
and so on : if p is the chance
in
have
been
drawn
trials.
is
to
n
most likely
of white balls that
the number
2.
Example
chance
The
of drawing exactly
r white balls is nCrprqn-r,and
is greatest.
value of r this expression
to
nCrprqn-r"nCr-lpr-lqn-(r~l\
Now
so
have
we
(n-r + l)p"rq,
long as
(n + l)p"(p
or
But
p + 5
q)r.
required value of
the
1; hence
is the
greatest integerin
p[n + l).
If
and
successes
Suppose that
464.
of
a
is
that pn
qn failures.
is such
"x;
integer,the
an
there
are
most
tickets in
lotteryfor
then
all the
possessed
person who
tickets
the
prize
and
prize,
value of
must
of pn
is that
likelycase
each
ticket is "
in other words
this would
be
fair
sum
to
for each
pay
ticket;hence
person
who
r tickets might
possessed
TX
reasonablyexpect
who
one
any
"-
as
"
wished
the worth
the
as
"
to
priceto
buy them;
of his chance.
be
that
paid for
is,he
his tickets
would
It is convenient
by
estimate
then
to
in-
troduce
definition
following
the
If p represents a person's
in any venture
chance
of success
and M the sum
of money
of success,
which he will receive in case
the
of money
sum
465.
to
In
person,
appliedto
denoted
the
we
same
may
by pM
is called his
expectation.
is used in reference
expectation
the phraseprobablevalue
use
conveniently
way
that
things.
1 sovereign
5 shillingsand
contains
: a second
first
and placed in
purse contains 6 shillings.Two coins are taken from the
the second ; then
2 are
taken
from the second and placedin the first:
find the probable value of the contents of each purse.
Example
The
1.
chance
One
purse
that the
at all ;
sum
of
388
We
466.
and
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
shall
problemswhich
givetwo
now
lead to useful
results.
interesting
and n points of
m
respectively
of winning a singlegame
are
p and q
is
is
the
stake
to
unity;
belong to
q
determine the probabilities
in favour
want
player.
win the
to do this he must
Suppose that A wins in exactlym + r games;
The
chance
of
and m-1
out of the preceding m + r-1
last game
games.
this is "+^-10m_1p"-1 qr2h or m^~1Cm-1pmqr.
1 games,
be decided in m + n
and A may
the set will necessarily
Now
1 games,
1 games;
or m+
or m + n
win his m games in exactlym games,
,
that A wins the set by givingto r the
shall obtain the chance
therefore we
1 in the expression
values 0, 1, 2,
n
m+r-1Cm_1pmqr. Thus AJs chance is
-
...
...
chance
B's
similarly
is
\m +
n(nA-l\
*
1.2
questionis known
This
as
n-2
jm-1
"
the
ii
Problem
of
Points,"and
has
engagedthe
supposedto be of
playerswere
exhibited
in
of his
in
published
Example
problem
2.
There
The
1714.
have
we
result
same
Laplace,and
by Lagrange
very fullyunder
the number
be
of the / faces may
dice
in
which
the
of ways
may
one
exposed on
fall is
any
by
fications.
modi-
one
of the
1, 2, 3,.../can be taken
so
x* + x3 +
...
for
xf)n\
as
dice,
/n.
thrown
will have
the numbers
of ways in which
Also the number
is equal to the coefficient of xp in the expansion of
their sum
{xl+
tained
obthe
1 to /; if these
of the numbers
thrown
at random,
are
exhibited shall be equal to p?
Since any
work
various
from
dice with / faces marked
that the sum
is the chance
what
are
given are
afterwards
was
treated
was
the
also
were
in different ways
latter the
formulae
The
they appear
as
in which
case
different form.
assignedto Montmort,
to the
of the
indices
3-S!)
PROBABILITY.
expression
the above
Now
x11
(l+
x2 +
...
+ xf
')"
-("?)""
We
have
therefore
in the
expansion
of
(I x')n(I x)~n.
-
Multiplythese
product ;
thus
we
1+
n(n-l)(n-2)
.,.
?t("+l)(w+ 2)
"(n+l)
*
'
a;2
+
nx
x3+...
"
series
.,,
"
",
"
-"
"1 .r)
and
n(n-l)
togetherand pickout
in the
obtain
n(n+l)...(p-f-l)
n(n+l)...{p-l)
it
\p
\P -n
-f
(n 1) M(;t+ l)...(j"-2/-l)
""
1.2
where
the
series is to continue
obtained
is
requiredprobability
This
problem is due
in 1730 j it illustrates
Laplaceafterwards
laborious
more
the
planetsto
direction
may
Moivre
and
of
obtained
the
same
was
formula,but
; he
of
appliedit in
primitivecause
Todhunter's
attempt
which
has
Art.
Historyof Probability,
EXAMPLES.
XXXII.
an
in
him
much
strate
to demonmade
the
consult
1.
The
appear.
publishedby
frequentutility.
method
manner
existence
long as no negativefactors
this series by/n.
dividing
by
so
to De
a
\p-n-2f
987.
c.
3 to 2
2, 3 is thrown
5 times
what
4.
sovereignsand
they must be if
390
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
5.
From
6.
to draw
is allowed
coins
a
shillings
8.
by the one
find
succession,
marked
faces
the odds againstthe sum
are
Find
10.
chance
the
pectation.
ex-
won
and
9.
person
is drawn
withtimes,what
one
are
of
throwing10 exactlyin
one
throw
with
3 dice.
Two
A and B, are
playersof equal skill,
playing a set
leave
off
playingwhen A wants 3 pointsand B wants
games ; they
If the stake is "16, what share ought each to take \
11.
A and B throw
12.
of
throwinga
with
highernumber
3 dice
if A throws
of
2.
8, what is Z?'schance
13.
In five throws
14.
(1)three
aces
with
singledie
exactly,
(2)three
aces
what
is the chance
of
throwing
at least.
expectation.
16.
person
the common
cube,and the other
the lowest face beingtaken in the
on
a regular
tetrahedron,the number
that the sum
of the tetrahedron;what
of the
is the chance
case
numbers thrown is not less than 5 ?
17.
bag contains
whose
throws two
dice,one
coin of value
aggregate value is
J/,and
A person
m.
find the value of his
draws
number
one
of other coins
at a time till he
expectation.
(6n-l)(6n-2)'
are
placedin
that the
sum
bag,
of the
3Dl
PROBABILITY.
Probability.
*Inverse
In allthe
*467.
supposedthat
certain event
we
cases
knowledgeof
our
is sucli
as
the
to enable
which
causes
us
to
produce a
may
the chance of
determine
problems
that
an
certain
of causes,
causes.
same
and
we
shall
that it
from
came
the event
5
in
and
purse.
assume
second
the first or
Consider
of these
sovereign would
in
be chosen
be drawn
iV of the
thus
8
-
~iV,or "N
second
The
3
of these
be drawn
times from
times from
in
be chosen
purse would
would
sovereign
3
-JV
sovereign
"
lb
trials,
5
be drawn
would
give a
illustration.
numerical
and
the generalcase
discussing
Before
*468.
be drawn
the second
of the
; thus
and
trials,
in
would
sovereign
purse.
number
is otherwise an arbitrary
;
5 n times
be drawn
would
let us put iV-16n; thus a sovereign
from the first purse, and Qn times from the second purse; that is,
of the lln times in which
a
out
sovereignis drawn it comes
Now
from
the
JV is very
largebut
first purse
bn
times,and
from
the
second
purse
0?i
392
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
that
probability
the
Hence
times.
5
is
first purse
and
"
it
that
probability
the
from
sovereigncame
the
the
from
came
the
6
second A'
is
rr.
It is
*469.
directed
to the
the student's
importantthat
of the
nature
attention
should
be
made
in
instance,
preceding article. Thus, to take a particular
die
with
it may
throws
in
60
a
perfectly
symmetrical
although
not
exactly10 times, yet it will
happen that ace is thrown
the
doubtless
be at
admitted
once
increased
continually
of throws
number
There
"
is
in the
; hence
another
above
ratio of
will tend
reason
no
the
instance
that
why
more
if the number
the
and
the limit
oftener than
appear
of
to James
may
of
generaltheorem
first given in the Ars
case
particular
Bernoulli's theorem
death.
is
the
to
aces
nearlyto
more
Bernoulli,and was
publishedin 1713, eightyears
Conjectandi,
is due
which
of
number
face should
one
of throws
be enunciated
after
as
author's
the
follows
that an
event happensin a single
trial,
If p is the probability
i
t
becomes
is
trials
a
then ifthe number
increased,
indefinitely
of
to the
that the limit of the ratio of the number of successes
certainty
the
number
other
number
words, if
of
of trials is equal to p ; in
be
be
taken
number
the
to
trials is N,
pN.
of successes
may
A proof
Chaptervn.
HistoryofProbability,
in the
is given in the article Probability
of Bernoulli's theorem
Britannica.
Encyclopaedia
See Todhunter's
*470.
number
An
observed
event
of mutually exclusive
of any assignedcause
Let there be
causes,
of the
probability
Px, P2,P3, Pn. Let
that the
and
has
some
through,
Jiappened
causes
: requiredto find
the
being true one.
beforethe
event
existence of these
took
causes
of a
one
the probability
.
placesuppose
'
was
estimated
...
r*1*cause
true
one.
393
PROBABILITY.
Consider
the second
follows from
Hence
causes.
;md
the number
in which
the number
the event
so
for each
on
of the other
the event follows is
of trials in which
',
was
and
cause;
the
was
due
the rth
to
is
cause
cause
is
one
pJPjr+NUpP);
tliat
that
is,the probability
the event
produced by
was
the r"'
PrK
cause
is
Mvn
It is necessary to distinguish
between
the proclearly
bability
of the existence of the several causes
estimated
before
*471.
the
...
...
Qr
(PP)
'
of the event
where pr denotes the probability
of the existence of the rth cause.
this result it appears
that S (Q)
evident as the event
has happened from
From
of the
the
on
hypothesis
lj which
one
and
is otherwise
onlyone
causes.
We
shall
in Art. 469.
happenedthroughsome one of a
of mutually exclusive causes : requiredto find the probability
cause
of any assigned
beingthe true one.
*472.
member
An
Let there be
the
observed
of
probability
event
causes, and
has
the event
before
the existence
of these
took placesuppose
causes
was
that
estimated
at
the
that when
Pn. Let pr denote the probability
exists the event will follow ; then the antecedent probability
that the event would follow from the rth cause
is prPr.
...
?-thcause
394
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
the
Qr be
Let
that
probability
posteriori
the
was
true
the
then
one;
i
s("?)
s(PP)'
Hpp)
"?"
A._JL=
'"
"
p.p,
pA
pA
Prpr
"?,=
"
(pP)
...
equal,and
all
the work
is
simplified.
therebymuch
Example. There are 3 bags each containing 5 white balls and 2 black
balls,and 2 bags each containing1 white ball and 4 black balls : a black ball
from the first group.
having been drawn, find the chance that it came
Of the five
If
if from
the chance is
thus px
6
lh
lh
1_3o'
When
*473.
of
method
has
event
an
Art.
472
to
from
came
one
is
been
43*
observed,we
estimate
the
true
one
able
by
then
any
estimate
second
trial,or
we
the
are
of
probability
being
particular
may
;
of the event
happening in a
probability
of the occurrence
find the probability
we
may
the
cause
;
o
2~~25'
\35"h25/
35
p.2=
8\15
JL^/A
'
Hence
"
the
4
;
drawing a black
of
the chance
ball is
of
some
other
event.
For
from
cause
that
the
causes
example,pr
the
rth
is the
if in
cause
chance
that
and
existence,
the
event
will
happen
Qr; hence on a
is prQr. Therefore
the event will happen from the rth cause
of the
chance
will happen from
that the event
some
one
is the true
on
one
is
second trial is 2
(2}Q)'
396
shall
We
*474.
be
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
shew
now
how
truth of
is assumed
credibility
the
estimate
appliedto
whose
theoryof probability
may
attested by witnesses
statements
the
to
We
known.
be
shall
The
the verdict of
speaksthe
made
truth
by
of those which
results cannot
be found
that
useful
regarded
they confirm
be
that
probability
a
largenumber
and
that p is
examined,
true
are
been
has
him
a person
of ments
statethe ratio
number.
bilities
independentwitnesses,A and B, whose probaand
truth
the
are
p' respectively,
agree in
p
speaking
that the
is the probability
certain statement
: what
Two
*476.
of
making
furnishes
sense.
common
When
*475.
discuss
is true %
statement
the
the observed event is the fact that A and B make
Before the event there are four hypotheses
statement.
; for
same
A and B may both speaktruly; or A may speak truly,B falsely;
B truly; or A and B may both speak
A may
or
speak falsely,
of these four hypotheses
are
falsely.The probabilities
Here
PP\ p(l~P\
Hence
same
statement, the
the
that
probability
event,in which
that
probability
it is false
that
is,the probability
the
as
and
jointstatement
to
make
is true
the statement
pp
(1 p) (1-p');
-
is true
the
is to
that
is
pp'
pp'+ (l-p)(l-p')'
of speaking the
Similarlyif a third person, whose probability
that the
the same
truth is p", makes
statement, the probability
statement
is true
is
./"//
ppp
ppY
and
so
on
for any
number
{1-p){i-p')(i-p")}
of persons.
397
PROBABILITY.
*477.
have
In the
knowledge
no
B ; if
and
of the event
have
we
of
probability
taken
precedingarticle
in
into account
supposed that
the statement
except
information
the truth
it lias been
from
other
made
we
by
as
to
the
must
be
sources
or
various
hypotheses.
For
the
and
instance,if A
is P,
prioriprobability
in
agree
then
statinga fact,of
should
we
estimate
which
the
bability
pro-
of the statement
falsity
by
(1 P) (1 p")(1 p') respectively.
Ppp* and
"
"
Example.
A, B, C, whose
is
expectation?
Three
cases
Now
have
D may
possible;
spoken falsely.
are
all have
C may
of Art.
the
have
472, we
P-A
P-i
"9, "3,
won
or
nothing,for A, B,
prioriprobabilities
P-".
1133
24
12
also
Pi~2X3X5-30"
**~~2X 3
30
"
D's
27'
of "3
="1.
1
*
2_ 2
X5~3();
of "9 +
expectation
="
"
13s. id.
With
*478.
should
A_2
20
hence
'
be noticed
that
it
assumed
was
the
two
falsehood
be
case,
witnesses
; then
can
tell falsehoods
made
If this is not
47G, it
let
and
us
"
smaller
as
the number
increase
two
or
more
of witnesses
becomes
greater. These
that a statement
probability
independentwitnesses is true, even
of each
credibility
the
witness
is small.
asserted
though
siderations
con-
by
the
398
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
coincident
hypotheses; (i)their
two
are
it is
testimony is true, (ii)
false.
Here
Px
"1
P-5P2
=
,
2~6'
6'
~
"P2~25X4X10;
^1-4X10'
for in estimatingp.2 we must take into account the chance that A and B
it has not been drawn ; this chance is
both select the white ball when
1
11
"r
of the
probabilities
the
5
Now
will
25
two
hypothesesare
as
P^
to
P2po, and
35
therefore
as
*479.
of the
that the
1; thus the probability
35 to
The
have
we
cases
is true is
relate to the
testimony;the
of concurrent
truth
considered
statement
"
probability
followingis
case
of
traditionary
testimony.
If A
states that
of its
account
certain event
occurrence
or
took
place,
havingreceived
from
non-occurrence
did take
B,
what
an
is the
place1
event
Let
p, p
truth ; then
that A
probabilities
did
that the event
probability
denote
the
and
the
take
speak the
placeis
pp'+ (l-p)(l-p)}
and
the
that
probability
it did not
take
placeis
p(l-2))+p'(l-p).
*480.
The
solution of the
article
preceding
is that which
has
tions,
usuallybeen given in text-books;but it is"open to serious objecfor the assertion that the given event
happened if both A
that
is not correct except on the supposition
and B spokefalsely
be made
the statement
can
Moreover,
only in two ways.
from
his
account
stated
A
receives
that
it
is
expressly
although
generallybe taken for granted as it rests on
B, this cannot
A'" testimony.
399
PROBABILITY.
A
full discussion
and
question,
found
in the Educational
Times
^EXAMPLES.
four balls in a
1. There
are
ball is drawn
colours they are ; one
chance that all the balls are white.
2.
In
there
bag
drawn
and found
are
is left in the bag.
are
to be
Reprint,Yols.
XXXII.
bag,but
and
the
interpreting
they lead,will
XXVII.
and
be
XXXII.
d.
it is not
found
known
to be white
of what
find the
to have come
either from London
Clifton ;
or
the
consecutive
letters
two
ON
are
postmark only
legible
; what
from London
is the chance that it came
?
on
3.
the
letter is known
the chances
of three runners,
Before a race
A, B, C, were
to 5, 3, 2 ; but during the race
estimated
to be proportional
A meets
with an accident which reduces his chance to one-third. What
are
now
the respective
chances of B and C ?
4.
5.
random
has 10 shillings
and one of them is fcnown to have two
6. A man
and tosses it 5 times and it always
at random
He takes one
heads.
the
chance
that
it is the shilling
what
is
with two heads ?
fallshead :
and
are
or
7.
8.
purse
be a shilling
contains five coins,
each of which
may
drawn
and found to be shillings
are
: find the probable
sixpence; two
value of the
9.
thrown
remaining coins.
A die is thrown
three times,and the sum
is 15 : find the chance that the first throw
10.
400
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
speaks the
11.
12.
One
of the
chance
of
truth
pack of
cards
52
2 out
drawn
pack
that the missingcard is
two
are
spade.
13.
"1
There
is
raffle with
respectively.A holds
a
10
one
14.
found
to
purse
contains
be
are
are
give
sovereign.
P makes
a bet with
Q of ,"8 to "120 that three races will be
the
three
horses
by
A, B, C, againstwhich the bettingis 3 to 2,
4 to 1, and 2 to 1 respectively.
The first race
having been won
by A,
and it being known
that the second race
either by B, or by
was
won
a horse D
againstwhich the bettingwas 2 to 1, find the value of P's
15.
won
expectation.
From
n
a bag containing
balls,all either white or black,all
ball is drawn
which turns out
numbers
of each being equallylikely,
a
ball is drawn, which also
and another
to be white; this is replaced,
If this ball is replaced,
turns
out to be white.
prove that the chance
16.
givinga
black ball is
(n
"
1)(2n+ l)~l
.
17.
If
mn
makes
but one false statement in
Ten witnesses,
each of whom
event
in
that
certain
took
a
six,agree
asserting
place; shew that the
odds are five to one
in favour of the truth of their statement, even
19.
althoughthe
'prioriprobability
of the event
is
as
small
as
^9
"
"
41 1 1
PRoUAl'.ILITY.
Probability.
Local
Geometrical
Methods.
of Geometry to questions
of Probability
application
aid
of
the
the
in
IntegralCalculus;
requires, general,
be solved by
which
can
there are, however, many
easy questions
Elementary Geometry.
The
*481.
chance
that
portionis cut
the
sum
of
the
the
is
probability
Cor.
chance
Each
lines is known
of two
that their
sum
is not
to be of
greaterthan
Z is
I: the
length not exceeding
Example 2.
justas likelyas
they are
two ; denote
Thus
the
requiredresult follows.
to a given circle :
at random
Three tangents are
drawn
shew that the odds are 3 to 1 againstthe circle being inscribed in the triangle
formed by them.
Example 3.
H.A.
and
the circle,
2G
402
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Questions in
*4:82.
solved
Example.
find
random:
On
the
rod
aid of co-ordinate
the
by
sometimes
Probabilitymay
length a
of
that
probability
point
veniently
con-
Geometry.
b+c, lengths a,
no
be
of the
measured
b are
at
lines will
measured
coincide.
AP = x and
the line,and suppose
PQ = a; also let a be
must
be less than b + c.
measured
from P towards B, so that x
Again let
from P' towards B, then y must
AP' = y, P'Q' b, and suppose P'Q'measured
be less than a + c.
Let
be
AB
Now
in favourable
cases
hence
+ x,
y"a
for all the
Again
x"b
or
we
possible,
cases
x"0,
and
Take
b+ y
(1).
"a
c)
make
equal
OX
to
b + c, and
OY
W
are
in the
figure;and
the line
P'
YM, EX
TML
KB.
Then
+ c)
representedby
+ x,
representedby
"A
AP"AQ\
c.
the line y
Draw
x
else
have
""
and
pair of rectangularaxes
a
a
or
+ y
must
2/"0, and
equal to
AP'"AQ,
have
must
we
each
equal to
031, OT
c,
b-
-0."Q
are
each
equalto
a.
ItXR,
OX, OY;
.*.
c2
the requiredchance
"
{a+ c)(b+ c)
*483.
We
chapterwith
some
Miscellaneous
Examples.
Example
balls
r
are
1.
thrown
each
compartments
box
at random
rc
=n.
404
requiredchance
when
case
particular
the
In
the
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
*-=
""
=-
2,
"
-4-
(n+ 1)
~2(2n+l)'
If
is
large,the
indefinitely
'
'
the
limit,when
is in-
fc+ 1.'
k + 2
equal to
"*+!
V^2
1
of
finite,
is
chance
fe+ 1
and
is
the halls
(ii) If
"+2*
replaced,
not
are
r
r
(r-k
p,
Qr=i
and
it
"
"
"
'
r
"
A; + 1
'
"
"
k+ 1
'
(r-l)r
l)(r-k + 2)
r=K
(r-l)r
+ 2)
("--"+l)(r-ifc
r=0
(n-l)n (n+1)
+ 2)
+ l)(n-Jfe
(u-ifc
chance
The
drawing
will
give a
white
ball=
2
r=0
(;i A)(u
-
/c+
"
Qr
Ii
s"(r-fc)(r-fc+l)
(r-l)r
1)
?i
(n + 1) r=0
fc+ 1
_
+ l)
(/i-A-)(n-/v
k~+2~
l)
n("i+ l)
(n-k)(n-k
l)
n(n
Jfc+1
~k
which
+ 2'
independentof
is
Example 3. A person
letters are
placedin the
every letter goes wrong ?
the number
writes
of balls in the
letters and
envelopes at random,
bag at
first.
Let un denote
the number
of ways in which all the letters go wrong,
and
that
in
which
all the letters are in their
represent
arrangement
own
envelopes. Now if a in any other arrangement occupiesthe place of an
other.
assignedletter b, this letter must either occupy a's place or some
let abed
(i) Suppose
Then
the number
of ways in which
all the remaining n
be displacedis un_2, and therefore the
can
numbers
of ways in which a may
be displacedby interchange
with some
one
and the rest be all displaced
1 letters,
of the other nis (n 1)""_2.
-
2 letters
405
PROBABILITY.
occupiesi"'splace,and
(ii)Suppose
...
.-.
vn
from
Also
n1
0, tig
=
of Art.
1 ; thus
,
we
4-44,we
find un
( l)n(ttj
Uj).
-
(-1)'1!
in which
the
the total number
of ways
the
is
is
therefore
chance
In
required
places
;
Now
11
|"+|4
things can
be
put in
(- 1)"
_
Tlie
obtain
finally
f1
[2
nun_1
'""+
in
'
is of considerable
and in
interest,
permanent place
first discussed
Moivre, Euler, and
was
Laplace.
*484.
The
is so extensive that it is
subjectof Probability
to give more
than
sketch
of the principal
a
here
impossible
methods.
An admirable
collection of problems,illustrating
algebraical
process, will be found in "NVliitworth's
every algebraical
Choice and
Chance; and the reader who is acquaintedwith the
Calculus
bility
Integral
may consult Professor Crofton's article Probain the Encyclopcedia
JJritannica. A completeaccount
of
the originand developmentof the subject
is givenin Todhunter's
Historyof the Theory of Probability
from the time of Pascal to
that ofLaplace.
The
commercial
^EXAMPLES.
L
throw
What
the odds in favour
are
with two dice ?
XXXII.
of
and
e.
throwingat
lea.st7 in
single
and 4 shillings.
If theyare
2. In a purse there are 5 sovereigns
drawn out one
what
is
the
that
chance
out
by one,
theycome
sovereigns
und shillings
with ;t sovereign?
alternately,
beginning
406
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
5.
contains
of
One
bag
4 white
Five persons
until
7.
Three
is the chance
8.
a
squares
that two
person
of
are
throws two
dice,one
case
compare
ace
chance
11.
common
number
on
of the tetrahedron ; find the
the chances of throwing5, 6, 7.
the
regulartetrahedron,
the
3 ; to Cs
trials,
one
as 3 : 2 ; and to Z)'s as 4 : 3
with each person, will succeed
playersA,
of
to complete the
wants 2 games
their chances of winning.
set,and B
wants
throws
is the
set of games
3 games:
; A
compare
: a
purse contains 3 sovereignsand two shillings
person
draws one
coin in each hand and looks at one
of them, which proves
to be a sovereign
likelyto be a sovereign
; shew that the other is equally
12.
or
shilling.
13.
15.
number
consists of 7
whose
digits
sum
is 59 ; prove
that the
.4
Find
the chance
of
"
throwing12
in
singlethrow
with 3 dice.
407
PROBABILITY.
bag contains
17.
18.
If
19.
at random
integerstaken
shew
multipliedtogether,
are
digitof
the
9 is
"
o
An
_
the chance
of its
8 is
being 2, 4, 6, or
="
"
9"i
"
Kn
; of its
being 5
.pi
is
+ 4n
10H-8'l-5n
and a metal
two
A purse contains two sovereigns,
shillings
form and size ; a person is allowed to draw out one
dummy of the same
at a time tillhe draws the dummy : find the value of his expectation.
20.
of money
is to be given to the one
of three
first throws 10 with three dice;supposingthem
until the event happens,prove that their
in the order named
21.
certain
sum
persons A, B, C who
to throw
chances
are
respectively
/8\2
56
(ja)'
W"
[")'
and
/7\2
of speaking the
probabilities
persons, whose
Two
22.
and
assert
respectively,
that
of a bag containing
15 tickets: what
the assertion ?
23.
bag
contains
"
ticket
specified
is the
truth
of
probability
counters,of which
out
the truth of
is marked
one
are
1,
marked
4, three are marked 9, and so on ; a person puts in his
and draws out a counter
at random, and is to receive as many
marked
it : find the value of his exthe number
pectation.
as
shillings
upon
two
are
hand
24.
a
If 10
things are
distributed among
particular
person having more
than
5 of them
persons,
is
_
....
the chance
of
rod is marked
in n points and divided at
at random
those points,
the chance that none
of the parts shall be greaterthan
25.
"
If
th of the rod is
"
408
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
and a
two
There
containingthree sovereigns
are
purses, one
A
and
a
t
hree
other
and the
sovereign. coin
shillings
containing
shilling,
and
droppedinto the other ;
is taken from one (itis not known
which)
and then on drawing a coin from each purse, they are found to be two
the odds againstthis happeningagainif two more
What
are
shillings.
26.
are
drawn, one
each purse 1
from
27.
of a
the circumference
on
of any two of the arcs
so
is the chance
and the
contained 25 sovereigns,
originally
purses one
and 15 shillings.
One purse is taken by chance
other 10 sovereigns
is the
: what
and 4 coins drawn
out, which prove to be all sovereigns
the
is
and
what
contains
this
that
chance
able
probonly sovereigns,
purse
value of the next draw from it?
30.
Of
two
31.
32.
33.
If
measured
at
shall not
exceed
no
of length a + b
that the common
straightline
random, the chance
on
lengthsa, b are
part of these lengths
two
c2
c
is
ab
where
"
lengthb
is less than
lies entirely
within
the
or
largera
is
"
(Jj
34.
measured
If
on
at
a
straightline of length a + b + c two lengthsa, b are
random, the chance of their having a common
part which
d is
"
7.
(c+ a)(c+6)'
35.
Four
where
d is less than
either
or
b.
to each other,
are
passengers, A, B, C, D, entire strangers
m
railwaytrain which contains I first-class,
second-class,
and n third-class compartments. A and B are gentlemen whose
spective
reof travelling
a priorichances
first,
second, or third class are
representedin each instance by X, fi, v, C and D are ladies whose
similar a priori chances
each representedby I, m, n.
Prove
are
for
all
values
of
when
that,
X, fi, v (exceptin the particularcase
X : p : v=l. : m : oi),
A and B are more
likelyto be found both in the
of the same
lady than each with a different one.
company
in
travelling
CHAPTER
XXXIII.
Determinants.
485.
present chapteris
The
determinants
their
and
devoted
to
brief discussion of
elementaryproperties.The slight
given will enable a student to avail
himself of the advantagesof determinant
notation in Analytical
other
Geometry, and in some
parts of Higher Mathematics
;
this branch
of Analysis may
fuller information
be obtained
on
from
Dr Salmon's Lessons
Introductoryto the Modern
Higher
and
Muir's
Theoryof Determinants.
Algebra,
introductorysketch
48G.
Consider
more
here
the two
bly 0,
a2x
b2y 0;
This
and
the
of two
term
result is sometimes
expressionon
rows
is the
and
two
product
by
tracting
sub,
written
ax
bx -0,
a"
b"
columns, and
of two
second
determinant.
in its
it
quantities;
expanded
is therefore
It consists
form
each
said to
be
letters
"
b0
aa,
b2 are
called
ab.
",/",,,
are
the
constituents
of
the
410
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
487.
Since
aA
a.
"A
a.
a"
a.
into
rows
488.
of the
determinant
is not altered
into rows.
the columns
columns,and
seen
Again,it is easily
that
a,
6"
a"
that
is,if we
Let
489.
interchangetwo
obtain
ive
us
By eliminating
x,
the
bxy+
cxz
0,
a2X
b2V+
c2z
o,
a3x
b3y+
c3z
obtain
in Ex.
+
linear
c,("A
aA)
is
b,
equations
2, Art. 16,
a.
This eliminant
a.
0.
as
minant,
of the deterdiffers
from it onlyin sign.
axx
we
a2
columns
two
homogeneous
Kc2)+ bi("v*3vO
or
or
ivhich
consider
y, z,
a" (Kcs
rows
determinant
now
by changing
""
0.
usuallywritten
o,
and
the
expressionon
of three
and
rows
K
h
the left
three
c2
C3
beinga
determinant
is called
columns
which
consists
determinant
of the
third order.
490.
the above
By
rearrangement of
determinant
aX vV8
or
a.
may
terms
the
expanded form
be written
+ "2("3C1
hSC2)
KC3)+ "a(6lC.h2^\
"
of
412
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
492.
The
determinant
ax
bl
cx
"**
h2
b3
C2
C3
"362)
KC2)+ hl(C2"3C/h)+ C,("A
""C")Cll(C2b3CJ"")Cl(Ka3 6A)
bl(a2CB
", (KC3
"
"
"
hence
bx
",
a2
b2
ax
a
(i
c.
C3
it appears
Thus
determinant
are
changed,but
ax
bt
cx
(l2
h
K
C2
(VsO
we
Similarly
(ci"A)
=
If
493.
two
rows
let D
For
two
whose
J)
"
value
D,
be
rows
is
"
that is D
but
0.
a
1
494.
("Acs)-
(aAb3)
=
("AC3)-
columns
of the
of
tlie determinant
the
Thus
A,1
"
determinant,then
columns
two
or
D;
be written
may
are
vanishes.
value
the
two
or
just obtained
that
shew
may
"3
have
we
the determinant
denote
brevitywe
the result
is
unaltered.
"3
then
by (axb2c3),
the
aAn
2
obtain
we
determinant
have
we
+
2
aJLm3
the
=
is
by
changing
inter-
determinant
unaltered; hence
following
equations,
D.
any
is
column, is
multiplied
413
DETERMINANTS.
For
tnax
ma2
ma
a
max
"
which
the
proves
Ax
ma2
A2 +
maA
A3
m(alAl-a2A2+ a.iA,y,
proposition.
of
If each constituent
Cor.
"
one
row,
or
constituent
the corresponding
column, the determinant vanishes.
multipleof
column, is the
of another
same
row,
or
If each
495.
Thus
for the
have
we
on
expression
(ax+ a^ A
(V,
which
In like
consists of
sum
the
proves
of
M*
M3)
terms, the
determinant
other determinants.
we
Similarly,
("v*i M2
-
aA)
proposition.
if each constituent
manner
m
the left
may
shew
that
in any
can
one
he
column,
expressedas the
row,
or
414
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
if the
thus
easilybe generalised;
results may
These
columns
of the three
the determinant
consist of m,
n, p
expressedas
the
sum
-a3-
b3
be
can
terms
stituents
con-
tively,
respecof mnp
determinants.
that
Shew
Example 1.
b+
a-
b-c
+ b
The
Of
Babe
"
c3.
b
a
"
"
these four determinants the first three vanish, Art. 493; thus the
reduces to the last of the four determinants ; hence its value
Example
Find
2.
"c
Babe
a3
b3
(a2 be)}
-
c3.
the value of
67
19
21
39
13
14
81
24
26
have
67
10 + 57
19
21
57
19
21
39
0 + 39
13
14
39
13
14
81
9 + 72
24
26
72
24
26
496.
as
given determinant
We
10
10
19
21
10
19
19 + 2
10
19
13
14
13
13 + 1
13
24
26
24
24 + 2
24
20-63=
-43.
13
24
19
13
we
can
shew
that it is
+
equalto
qct
C2
6*
9C3
c"
pression
ex-
415
DETERMINANTS.
494 Cor.].
of these determinants vanish [Art.
the last two
whose
one
Tims we see that the givendeterminant is equalto a new
from the constituents of
is obtained by subtracting
firstcolumn
of the
determinant
the first column of the original
equimultiples
and
unaltered.
remain
third columns
and
of the other
constituents
corresponding
Conversely,
+
a{
a., +
C2
a
and
b{
PK
^2
"7C2
c"
c.
has been
what
+ qc}
j)bx
here
provedwith
is
replaceany
formed
one
in the
of the
following
Take
and
the constituents
increase
or
of
diminish
constituents
the
them
of
by
one
or
row
any
more
or
column
be
replaced,
responding
equimidtij)les
of the corthe
other
rows
or
of
to
columns.
After
may
columns
or
little
often be
that
ai
2}b} b}
-
qcx
+Ph2 K C1C2
a3+2jb3K-Qcs
%
but
Thus,
if
on
the left-hand
ra
we
respectively,
by
ax
c,
"ll
"2
Ct2
b2
c3
a..
b"
rule
unaltered.
column
or
should
have
2"bt bx
"
i'K K
identitythe
replacedby
were
qcx
the
rax
ra"
"a +
enunciated, care
above
as
vci
c.,
ra..
cl+rali
former
c2 +
value
stituents
con-
ra^
creased
in-
416
HIGHER
and
of the four
there is
into which
determinants
does not
which
one
ALGEBRA.
this may
be
resolved
vanish,namely
ra,
pbs
Example 1,
The
"9
the value of I 29
26
22
25
31
27
! 63
54
46
given determinant
26-4l
3
-6
-3x4x
31
-4
54
-8
1
-12
=:
Find
ra
qc2
26
I -3
-12
132.
[Explanation. In the first step of the reduction keep the second column
diminish
each constituent of the first
column
unaltered;for the first new
column
by the correspondingconstituent of the second ; for the third new
diminish each constituent of the third column
column
by the corresponding
constituent of the second.
In the second step take out the factors 3 and
4. In the third step keep the first row
unaltered ; for the second new
row
diminish
the constituents of the second by the corresponding ones
of the
diminish the constituents of the third by twice
first; for the third new
row
the corresponding constituents of the first. The remaining steps will be
-
easily
seen.]
The
a
+ b +
+ b +
2a
2a
2b
b-c-a
2b
2c
2c
c-a-b
b +
c)x
(a+
b+
c)x
c-a"
(a+
b+
b-c-a
2b
2c
2c
c-a-b
-c-a-b
I -b-c-a
0
-c"
a-
(a+
b +
2b
-b-c-a
11
2c
c)x
2b
2c
2b
b+
a+b+c
b-c-a
2c
(a+
a-b-c
given determinant
2b
(a+
that
Shew
2.
Example
c)3.
cf.
417
DETERMINANTS.
497.
"i"i
"A
"A
Vi
KPt + c*y, %%
hA + Wi
%%
a3ai +
Art.
From
^7,
495, we
the
expressedas
to
determinant,we
as
shewinghow
sum
hA
hA
bA
know
terminan
express the product of two deshall investigate
the value of
+
ci?2 aia3 +
c*y2
"2"*3+
^3y2
"3a3
bA
hA
"A
ri7-s
caya
c3y3
determinant can
be
of 27 determinants,of which it will be
specimens:
givethe following
sufficient to
*1"S
"2ft3
a3a2
these
"3a3
respectively
equalto
are
a.
aia2a3
a2
"
"Ay,
a.
""
ct"
a"
a"
ct"
C3
*,
"3
vanish.
of the 27 determinants
remain
".
it
vanishes;similarly
aAy2
a.
equalto
are
ft
(aAy3
Ay2
a2"yi
-
Ay3
aAy2
aAyd
a""
cc"
that
is,
a.
",
"x"
""
a"
""
498.
Consider
productof two
the two
linear
can
be
", "3
expressedas
determinants
is
the
b.
product of
determinant.
equations
axXx+ bxXa 0)
=
agXx+ b^9
H.
H.
A.
o]
(1),
27
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
418
Xl
where
a2x2\
a^
.(2).
^=A*i+/W
for X,
Substituting
and
X2
in
have
we
(1),
than
x2 other
of xx and
a^
equations(3)will
But
will be the
zero,
bfr
if
bfi2
(4).
equations(1)hold, and
(5),
b2
aa
Xl
if
which
0 and
ft
ft
a.
a.
therefore
hold ; and
factors the
the
equations(5)and
if
of the
determinants
be numerical
.(6).
determinant
the
determinants
(4)must
0;
in
on
numerical
the two
; hence
a*
a.
above
Since
the
write the
two
several
aia2
of
method
to be
b*
a,a2 +
hh
a'
unity.
bfi2
b:
proof is perfectly
general,and
holds
whatever
of
hA
"ia, +
equations,
beingseen
"",
The
as
sides of the
Cor.
contain
(4) must
"iai + " A
the
also
(6)hold, equation(4)must
in (5)and
dimensions
factor of
X2
that
requires
last condition
Hence
this
either if
case
or
for
have
must
we
axa2 +
hold
(3).
Oj
hold
simultaneously
equations(3) may
that
order
In
0\
rows
value
as
columns,
determinants
ways
of
; but
determinant
and
be
is not
the columns
altered
as
expressed
may
these will all give the
as
rows,
a
same
when
the
product
determinant
result
we
on
in
pansion.
ex-
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
420
12.
13.
that
expandingthe determinants,prove
Without
equations
Solve the
0.
^r
14.
15.
16.
a"
b2
x
x
"2
b+
(y-z)(z-x) (x-y)(yz +
c).
zx
xy).
xy
a
+ b
+ c
b+
-26
c +
c+b
-2c
(b+cY
62
Express as
2dbc{a+b+cf.
a-
{c+ af
^2
20.
*2
zx
-la
19.
y2
yz
18.
c3
a?
17.
62
(a+bf
determinant
b
21.
Find
satisfied
and shew
alx +
may
be
a3x +
b2y+
c3z
421
DETERMINANTS.
22.
23.
where
*j 1,can
"
A-iB
C-iD
-C-iB
hence deduce the
The
A + iB
following
theorem,due
productoftwo
each
sums
to Euler
offour squares
be
can
as
expressed
the
offour
squares.
sum
Prove the
identities:
following
24.
bc + ad
b2e2+ a2d2
|1
1
ca
+ bd
c2a2 + b2d2
ab + cd
a2b2 + c2d2
=
be
25.
be +
"
a2
"
ca
ca
ab
bc
"
b2
ca
26.
be +
c2
ca
ab
(c+ a)(c+ b)
ab).
{b-y)2 (b-zf
(e-y)2 (c-z)2
Find
in the
form
of
(b-c)(e a)(a-b){y-z)(z-x)(x-y).
-
determinant
the
condition
expression
Ua? +
be the
28.
"
may
ca
(h-xf
io-xf
27.
ab
ab
productof
Solve the
two
+ 2 ic'aft
c'ya
equation:
u
+ a2x
w' + abx
c
the
expressing
result
+ b2x
u' + bcx
acx
by
w' + abx
means
v'+
acx
u' + bcx
w
+ c2x
of determinants.
0,
a,
ft,y
that the
422
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
be usefully
of determinants
employed
properties
may
linear
simultaneous
equations.
solving
499.
The
in
Let the
be
equations
axx
a2X
aja
hxy+
b2y+
bg +
cxz +
c2z+
cji +
dx 0,
d2 0,
d^O;
=
multiplythem
A
*,
a,
a"
^3
"3
The
proved
in Art.
(Mi
M*
we
Similarly
M3)
shew
may
(6,5, 6 A
6 A)
(M
M2
Mb)
"*A) 0,
"-
that
2/+
("*A "*A
-
and
" + (dfi, dfia
+ d3C,) 0.
fcff,e,C,+ c3C3)
-
Now
hence
"A
atA,+ "A
or
more
be written
z
"y
symmetrically
x
-y
a.
500.
Supposewe
:
equations
have
the
C3
423
DETERMINANTS.
axx
a2x
a3x
ax
+
4
From
dxu 0,
d2u 0,
d3u 0,
bxy+
b2y+
b3y+
c,s +
+
bAy
W
+ du
cAz
4
4
"
c2z +
c3z +
have
these,we
0.
in the
as
precedingarticle
"y
"
^2 ^
\ 4
64 "
".
%
"4
in
Substituting
".
This may
be
bx
h2
a2
c,
C2
C3
b.
a.
the
we
see
c.
dx
(h
"*3
d,
More
0;
that
the
on
expression
Also
in the form
written
concisely
more
if
generally,
we
these constituents.
have
homogeneous
linear
equations
axxx +
+
a2xx
a
"
involvingu
can
x,1 +
unknown
be eliminated
and
+ cxx3+
bxx2
+ c2x3+
b2x2
b xa
2
"
+
ex,
n
3
kx=
"
0,
'
these quantities
quantities
xx, x2, x3, ...as,,,
in
form
the
the result expressed
a.
a.
kxxn 0,
k2xn 0,
"
ii
0.
424
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
consists of
of this
member
left-hand
The
and
rows
which
determinant
is called a determinant of
equationis
columns,and
order.
the IIthis
of determinant
here
sufficient
beyond the scope of the presentwork ; it will be
which have been established in the
that the properties
to remark
of this
discussion
The
of determinants
case
general,and
any
generalform
more
of the
second
and
are
orders
third
to
are
quite
determinants
of
1
order.
above
example,the
For
determinant
of
nth order
the
is
equal to
+ (-l)"-1k1Kl,
+ c1C1-d1D1+...
a1A1-b1Bl
+ (-1)"-1
+ aBA3-a4A4+
anAn,
ctlA1-a2A2
or
...
we
as
developit from the first row or the first column.
according
letters stand for the minors of the constituents
Here the capital
and are themselves
small letters,
denoted
by the corresponding
be exof these may
Each
of the (n-l)thorder.
determinants
pressed
of the (n 2)th
of determinants
of a number
the sum
as
minant
form
of the deterorder ; and so on ; and thus the expanded
"
may
be obtained.
of
alwaysdevelopa determinant by means
method,
above,it is not alwaysthe simplest
of
find
value
the
is
much
not
to
so
object
determinant, as to find the signs of its several
Although we
may
the process described
when
our
especially
the
whole
elements.
502.
The
expanded form
of the determinant
+ aAGi
afi2G3afi3C2
~
a2KC3+ a*hic2%h2Gx;
~
and
in which
cixb2c^
positive
; we
element
suffixes.
may
The
The first
may
the suffixes follow the arithmetical order,
be
obtained
be obtained
sign +
or
is to
as
follows.
425
DETERMINANTS.
it
cordingas
or
even
odd
the element
3, therefore
can
deduced
be
of
number
from
leadingelement
the
permutationsof two
by an
instance,
is obtained by interchanging
the suffixes 1 and
a3b2c1
is obtained
its sign is negative
ajb1c2
; the element
by
suffixes ; for
1 and
503.
thus be
may
determinant
The
expressedby
whose
leadingelement
axb2c3dA
...
the notation
%^aJ"aeBdA
placedbefore
is
the aggregate
leadingelement indicating
of all the elements
which
be obtained
from it by suitable
can
of suffixes and adjustmentof signs.
interchanges
the 2
Sometimes
the
the
determinant
is still more
within
the leadingelement
enclosing
is used
as
an
From
of 5
In the determinant
Example.
the element
abbreviation
"
simplyexpressedby
brackets;thus (a^crf ...)
a,b"c"dA....
(a^c^e^
what
sign is
to be
prefixedto
a^c^e.,1
the
504.
equal to zero
it is equalto
order,and
the
501,
each
determinant
of the constituents
reduces
to
; in other
...
If each of
is
words
the
we
"
l)th
the constituents
column
or
of the firstrow
of a
determinant
is zero exceptthe first,
and if this constituent is equal
is equalto m times that determinant
to m, the determinant
of lower
order ivhich is obtained by omittingthe firstcolumn
and first
row,
Also
since
any
zero,
row
the
suitable
constituent
by
be
of lower order.
This is sometimes
of determinants.
and
simplification
426
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Example.
505.
The
followingexamples
-3
artifices which
shew
are
casionally
oc-
useful.
Example
1.
Prove
=
that
(a+
b +
d)(a
-
b +
d)(a
d)(a+
d).
Example
2.
Prove
that
:
a*
The
columns
b*
d*
givendeterminant
vanishes when
b
a, for then the first and second
b is a factor of the determinant
identical ; hence a
[Art.514].
each of the expressionsa
d is a factor of
Similarly
d, b c, b d, c
c, a
the determinant; the determinant
being of six dimensions,the remaining
factor must
be numerical ; and, from a comparison of the terms
involving
bc2d3 on each side,it is easilyseen
to be unity; hence we obtain the required
result.
are
"
"
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
428
Solve
equations:
the
12.
ax
a2x
b2y+
c2z
a2x +
u=l,
by + cz+ du=k,
b2y+ c2z+ d2u k2,
cfix+
bsy+
c3z+ d3u
P.
that
Prove
b+c"a"d
be
c+a"b"d
ca
a+b-c-d
ab
Prove
"
"
"
(a+ d)-ad(b-t-c)
ad
be
bd
ca(b-\-d) bd(e + a)
cd
ab
"
(c+ d) -cd{a
b)
-2
that
a2-(b
b2
b2-(c-a)2
c2
c2
(a
"
be
c)2
a2
ca
ab
b)2
(b-c)(c-a){a-b)(a
17.
by + cz=k,
b2y+ c2z k2,
b3y+ c?z= P.
z+
y+
x
ax
16.
a?x +
l2.
ax
a2x +
by + cz=k,
14.
15.
13.
0=1,
y+
x+
+ b+
c)(a2+ b2 + c2).
that
Shew
ABC
CAB
cc
"
A=a2-d2
where
+ 2ce
-2bf,
B=e2-b2+2ac-2df,
C=e2
-f2
+ 2ae-2bd.
18.
of its
If
determinant
XXXIV.
CHAPTER
506.
laws
of
which
EXAMPLES.
remarks
the
on
begin this chapterwith some
form, briefly
reviewingthe fundamental
algebraical
shall
We
permanence
AND
THEOREMS
MISCELLANEOUS
have
been
established in the
course
of the work.
we
expositionof algebraical
principles
proceed
do
the
down
and
outset
not
at
we
new
names
:
lay
analytically
our
new
ideas, but we
begin from
knowledge of abstract
which
Arithmetic
are
capable
; we
prove certain laws of operation
the general theory of
of verification in every particular
case, and
constitutes the science of Algebra.
these operations
507.
In
the
it is usual
Hence
and
Algebra.,
former
define
to
speak of
to make
Arithmetical
distinction
symbols in
Algebra and
between
them.
bolical
SymIn the
arithmetically
intelligible,
operation; in the latter
the laws of Arithmetical
assume
we
Algebra to be true in all
of
whatever
the
the
nature
symbols may be, and so find
cases,
out what
meaning must be attached to the symbols in order that
Thus
the
gradually,as we transcend
they may obey these laws.
limits of ordinaryArithmetic,new
results spring up, new
guage
lanhas to be employed, and
interpretations
given to symbols
in
which
not
the
definitions.
At the
were
contemplated
original
from
in
the
which
the
laws
of
time,
same
general
Algebra
way
we
our
deduce
and
thence
are
established,we
even
fundamental
when
are
laws
assured
they are
sense
of
of their
permanence
not
appliedto quantities
and
versality
uni-
cally
arithmeti-
intelligible.
508.
the
arithmetical
definitions.
positiveintegralvalues of
easilyestablished from a priori
to
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
430
Law
The
I.
(i)
Commutation, which
of
Thus
b-c
a-c
b-c
follows
as
order.
in any
a.
be made
divisions may
and
(ii)Multiplications
order.
in any
axb=bxa;
Thus
axbxc
axcxb'}
-=-
(a-f- c)x
and
b
Distribution,which
of
Law
The
bxcxa
ab-"-c
II.
be made
subtractions may
and
Additions
enunciate
we
on.
(b+ c)xa.
enunciate
we
be distributed
divisions may
and
Multiplications
so
as
follows
additions
over
subtractions.
and
{a
Thus
c)m
(a b)(c d)
"
ac
"
"bm
am
ad
"
cm,
bc
"
bd.
of
III.
The
the
multiplication,
separate discussion.
of Indices.
Laws
amxan
(i)
am
(n)
aH
am+n
[a
am-".
a
[SeeElementary Algebra,Art.
These
laws
laid down
are
butive
distri-
as
fundamental
suppositionthat
proved on the
and
and integral,
positive
above
that the operations
been
that
indicated
our
restricted in such
way
arithmetically
intelligible.
are
of Symbolical
hold, by the principles
If these conditions
do not
Algebra we
the laws
assume
235.]
to
subject,
having
symbols employed are
to
the
they are
233
of Arithmetical
Algebra
to be true
to which
interpretation
this tion
assumpassured that the laws of
we
are
and that they include in
self-consistent,
are
Algebraicaloperation
the particular
their generality
cases
509.
From
of
the
law
and
insertion
by
of
ordinaryArithmetic.
commutation
deduce
we
of brackets
the
rules
Algebra,
[Elementary
we
of distribution
as
(a-b)(c d)~ac
"
restriction that
the
with
greaterthan b, and
example,it is provedthat
For
in Art. 35.
b, c,
a,
431
EXAMPLES.
AND
THEOREMS
MISCELLANEOUS
ad"bc
"
are
greater than d.
bd,
and a
positive
integers,
it is the provinceof
Now
are
510.
be
it will there
give any
cannot
to
laws of indices
The
511.
prioridefinition
conform
them
to make
that
seen
of the
ElementaryAlgebra.
and
"
n,
we
prove
am xan
fullydiscussed
are
When
from
directly
am+n ;
am
-r
and
are
in
Chapterxxx.
positive
integers
the definition of
a'1=
index
an
that
(am)nam".
am~n j
the indices
the first of these to be true when
free from all restriction,
and in this way we determine meanings
does
definition
not
for symbolsto which our
apply.
original
then
We
are
assume
are
for a\
interpretations
found to be in strict
and
henceforth
The
with
the laws of
a0,a~"
thus derived
from
perfect
generality.
512.
In
Chapter vill.
defined
we
the
symbol
J"
or
this
definition,and
and
it will be
as
by
obeying the relation
of
enabled
laws
the
i
are
we
to
Algebra
general
making subject
of the form a + ib, in
of expressions
to discuss the properties
Such forms
combined.
which real and imaginaryquantities
are
i2
are
sometimes
reference
Articles
From
complex numbers,
92 to 105
that if
we
perform
on
seen
a
by
complex
addition,subtraction,multiplication,
division,the result is in general itself a complex number,
number
and
to
called
"
the
operationsof
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
432
Also
since
those
above
follows
mentioned, it
is in
complex number
involves
function
rational
every
generala
that
operationsbut
no
be
have
We
220
in Art.
seen
of
"
being
defined
real
any
by
means
The
when
\
and
in the
treatingit is
real
being any
development
worthy
is
infinite,
when
is
shall
methods
and
identities,
theory of complex
Chapters x. and XI.
of the
514.
of
is
will
fix) denote
found
be
Schlomilch's
and
trating
examples illususeful in proving
integral
function
until
function
of x ; divide
any rational integral
remainder
is obtained which
does not involve
f(x)
Since
value
we
does
involve
not
giveto
put
Q(x-a)
a, then
=
QxO
; then
R.
it will remain
x
=
f(a)
now
often
of
will be
Theory of Equations.
To
f(x) hyx-a
x
which
theorems
numbers
Let
; let
give some
now
in the
similarly
be
infinite,
fullydiscussed in
Handbuch
der algebraischen
Analysis.
We
of attention.
quantities.
found
513.
to
general
more
e*+iy Lini (1
x
included
nj
be reduced
can
that
(x\n)
1
fully-
Moivre's
iB.
course
mode
another
ax+i\but
form
ex+iyis of
expression
The
functions
that such
of the form
complex numbers
complex number.
\og(x"iy) cannot
Expressionsof the form ax+ly,
treated without
Trigonometry;but by the aid of De
theorem, it is easy to shew
of
function
rational
R;
x, hence
unaltered
whatever
THEOREMS
.MISCELLANEOUS
exactlydivisible by x a, then
functionofx
f(a) 0 ; hence ifa rational integral
a.
x
a, it is divisibleby x
If f{x)is
Cor.
433
EXAMPLES.
AND
==
0, that
is
vanishes when
"
The
515.
useful that we
of
Suppose that
denoted by
is of
the function
dimensions,and
let it be
+P-^""3+
p0xn+2\x"~}+P^"~2
-+P""
then the
will
quotient
be of
1 dimensions
; denote
it
by
+qixn-2+q2xn-3++qH_l;
q{fc"-x
...
let R
be the remainder
then
x ;
containing
not
+
+p.ax"~3
pjf +p1x-1+2"2x'-2
+P"
+
+ q2x"~3
(x-a)(q0X^+ qix"~2
"""
we
equatingthe
and
out
Multiplying
...
+ R
qa_x)
of x,
have
9.2-aQi=P2"
q3
R
thus
each
n2
ihi
oqn-%=Pn,
successive
or
qs
or
"
or
a4i+Pa'"
""i2+ ih ;
aqn_l +pn;
coefficient in the
formed
by
adding the
the
process of finding
the remainder
be
may
Pa
Pa-X
P3
P2
Pi
"?0
formed, and
Po
Thus
quotientis
qx
?.-,
v,
+ P*
+#.-i)
(""?"-+
=P"P*+P^"~1+P/""n~2
+P,r
aq^
+pn
"
"""
same
method
can
be
used,only in
H. H. A.
28
is
Example.
divided by
Here
Find
x
2, and
In the
by writingdown
be
frequently
-24
11
6a;2+12a;-3, and
work
has been
used
to
save
several
Divide 3a;5
1+ 2 +
8a;4
4-8)3-8-
mainder
re-
abridged
terms,
zero
of Detached
Coefficients
may
elementaryalgebraical
functions we
are
dealingwith
labour
in
the
when
processes, particularly
is another
rational and integral.The following
are
Example.
the
to powers
corresponding
representterms
This method
absent.
are
-6
12
example the
preceding
coefficients beingused to
which
12
21
00
-6
14
516.
-28
14
-7
have
we
31
-6
Thus
2.
multiplieris
the
3a;7
the
3-10
of
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
434
5a;3+ 26a;2
33a; + 26
5 + 26-33
illustration.
26(3-2
8.
+ 3
3 + 6 + 12-24
-5+2
Thus
the
quotientis
3a;2
-
2;r + 3 and
the remainder
is
5a;+ 2.
517.
by the
may be stillfurther abridged
which
is known
Horner's
Method
as
of
The work
arrangement,
following
Synthetic
Division.
3-2+
3+
0-
5+
Put
0, then A
Put
=
pansion
ex-
(x+ y)3.
of
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
436
l, and
get 27
we
(3
6)+
B ; whence
6.
Thus
=
z)3
(x+
x3 +
y3+
z3 +
3z3x
with
is said to be alternating
when its signbut not its value is altered
variables,
Thus x
of any pairof them.
y and
function
520.
3zx2
6xyz.
respectto its
by
change
the inter-
"
a2
(b-c)+
b2(c-a)+ c2(a
-
b)
functions.
alternating
are
It is evident
that there
be
can
linear
no
function
alternating
521.
functions
Symmetricaland alternating
denoted by writingdown
of the terms
one
the
symbol %
; thus
may
and
be
cisely
con-
prefixing
sum
is the
four letters a,
b,c, d}
^a-a
%ab
and
so
ab
+
+
+ c +
+
ac
d;
ad +bc
bd+ cd;
on.
if the
Similarly
function
and
so
on.
The
symbol 2
regardto
two
or
also be
may
sets of
more
%yz (b-c)
=
yz
used
to
c2a + c2b.
imply summation
thus
letters;
(b~c)+
zx
(c-a)+
xy
(a b).
-
with
THEOREMS
MISCELLANEOUS
The
522.
form
productsand
the
Example 1.
(a+
%a
an
abridged
%a3
32a2b
Gabc j
2"3
3$a2b
Gtabc;
c)4 %aA
i%cfb
6Sa"6fl
+ 1 2%a2bc;
%a2b
df
c +
in
to express
us
437
EXAMPLES.
of symmetricalexpressions
: thus
powers
(a+b + c)3
(a+
enables
notation
above
AND
2"2
2a3
that
Prove
a5
(a+ b)5
-
b* =
5ab
(a+ b)(a2+
ab +
b2).
the left by E
on
Denote the expression
0 ; hence
vanishes when a
Again E vanishes when a"
(a + b)5 a5
-
where
and B
Puttinga
putting
whence
are
b5= ab
(a+ 6)(Aa*+
independentof
and b.
have 15
2A + B ;
1, b
2, b
1, we
have 15
1, we
5A
Bab
Find
+ A
b~),
2B ;
o, J5 =
Example 2.
is
follows.
once
the factors of
the expression
Denote
by E ; then E is a function of a which vanishes
when a = b, and therefore contains a
b as a factor [Art.514]. Similarly
it
thus E contains (b c)(c a)(a b) as a
contains the factors b-c and c-a;
factor.
-
To
obtain M
thus by
requiredresult.
Example 3.
(x+
y+
(b-c)(c-a) (a-b)(a+
giveto
may
puttinga 0, 6
we
Shew
zjt-x5-yb
a,
=
b + c).
1, c
we
find most
and we
have
venient;
con-
the
that
-
z?=
z~
yz + zx+
xy).
438
symmetricalin
x, y, z, it must
y=l,
0; thus 35
have
of these have
5,
for reference
collect here
are
xy)
requiredresult.
the
We
523.
zx
5A + IB ;
A=B
whence
we
(yz+
it is
thus 10=^1+5;
Put"=2/=z=l;
x=2,
put
degree,and, since
is of the second
be of the form
remaining factor
and
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
occurred
^bc (b
in
of
algebraical
expressions;
many
of
the
Chap.xxix.
ElementaryAlgebra.
"
$a2(b-c) -(b-c)(c-a)(a-b).
=
$a(b2-c2) (b-c)(c-a)(a-b).
=
2a3
as + b3 + c3
This
3abc
identity
may
a3 + b3 + c3-3abc
(a+
be
givenin
l(ab
+
c)(a2+b2+c2-
another
c).
bc-ca-
ab).
form,
+ (c-a)2
+ (a-b)2}.
c){(b-c)2
Hbc
(a+
(b+ c)+
2abc
%a2{b+ c)+
2abc
c)(be+
2b2c2 + 2c V
ca
abc
ab)
-
(a+
by
=(b
when
XXXIV.
3^
+ 1 1^
a.
+ 90#2
19# + 53 is divided
+ 5.
2.
Find the
equationconnectinga
2xi-7x3+ax
may
EXAMPLES.
1.
+ a)(a+ b).
=(b + c)(c
2a2b2 -tf-fr-c*
=
+ a)(a+ b).
(b+ c)(c
be divisibleby
3.
and
+ b
b in order that
MISCELLANEOUS
Find
3.
qxi
Find
tf
Expand
5.
2xA
when
iqv + 13 j"sdivided
+ 5 may
by x2
be
3v + 2.
a.
^.^^.g
factor of
4^ + 19.V2 Six + 12 +
439
EXAMPLES.
AND
quotientand remainder
the
4.
THEOREMS
descendingpowers
of
to four
Find
6.
7.
a4 (62
8.
9.
(6 cf +
10.
11.
(6c+
12.
a4 + 64 + c4.
13.
14.
64 (c2
+
c2)
"
a2)+
(c af
ca
identities :
following
15. 2
(6+
2a)3 3(6+
c-
2a)(c+
a(b-cf
He-*)*
(c-a)(a-6r
(a-6)(6-cr
_?L
J^
a
+ 6
6+
26)(a+
a-
6-
2c).
c{a-bf
_fl|M.g
(6-c)(c-a)
(6-c)(c-a)(a-6)_3
2c
6-c)5.
a363.
the
17'"
6-c)3.
Prove
i0,
62).
c4 (a2
18.
+ c-a)(c + a-6)(a
+ c)-2a3-2a"c=^"
2a2("
iy*
(a-6)(a-c)^(6-c)(6-a)^(c-a)(c-6)
20.
21.
ty+z)*(e+x)*(x+y)*=tx*(y+zY+2(^z)3-2^2z*'
22.
23.
"6c
24.
5(6- c)3(6+
"-c)-
(26c 2a2).
(26c)
2a)
0 ; hence
deduce 2
y)("+
2a)3
=
"-
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
440
25.
bf-Z(b
c)(c+ a)(a+ b)
+ c3-3abc).
2(a3-\-b3
If x=b+c-a,
26.
#3 +^3 + #
g^g
63 + c3
s-
we
2(a + 6 + c).
"_w_
"
i
(a-b)(a-c)(x-a) (b-c)(b-a)(x-b) (c-a) (c-b) (x-c)'
,w
a2
29.
b2
"
c2
"
b2
cz
c2
a2
"
wt
(b-c)(b a)
(b-c)(b-a) (b+ x)
3__w^w
32.
^.
(a-b) (a- c)(a d)'
"
If
33.
+ y +
s, and #yz
'jp_y\(p__z\
p)\zs p)
,y"
shew
=""2,
identities
Many
be
can
of the cube
use
properties
will be denoted by 1, w, o"2.
Shew
The
expression,E,
Puttingx
contains
ury
as
(x+
/" A /" y\
\xs pj\ys p)
_
the
left vanishes
y)
as
xy +
'
"8
when
y2)2.
x
0, y
0,
0;
factor.
(_ w2-w-l)y7
1} y7= {(_w2)7 w7
_
wy
as
x^ + xy
or
(x- ury)
(x to2?/),
-
!} yi
0;
a factor ; and
we
similarly
that
is,E is divisible by
factor;
x
readilyestablished by making
roots of unity;as usual these
+
Ixy (x+ y) (x2
{(1+ ta)7 W7
have
coy, we
E
on
contain xy
=
'
that
(x+ yf -x7-y7
hence it must
'
Identities.
of the
Example.
#\
pj\xs p)
Miscellaneous
524.
(c+p)(c+ (J)
(c-a) (c-b)(c+ x)
that
\zs
'
"
fp__ A /".
Z"2
(b+p)(b+ q)
(a-b)(a-c)(a+x)
31.
a2
"
(c-a) (c-b)
"
(a+P)(a+ "l)
30.
"
/1
"
;+77
ft7
(a-b)(a- c)
if
the value of
Find
hence
3a6c).
3s
28.
(a3+
that
Prove
substitute s-".
27.
a-b,
c +
may
y2.
shew
that it contains
MISCELLANEOUS
441
IDENTITIES.
(x+ y)7
-
Puttinga;
putting
y7
{x+ y)(x2+ xy
xy
l, we have
l, y
2, y=-
21
whence
-
aa + b3 + c3
also
have
we
3abc
a* + b2 + c2
a3 + b3 + c3
hence
be
"
ab
"
3abc
"
7;
xy +
y2)2.
b2 + c2 -be-
c)(a2+
ca
ab);
"
ca
"
7, B
+
y7 Ixy (x+ y)(x2
(a+
in Ex.
seen
5^1 -2B;
elementaryAlgebrathat
from
know
We
525.
x7
(x+ y)7
.-.
2^+5;
have 21
1, we
ub
(a+
(a+
ore)
be resolved
can
"a2b+
wc);
factors;
thus
a3
b3 + c3
3abc
(a+
mb
+c) (a +
(a+
arc)
"D2b+
wc).
be
product
we
where
Thus
the
ax
b, c
a,
a
0,
If however
method
SABC.
w2" +
(x+
z)(x+ uy
y+
uz);
cry +
pairs(a+
and
(a+
b+
urb +
wc)
c)(x+
y +
uc)(x+
z);
wy +
urz),
products
partial
A + B +
C, A
by +
cz, B
B +
+
"
wB + u-C, A+u2B
bx + cy + az, C
C) [A +
wB
u)C,
+
cx
u2C) (A +
ay + bz.
orB +
"C)
A3 + B3+C3-SABC.
order
to
find the
these
values
of
expressionsinvolving
by the equation
connected
quantitiesare
might employ the substitution
we
Sxyz
ore)(a+
when
z3
product (A +
In
y3+
[a+ b + c)(a+ wb
526.
a;3+
w2c)(x+
u"b+
and
By taking these
(a+
dabc
A3 + B3 + C3
The
"
the
exhibited
k, b
ioh +
(x"2k,c
ufh
u"k.
involve a, b, c symmetrically
the
expressions
is
following
example preferable.
in the
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
442
If
Example.
(a5+ b5 + c5)
(a3+
62 +
c3)(a2+
63 +
c2).
identically
have
We
+ b +
that
0, shew
1 +px
where
+ b + c, q
"
bc +
ca
ab,
qx2+rx3,
r
abc.
"
'
(an+
xn,
have
we
xn in the
cn) coefficientof
bn +
qx2+ rx3.
coefficients of
equating the
l+
+ rx3)3
+ ^ (qx2
+ rx3)2
+ rx3) ^ {qx2
[qx2
coefficientof xn in
By puttingrc
2, 3, 5
=*"
"-
3"
=r'
"
once
T-=-"?r;
"
'
"
follows.
is satisfied;hence
c
If a=fi-y, 6 = 7 -a,
a-/3, the given condition
for all values of a, /3,
have identically
y
=
we
a5 + b5+c5
a3 + b3 + c3
a2 + b2 + c2
whence
obtain
we
j"
+ (7-")5+("-/3)5}
6{(iS-7)5
=
that
is,
+ ^
+ (7-a)5+ (a-^)5=5(J8-7)(7-a)(a-i3)(a2
(/3-7)5
Ex.
compare
If
(a + b + cf
integer(a+ b +
2.
XXXIV.
Shew
+ 1
cfn
3.
an
4.
a3
c)(2b
-
Shew
+
(bz cy)3
-
when
is
positive
that
=
is
b.
a3 + bz + c3,shew
that
a2n + 1 + b2n + 1 + c2n+ K
72-/37-7a-a^;
3, Art. 522.
EXAMPLES.
1.
a)(2c
-
b).
xy(x2+ xy+y2), if
that
b3 (ex
-
azf +
c3 (ay
bx)3
=
Sabc
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
444
If
b+
24.
-"
3"
(a3+ Z"3+
d3)2
c3+
a2 + b2 + c2 + d2
g? + b3+ (?+ d3
+ c#"
a5 + "5+c5
23.
25.
If 2s
+ b+
2o-2 a2 + 62 +
and
abc)2
(be-ad)(ca bd)(ab cd).
+ cda + da" +
(M
26.
+ a-2).
(4s2
{s2 cr2)
that
Shew
that
c2,prove
xy
+y2)3.
a5
27.
that 2
Shew
(a b)(a c)(a d)
"
"
28.
Resolve
a2 + b2 + c2 + d2
ab +
ac
ad+bc
bd+cd.
into factors
2"262c2 +
(a3+
b3 +
+ c-%3 + a3Z"3.
+ Z"3c3
c3)abc
Elimination.
527.
a
In
system of
of
form
Chapterxxxiii. we
linear equations
may
determinant.
have
at
once
General
that
seen
be written
methods
of
the eliminant
of
down
in the
elimination
plicable
ap-
useful.
528.
Let
us
quantitybetween
Denote
the
first consider
the elimination
equations.
equationsby f(x)
of
one
unknown
two
Q and
these
two
value of
functions vanish
which
there
simultaneously
satisfies both
the
must
be
givenequations
; hence
445
ELIMINATION.
the eliminant expresses the condition that must hold between the
coefficients in order that the equations
root.
may have a common
Suppose that
then
be
a,
at least of the
one
equalto
zero
the eliminant
; hence
is
4"(a)"f"
tf)"f"
(y)
The
roots of
methods
529.
shall
We
it will
of
to equations
applicable
purpose
in each
case
take
the
simple
process
is
is due
to
degree.
any
illustrated
principle
our
that
seen
to
the
the
tion
of elimina-
explainthree generalmethods
now
sufficient for
be
it will be
example,but
The
=0.
in the
followingexample
Euler.
Example.
Eliminate
ax* + bx2 +
Let x + k be the factor
and suppose that
fx2+
k, I,m,
From
beingunknown
these
+ d
cx
equations
0, fx2+
ex
+ d
gx + h
(x+ k)(ax2+
bx2 +
cx
to both equations,
common
m),
(x+ k)(fx+ n)
d)(fx+ n) (ax2+
like powers
gl+fm
of x,
h).
obtain
we
-bn
+ ah-
en
cf= 0,
-
df= 0,
=0.
hm-dn
these linear
gx +
ag-bf=0,
-an
Jd + gm-
m) (fx2+
Ix +
fl
From
lx +
0.
quantities.
Equatingcoefficientsof
we
have identically
we
equations,
+
(axs
n,
gx + h
the root
to
corresponding
ax3 + bx2 +
and
the
between
the
equationsby eliminating
ag-bf
ah-cf
-df
0.
unknown
I,in,
quantities
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
446
(x) 0 can
f(x) 0, "f"
equations
determinant
Dialytic
by Sylvester's
eliminant of the
The
530.
as
a
expressed
easily
We
Elimination.
of
be very
Method
the
shall take
example
same
as
before.
Example.
Eliminate
axs + bx2 +
+ d
cx
equations
the
between
0, fx2+gx +
Multiplythe
succession
ax* + bx2+cx
fx2+
hx
ltx2
fx4+ gx3+
the eliminant
Hence
531.
0,
0,
=0.
is
0
0.
giveCauchy'smode
Example.
Eliminate
these
we
equations,
the
gx + h
have
bx2 +
+ d
ex
+ b
cx
fx +g~
and
(ag bf)x1
-
Combining these
two
+ d
'
Jix
+
(ah cf)x2+(bh
-
'
gx2+hx
{ah~cf)x- df= 0,
eg
df)x
equationswith
fx2+gx
+ h
0,
dg
0.
0.
Bezout;
determinant
by
example
whence
obtained
equations
d=0, fx2 +
cx
ax
is due to
conductingthe elimination.
between
ax3 + bx2 +
From
of the following
method
principle
the result as
advantageof expressing
methods.
equationsare
The
The
it has the
lower order than
and
can
we
=0,
gx + h
fxs+ gx2+
x2 in
x and
eliminate the 4
equation by
d=0,
+ dx
axi + bx3+cx2
0.
as
of
the preceding
before,
447
ELIMINATION.
and
regardingx'zand
distinct variables,we
as
f
ag
h
532.
If
have
we
2/)=0,then
"".,(#,
we
have
y may
this
the
eliminate
function of
0,
x.
03 (a;"
y" *) ""
=
second
obtain
and
equations,
of the
equations
two
^ (x"y)
""
y from
"
methods
the form
the firstand
"",(x,y)
of the
"-
equationswe
these
then
form
have
result of
form/*(a:)0.
=
By reasoningin
n
any
will be
(""V)
"A,
we
by
the eliminant
third,we
form
the
02 (^ y" z) ""
z between
l"yeliminating
the firstand
dg
eliminated
of
equations
three
df
-df
eg
=o.
equationsof
case
If
-cf
be
0, (*"y" z) ""
between
bh
two
in
alreadyexplained;
If
ah
cf
bf
obtain
variables between
533.
this
n
it follows that
manner
we
can
eliminate
equations.
The
Eliminate
lx + my
By squaringthe
first two
Z,m
=
a,
vix-ly
equations
b, Z2+ m2=l.
equationsand adding,
7-.c2
+ m-x2 +
""V
*V
+ y*)
+ /"2)
(Z2
(.t2
that is,
is
.t2+
If Z = cos0, m=
the eliminant of
x
is
the
between
cos
6 + y sin 6
x2 +
?/2
=
equation is
y*
sin 6
a" + b*.
a2 +
"2"
a2 + Z,2;
a2 + ZA
satisfied
cos
that is,
identically;
Z"
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
448
Example
2.
*" +
have
-=a,
w2
z2
c5
z2
z2
z2
z2
y2
t/2
a;2
sa
2/2
X'
a2 + "2+c2-4
x2-y2=px-qy, "xy
abc ;
a"c.
x2 +
y2=l.
the second
qx+py,
equations
the
#, ?/ between
Eliminate
the
Multiplying
equationswe obtain,
three
.-.
3.
-+"
2 +
Example
cxy.
togetherthese
by multiplying
hence
y*
x2 +
y*+z*=zayz,z2 + x2=bzx,
We
equations
the
x, y, z between
Eliminate
by
y,
we
obtain
Similarly
Thus
p +
.:
x3 +
Sxy2.
Bx2y+ ys.
q={x+y)3" p-q={x-y)3\
4.
Eliminate
v
?---
have
a,
the
between
We
x, y,
yf
2(x2+ y2);
Example
b,
equations
--^
c.
x(y2-z2)+y(z2-x2)+z(x2-y2)
a
xyz
_{y-z){z-x)(x-y)
xyz
If we
change the sign of x, the
signof a remains unaltered ;
hence
signsof
b and
(y-z){z+ x)(x+ y)
a-b-c"
xyz
Similarly,
b-c-a
(y+ z){z-x)(x + y)
=
xyz
and
c-a-b
xyz
are
changed, while
the
ELIMINATION.
.-.
441)
-{ul~Z")2^~fJ^ztl
y)
\z
-a?b-2c2.
."
2a262
+ 2c2a2 +
26V
a4
1.
Eliminate
from
m2x
2.
Eliminate
m\v
3.
Eliminate m,
mx
4.
my +
"
"
ny
Eliminate
q+
ny +
"
from the
0,
Eliminate
from
ax2
6.
Eliminate
y +
7.
q)=y,
y
"
3ax
0.
(1 m).
z2
d2.
equations
p-q
"
x"
k(l+pq),
xpq
equations
y2 b2, x3"y3
=
a.
c3.
equations
x2+y2 b2, #*+#*=c*.
a,
12.
1.
"
equations
c2, x2+y2+
xy
x2
a,
x+y
11.
the
x, y from the
Eliminate
x
10.
from
a2 + x2
??i),wy
a2, zx=b2,
x(p
9.
equations
(1+
mx=a
Eliminate a:,y,
yz
8.
from the
equations
2a2x + 1=0,
0.
2a-x,
qr=
the
equations
apqr=y,
5.
m2 + n2
2amu,
Of a(qr+rp+pq)
"
mn
equations
+ my
nx
"
c.
equations
the
between
p, q,
the
0, n2x
0.
my + x=Q.
a=0}
(m2 n2),
"
c4 + a262c2=
equations
?ny +
from
m,
the
"
i4
XXXIV.
EXAMPLES.
z) \y x)
\x
by +
cz
cfti
+
a#
Eliminate x, y,
x+y
from
+
rfw} y=cz
fry,w
the
equations
=
cu;
+ cfo+ a#,
+
by+
equations
0, x2+y2+ z2 a2,
=
+ 25
aP+ff+sP^fc,
^,5+y5
n. h. a.
cs.
c5.
29
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
450
Eliminate
13.
z^x^y
'
y
14.
the
from
#, y,
Eliminate
'
15.
16.
+ y 2)
(.r2
=
the
Eliminate
from
#, y,
equations
Z"y, 2(x2-y2)
ax
abc
c3
b3
x, y from
Eliminate
the
ax
(x+y
from
x, y,
z)(x-y
the
z) ayz,
(y+
a?,y from
the
x2y=a,
19.
Shew
that
is the eliminant
c2.
)2 4c2#y.
=
x) (y
y)
x)
6s#,
cxy.
c.
ax
the
by +
cz
=yz
zx
+ xy
0.
equations
=
"
=c.
"
5a2b2c2
of
ax+yz
22.
+ cz2
fry2
that
is the eliminant
x(x-{-y) b, 2x-\-y
#, y from
Eliminate
Shew
equations
ax2-t-by2=ax+by
21.
xy
of
cm;2+
20.
(a+6
"
Eliminate
by,
equations
(z+x"y) (z
18.
+
(a;
Eliminate
equations
+ #)2 46^,
(y-f-z)2 4a2yz, (2;
17.
y)
g2fo+ff)a^a!l(
a3
xj\x
equations
ff2(y+z) y2(z+ x)
=
zj\z
\y
the
from
#, y,
equations
Eliminate
bc, by +
x, y,
cz +
zx=cai
xy
ab, xyz=abc.
from
x2+y2+z2=x
+ y +
z=l,
^(x-p)=-(y-q)=C-{z-r).
23.
Employ
ax3 +
Bezout's method
to eliminate
a'x3 +
x, y
from
+ c'xy2
+ d'y3
b'x2y
=
0.
ALGEBHA.
HIGHER
452
538.
the
Denote
by/(a;)0,
givenequation
=
roots,and
real
P*'
imaginary;let
or
more.
where
+
f(x)=pQ"?+PJXT1+2"2xn~"'
The
no
that
so
x-a},
this be
f(x) (x-ai)"f"l(x),
function of n-1
"t"(x)is a rational integral
0 has a root real or
*"
the equation
=
where
Igain,
"0^^**
dimensions
"""
divisibleby x-a2,
is
so
that
fa^^ix-aj^x),
function of
2 dimensions.
is a rational integral
"f"a(x)
/(a") (" ",)(* O *b(*"
Thus
where
this way,
Proceedingin
we
the
Hence
when
sc
f(x)=
equation
has any
Also the
0 has
(* a-)*
roots, since f(x)
-
cannot
equation
f(x)
In the above
x.
of the
some
investigation
equal;in
the
investigate
To
539.
vanishes
any
may
quantities
al,a2,a3,...anj
that
shall suppose
are
not
the
all different.
and
the
in any equation.
coefficients
Let
us
the
denote
by
equation
xn+p1xn-l+2"2xn~2+ +Pn-lX
and
the roots
by
a,
b, c,
k;
then
we
have
P"
0"
identically
x"+p1xn-l+2)0xn~'+ +Pn-ix+P"
hence, with the notation of Art. 163, we
xn
have
+
+Pn.^+Pm
+paxn-*
+plxH~l
+ (- iy-%-^
+ Ssx*~*
wT
Sxxn~l
-
(x-k)'}
(x-a) (x-b)(x-c)
(" !)"","
THE011Y
Equatingcoefficients of
-
OF
Sl~ sum
of the roots ;
pa
S"
of the
sum
of
like powers
%"x
"
453
EQUATIONS.
in this
productsof
identity,
the roots
taken
at
three at
two
time;
"pB
of the
Sa -sum
"
productsof
time ;
the roots.
Po
+ ay + a2z =
these
satisfythe cubic
From
hence
a31 x
equations we
equation
by + b2z
see
that
b*, x
a,
", e
-(bc+
+ b + c, y=
ca
requiredequationis
the values
are
equationx3+p1x3+-PzC+pa=0,
if y
x2 ;
0.
But
{x + a)(x+ b) (x+ c) x3
hence
the
pxx2+p."
pv
requiredequation is
(x3+p1x'z
+p2x +p3)(x3-pxx2+p*x -p3) 0,
=
(x3+p")2
or
and
if we
replacex2 by y,
(pxx2
+p3)2 0,
=
x2 p.2
(2ft j^2)x4 + (p.2 2p1p.i)
x6 +
or
we
0;
obtain
of t which
abc.
Thus
cy + c2z = c*.
ab),x
0;
2.
or
that
(- 1)"^
Po
t3-zt2-yt-x
Example
P0
The
abc...k
V,
Example 1.
the
have
form
Po
Pu
by
term
+P"=1X+ P"=0
;-1xn-l+]-^x"-2+
Po
"
dividingeach
on
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
454
might suppose
student
The
540.
any proposed
is
relations
to
of
the
equal the number
equation;for the number
that is this not the
A little reflection will shew
of the roots.
1 of the quantities
eliminate
n
we
for suppose
any
case
determine
the remaining
b,c,...kand so obtain an equationto
in the
to solve
him
enable
article would
preceding
"
a,
involved
are
symmetricallyin
quantities
shall always obtain an
it is clear that we
each of the equations,
this equationis therefore
coefficients;
equationhavingthe same
stituted
the original
equationwith some one of the roots a, b,c,...ksubthen
one;
since these
for
Let
us
x.
take for
x3
let a,
and
be the
b,c
pxx2+
p2x
ac
+ c
"]:"x"
bc=
ps)
abc=
by a2,
Multiplythese equations
rf
a3 +
is,
which
The
above
by
or
will sometimes
enable
to obtain
us
are
p3
in the
in arithmetical
is
placeof
x.
quitegeneral,and
of
equationare
provedin Art.
properties
the completesolution.
roots
Example 1.
0,
is
degree.
any
of the
more
add ; thus
-l\rf-l\u"-p3i
the
assignedrelation,
an
and
respectively
of elimination
process
If two
a, I
pxa?+ p2a
of
to equations
applicable
541.
p3.
"
equationwith
original
is the
0;
roots; then
ab
that
p3
an
24a;2+ 23x + 18
nected
con-
539
0, having given
progression.
Denote
of the roots is 3a ; the
the roots by a
b, a, a + b ; then the sum
of the products of the roots two at a time is 3a2
62 ; and the product
of the roots is a (a2 62)
the
hence
have
we
equations
;
-
sum
3a
6, 3a2-Z"2
^, a(a2-62)=-|;
5
from
find
2, and
from
the
second
and
6="-,
a
the roots
are
2,
"
are
consistent.
OF
THEORY
Example
2.
455
EQUATIONS.
14.r2
(ftx + 45
0, one
root
being
double another.
Denote
the roots by
obtain
equations,we
have
we
2a-6=-^.
^, 2a2 + 3a"=--^,
Sa + b =
From
2a, b\ then
a,
8a2-2a-3
1
3
a
.-.
0;
25
-or--and"=--or-.
1
It will be found
on
a=
25
6=
--,
do not
satisfy
15
the third
equation2a26
"
hence
are
we
3
a
the roots
Thus
are
Although we
w
equation,e can make
"
the roots
functions
symmetrical
of the squares
sum
x3
by a, b, c
a
-px2 +
;
",
a3 + b3 +
.-.
bc +
b+
(a+
"p2
Again, substitute
b, c for
qx-r
0.
"
c)2
-
in the
+ ab
ca
(bc+
If a, 6, c, d
are
q.
ca
ab)
2q.
givenequationand add;
b+
c3=p(p2-2q)-pq
=p3
Example 2.
and
of the roots.
then
+ b + c=p,
a2 + b2 + c2 =
Now
use
the values of
"
may
of the
Denote
b=--.
-v
542.
to determine
c)-Sr
thus
0;
+ Sr
Spq 4- dr.
the roots of
xA +px* +
qx2+
rx
+ d
+ ad + bc + bd + cd
0,
We
have
ab +
ac
+ b+
"
q
-r
(1),
(2),
(3).
456
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
From
these
have
equationswe
-pq
.-.
2a-b
Sa26 + 3
Sa26-3r;
3r-pq.
+
(dbc
XXXV.
EXAMPLES.
Form
the
1.
|,|,"V"
3.
2, 2, -2, -2, 0,
Solve the
3:
equationwhose
roots
5.
86x2
are
2.
0, 0, 2, 2, -3,
4.
1 76# + 105
a? -16x3+
6.
4r3 + 16.r2 9x
7.
4^ + 2(Xr2 23.r + 6
8.
Sx3
9.
2a?
36
b, a-b,
-a
-3.
b, -a-b.
0, two of the
22#-
"
24
0, the
7.
being zero.
being equal.
being
roots
and
of the roots
roots
of the
0, two
sum
being1
roots
of two
0, the
"
x2
0, two
26x2 + 52.27 24
"
a.
equations:
5.
"
roots
in
geometricalprogression.
being in the
ratio of
4.
10.
24x* + 46.2?2
+ 9#
"
beingdouble
root
0, one
another
of the
roots.
11.
"r4
oppositein
2^
-27^,2 + 6# + 9
0,
of the roots
two
sign.
12.
54^
13.
32^3-48^2+22^-3
14.
6#*
-39^2-26^7+
29^
+ 40a3
16
0, the
roots
being in geometricalprogression.
1x -12
0, the productof
two
of the roots
being2.
15.
#*
0, the
roots
being
in arithmetical
progression.
16.
27.274-195.273
+ 494.r2- 520.27+ 192
0,
the
roots
being in
metrical
geo-
progression.
17. 18a3
other two,
8U2 + 121.37+ 60
0, one
root
being half
the
sum
of the
OF
THEORY
If a,
18.
b,c
are
457
EQUATIONS.
equationXs -paP+qx
0, find
the value of
^+1
+ 162
c2
a2
(1)
If a,
19.
(1) {h-cy
(c-a)*+ (a-b)\
Find
20.
c are
"",
the
#* +
Find
21.
the
i,+
t
c2rt2 aaja
"
qx2+
rx
0.
sum
+r
of the squares
sum
(2)
'
'
of the roots of
x3+qx+r=Q.
543.
7?i
in
occur
equationwith
an
real
coefficients
imaginary
roots
pairs.
is
an
an
"
factor of
The
(x
Let
"
ib)(x
"
"
divided
these two
ib),or (x
the
"
Rx
put
identity
(x a)2+
-
b2
zero
is not
by hypothesis
.-.
Hence
b2.
the
quotientby
E.
by hypothesis
; also
0.
imaginaryparts,
Rb
E=Q,
0;
zero,
0 and
0.
(x
hence
"
(a+ ib)+
Ra
b
ib,then f(x)
0 ; hence
Equatingto
and
roots is
',
a)2+
"
f(x) be
Q, and
to
f(x) corresponding
a-ib
544.
is also
In the
f{x)
0 has
is a factor of the
"
ib)(x
"
ib)\
root.
precedingarticle we have
a pairof imaginaryroots
f(x).
expression
seen
a
"
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
458
+ /}....
+ d2}{(x-e)2
+ b2}{(x-c)2
"j"(x){(x-a)2
=
of these factors is
each
Now
hence
543
in Art.
As
545.
we
surd
rational coefficients,
a
root then
is 2
root
one
Since
6z4
13z3
hence
35a:2
+ 3
Example
are
0,
"/2+
we
^/
-
must
3,
the
of whose
coefficients,
one
+ 3
0, havinggiven
+ 11*
1) (6a;2
or
+ 1)(2z+ 3)=0;
(3a;
2 +
^/3,2-^3.
equation
is
of
3) ;
,J2+ sj
rational
3.
3 as another
degree with
fourth
the
/J-3,J2-J-
/J2+
roots
have
J2
4x +
{x2
sponding
corre-
Form
2.
is
obtained from
are
35z2
2+^/3
root, we
6a;2+ 11a; + 3
Here
13x3
know
that
to this pairof roots we have the
Also
Jb
^3.
is
2-^/3
root.
equation6z4
Solve the
Example 1.
that
is also
Jb
a-
equationwith
an
pairs;that is,if a
in
enter
roots
that in
shew
may
of x;
value
as
one
pair
of roots, and
pair.
+ 5,
Correspondingto the first pairwe have the quadraticfactor x2 2/v/2x
factor
to the second pairwe have the quadratic
corresponding
-
and
x2 +
Thus
the
2fJ2x+
5.
requiredequationis
(x2+ 5)2-8a2 0,
or
a^ + 2x2 + 25
or
Example
3.
that the
Shew
A2
x-b
x-a
has
no
equation
B2
+
0.
C2
7
H2
+
...
'
,=",
"
x-h
x-c
imaginaryroots.
If possible
let p + iq be a root ; then p
iq is also a root. Substitute
these values for x and subtract the first result from the second ; thus
-
A2
{(p-ai)2+ q2
B2
C2
(p-b)2+ q2^(p-c)2+ q2
which is impossible
unless q
H*
'
""
'
(p-h)2+
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
460
Hence
product
ambiguityreplaceseach
that in the
see
we
(i)an
of
continuation
sign in
the
polynomial;
original
after
and
the signsbefore
(ii)
ambiguityor
an
us
of
at the end.
unfavourable
and
case
replacedby
whether
of changes of signwill be the same
that the number
take the upper or the lower signs;let us take the upper;
of changes of signcannot be less than in
the number
are
ambiguities
the
this series of
and
with
If then
we
signsis the
same
change of
additional
an
biguities
am-
unlike;
are
Let
set
-+,
in the
as
original
polynomial
to the negative
corresponding
each factor
alreadymultiplied
together,
positiveroot introduces at least one
the factors
suppose
imaginaryroots to be
to a
a
x
corresponding
therefore
of
no
equationcan
change
sign;
roots than it has changesof sign.
and
"
Again,the
we
thus
roots of the
have
positive
more
equation
f("x) 0 are equalto those
in sign;therefore the negative
of /(^) 0 but opposite
to them
the positive
of f(x)-0 are
of /*(-#) 0; but the
roots
roots
of these positive
exceed
roots
number
the number
cannot
of
changes of signin f{" x); that is,the number of negativeroots
exceed the number
of f(x) 0 cannot
of changes of sign in
/(- ""
=
there
two
are
x* + Ix + 2
0.
are
at most
two
roots.
positive
EXAMPLES.
Solve the
1.
3xA
"
b.
equations:
lO.'o"3
+ 4x2
"
2.
6s4
3.
xA + 4-r3+ 5x2 + %x -2
XXXV.
three changes
are
negativeroots,and
l"e3
35#2
+ 3
=
0, one
0, one
0, one
root
root
root
being
being2
being
1+
N/3.
,J^1
THEORY
OF
4.
X* + 4./,-"
+ G.f2+ 4x + 5
5.
Solve
another
"2J-
^3
and
one
Form
the equationof lowest
of whose roots is
+ 8x2-9x
equation x5-xA
the
8.
-J^l+J5.
9.
N/5+ 2x/6.
the
equationwhose
roots
are
"
11.
Form
the
equationwhose
roots
are
1"
12.
Fomi
the
Find
13.
coefficients,
*/
1.
"/- 2, 2" J
-3.
a/3,5
=l
rational
with
efficients
co-
"
the nature
Shew
3xi + l2x2
14.
being
root
one
rational
7.
Form
of
0,
with
dimensions
10.
one
15
"
1.
siZ+J^2.
-J2-J^2.
6.
being "/-l.
root
0, one
4G L
EQUATIONS.
+ bx-4
0.
4.V3
equation 2.v7 xA +
that the
equation
at least four
0 has
imaginaryroots.
What
15.
may
be inferred
roots of the
the
respecting
equation
a-10-4a6 + xA -2.y-3=0?
the
Find
(1)
(2)
imaginary
of the
roots
"
17.
of
least possiblenumber
0.
o?" + xA + x2 + 1
Find
equation x"
16.
two roots
the roots
-px2 + qx r 0
equal but of opposite
sign;
in geometrical
progression.
=
have
may
if
"
in
are
they
arc
19.
If a,
value of
1
xn
equation
(l-a)(l-/3)(l-7)
b,c
are
20.
Za2b2.
22.
If a,
b,c, d
24.
%a*b"
(*!)"
+
are
the roots
of
are
1,a, /3,y,
shew
.
=n.
equationx3-px2
+ qx
-r
0, find the
21.
23.
$a2b.
xA+px3 +
25.
qx- +
$a\
that
.,
rx
462
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
f (x) is
548.
rationed
+
+Pn-ix +Pn i then
f(x)=pQxn+plxn~l+P2X"~2
+
+ h)"-*
+2"2(x
fix + h) p0(x+ h)n+2\ (x+ h)H~}
+2\-Ax + h)+Pn
Let
Expanding
powers of h, we
each
result in
arrangingthe
and
term
ascending
have
+
+2^xn~2
Poxn-\-2\xn~l
...
+pn.lx+pn
+
+ (n-2) p2xn~3
{np^-1+ (n- ljjyrf-1
p^}
2pn_2}
^{n(n-l)p0x"-2
(n-l)(n-2)Plx'"-3+...
...+
^{n(n-l)(n-2)...2.12"0}\nl
usuallywritten
This result is
in the form
functions
the
who
student
The
the
first,
the elements
knows
called
f (x),
f"(x),f"(x),...are
derived functionsoifix).
second,third,...
and
...
see
that
Similarlyby
J
\X),
the
successive
"
h in the
+
f(x-h)=f(x)-h/'(x)
The
x
differentiations
obtain
we
fix),
....
By writing
to
above
function
and
h;
placeof h, we
have
h'f"(x)Jff'"(x)+...
{- I)-%-f{x).
f(x + h)
is
evidentlysymmetrical with
hence
i
,n
fix
h)=/(h)+ xf (h)+
*r
"
(h)+
...
f/*(h).
\n
respect
THEORY
OF
463
EQUATIONS.
f"(x),....
/"(#),
f'(x),
functions
If
Example.
/ {x)
=
2x*
/ (x) 2x*
Here
x*
xs
2xz + 5x
2x* + 5x
Sx"-
4x +
1,
that
so
/ (3)= 131
/ (x+ 3).
and -^
^-)=12a"-3aj-2,
97;
=
QS-te-1,and/-^3)
23;
=
ii
/ (x+ 3) 2s4 + 23r*
Thus
Let
549.
put x
Now
"
h;
"
suppose
hence
we
that
have
f [x)then
the
+pn_lx
...
pn;
becomes
identity
+ p2xn~2
+...
p0x"+p1xn~l
=
systematically
by Horner's
+ p2x"~2
+
f{x)=p0xn+p1xn~1
h, and
more
qo(x-h)n+qx(x-h)-1+
+pn_1x
.
pn
qn_x(x h)+
-
qn ;
x-h;
also the
q0(x-h)*-l+ql{x-hy-'+...+qH_i.
Similarlyqn_l is the remainder found by dividingthe last
from the division is
expression
by x- h, and the quotientarising
9o(x-hT'2+ QAx-hT~3
and
so
equalto
-+Qn-2'}
on.
j)0-
"""
464
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Example.
Find
the result of
changing x
into
+ 3
in the
expression
2a;4_^_2x2+5x-l.
Or
Hence
be remarked
It may
that Horner's
process
is
more
thus
briefly
Art. 548.
Compare
in numerical
useful
chiefly
work.
If
550.
the variable
functionf (x)will
Let
We
and
c +
from a to
changescontinuously
changecontinuously
from f (a)to f (b).
x
h be any two
values of
lyingbetween
b the
and
b.
have
+|/"(e);
vw+"/"W+-
/("+*)-/(")=
and
551.
It is
small
importantto
notice that
/(a) to
have
we
fib),or
not
decreases
proved that
from f(a)
fib),but
The
student
who
has
knowledgeof
the elements
of Curve-
the
follow
y
one
the
=f(x).
root
of
As
from
changesgradually
from f(a)to f(b),
and
gradually
x
to
therefore
must
pass
through all
OF
THEORY
intermediate
values;but
4G5
EQUATIONS.
since
and b.
553.
root whose
In the function
then
successively,
"
oo
and
for
the values
least
co
one
real
0, -co
If pn
f(x) substitute
at
+ co,
co
For in this
one
case
/(+co) +co,
f(0)=pn, f(-co) + co;
hence f(x) 0 has a root lyingbetween
pn is negative;
and
root
+ co
a
co
lyingbetween 0 and
=
but
and
its
Suppose that
a)(x /3)
(x y) (x k ); then
f(x) (x a)(x"/3)(x-y)
Hence
f (a) (a a)(a /3)
(a y)
(x
"
"
"
"
...
"
"
"
"
(x )""(x).
(a k)"/"
(")"
"
...
"
...
/(8)=(5-a)(6-J3)(6-r)...(ft-K)*(5).
Now
and "f"(b)
must be of the same
"{"(a)
sign,for otherwise a
root of the equation
0, and therefore of f (x) 0, would
"j""(.x')
lie between
and b [Art.552],
which is contraryto the hypoa
=
H. H. A.
30
466
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
if
Hence
thesis.
and
/(a)
contrary signs,the
have
/(b)
ex
pressions
(a a)(a-fi)(a-y)
-
(a k),
-
...
(b-a)(b-P)(b-y)...(b-K)
contrarysigns.Also the factors in the firstexpression
have
must
and
positive,
all
are
the number
hence
be
of factors must
roots a,
of
number
of
be
In this
even.
the
givencondition
the
case
/ (x)
=
the
Here
of them
/{x)
"
it does
and
b.
(x k).
"
k are
not necessarily
unequal.
quantities
a, b, c,
then
t
to
to
to
s
are
b,
equal a,
c,
/(x) p0 (x a)r(x b)s(x c)'
...
"
it is convenient
case
havingn
as
b ; thus
equation
/(x) 0,then
...
this
0
"
"
is satisfied
root between
a)(x-b)(x c)
j?0(x
In
less than
If a,
556.
signthe
same
negative;
if a,
not
all
are
...
factors must
If
second
factors in the
the
"
still to
roots,each of the
distinct root.
557.
equationf
Write
divided
by (x a)r
;
"
"
h in the
/(x
placeof
+
+ "'(x)+
.-../(")
/(x) is
the
"
Let
then
a, then
x;
h) (x-a
=
thus
+
h)r4"(x+h);
%/"(x)+..
.
Ux-a)rr(x-a)r-xh ...\U(x)
hcf"'(x)+~
"}""(x)+
...]
+
In this
identity,
by equatingthe
coefficients of
A, we
have
contains the
Thus/'(aj)
is,the equation/' (x) 0
=
factor
has
?"
x-a
-
repeatedr-\
equalto a.
1 roots
times;that
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
4fi8
roots
that if the equation/^)0 has r
But
to
/(a) 0 has r 1 roots equal a.
equalto a, the equation
of f (x);hence the equation
r(x) is the first derived function
the equation
roots equalto a; similarly
0 must have r-2
IheseL
3 roots equalto a; and so on.
have r
o must
discover the equal
considerations will sometimes enable us to
the method ot Art. 559.
roots of f(x) 0 with less trouble than
=
have
We
560
seen
f'\x)
f"tx\
=
If
561.
a,
b, c, ...k
the roots
are
prove that
f(x)
v
M+M
'
We
f (x+ h) (x
=
equal to the
(1);therefore,as
f(x)
of
*,,
"
,
that
is,
f'(x)
=
to find the
sum
Example.
in Art.
Let
Ax)
+^-{
x-b
"
h)
...
(1).
right-hand
in the
163,
(x-k)+
f(x)
Ax)
^-J
x
+...
-/^/
"
...;
"
'"
of
an
the
of the
sum
t=
fcthpowers
of the roots
of the
0,
Now
',
f(x)=x5+pxli+ qx* +
then
(x-k
/" (")+...
r^
coefficient of h
x5+px* + qx2+
...
result of the
If Sk denote
equation
(x)+
h)
...
Ax)
J^^x
The
h)(x-c
(x-k) + (x-a)(x- c)
...
562.
4-
is
f(x)= (x-b)(x-c)
t',
4ps3+ 2qx.
fix)
Z^=rf+(a+P)x3+
so
and
h)(x
(x-k);
...
x,
h )=/(").+ hf
f(x +
member
placeof
+
But
hence
x-k
x-c
h in the
M+...+lWk.
have
writingx
x-b
x-a
similar
expressionshold for
/(*)
fw
/")
/w
x-b'
x-c'
x-d'
x-e'
a4 +
a?p+
aq-,
THEUltY
409
EQUATIONS.
by addition,
Hence
5ar*+
OF
x2
{Si+pS2 + 5q)x
{S4+p83 + qSJ.
By equatingcoefficients,
S1+ 5p
S2+pSl
S3+pS2
S4+pS3
+ oq
"p, whence
8X
0, whence
S2=pz;
2q, whence
S3
."
qSx 0, whence
p ;
p%-Sq;
S4=pi + 4j)q.
k, we
proceed as follows.
results,we
Put k
adding the
5 ; thus
S5+pS4
6 ; thus
5t =
qS2+
-p5 op2q
0,
bt.
S6+pS5
whence
To
0.
a, b, c, d, e and
Sk +pSk_x + qSk_3+ tSk_5 0.
S5
=
obtain
whence
Put k
qx*~3+ to*-5
qS3+ tSx 0,
+ Sq2+ bpt.
S6=p6 + 6p'*q
find
5_4,put
Si+pS3
4, 3, 2, 1 in succession;then
+
S_x 0;
2,/
S3+pS2
5q + tS_2 0, whence
S_.2=
S_3 0;
"_4
563.
as
When
in the
Example.
the
coefficients
following
example.
Find
the
x*-2x2
Here
+ x-l
x*-2x2
f(x)
=
/ -.-'
f(x)
/l
=
i",
Xs
X~
X3
x*
"
X*
"+...
o"
Oo
a3
+
x-
-+"
X
a2
\x
=
x-c
+_+-
l.
x"b
x-
x-l,
we
may
of the roots of
0.
f'(x) Sx2-"x
Also
Ap
-
sum
numerical
are
"
also proceed
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
470
#4
which
is very
coefficientof
the
equal to
is
hence
in the
the method
obtained by
conveniently
of
division
synthetic
as
follows :
3-4
+ 3
6-3
4-2
-1
4-
2 + 2
10-5
+ 5
3 + 2 + 2 + 5 + 10 +
2
the
Hence
quotientis
-2 +
2
-3 +
10
-4 +
-g +
S.
10.
thus
XXXV.
EXAMPLES.
xA
If
f{x)
2.
If
f(x)=xi-
3.
If
/(#)
4.
If
f(x)=x*
5.
If
6.
Shew
0 and
between
2#4
I2x3 + 11x2-9x
13#2
16^
the
10a;
"
equation 10a*3
17#2 +#+6=0
equationx*
between
2 and
root
70
0 has
root
3 =0
has
root
Shew
a
has
3.
8. Shew
that the equation x*
l"2x2+ I2x
between
4 and another between 2 and 3.
3 and
9.
1.
3, and
4).
ex
4).
12x2 + 64a;
that
+ 39#2 + 76o;+
10^
1.
c.
that x5
root between
Solve the
5x*
+
-
20x2
4 and
19a;
0 has
following
equationswhich have equalroots
10.
a;4-9a;2+ 4a;+12
12.
13.
x5-x3 + 4x2-3x
15.
xG-3x5
16.
x6
17.
root between
2x*
0.
6x3-3x2-3x
11.
14.
0.
+ 2
2 and
5.
^-6^
+ 12^_
1007 + 3
108=0.
8^ + 4^3-18^+11^-2=0.
0.
18a; + 18
0.
=
Q.
0.
TRANSFORMATION
0, 4#*
18.
2s*
19.
4#* + 1 2x*
20.
21.
Shew
22.
have
2a-3+ x2 + 3x -6
#2 -15.*;
that xi +
common
have
0, 6^4 +
1 3a;3
x1l-px2+
4a;2
r=0
roots in
0.
equalroots.
equalroots.
three
equations
xs-2x2 + 2x-l
=0
common.
equation
nxn~1 + n (n 1)xn~2
...
\n
=
equalroots.
Q has
three
equal roots,
ax3 + bx2 +
equationxA +
If the
25.
have
may
0.
1 bx
have
0 cannot
0 and
2s3 + 3x -9
that the
xn +
cannot
qx2+
(1)one, (2)two
Shew
23.
is
26. If x5-hqx3
+ rx2 +
them will be a root of the
equalto
t
"
equationx3
27.
In the
28.
In the
equationxi
equalroots,
^r
equal roots,prove
4qr
that
one
of
0.
x3 -1x2 +
has three
"
0 has two
+ d=0
cx
quadratic
15rx2 6q2x+ 25*
and
have
ax2 + bx +
may
471
EQUATIONS.
equationswhich
following
Find
roots
OF
S6.
Transformation
564.
discussion
The
of
an
it into another
by transforming
assignedrelation to those of the
useful in the
are
especially
of
Equations.
equations.
Let
Put
To
f(x)
-y
0 be the
for x;
root
of
equationf("y)
its signchanged;
the
0 with
0.
are
proposedequation.
then
f(x)
is
equation f("y)
every
roots
is satisfied by
thus the required
0
472
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
proposedequationis
If the
then it is evident
p0yn-py~l
p2f~2
from
is obtained
which
equationwill
required
that the
(- irxA-,y + (- W.
o,
the
alternate term
signof every
be
Let
To
0 be
f{x)
chief
The
and
proposedequation,
the
y
qx,
"
that
so
the
then
the
required
0.
of this transformation
use
"
let q denote
is to clear
equationof
an
fractional coefficients.
Remove
Example.
fractional coefficientsfrom
the
equation
*"-"*-* .+1-0.
Put
multiplyeach
and
term
and
integral,
become
dividingby 2,
on
obtain
we
ys-Sy2-y
the
thus
13
By puttingq
by q3;
567.
To
Let
f(x)
0.
"
; then
the
be
the
proposedequation
; put
requiredequationisy( )
-
roots
are
so
that
0.
One
values
of the chief
of
uses
of this transformation
expressionswhich
negativepowers
of the roots.
involve
is to obtain the
symmetricalfunctions of
TRANSFORMATION
If a, b,
Example 1.
Xs
-px2 +
for x,
"
r.,
a2
Write
qx
equation
0,
-s
b-
473
EQUATIONS.
are
OF
c-
the
re-
y
-1
ry9 qy2+py
equation
suiting
0,
111
has for its roots
''
a'
hence
2-
b'
^, S-=
=-:
ab
q2 2pr
-
a2
If a,
Example 2.
b, c
r-
the roots of
are
"3 + 2x2-3x-l
Writing
-
equation is
y*+ Sy2-2y-l
and
the
0,
is equal to
givenexpression
Here
0;
the value of
Ss in
this
equation.
S1=-3;
"2=(-3)2-2(-2)
and
13;
S3+ 3S.2-2S1-3 0;
=
whence
obtain
we
S,= -42.
1
568.
is called
If
a
If the
an
equationis
unaltered
by changingx
into
"
it
reciprocal
equation.
givenequationis
+ ^=0,
xn+Plxn-l+p2x"-2+ +1-"n_2xi+Pn_iX
the
equationobtained by writing
for x, and
of
clearing
fractions
is
V"?
+ pn-X~2 +
l\-pn~x
If these two
Fl
'
p
from
"
"
+l\n2+PF
"
are
equations
the same,
?'2
V"-*~
'
'""'
we
'
p
=*fc
1,
must
+1
0.
have
*-"-"
and
thus
'
P"-p
we
have
"
two
474
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
is,the coefficients of
that
and
end
2"n
end
If
of
If
has
before
so
If
even
an
root
0 is
reciprocal
equation.
=0
is
"f"(x)
degree.
of
reciprocal
equation
second
of
class and
odd
an
degree,it
"j"
(x)
=
as
of
degree.
0 is of the
f(x)
has
x2
1,and
"
even
an
0 is of the
f(x)
even
an
equal in
"
f (x)
then
quotient,
and
""TO=0.
ning
beginand
in
magnitude
opposite sign,and
degreethe middle term is wanting.
=
"1;
Ps=-pn-3,
=
Supposethat f (x)
569.
root
are
equationis of
if the
beginning
dimensions
of 2m
pm
pmi or
from the
tlie coefficients of terms equidistant
case
and
p2=-pn-2,
equationis
if the
In this
the
1) then
p,=-ps_1,
hence
from
equidistant
terms
equal.
are
If
(ii)
'"
Pb=P*-B"
P*=P*-"
Px=Pn-^
root
class and
+
as
of
Hence
1 and
class and
second
1;
before "f"(x)
Q is a
a
root
an
even
of
degree,it
in this case f{x) is divisible by
reciprocal
equationof the first
degree.
reciprocal
equationis of
be reduced to
or
can
positive,
any
considered
be
even
an
the
as
degreewith
even
an
thisform; which
of
form
standard
may
reciprocal
equations.
A
570.
to
an
Let the
ax2m
xm
be
can
duced
re-
equationbe
bx2m-] + cx2m~2 +
dividing
by
a
reciprocal
equationof the standard form
equationof halfits dimensions.
xm and
...
kxm
...
the terms,
rearranging
ex2
we
bx
0;
have
i)+6(^'+5L)+.(.r-'+;
476
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
equation
by
roots exceed
equationwhose
the
Find
Example.
2 the
0.
2 for
be obtained by substituting
x
proposed equation ; hence in Horner's process we employ x + 2 as
and the calculation is performed as follows :
The
requiredequation will
chief
The
573.
article is to
use
the
substitution
assignedterm
some
remove
of
+ p2xn~2
+
+ p1x"~l
2?Qx"
if y
from
in
an
in the
a;
divisor,
preceding
equation.
the
givenequationbe
Let the
then
of the
roots
obtain
h, we
"
the
...
new
+pn_xx+pn
0;
equation
A^+*)"+ip16r+*r,+A(y+*ri+-+p.=0i
which, when
arrangedin descendingpowers
1
(/w
(77,
*"
"2
If the term
so
that
"
to be removed
:
"
is the
if the term
of y, becomes
second,we
=o.
+i\yf~*+-"
put npji+
is the third
to be removed
])l
we
np0
n(n-\)
-^2
"
and
any
so
obtain
other
"
Poh
quadraticto
assignedterm.
a
(n l)l\h+P*
-
find h \ and
""
we
similarly
may
remove
0,
put
OF
TRANSFORMATION
it will be
Sometimes
convenient
more
477
EQUATIONS
proceedas
to
in the
followingexample.
Remove
Example.
the second
from
term
px? + qx2+
Let
by "-
dp
will be
equal to
be
that
be the roots, so
/9,7
a,
rx
in the transformed
that
equation
0.
p+
the
y=
Then
--.
equation the
if
increase
we
of the roots
sum
term
will
zero.
Hence
the
requiredtransformation
will be effected
x--~
by substituting
6p
for
in the
574.
whose
givenequation.
From
roots
the
equationf(x)
connected
are
with
we
may
of the
those
form
equation
givenequationby
an
assignedrelation.
some
y) 0
y be a root of the requiredequationand let cf"(x,
the assignedrelation;
then the transformed
equationcan
Let
denote
function of y by means
a; as
a
by expressing
of the equation"" (x,y) 0 and substituting
this value of x
f(x) "; or by eliminatingx between the equationsf(x)
and "f"
(x,y) 0.
be obtained
either
in
Q
Example 1. If a, b, c are
the equationwhose roots
form
in the
"
givenequation,y
a-
ab
ca
1
,
r=0,
"
be
When
qx +
are
11
a
equationx3+p"x2+
in the
=-
transformed
equationj
but
a-"
"
and
+ -;
=a
"
be
abc
equationwill
be obtained
or
~-
1 +
thus the
requiredequation is
r2y3+Pr{l+ r)y2+ q{l + r)2y+ (l+ r)*
=
Example
2.
Form
the
the substitution
ry
y
v
by
equation
whose
roots
are
0.
the
squares
of the
Let
a, b,
equation are
Q.
478
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
2a6c
(b-c)2
Now
fc2+ c2-2fcc
a2 + "2 + c2-a2-
2abc
(a+
c)2
b +
(be+
ah)
ca
a2
-25-a2
^;
a
also
when
in
the
given equation, y
(b-c)2
the
in
transformed
equation;
2r
.*.
?/=
2o-
a;JH
Thus
have to eliminate
we
the
between
equations
xs + qx + r=0,
.r3+
and
By subtraction
(2#+ y)x
3r ;
(#+?/)#
=
or
4^3
0.
(-)
is
that
negative,
+ qx +
have
0 may
+(f) must
equation has
4#3=0 the transformed
has
two
roots.
equal
original
equation
If 27r2 +
the
all positive
; therefore
a:
+ 27,-2+
+ 9^
ys+ 6(2^2
in
0.
obtain
and reducing,
we
Substituting
Hence
2r
be
1.
Transform
the
XXXV.
equationx3
4#2 +
"
3.
2x4 + x3-6x2
4.
^-10^
5.
x*-5xi + 9x3-9x2
6.
Idx3 + 57 x2
+ 2
+ 1
0.
26^-10^+1
5.^-1
imaginaryroots,
negativeroot in
0 into another
equations:
x
negativeroot
with
therefore
d.
the equation3xA
5x3 + x2
2. Transform
whose
first term is unity.
the coefficientof
Solve the
negative.
root zero,
one
the transformed
If 27r2 + 4g3 is positive,
equation has
therefore
the
have two
must
originalequation
[Art.553],
since it is only such a pair of roots which
can
produce a
the transformed equation.
EXAMPLES.
0.
=
0.
-
Mx
+ 4
0.
0 into another
TRANSFORMATION
The
8.
479
EQUATIONS.
equation3./,-322.r2+
7. Solve the
in harmonica!
are
OF
48.r
32
0, the
of which
roots
progression.
of x3
roots
lLr2 + 36#-36
in harmonica!
are
gression
pro-
; find them.
that the
shew
progression,
Solve the
10.
which
equationx3
9.
mean
equation4(Xr4-22^-2Lr2
in harmonica!
are
from the
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Transform
by
1 7.v+ 300
of
roots
0.
equationa^-j
roots
corresponding
the
0.
exceed
in harmonica!
equations:
the
are
progression.
Remove
ax2 +x"b=0
root is 3b.
7=0
"
of the
mto
whose
one
roots
givenequation.
22
16.
Diminish
17.
Find the
root of the
than
18.
by
the
Find
the
Form
equationwhose
x* + x3
19.
roots
equationwhose
roots
roots
b,c
greater by unity
0.
of the roots of
0.
of the roots of
the cubes
are
0.
is
r-0, form
equationwhose
the
are
20.
24.
~n
27.
are
29.
+ r,
b
Shew
givenby
28.
b2c\c2a2,a2b2.
21.
+ b
the
-,
c
25.
26.
roots
of x3 + qx
the roots
are
roots
the squares
are
2x2 + x+
x3 + 3x2 + 2
If a,
equation
"3,63,c3.
b
+
--
of x3 + ax2+bx
Solve
the equation x*
of the form ", "a,b,
"
bx*
+ ab=0
are
0.
bx3 + 2bx2 + 4a
20
0, whose
b,c.
are
in harmonica]
gression,
pro-
480
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Cubic
575.
The
generaltype
Equations.
of
x3+Px2
explainedin
simplerform
but
as
which
shall take
we
To
576.
Let
x3 + qx
as
the
to
0,
form
equationx3 +
qx
z3 +
=y3 +
present y,
that their
equation; if
q
be reduced
equationcan
the standard
of
cubic
equation.
0.
z3 +
3yz(y+ z) y3+
=
z3 +
y3+
3yz +
fi=0,
3yzx,
givenequationbecomes
the
At
equationis
; then
x3
and
Qx
solve the
cubic
equalto
further
we
0.
quantities
subjectto
two
any
is
sum
0, they are
are
(3yz+ q)x+r
of the
one
the
satisfy
they
suppose
determinate.
completely
We
dition
con-
of the
roots
that
the
given
equation
thus obtain
o3
y3+ z3=-r,
y3,z3 are
hence
-^;
y3z3
=
quadratic
and putting
Solvingthis equation,
yz=-\Jriit
+
sr~
2
we
"
"
27
z; thus
fr2
+
-2+V4
q3Y
q3^
11r2
27}+H-V"
'
+
97
solution is generally
known
as Cardan's Solution,
in
first
him
the
Ars
as
published
Magna, in 1545. Cardan
by
obtained
the solution from Tartaglia;
but the solution of the
The
above
it was
cubic
seems
to have
been
due
to ScipioFerreo,about
originally
CU13IC
1505.
found
historical
interesting
An
of Burnside
at the end
577.
side of
note
and
subjectwill be
Theoryof Equations.
this
on
Panton's
the right-hand
on
By Art. 110, each of the quantities
equations(1)and (2)of the precedingarticle lias three
it would
roots,hence
cube
481
EQUATIONS.
however, is
not
the
that
appear
For
case.
since yz
has nine
values ;
^,the
cube roots
"
this,
are
to be taken
unity.
in
pairsso
Hence
y
Solve the
Example.
Put y +
z,
wy
equation x3
equationare
+ wz.
w2z, "x)2y
15.r=
126.
for x, then
+ z* + {3yz-15)x 126;
y"*
=
put
3f/2-15 0,
then
y^z3
also
126;
y*zs 125
=
hence
z:iare
y's,
equation
i2-126"
u,y +
u~z
578.
values for
from
the
6,
are
To
x
wz
-3 +
1.
-3
5+
2^/^3;
3-2^/^3;
2*7-3,
reason
z3 +
-3-2
why
-3.
obtain
apparently
we
576, we
y3+
equations
^"-
explainthe
in Art.
6;
w-y +
5,
5+ l=
0;
y
j/+
+ 125
.-.
Thus
0, yz
"
\j
nine
found
be
to
are
A.
was
changedinto yJz3
=
q3
-
31
which
482
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
if yz
also hold
would
values of
x3 + wqx
equationx3 +
qx
and
^;
x3
0,
"
+ r
ou2"p;
consider
the other
six
of
the
0.
fullythe
more
q
+
-r
z3
then y3 and
positive,
hence
roots
0.
are
wy
z,
cube
both
are
real;let
the roots
roots, then
oy2z,(o2y
+ wz.
for
real,and by substituting
first of these is
The
yz
(i) If
proceedto
We
579.
or
are
"
a"
w2 the
and
become
other two
"73
r2
If
(ii)
-j
"
of
pressions
is
and
then ?/3
negative,
the form
roots of these
this
"
case
?/ =
"
z, and
?/.
"73
r2
If
(iii)
y3 z3\ in
then
zero,
or
+ co2),
+ to2),
2y, "3/,
2y, 2/(w
2/(00
become
the roots
^=-is
ib and
are
quantities
in and
are
imaginaryex-
Suppose that
ib.
"
23
in; then
"
the cube
the roots of
in
which
"
in,
o"
2m ;
or
or
(m in)"o2,
m) co2+ (m in)"o, or
(m + m)
(m +
"
"
"
"
+ n
"m
^/3;
^3 ;
all real
This
case
is sometimes
solution.
580.
be
justmentioned
as
completedby Trigonometry
follows.
+ (a
ib)3;
(a+ ib)3
-
484
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
b from
a and
by eliminating
these
obtain
we
equations,
2k3
or
found
2 (pr
-qk2 +
this cubic
From
s)k
p2s
qs
r2
real value
equationone
0.
of k
always be
can
Also
[Art.553];thus a and b are known.
(ax+ W'"
(x2+px + W
.'. x2 +px
+ k
"(ax + b);
=
the values of
and
and
(p a)x
x2
+ a)x+ (k+ b)
(2)
"
0.
5x- + Hh;
2.x3
(a2-5)x2 +
2x* +
"
quadratics
equation
xi
Add
the two
(k b) 0t
x2
Solve the
Example.
to be obtained from
are
{ab+ 5)x
0.
equation,and
assume
+ 62
(x2
k)2
"
have
we
by equatingcoefficients,
then
a2=2fc
6, ab
+ 6)(fc2
+ 3)
(2fc
.-.
But
from
find that k=
the
3;
0.
7=
4, "2
a2 =
1 ; hence
+ 5)2;
(7c
.-.
we
By trial,
b2=k2
-k-5,
4,
ab=
4.
the
Substituting
x2
that
z2-3.r + l = 0,
is,
whence
k} a and b, we
values of
the roots
are
"
"
(2x 2);
and
x2 + x-3
The
~"
assume
x4
the
qx2+
equations
Q;
"
solution
following
Supposethat
the two
583.
have
givenby Descartes
was
biquadratic
equationis reduced
rx
x1
qx2+
=
(x2+
rx
kx
to the
0;
1)(x2
-
kx
in 1637.
m) ;
form
485
EQUATIONS.
BIQUADRATIC
have
we
by equatingcoefficients,
then
I+
From
vi
"
k2
q,
"
(m
l)
of these
Im
r,
"
s.
obtain
we
equations,
2m
AT +
2l=k2
third
in the
substituting
hence
-j;
equation,
or
real positive
solution
in k2 wliich alwayshas one
[Art.553];thus when k2 is known the values of I and m
This
is
cubic
the solution
determined,and
are
by solvingthe
kx
x2
0, and
kx
"
z4-2a;2 + 8j;-3
x4
Assume
2a;2+ 8#
m=0.
(x2+
0.
kx +
1)(x2 kx
-
m)
have
we
by equatingcoefficients,
l + m-k2
whence
we
{k3
obtain
k(m-l)
-2,
8)(A;3 2k
2k +
This equation is
sufficient to consider
m+l
clearlysatisfied when
of the values of k ;
2,
7n-l
Thus
hence
a;2+ 2.r-l
584.
The
+ 2x
(.r2
0, and
1"
J2,
0.
0,
putting k
4] that is, l
-l,
2, we
m
+ 3
k"
or
=
1 ){x2 2x +
x--2x
1"
-Z;
12"2,
It will be
"2.
have
3.
3);
0 ;
J^2.
solution
generalalgebraical
has not been
of such a
of the impossibility
degreehigherthan
demonstration
are
A;2-4
one
lm
8,
8)
fc6-4fc4 + 16fc2-64
or
and
obtained
Example.
then
is
biquadratic
quadratics
two
x2
of the
the fourth
of
equationsof
obtained,and
solution is
Abel's
generally
the coefficients of an
equationare numerical,the value of any real root may be found
of apto any requireddegreeof accuracy
proxima
by Horner's Method
in
treatises
found
on
will
be
of
full
which
a
account
acceptedby Mathematicians.
the
Theoryof Equations.
If,however,
486
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
shall conclude
We
585.
the discussion of
with
neous
miscella-
some
equations.
Solve the equations:
Example 1.
0,
+ du
by +cz
ax
y +
0,
0,
a2x +
b2y+
c2z + d2u
a?x +
b3y+
c3z + d3u
p,
that
being quantitieswhich
q,
they are
(a3+pa2 +
a3
and
+pa2 +
the value
then
0.
(a-b){a-c){a-d);
h.
is
vanish
(a-b)(a- c){a-d)x
therefore
Thus
qa +
spectively
re-
r) k,
qa +
t3+pt2+ qt+
Hence
present undetermined.
at
equation
are
are
whilst b, c, d
the lowest, by 1, p, q,
from
Multiplythese equations,beginning
Assume
k.
z,
be written down
can
by symmetry.
Cor.
If the
equationsare
x
ax
.'.
l,
du
I;
c*-z+ d2u
k2,
A;3,
by +
b2y+
a3x +
bsy+ c3z+
is
qa +
r) k3 +pk2 + qk +
found, and
Shew
dhi
have
(a3+pa2 +
cz
(a-b)(a-c)(a-d)
Thus
the value of
down by symmetry.
Example 2.
a2x +
by proceedingas before,we
x
+ y +
r;
(k- b)(k-c)(k-d).
the values of y,
z,
be written
can
equation
are
all real.
From
the
given equation,we
have
+ h*(x-c)-2fgh}=0.
{x-a){(x-b)(x-c)-f*}-{g*{x-b)
quadratic
{x-b)(x-e)-f*=0,
use
of
BIQUADRATIC
^ to be not
and suppose
less than
2x
now
or
By solvingthe quadratic,we
q.
the results
+
v,
-fajp^b-h Jp
""
,
so
-30;
c)2" +{"JJb-q-
Thus
the given equation has three
between _p and q, and one less than q.
q, then
from
q)~,
cc
4/2
=
greater than
0 and
lr}=0
Jc
(b q)(c q).
have (6-c)2+
(1)we
therefore
2',
one
c,f=0.
the
case
c,
the values
successively
q"
{p -b)(p- c)=f*
(1);
respectively
are
since
If p
In this
have
+ tf:i
c"J(b-c)*
b+
487
EQUATIONS.
all real.
are
fails ; for it
root of the givenequation,the above investigation
that there is one
root between
namely p. But as
q and + oo
before,there is a second real root less than q ; bence the third root must also
If p
is
only shews
be real.
the roots
Similarlyif
q is a root
of the
given equation we
can
shew
that all
real.
are
importance ; it occurs
the Discriminating
as
Cubic.
586.
branches
The
of
Example.
followingsystem
Applied Mathematics.
of
equationsoccurs
b+ \
+ \
-\-fji.b + /j,
y
J"+
"
b+
a+f
+ \
x
a
+ fx
z
=
-,
1.
c+v
+
a
x,
y,
+ 0
b + d
+ 0
(0-X)(g-ft)(g-y).
(a+ e)(b+ 6){c + 0y
quantities.
in
many
488
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
thus
+ 0
0;
(--X)(-^)(-"-'0
(b a) (c a)
.
..
that
.=fe+"Lfe+i4!ttd.
is,
(a- b) (a-c)
By symmetry,
have
we
+ v)
(b+ \){b + fx)(b
y=
{b-c)(b-a)
+ v)
{c+ \){c+ fi)(c
(c-a) (c b)
and
XXXV.
EXAMPLES.
equations:
following
Solve the
is
e.
1.
a3-18a
3.
a3
5.
28^-9^+1=0.
7.
8.
Prove
316
63a-
35.
0.
real root
the
that
2.
4.
6.
"s-15#8-33ar+
of
the
equation a3 +
10.
a4-
10a2- 20a-
14.
a*-23?-12afi+10x
0.
847=0.
12a -12
2^/2-^4.
Solve the
9.
:
following
equations
a4 -3a2 -42
-40
11.
12.
a-4+ 2a3
13.
**- 3^-6^-2=0.
15.
4a4
16.
a6-6a4-17a3
17.
a4 + 9a3 + 1 2a2
18. Find
A3 + ^A + r=0
Hence
7a2
0.
-10
8a + 1 2
20a-3+ 33^2
0.
0.
20a + 4
+ 17a2 + 6a-1
-
80a
1 92
16
0.
+ 3=0.
0.
=
0.
solve the
equation
8a3 -36a
+ 27
0.
equation
BIQUADRATIC
have
jfi+3pafl+3qx+r
If
19.
a
factor,shew
common
and
have
they
two
If
shew
of them
Shew
that
if
quadratic
Solve
22.
is equal
1
the
equation
the
If
23.
roots
is
/3,y, 5
a,
1 SxA +
the
equation
In
24.
of two
that
the
other
unity
J6
if
two
equal roots,
two
+PX3
qx2 +
rx
0 may
be solved
whose
S2x
+ 8
0,
2.
"
the roots
are
of the
qx2 +
roots
r.t-
/3+y
are
equation
4-
0,
+ d +
"c.
(/3y")_1,
that if the
0, prove
other
is
p3
two
equal
to
sum
4pq + 8r
the product
=
0 ;
of
r2=p2s.
equation
x"
209." + 56
0 has
two
whose
roots
product
is
them.
determine
26.
Find
the
27.
If a,
b, c,...kare
Xn
shew
x4
has
The
25.
rs?
(etc b2)
the
of the
and
".
1 6.1*3
+ 28x2
xA +
find
to
+ d=()
equation
-
of whose
q2-pr=0.
r2=p2s.
gfl
one
0.
that
equation
each
that
21.
as
the
(pq-r)2
factors,shew
common
p2-q=0,
20.
x*+2px+q
that
4(p2-q) (q2"pr)
If
489
EQUATIONS.
two
roots
of ^
the
409^
"
+ 285
0 whose
sum
is 5.
of
roots
+p1Xn~1 +p2Xn~2 +
+Pn-l$
+Pn
""
that
{l+k2)
(l+a2)(l+b2)
28.
The
sum
of two
roots
of the
is 4 ;
explain why
on
attempting
method
+ (Pl-p,+p,...)2
(l-p,+p"-
to
fails.
...)2.
equation
-
20a- +
solve
the
equation
from
the
kuow-
EXAMPLES.
MISCELLANEOUS
1.
If sl, s2i *3
2.
are
to
Find
sums
"
that their
In what
4.
Solve the
and
sum
difference,
product,
1, 7, 24.
as
by reversingthe digits?
3.
of an
respectively
of n, 2n, Sn terms
that s3 3 (s2 sj.
such
numbers
two
another
one
the
are
shew
progression,
arithmetical
equations:
(1) (#+2)(#+3)(a;-4)(#-5)=44.
(2) x(y + z)+
5.
In
A.
an
firstp terms
P., of
0, shew
0, y(z-2x) + 2l=Q,
z(2x-y)
b.
of the
sum
a{p + q)q^
p"l
[R.M.
6.
A.
Woolwich.]
Solve the
equations:
b)(ax+ b)(a- bx) (a2x b2)(a+ bx).
(1 ) (a+
11
(2)
(2x-Zf={l2(x-l)Y.
x* +
first term
arithmetical progressionwhose
form a
terms
such that the second,tenth and thirty-fourth
series.
7.
Find
an
8.
If a,
fi are
9.
If 2x
"
Find
unity
geometric
+ a~1 and
2y
xy +
10.
is
b+
b~1,find
the value of
*J(x2-\)(y21).
the value of
3
(4+
Vl5)"2
+ (4-Vi5)'2
3"
3
_
(6+
V35)"2-(6-\/35)'
[R.M.
11.
If
and
/3are
the
imaginary cube
a4 + ^4 + a-1^-1
=
roots
0.
of
A.
Woolwich.]
unity,shew
that
492
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
23.
...
in arithmetical progression
is 48 and
of four numbers
sum
of
is
the
the
to
27 to 35 :
of
the
extremes
means
as
the product
product
find the numbers.
25.
The
26.
Solve the
equations:
(2)
v
'
27.
If
(x-a)(x-b)
l
^
b
"
"
x-a
if ^a +
(x-c)(x-d)
1"
\
""
r,r
.
x-c-d
+ ^/b-x+\/c-x=0ishew
/s/a-x
c +
3x)(a+
4/6+4/c 0, shew
b+
that
c-x)
(a+
..
[Math. Tripos.]
"
"
(a+ b +
and
"
0.
b+
that
4(bc+
ca
ab)-,
c)3 27abc.
=
lengthof
29.
the
journey.
Solve the
equations:
2x+y
+ z3=2l6.
[R. M.
30.
in how
the two
mathematical
papers
are
the papers
not
Woolwich.]
in mathematics :
be given,
providedonlythat
two
examination,
can
A.
of them
successive ?
In how many
60
"5. 4s. 2d. be paid in exactly
can
ways
and fourpenny-pieces
of half-crowns,
?
shillings
consisting
31.
coins,
bxi + l4x
[London University.]
In what time would A,B,C together
do a work if A alone could
do it in six hours more, B alone in one hour more, and C alone in twice
the time 1
33.
MISCELLANEOUS
34.
If the equations
ax +
a2
b2
that
+-7
1, and x
.,
prove
of
(l-2x
-,
Binomial Theorem
",
[Math. Tiuros.]
in the expansion
2x2)~'2'
0 is the square
"
of the
other,
1 have
If one
that p3
36.
shew
by the
Find
35.
by \, ex2 + dy%
"
493
EXAMPLES.
Solve the
equation
xi-5x^-6x-b
0.
[Queen'sColl. Ox.]
38.
for which
the fraction
ax2 + 19.27
-
"
of reduction.
admits
39.
If a,
b,c, x,
y,
z are
real
and
quantities,
that
c, and
[Math. Tripos.]
ca
+ ab-
x2-y2
0, y
0,
z2),
0.
Coll. Camb.]
[Christ's
i
40.
the value of
41.
is the greatestterm
What
is
when
If
\a, y
1 _|_b2 + 3c2
'
(k-l)b,
(\-3)c,
X=
"
"z
Qj
x2+y2+
Find two
of their squares
of their squares
42.
expansionof ( 1
in the
z2 in its simplest
form
in terms
of a,
"T"
0"
~p
express
b,c.
[SidneyColl. Camb.]
43.
Solve the
equations:
(1) xa + 3j*=16x
(2) y2+
44.
If x, y,
are
z2-x
+ 60.
z2 +
in harmonical
\.
x'i-y x2+y2-z
[CoRrus Coll. Ox.]
=
shew
progression,
z)
=
that
log(x z).
-
494
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
45.
Shew
that
1.3/1\
/lV
1.3.5
4
/oN
._
,_
b(x+y
46
z)(5c+
b+
c).
Coll. Camb.]
[Christ's
and 5 vowels,how
With
17 consonants
letters can
be formed having 2 different vowels
at each end?
consonant
or different)
(repeated
47.
words of four
many
in the middle and 1
48.
49.
Shew
that
l-x
5x*
(l+x)2
l+"?-^+
9^5 13^7
4.5+ 6.7+"'
+
2.3
Coll. Camb.]
[Christ's
formed
into a hollow
50. A body of men
were
t
hat
when it was
with
the
addition
of 25
observed,
solid square might be formed, of which the number
would be greaterby 22 than the square root of the
each side of the hollow square : requiredthe number
51.
Solve the
equations:
Prove
V(a^02
a)*
(x
6)2 {x
\/a2^2.
c)i
(6 d)K
(x d)% (a c)%
=
that
3/,
v/4
N
2-5
2
t
^6
2.5.8
v
6.12
"
"
6.12.18
Solve
$6(5a?
+ 6)-^5(6#-ll)=l.
[Queens'Coll. Camb.]
MISCELLANEOUS
405
EXAMPLES.
54.
arithmetic
The
55.
between
mean
and
between
mean
each
are
and
equal to
of
and
the
and
geometric
n
in terms
b.
If x, y,
56.
find
-:
and
are
is constant, and
sum
if
(z+x-2y)(x+y-2z)
varies
as
(y+ z)
varies
as
yz.
Prove
that,if n
is
greaterthan 3,
1.2.MCV2.3.'lC_1+ 3.4.""X_2-
(-l)'-(r+l)(/-+2)=2."-3Cr.
[Christ'sColl. Camb.]
53.
Solve the
equations:
*J~4x3 + *Jbx^~i.
(2) 4{(sa-16)*+8}=#8+16(#a-16)*
[St John's Coll. Camb.]
be equal to one
59. Prove that two of the quantities
x, y, z must
.,
.j.
another,if
l+yz
"
"
"
l+zx
yn
2-
0.
l+xy
of p persons, a percent,can
60. In a certain community consisting
read and write ; of the males alone b per cent.,and of the females alone
read and write : find the number of males and females in
c per cent, can
the
community.
61.
If
!"=?"'-"
[Emm.
62.
Shew
(1
"
63.
Solve the
+ x2
Coll.
Camb.]
expansionof
x3)'1is unity.
"
equation
x-b
x-a
"a
x-b'
[London University.]
Find (1)the arithmetical series,
(2) the harmonical series of
of which a and b are the first and last terms ; and shew that
n terms
term of
the productof the r* term of the firstseries and the {n r+ l)tb
the second scries is ab.
64.
"
496
HIGHER
65.
are
equal,shew
equation
"
that
If a2 + b2
66.
ALGEBRA.
Woolwich.]
A.
that
(" V)}
jg
l"g
=0
[R. M.
p2 4q.
lab,shew
(q~ 1)+
(loSa
loSh)-
[Queen'sColl. Ox.]
If
67.
is
root of the
x-
and
if
harmonic
difference between
n
equation
(1 ac)
-
means
"
If
57
208: W"2P4
=
Ox.]
Coll.
[Wadham
68.
the
are
16, find n.
70.
Solve the
+ ^
{(^2
equation:
+ l)3-(^2+ l)3+^3}
l)3-(^2+ l)3-^3}{(^2-^
3
71.
If
x
by eliminating
x2 +
+ b
ax
between
0
an
the
equations
xy + 1 (x+
y)+
0,
same
m,
as
or
[R.M.
72.
Given
log2
'30103,and log3
(2)
(1) 6*=y-6-".
73. Find two numbers
their fourth powers 2417.
such
of the
those
b + m=al.
A.
Woolwich.]
:
-47712,solve the equations
V5M-V5-*=|q.
that their
sum
is 9, and
the
of
sum
[London University.]
74. A set out to walk at the rate of 4 miles an hour ; after he had
been walking 2| hours,B set out to overtake him and went
4" miles
and so gaininga quarter
the firsthour,4| miles the second,5 the third,
hours would he overtake A l
In how many
of a mile every hour.
75. Prove
factor.
that the
2m
as
MISCELLANEOUS
76.
The
5, 6, 7, 8, 9
?ithgroup
77.
is
(?i-l)3+ n3.
Shew
that the
|2_W+
407
EXAMPLES.
of
sum
of the series
terms
[3 \2/
is
|4
,,
to
equal
1
\2J
1.3.5.7
,
1
(2n-l)
="
:
"
2'*\n
[R.M.
78.
Shew
(-l)S 3(-l)3,
accordingas
79.
is of the form
Solve the
3m,
3m
Woolwich.]
expansionof
1 + 2x
j"2is
w-2
n-1
A.
2(-l)3,
1, 3"i
+ 2.
equations:
.".
yyz
x+y
ii
[Univ.Coll. Ox.]
The value of xyz is 7" or 3f accordingas the series a, x, y, z,
b is arithmetic or harmonic : find the values of a and b assuming them
to be positive
[Merton Coll. Ox.]
integers.
80.
If ay-bx=c
the
and y will satisfy
81.
If (#+l)2 is
value of x.
integral
82.
\/(x
-a)2+ (y- b)2,shew
equationunless c2 "
greaterthan
of
83. If P is the number
characteristicp, and Q the number
have
reciprocals
the characteristic
5x
a2
t lat
"
no
person
85. A man
rilen they came
real values of
b2.
7#-3,
find the
have the
integerswhose logarithms
of whose
the logarithms
of integers
-
q, shew that
=
In how
no
log10P-log10#p-2
84.
that
ways may 20
many
less than
receive
may
+ l.
be given to
shillings
?
3 shillings
5 persons
so
32
498
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
expressedin scale 9
in scale 7 when
of three digits
reversed in order : find the number.
has its digits
number
86.
Coll.
[St John's
If the sum
of m
of the next
to the sum
terms
that
; prove
of
terms
87.
n)(
(m +
also to the
terms, and
is equal
progression
arithmetical
an
of the
sum
(wi+p)(
i=
7"4
is
7-".
{z-xf
(y-z?
If
vi
"
Coll.
\y-z
"
z-x
x-y)
[R. M.
A.
If each
pairof
x2-p1x +
that
(2n-l)m"nm
1.
ql
the three
Camb.]
Coll.
equations
0, aP-ptfC+q^Q, x2-p3x+q3=0,
root,prove that
common
Woolwich.]
than 1, shew
and greater
or
positive
negative,
[Emm.
have
Camb.]
1
7"
(x-y)2
lm + 3" + 5m +
90.
that
Prove
89.
next
[St John's
88.
Camb.]
Pi2+P-? + P32+
(?i+
ft)
ft +
(P2P2+P?,Pi +PiP"JColl.
[St John's
Camb.]
91.
92.
Ifa
+ 5+ c +
that
c?=0,prove
"
[R.M.
93.
terms
Woolwich.]
A.
"
77-0
[Math. Tripos.]
J
"tn
ba(b2n-a2n)
n
x
94.
Shew
(x
an
in
ascending
01 power
in the
of
expansion
r
of
is
bn
"
a-b
L
(l-#)3
-,,
"
a) (x
rv
-
0)
"
"
r-,
7-
anbn
'
is 2n_1 hi2 + 4w + 2l
'
"
__
r,
r,
-.
500
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
JL3 ^
1S
2?4'
If
106.
a,
x2+px
where
is
+ q
2~
1.3.5.7
a"
2. 4. 6.8*
10+
equations
0, x2n+pnxn+ qn
shew
integer,
even
an
of the
roots
/3are
/l-Vl-a;2"
expansionof V
that the
Shew
105.
that
(#+l)n
.r" + l +
b
a+-
^",-
the
2a+
2c +
2c +
d
c
the
of
squares
aD0-
"' j
"
^..
2a +
2a+
0.
b
-
"
between
roots of
are
"
0,
infinite
2c+
[Christ'sColl. Camb.]
of
is distributed amongst a certain number
of money
the third 2s.
than the first,
The second receives Is. more
persons.
the
than
3s.
fourth
the
than
the
more
third,and so on.
more
second,
If the first person gets Is. and the last person "3. 7s.,what is the
distributed 1
number of persons and the sum
108.
109.
Solve the
sum
'
(2)
110.
If
:
equations
b+
+ b
~2+x*+f=l3i"""+""=*""
and b
are
and unequal,prove
positive
a*-bn"
(" b)(ab)2
that
Coll.
[St Cath.
111.
values of
Express ^r^
x
as
and y which
continued
Camb.]
fraction; hence
12.
take
A alone would
112. To completea certain work, a workman
would
alone
times as many
B
B
C
and
as
days
working together;
take n times as many
days as A and C together; C alone would take
days as A and B together: shew that the numbers of
p times as many
days in which each would do it alone are as m + 1 : "+l : jp+ 1.
m
Prove
also
m+l
+
n
+ l
-^"
p + l
2.
,,
[R.M.
A.
,_
Woolwich.]
MISCELLANEOUS
The
501
EXAMPLES.
113.
and
If
114.
expenses
partlyvary
x2y
=
2x
y, and x2 is not
"
greaterthan 1, shew
that
[Peterhouse,Camb.]
V
If
115.
are
"
-s-
"
"sr
"
a2-x2
and
Ti
If
(1+
and
that
x2fr
c^s*
"
and
Q.
c^'
that when
a2 + c2-b2
+
k\x+ l'2x2
1+
a*"
1 )3r
=
(x
prove
c2.shew
"
or
116.
xv
"
o
al-yunequal,
(a2-c2)2-b2c20,
.,
2
-
1,
!3r
(2) l-k^
hc.,
"
"
\r\2r
[R.M.
117.
Solve the
equations:
"
z2
(2)x2-y2 +
If there are
n
roots of all their
118.
square
that
"
6, 2yz-zx
prove
productstwo
that
2xy
bx + ay.
13, x-y
the
"
of the
mean
"V=a26'i, and
Wx6 +
120.
Find the
sum
(1)
d2 + V
x2+y2
of the
roots
square
arithmetic
the
of the
mean
[R.M.
+
2.
+an);
("i+ "2+
""
arithmetic
is
together less than
If 6"
""
quantities.
119.
Vaia2 + V"i"3+
hence
xy + ab
ax+by,
Woolwich.]
A.
A.
given
Woolwich.]
\, prove that
rthterms
~r|~_,(2) (a+r*6)*-'
[St John's Coll. Camb.]
121.
Find
the
greatestvalue
x+
of
2iX"
t~
~a
*iX + 0
.
502
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
equations:
Solve the
122.
(1) l+^4
7(l+#)4.
(2) 3#y+20=ff0+6y=2^s+3d?=O.
f"ur
123.
"
"
Separate
find the
term
general
\ /
,
3x
of
into
=r
"
coefficients of
an
'
124.
"-
"
consecutive
partialfractions ;
and
"
is
when
2
expandedin ascendingpowers
X.
recurringseries
In the
125.
lx
+
2
the unknown
the scale of relation is a quadraticexpression
; determine
and give the
and the scale of relation,
coefficient of the fourth term
M.
A.
the
series.
[R.
Woolwich.]
generalterm of
126.
If x, y,
unequal,and
are
2a-3v
2a-3z^^^
(-^2,and
(v
y
*)2
2a -3.?="
then will
if
and x+y
a.
[Math. Tripos.]
Ob
127.
(1)
xy + 6
2x-x2, xy-9
(2) {ax)^a
Find
128.
(1)
,
the
{by)^h,bXo"x
limitingvalues
\fx2
+ "2
"
"
\/Za+
x-
alo%y.
of
when
oc
rr
"
"
*JxA
+ a4,when
\fa+ 2x"\/3x
?""
(2)
2y-y2.
x"a.
tt
[London University.]
2sjx
MISCELLANEOUS
Solve the
130.
following
equations:
(1) yiar +
37-
(2) 6Vl-22
\/l
#2 +
J/l3.r-37=
J/2.
c\/l-y2 ",
=
"
Vl
22=
6,
a*Jl-y2+ b*Jl-x2=c.
that the
Prove
131.
1.3
24)4
of the
infinity
to
sum
1.3.5
+
"
2^3
503
EXAMPLES.
.23
series
2
,n
~Wb
1S
"
[Math. Tripos.]
24
133.
xr in the
productof
1+x3
135.
Prove
[R-M.
A.
Woolwich.]
134.
an(* 1 -*+*""
2ui_
n_
(a+ b +
(a+ b +
+
-
that
+
-
(a-b-c + d)*
(- a + b + c + d)*
=
192 abed.
[Trin.Coll. Camb.]
Find the values of a, b, c which
will make
each of the expressions
xt + aaP + bx'Z+ cx+l
and xA + 2ax3 + 2bx2 + 2cx + 1 a perfect
136.
[London University.]
square.
Solve the
137.
(1)
equations:
4^S
^=65.
3(
V3
138.
less per
by the
farmer
head; the
same
two
sold 10
sum
sheep at
2 j--
certain
: find
digits
the
priceper
504
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
139.
Sum
to
terms
(1) (2"~l)+2(2"-3)+3(2"-5)+....
140.
that
(2)
The
squares
(3)
The
odd terms
If
3
/3,y
a,
of the terms
of the series in
1,3,6, 10, 15
roots of the
the
are
of the series
+ y5)
(a2+ /32+ y2)(a5+ /35
equationx3 + qx + r=0
(a3+ /33+ y3)(a4+ "4+ y4).
[StJohn's
141.
Solve the
Coll.
prove
Camb.]
equations:
(1) a?(%-5)= 41
y(2A + 7) 27J'
(2)A3+y3 + z3 495)
ar+y+*=15V.
Ay2=105 )
=
[Trin.Coll. Camb.]
If a,
equationwhose
b,c
142.
143.
are
roots
Sum
are
the series
b-c, b +
(2)
(3)
6 + 9 + 14 + 23 + 40 +
(n-l)x
x
2x2
"
a,
0,form the
+ a-b.
(1)
equationx3 + qx2+r
+ xn-1;
(?i-2)x2+...+2zn-2
28^4
1 6a-3
-
..
676a5 +
to
...
to
infinity
;
terms.
[Oxford Mods.]
144.
Eliminate
a, y,
from
x-i+y-i
.v2+
and shew that if a, y,
be equalto d.
z2
y2+
z-1
equations
a~1, x+y
+
c2, A3+3/3
are
the
"r3
=
+ z=b.
c?3,
numericallyunequal,b cannot
[R. M. A. Woolwich.]
1
""
3+
2+
1+
3+
2+
1+
MISCELLANEOUS
Solve the
148.
505
EXAMPLES.
equation
x3 + 3ax2 + 3
(a2 be)as +
-
a3 + b3 + c3
Zabc
0.
149.
+ by prove
multipleof
is
that
prime
an~2b
"
number
which
an~:ib2 + an~ib3
will divide
"
...+abn~2
sum
b,nor
exceeds by 1 a
[StJohn's
n.
Find
150.
neither
"
",
Coll.
Camb.]
"
[Oxford Mods.]
If a,
151.
b,c
whose
equation
1
are
roots
are
"
-,
"
0, find the
[Trin.Coll. Camb.]
Prove
152.
(y+
that
z-
(x2+ y2+
18
z2- yz
zx
[Clare Coll.
Solve the
153.
4t4
xy)2.
Camb.]
equations:
(2) x5
0, by Cardan's method.
KU-3 + 40.i'2
+ 9x -36
"b, c.
a,
154.
hour
If sn denote the
155.
to
sum
1.2 + 2.3
and
that to
o^-!
"
3.4+...,
of the series
1 terms
1
that
2.3.4.5
1.2.3.4
shew
of the series
terms
1 8sncrnx
_
3.4.5.6
sn + 2
-"'
0.
Solve the
equations:
(1) (12a?-l)("p-l)(4a?-l)("e-l)=5.
(2)
^
;
I fo+^fo-S)
5
(x+ 2)(x 4)
-
1
+
(x+3)(x-5)
(x+ 4)(x- 6)
_2_(a?+5)(a?-7) 92
""
13
{x+ 6)(*
[StJohn's
8)
Coll.
585
Camb.]
506
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
157.
158.
Shew
1.4.7.10
1.4.7
1.4
4.8
ll?
i+?_l
+
+
6
4.8.12
4.8.12.16
+
6
12
12
11
2.5.8.
2.5.8
+
18
12
18
159.
24+
'""
'
[Peterhouse, Camb.]
equal.
are
'"'
the
Prove
x(x
identity
a)
x{x
a)(x /3)
-
~aPy~
a/3
x(x+ a)
[
a
a(5
x(x + a)(x+ p)
a/3-y
\
J
"2/92"2
"2R2
a2(32y
a2^2
[Trin.Coll. Camb.]
160.
If
is a
is
multipleof
[Wadham
120.
Coll.
Ox.]
of persons were
engaged to do a pieceof work
at
which
occupiedthem 24 hours if they had commenced
at equal
the same
time; but instead of doing so, they commenced
the
whole
tillthe
work
was
to
finished,
continued
intervals and then
first
the
each
comer
done
:
to the work
by
payment beingproportional
received eleven times as much as the last ; find the time occupied.
A number
would have
161.
162.
Solve the
equations:
-7
(1)
x2-S
y2-3
x3+f
z2+ x2
"
x'2-t-y2z
-
(z+x) b2,
=
(x+3/)
=
c2.
[Pemb.Coll. Camb.]
508
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
is divisible
Shew
that ?t7-7n5+14?i3-8?i
integernot less than 3.
171.
2
+ 1 2y + *Jy+
(1) six1
,~x
(2)
-^
=a,
",
y(u
"
z)
"
x(u-z)J
c,
"
2-W
"
is
an
33, x+y=2S.
I2x=
z(y-x)'
u(y-x)
^
"
equations:
Solve the
172.
by 840, if
"
7
d.
-^-y
[Math. Tripos.]
If
173.
be the
of
sum
"
then
positive
unequalquantities
a, b,c...,
="
"
"
[Math. Tripos.]
...
174. A merchant
bought a quantityof cotton ; this he exchanged
that the number
of cwt. of cotton,
for oil which he sold. He observed
of gallonsof oil obtained for each cwt.,and the number
of
the number
for which he sold each gallonformed a descendinggeometrical
shillings
of
progression.He calculated that if he had obtained one cwt. more
of
oil
for
each
for
each
and
Is.
more
one
more
gallon
cotton,
cwt.,
gallon,he would have obtained "508. 9s. more ; whereas if he had
obtained one cwt. less of cotton,one gallonless of oil for each cwt.,and
he would have obtained ."483. 13s. less : how
Is. less for each gallon,
much
did he actually
receive ?
Prove that
175.
2
(b+
x)*(b c)(a-x)
-
16
[JesusColl. Camp,.]
176.
If a, /3,y
equation whose
are
roots
^-~
"
"
If any number
shew
that the
together,
"
-.
177.
find the
TR. M. A. Woolwich.]
multiplied
sum
of two
squares.
Solve the
equations
x2+y2=6l, a*-y*=91.
179.
papers
number
[R. M.
A.
A man
in which
goes in for an Examination
with a maximum
of m
marks
for each paper;
of ways of getting2m marks
the whole is
on
(m +
1 )(2m2+ Am
3).
Woolwich.]
[Math. Tripos.]
MISCELLANEOUS
509
EXAMPLES.
180.
of x2 +
[R.M.
that if am be the coefficient of xm
Shew
whatever
then
n be,
(1+#)*,
in the
181.
(n~l)(n
A
".,-...+(-l)--1"m_1 ^
"
,s
"0-"1
Woolwich.]
A.
2)...(n-m
expansionof
+ l).
|w;_^ 2U(-i)--i.
[New
Coll.
"
Ox.]
the
is the product of three prime factors,
A certain number
There are
of whose
7560 numbers
sum
(including
squares is 2331.
than
the
number
and
The
of
which
less
to
sum
it.
are
prime
unity)
Find
the
the
is
and
number
its divisors (including
10560.
unity
itself)
182.
number.
two
productsof
every
the equation
completely
2afi+ xA +
+ 2
1 2x* + 1 2x2.
[R.M.
Prove that if n is
184.
-'(n-4)n-
+
and
185. If (6V6 + 14)2n
1=:jr,
+
=202"t
NF
1.
that
prove
Solve the
(1) x+y+z
Woolwich.]
positive
integer,
nn-n(n-2)n+
186.
A.
2B[w.
if F
equations:
=
2, x2+y2 + z2
0, x3+y3 + z3=
1.
Coll. Camb.]
[Christ's
187.
was
15
than
number
the
the same
as
of Scotch Conservatives was
Liberals. The number
and the Scotch Liberal majoritywas
equal
number of Welsh Liberals,
Irish
the
to
and
number
Welsh
was
the
of
twice
to
Conservatives,
10
was
Liberal majorityas 2 : 3. The English Conservative majority
number
of
The whole
of Irish members.
than the whole number
more
returned by Scotch constituencies.
60 were
members
was
652, of whom
land,
of each party returned by England, Scotland,IreFind the numbers
and
188.
Wales,respectively.
Shew
that a5 (c
-
[StJohn's
Coll.
Camb.]
510
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
189.
Prove that
a3
3c*2
3a
a2
a2 + 2a
2a+l
2a+l
"
+ 2
13
190.
If
"
unless
progression,
191.
a"b
Solve the
=0,
.r4 Ax2
8x -f 35
Two numbers
192.
by the relations 3a1
from alf bxin the same
b,and prove that when
x
+y +
"
+
so
root
ceeds
ex-
two
A. Woolwich.]
others av
more
a2,
2b;
two
on
find an,
root is
one
[R. M.
bn in
b"are
formed
b2 are
formed
of a and
terms
[R.M. A.
an"bn.
infinite,
is
given;
and
manner,
+ w
-+(w+ a;)2
yz (w
mr
one
2.
\/-~3.
are
2"x+6, 3bl
by
0, havinggiventhat
and
2 +
If
in harmonical
are
equations:
5x + 189
another root
193.
b,c
[Trin.Coll. Camb.]
(2)
that a,
prove
c"b
[Ball.Coll. Ox.]
+ c.
(a-l)"
Woolwich.]
0, shew that
x)2+ wy(w+y)2
zx(io yf + wz(w + z)2+
xy
(w
+ 4xyzw
z)2
0.
[Math. Tripos.]
be -a2
a
be not altered in value by interchanging
a2 + fc2
+ c2
pairof the letters a, b,c not equal to each other,it will not be altered
if a + b + c=\.
by interchanging
any other pair;and it will vanish
194.
If
[Math. Tripos.]
On a quadrupleline of rails between
two
195.
and
and
two
down
trains
start
two
at 6.0
6.45,
up
If the four trains (regardedas points)all
8.30.
find the following
equationsbetween
simultaneously,
rates in miles per hour,
Am
*53/i)
"VO
where
196.
is the number
Prove
^-4
Jb
-+-1 Ox,
-t
[Trin.Coll. Camb.]
of miles in AB.
terms
that,rejecting
*
Am
+ 5#o
termini A and By
trains at 7.15 and
another
pass one
xlt x2, x3i x4, their
(1~y)
l+
higherorders,
3y2).
^+y) ^(3.*2
^
+
[Trin.Coll. Camb.]
MISCELLANEOUS
that the
Shew
197.
a,
"
productsof
b,a -2b,
two
togethervanishes
2)(m + 1)6.
of the
sum
511
EXAMPLES.
the series
{n-l)b,
"
when
is of the form
3m8"
1,
198.
shew
na{a2+ (w2-l)/32}.
If ",
199.
b,c
are
real
shew
positive
cpiantities,
g8 + 68+ C8
111
a
that
a3b3c3
[Trin.Coll. Camb.]
time for a town a miles distant ;
200. A, B, and C start at the same
A walks at a uniform rate of u miles an hour,and B and C drive at a
After a certain time B dismounts
uniform
hour.
rate of v miles an
and walks forward at the same
pace as A, while C drives back to meet
with C and they drive after B enteringthe
A J A gets into the carriage
time that he does : shew that the whole time occupied
town at the same
3v +
was
rT.
'
3u+v
-.
r.
Camb.]
[Peterhouse,
L
J
hours.
board.
The streets of a cityare arranged like the lines of a chessThere are m streets running north and south, and n east and
travel from the
of ways in which
Find the number
can
a man
west.
shortest
distance.
the
S.E.
the
to
N.W.
possible
corner, going
201.
[Oxford Mods.]
Solve the
202.
equation*/x
+ 27 +
55
x"
4.
[Ball.Coll. Ox.]
ab +
the
Shew
203.
of the sum
is to the excess
excess
terms
Find
204.
the nth
to 2
terms,
of the first
the sum
1
the first as rilto 2n
over
"
convergent to
205.
{a-x)Hy-zy
=
{a-yf{z-xY
{a-zY{x-yY
2{{a-yf{a-zf{x-yf(x-zf+{a-z)'i{a-xf{y-zf{y-xY
^(a-xf{a-yf{z-xf{z-yf}.
[Peterhouse,Camb.]
512
HIGHER
206.
If a, #, y
the roots of x3
are
ma
ma
in terms
of m, n, q,
"
qx+r
m{3 +
my+n
m(3
my
"
[Queens'Coll. Camb.]
r.
one
person out of 46 is said to die every year,
be
If there were
of
born.
33
out
to
in how
one
no
emigration,
would
the
double
this
at
Given
itself
?
rate
population
many
years
207.
In
ALGEBRA.
England
and
log2
208.
'3010300,log1531
If
(1+
x2)n
7i
unless
is
(n
a^c2+
'
0"
(-1)rr!
(n-r)\a"
"r-2-
-y72~
3-1812718.
prove that
1)
"
multipleof 3.
3-1849752,log1518
a0 + axx +
"P-war-i
What
case
[St John's
1
Coll.
Camb.]
209. In a mixed
consistingof Poles,Turks, Greeks,
company
Germans
and Italians,
the Poles are one
less than one-third of the
number
of Germans, and three less than half the number
of Italians.
The Turks
and Germans
outnumber
the Greeks and Italians by 3;
the Greeks and Germans
form one
less than half the company
; while
the Italians and Greeks form seven-sixteenths of the company
mine
: deterthe number
of each nation.
210.
Find the
of the
infinity
to
sum
is
If
is
integer,
positive
prove
n(n2-l)(n2-22)
n(n2-l)
+
that
|2J_3
[2
n{n2-l){n2-V)
;
*K
(n2-r2)
~k
\r \r + l
'
Find
the
of the series :
sum
9x + 16x2
1.3
(3) -x
213.
Solve the
25^3 + 36^
3. 55.
+
^r
to
-
49^
7. 9
to inf.
tomf-
^3-+-^r +
equation
terms.
Ax
Qx + 2
8#+l
6x + 2
9.r + 3
12#
12.r
l6x + 2
8.r+l
=0.
[King'sColl. Camb.]
214.
Shew
513
EXAMPLES.
MISCELLANEOUS
that
+ c2(l+rt2)"6"6^
(1) a2(l+ ^2)+ ^2(l+c2)
+
+
+ "
+ 6',+ C"+...)(^+^
"+...)"(","
+ Z)P " + ^
(2) ?2(rtP
the number
215.
of
C^+...),
quantities
a, 6,c,... beingn.
Solve the
equations
a{y + z)+ a\
zx=a(z+x) +/3".
yz
a(x+y)
xi/
216.
If
be
y\
[Trin. Coll.
Camb.]
that
2^-1+^+3f4"-^!U...+("-l)
l(2"-^l)
is divisible
by n.
[Queen'sColl. Ox.]
217.
In a shootingcompetitiona
each shot: find the number
for
points
30 in 7 shots.
can
score
man
5, 4, 3, 2, or 0
score
can
in which
of different ways
he
[Pemb.Coll. Camb.]
bx3 + ex2 + dx
Prove that the expression
x"
of
and
a
a
completecube if
completesquare
product
218.
will be
the
126_9^_5e_^
"
c2
219.
ft*7*7
a
220.
squares
Shew
that
the
next is
sum
jr"r
of the
[JesusColl. Camb.]
productsof
is
"
pair
every
of the
+ G).
n(n2 l)(4?i2l)(5?i
"
"
[CaiusColl. Camb.]
221.
If
+
x
that
"
"
'4."_i
"
x-b
222.
Prove
that when
^=o
has
x-c
is a
0.
integer,
positive
""-"X"-4)8..,
".2.-..^y-.+
(n-4)("-5)("-6)
",_,.
j3
"
,
+"-
[ClareColl. Camb.]
H. H.A.
33
514
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
equations:
Solve the
223.
.v+y
?
+
by+
+ b+
7G.
S- 3
+
f
b
ax
%xy + 3
+ 2z.r =g"+
if-
c
cz
bc +
+ ab
ca
[Christ'sColl. Camb.]
to
line be joined
224. Prove that if each of m pointsin one straight
terminated
l
ines
the
another
in
of
then,
straight
points,
each
by
n
by
[Math. Tripos.]
times.
Having giveny
225.
y +
and
shew
+ x1 + r",
in the form
3abc + 2b3=
that a2d-
expand
[Ball.Coll. Ox.]
1.
than
he bought
sheep; altogether
47 animals.
Expresslog2
227.
in the form
1
1+
1+
(1245
'
!" ;
Test
+
2
143)
1144
i
"
-,
[Oxford
Mods.]
L
J
,f
for convergency
x*_
1JJ x* 1.3.5.7
2.4"6"+2.4.6.8,10+
1.3.5.7.9.11
2.4.G.8.10.12*
Shew
also that the
for its rth term the sum
of
sum
of
4 (2*
-
terms
1)+
x*_
+
14
term, and
the nth
Find the scale of relation,
of the recurring
series 1 + 6 + 40 + 288 +
230.
terms
r~
[139+ll"-|38j
[5{[240
229.
[Euler.]
1+
'
r
6"
fraction
n2
32
1+
of the infinitecontinued
22
1+
in
buying calves,
pig and "2 more
of pigs
The number
he could have bought
of money
226. A farmer spent three equal sums
than a
calf
cost
Each
"1
more
pigs,and sheep.
the
terms
i (2*
1)
-
sum
of
by taking
[CaiusColl.
Camb.
516
HIGHER
240.
Shew
that the
equation
is]
ax +
reduces
to
ALGEBRA.
+ y
simpleequationif fJa"s/b"fJc
0.
Solve the
equation
\f6x2
-
V4.r2
1 5.i- 7 +
-
8x
11
\/2x2
5#+ 5
2#
3.
241.
out
bag
3 at random.
colours.
of the fifth powers
a,
Harmonica!
and
Geometrical
rth terms
ptYl,
qth,
equation
[London University.]
b,c
Progressionhave the
a(b-c)\oga
same
that
: shew
respectively
0.
[Christ'sColl. Camb.]
Find four numbers
such that the sum
of the first,
third and
of the squares of the
fourth exceeds that of the second by 8 ; the sum
of the squares of the third and fourth
firstand second exceeds the sum
the
of
the
sum
products of the first and second,and of the
by 36;
third and fourth is 42 ; the cube of the firstis equalto the sum
of the
and fourth.
cubes of the second,third,
244.
series
245. If Tw Tn + l, Tn+2 be 3 consecutive terms of a recurring
connected by the relation Tn + fi aTn + l bTn, prove that
=
1 {T\ 1-aTnTn
+
246.
Eliminate
x, y,
from
"
+ 1
bTn*}=a
the
constant.
equations:
1
"+-+-
=-,
Xs +
y3 +
z3
.r*+y2+
02
Z"2
d3.
a
=
c3,
xyz
[Emm.
247.
Shew
x*
are
in
proportion. Hence
"
px3 + ox2
equation
-
solve .r4
"
Coll.
rx
"
"
1 2.r3+ 47.^2
"
72.r + 36
0.
Camb.]
MISCELLANEOUS
517
EXAMPLES.
248.
249.
followingseries
each of the
Sum
(1) 1+0-1+0
+ 7 + 28 + 70+
terms:
l-"
2-2
(2)
to
6-23
"""
,
.
.
I.2.3.4T2.3.4.5T3.4.5.6T4.5.6.7
(3)
3 +
9x* + x3 + 33x*
a* +
1 29^; +
Public
[Second
Solve the
250.
x2 +
If
251.
xy+y2
"
+ x* =
zx
ay,
vG + 5
and
"
a+b+cJ
is
odd
an
shew
integer,
"
bn
tt"("2 v2)+
-
an + bn + cn'
cn
4md
u*v *)
(1
0, prove that
If
x+y-\-z=3pJ
(y+
and
+2
(.'/
253.
Find
x)(z+
~"
yz +
zx
+ xy
y)(x+y
x)3+ (s+
the
that
1
7-"
aH
Ox.]
az.)
111
+
If u6
Exam.
equations:
'
"
3q, xyz
z)
=
linear
factors,
..
that
r, prove
+ 36pg
27js3
y)3+ (#+#
Cai
8r,
*')327j93 24/-.
=
in x, y, z, of
+ by2+ cz2).
{a(b+ c)x2 + b(c+ a)y2+ c(a + b)z2}2 Aabc (x2+y2 + z2)(ax2
[Caius Coll. Camb.]
-
254.
Shew
that
"
\ x+y+z
255.
By
means
of the
".r*yy.s""(^
J
3
\
[St John's
\l
identity
'
Coll.
Camb.]
"
,"-
"
prove
that
r=n
*r=1"1;
"
r!(r-l)!("-r)!
[Pemb. Coll. Camb.]
518
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
256.
Solve the
equations:
+ bj.+
(1) ax-\-by+z=zx-\-ay-\-b=yz
(2)
If
-fy +z
agree with
"
placeswill
this
~u
"=
unity as
0.
12,\
far
the rthdecimal
as
approximationin generalbe
place,to
correct ?
how
many
[Math. Tripos.]
If sn representthe sum
of the
taken two at a time,then
J2 +
11
3!
4!
productsof
11
v_i
+
n\
~2l6'
[CaiusColl. Camb.]
260.
If
pa2 + 2qab +
prove that P, p ;
the equalities.
261.
an
+ 3
If
j8n+
Q, q
rb2
; and
pac +
R,
"
q (be a2) rab
may
"
be
"
pc2 2qca+
"
ra2
'
interchangedwithout altering
[Math. Tripos.]
j8+
0, shew that
+ j8B+ 7n)+
yM+3 a/3y(an
=
^(a2
/32 "8)(aw1+/3"
+
+ 1
+
y" 1).
[CaiusColl. Camb.]
262.
If
a,
/3,y, 8 be the
x*
find in terms
roots
of the
+pa? + qx2+
rx
equation
+
0,
2(a-/3)2(y-S)2.
[London University.]
MISCELLANEOUS
519
EXAMPLES.
of turkeys,geese, and
263. A farmer bought a certain number
ducks, givingfor each bird as many
there were
birds of
as
shillings
he bought 23 birds and spent "10. 11*.;find
that kind; altogether
the number
264.
of each kind
that the
Prove
that he bought.
*o*
equation
"y)i+(#+y8^
(y+z-8xfi+(z+x
-
is equivalent
to the
0,
equation
[StJohn's
265.
If the
equation
1
equal roots,then
the quantities c
are
then
a,
"
H
+
either
of the
one
or
d, or else
a,'
:
'
b,
+
abed
b,0
"
Camb.]
pair of
L
b is
or
+ b
+ d
equal to
one
of
Prove
0,' 0,
'
or
a
quantities
have
x+b
Coll.
[Math. Tripos.]
266.
Solve the
(1)
(2)
ay
+ y +
equations
:
by+
ab, x-l
cz
bzx +
y-1 +
cz
ax
z-l
=
a-1b, xyz=az.
cxy +
a. ";+
by
[Second Public
267.
Find the
simplestform
of the
+ b+
Exam.
c.
Oxford.]
expression
*
+""
,+...
^"
""
^_
'
(*-".)("
8)
-/3)(e-7)(e-
[London University.]
of Clergymen, Doctors, and
268. In a company
Lawyers it is
fcund that the sum
of the ages of all present is 2160; their average
a;e is 36; the average
age of the Clergymen and Doctors is 39; of the
1 octors and Lawyers 32^; of the Clergymen and Lawyers 36f. If
each Clergyman had
been
1 year, each
Lawyer 7 years, and each
Doctor 6 years older,their average age would
have been greater by
of each profession
5 years : find the number
present and their average
ages.
269.
Find
the
condition,
among
that the
its coefficients,
expression
+ Aa^xhf
+ -i't...ry3
+ "4"y4
+ Ga.sv-yciyX*
should
be reducible
in
expressions
to the
and y.
sum
of the fourth
powers
of two
linear
[London University.]
520
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
Find
270.
equations
x2 + v2
y2-f w2
+ u2
z2 +u2 +v2
b2,
(z+x)=ca,
wu
uv
w(x+y)=ab.
=c2,
[Math. Tripos.]
consonant or group of consonants
stand immediatelybetween a strong and a weak vowel ; the strong
can
that the
vowels e and i. Shew
vowels being a, o, u ; and the weak
which
be
formed
whole number of Gaelic words of n + 3 letters each,
can
It is
271.
no
2 1ft + 3
of
consonants
is
aeo
"
where
"
"
no
letter is
ft
re-
+2
peatedin
272.
the
Shew
2x
where
r,
word.
same
that if
x2+y2
2z2,where
+ 2lk-k2), 2y
r{l2
I,and k
x, y,
Find
are
integers.
are
5+
7+
the value of
to
"
1+
then
integers,
112
273.
1+
3+
inf.
[Christ'sColl. Camb.]
274.
the series
Sum
"-2
(1)
2.1-3
3.^
.
2.3
"
a+l
"
B
to inf.
[2
[ft
(a+ l)(a+ 2)
Solve the
(1) 2^
4.5
3.4
|1
(2) -^
275.
+ 3
+
+ n)
(a+ l)(a+ 2)...(a
equations:
(2^-l)(3y+ l)(42-l)+ 12
+ l)+
(2x+l)(3y- l)(4g
(2)
276.
3ux
Shew
-2oy
that
vx
+ uy
a2
3u2 + 2v2
14 ; xy
ab
ac
ad
b2 + X
be
bd
ac
be
c2+ X
cd
ad
bd
cd
d2 + \
ab
80
0.
10"v.
277.
find the
If c,
b,c,... are
equation
sum
b'2
a"
""
a*
c2
I/2
(t
521
EXAMPLES.
MISCELLANEOUS
that
c2
Pn-iOr
-2/*.,)
2"n
[St John's
278.
the
Hy
expansionof
otherwise,
prove
or
j-g
-cVo.-(-l),
"
1.2.3.4
n
is
and
integer,
an
that
lT273
+
wlien
Camb.]
(3/t-2)(3/t-3)(3w-4)
(3m-1) (3m-2)
l-3"+
1 + 2a'
j ,
Coll.
that vanishes.
[Math. Tripos.]
and B went
out shooting and
brought
of the number
of the squares
of shots was
of shots fired by each was
48
2880, and the product of the numbers
birds
killed
of
the
of
had
numbers
times the product
by each. If A
fired as often as B and B as often as A, then B would have killed 5
of birds killed by each.
birds than A : find the number
more
279.
sportsmen A
Two
10 birds.
home
280.
The
Prove
sum
that 8
9 (a2+ be)
"
+ ab).
(b2+ ca)(e*
("3+ 6s + c3)2
[Pemb.Coll. Cams.]
281.
Shew
What
convergent to
4-
5-
282.
If
"
2"+1
is
'"
...
2-
2"2r(n-r)\
is infinite?
'
[Kino'sColl. Camb.]
fraction
111111
b+
a+
shew
that p3n
+ 3
b+
a+
c+
c-\-
bp3n+ (bc+l)q3n.
Out
of n straight
lines whose lengthsare 1, 2, 3, ...n
the
four may be chosen
of
number
respectively,
ways in which
will form a quadrilateral
in which a circle may be inscribed is
283.
-L {2n(/i
-
2)(2* 5)
-
3 + 3
1 )"}
.
inches
which
[Math. Tripos.]
522
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
of the squares
it,prove that
284.
and
?i3
"
6nu2 + 4m3
If
285.
0, unitybeingcounted
is of the form
"m
1 shew
zx-xy;
"
2
y + z2 -yz
(x2+
as
Coll.
)2.
xy
"
of the
of the mth powers, P the sum
If S is the sum
togetherof the n quantities
an, shew that
alt a2, a3,
286.
Camb.]
zx
"
prime.
[St John's
products
...
\n-
!n
"
\jm P.
Prove
287.
x3 + qx-r
and
equations
rx3
?'2=Q
"
"
"
have a common
root,the first equationwill have a pairof equalroots ;
and if each of these is a, find all the roots of the second equation.
[IndiaCivil Service.]
If
288.
where
V2a2
a2 stands for
(x+y
*/2a2
-Sy2 +
Sx2 +y
z)(-x+y
z)(x-y + z)(x+y-z) Q.
[Thin.Coll. Camb.]
satisfythe following
/C\)
til
ax
bx Oj
ax-bn~
b2
"
X.,
x\
a1
Xr,
+...+
^2
Cl2
~~
a2
an
bn
x,
OC-%
-
that
x2+y' + z2,prove
+
\/2a2 3z2 0,
bx
an
bo
+ ...+
an
[London University.]
Shew
290.
that
yz
zx
xy
where
r2
xl
y2
"
z2
zx
yL
xy -z2
x2
yz
zx
yzzx
"
xy
z-
x*
y2
xy.
[Trin. Coll.
Camb.]
524
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
if
that
Shew
298.
ax+yz
three
the
of
products
and
positive
are
unequal,
zx+by+z=Q,
0,
real
of
triads
distinct
three
give
b,
a,
for
and
equations
the
ratio
yz+zx+c=0,
values
of
values
the
x,
is
y,
(b
and
c)
{c
a).
[Oxford
If
299.
B=by-czC
that
prove
(a2
b2 +
c2) (ax
as
the
and
exercise
respectively,
the
that
on
the
the
time
exercise
daily
work
manuscript
first
he
and
day,
had
work.
first
day
contained
and
72000
counted
on
62000
his
with
the
last
words
usual
day
:
find
and
his
he
that
usual
worked
of
hour
he
by
daily
day
per
found
He
quantity.
that
words,
232000
counted
the
amount
had
jointly
varied
amount
and
mile
old
an
hours
the
increased
of
rate
of
z2).
he
kind
same
number
the
decipher
daily
read
could
gradually
the
at
the
beginning
and
walked
therefore
He
day.
the
during
he
miles
of
number
the
of
Oxford.]
Exam.
to
necessary
he
words
of
number
the
that
observed
Public
experiences
previous
During
manuscript.
it
found
student
certain
by
[Second
300.
bx,
2DEF
az,
ay
Mods.]
cy,
ex
F=
by,
CF2
BE?
AD2
ABC-
ax
E=
ax,
cz-
D=bz
-by-cz,
ax
the
of
end
12000
of
of
half
daily
ANSWERS.
Paces
I.
1.
(1) 546
11,
*
: a.
(3) bx
7.
5.
10.
(2) 9
ay.
13.
ZQ.
*-,or^-"i
=
10"12.
-3,4,1.
II.
385, 600.
3.
3 : 5.
7,3,2.
be(b-c)tca(c-a),ab(a-b).
5 : 6 or
22.
26.
6.
abc+2fgh-af*-bg*-cti"=0.
25.
21.
18.
17.
3,4,1.
" a (62 c2),"
20.
2.
3,4,1.
23.
(a2 ft2).
Pages
19,
20.
z3
'
45
2.
0
o,
u, 5-
13
li.
14.
"
(2) 300a36.
(1) 12.
3.
.
0, 3, 8.
j
15.
"
-.
"
g, 9, 10, 15.
21.
45
25.
19.
gallons.
gallons from
17:3.
23.
and
20.
24.
Tbe
parts of
parts of bronze.
18.
A ; 8
26.
7T"
-2aii
bm
cm-
18
",.
"
gallonsfrom
B.
"b.
brass
63
are
or
taken to
12 minutes.
20.
16,25
22.
The
years;
cost
per mile is
"200, "250.
is least when
and
":/ly,
for the
the rate
21.
is 12
journey is
"9.
day
miles
18 hours
an
7*. """'"
hour;
28
and
minutes.
then
the cost
526
IV.
1.
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
277".
a.
Pages
3.
0.
153.
2.
31, 32.
n(10-*"
'
v
4.
30.
5.
6.
-42.
-185.
7.
8.
1325^/3.
75^/5.
9.
21
10.
820a -16806.
11.
{n + l)a-n2b.
"(11a -96).
12.
1
"13.
16.
--,...,
-j,
-9|.
1, -l",...,-39.
14.
20.
612.
25.
^(o+1Uff5.
2a
21.
4.
10
or
-8.
First term
5.
First term
6.
Instalments
1\, number
18.
3.
19.
5.
23.
495.
24.
160.
22.
1, 4, 7.
26.
n("+l)a--.
x
Pages
or
-13.
of terms
59.
2.
8, number
...,a%
IV. b.
1.
?i2.
17.
x.
-33a;,-31z,
15.
of terms
35, 36.
3.
2,5,8,...
8.
25.
54.
7.
12.
fi
9"
13.
14.
20.
22.
+ rc~8"^r)"
2(l-.r)(2
3, 5, 7, 9.
[Assume for
15.
2,4,6,8.
10p-8.
3, 5, 7; 4,5,6.
10#
tbe numbers
p + q-vi.
V.
a.
%2*
a
M, a-d,
16.
12
21.
8 terms.
23.
ry
Pages
-te
12,
or
17.
d, a
17.
Series
(n+ l-r)x.
41, 42.
+
+
2)3d.]
6r-l.
1|,3, 4^,.
527
ANSWERS.
V. b.
1-g"
*
9-
mi"
n(n+l)
*-l
2 /
l'\
23
9f1-pJ.
2o
(i+.)i"y-d,
"c
li.
15.
11.
13.
Gaud
a.
2.
24.
5.
?i
l){n2+
3/t+
3).
l).
15.
4"+1-4-w(tt + l)(n2-"-l).
18.
19.
Pages
is
fr+
+ b + c;
v\
22.
(2n
I(2a
12,0.
0^, 79-
3.
4:9.
10.
|,J,I
gn(n+l)(2"+7).
14.
J(3,l+1+1)
2
11
(" 1 1).
"r
12.
2'1+1.
greater than
Tho
1.
first
form
n^ld) la*
+ (n 1) ad
-
Page
VI. b.
1.
52, 53,
all values of
1),for
"
+ 2.
S'":""1'-"!?"*- 1
1
1 (
B.2"+f-2*"
19.
^r.
"
+ l)(?i2
+
^w(?t
-n(n
16.
21.
VI.
(1)5.
^i'"
.r=(.r5"-l)a7/ (x"//" 1 )
x--l
xy-1
4/2a+
4.
(i
10'2ft'10-
14.
1.
1H
3-
3'
10"
(l-r)fl-H'
s(.r"-l)
46, 40.
8
Zl
1-a'
(l-a)2
Pages
1}
d* [
-("0
.
56.
2.
1140.
3.
16646.
4.
2170.
7.
11879.
8.
1840.
9.
11940.
21321.
5.
6.
52.
11.
300.
12.
18296.
15.
120.
16.
n-1.
Triangular364; Square4900.
14.
VII.
a.
Tack
59.
1.
333244.
2.
728G26.
3.
1710137.
4.
*7074.
6.
334345.
7.
1783212G.
8.
1625.
9.
2012.
10.
13.
1456.
14.
7071.
15.
11.
M90001.
12.
231.
16.
(1) 121.
(2) 122000.
VII. b.
1.
6.
20305.
34402.
190.
10.
Pages
112022.
5.
842.
-
65, 66.
2.
4444.
3.
11001110.
4.
2000000.
7.
6587.
8.
8978.
9.
26011.
5.
10.
i
87214.
528
HIGHER
11.
30034342.
12.
710^3.
16.
20-73.
17.
125-0125.
ALGEBRA.
2714687.
13.
14.
-2046.
15-1*6.
15.
5
18.
19.
20.
Nine.
21.
Four.
22.
Twelve.
25.
Twelve.
26.
Ten.
30.
2n + 27 + 26.
31.
39-38-37-36-35
Pages
a.
3 +
^6
\/a6
(" +
6)
1+
y/a2 1 + N/2a(a
1)
"'
~~2^
12
8.
56
10^/2
2^+3
23+ 56
2 + 33
22 +
^/3+ "/5
.
3:1 22 + 22.
.
541322
145
56
g
2
^2
6.
"
33 + 33
a-1
3^/30+ 5^/15
^
7.
19
10
11
56
23-
2 + 56
110
23
23".
11
21
a6-a66*+a%2"-...+a"6*-64.
23-22.74+2.72"-74~.
12.
53+53
11
10
1
.
14.
17-33.22
15.
32
22-
10
33
2 + 33
|S"4
33
21
1-33
17
22-
22 + 33
22-
33
1\
32 +
18.
23.
31262116
11
25+26+26+26+26+26
gj
17#
+ 33
22 + 33.23-33.22.
3
.
11
i(36_36
+ 36_36+36_1\
2 \
3
3*+3"+l.
+3*.
33.22-3.
15
.
10.
13
11.
16.
~~
9.
^15
6
-
5.
z.
a*/6+ "\/a
Eleven.
24.
72, 73.
^/2+ ^/6
l.
3*
33 + 32 + l.
VIII.
2 +
Eight.
23.
l
.
+
86.
8Q6
v/5+ ^7-2.
19.
20.
V5-\/7
2^3.
21.
1+^/3-^/2.
22.
23.
2 +
Ja-JSb.
24.
26.
2 +
^/5.
27.
^2
3-2^/2.
29.
2^/3+ ^/5.
30.
3^/3-^/6.
31.
35.
ll +
36.
289.
37.
56x/3.
^7
"J3.
25.
28.
*+
aA
"
4/^
"
^/3.
JU-2J2.
1 +
a/^^+a/|-
5v/3-
ANSWERS.
5.
38.
3^3
41.
3 +
43.
Sa+Jlr^^r.
^/5
1.
0-2^/6.
4.
.i-
+ 1
3.
39.
8^3.
l+^+a
x^/2
40.
5-23007.
529
a^ +
42.
2.
_8_
7-
29*
3a2
10.
2a
13.
16.
3N/3l).
"2(1- "/^T).
"(2 +
-1S
-^
"(" +
2"-
35x2
3.
+ 4pga -p* +
(;"2
-fl2).r2
5.
.r2+ 10.r+ 13
7.
.r2+ G.r+ 34
9.
x" + a2-
13.r-12
2axs +
Pages
Q.
0.
0.
=
'"
*"
0.
{4-a-)x2-2ax
21'
0.
,ab + b- =
{("+
"
0.
88"90.
2.
MiH.r'J
+
4.
xa- 14.r+ 29
6.
x-
8.
.r-
+ 2(ix +
(u2-wr).c
a-
3,0.
15.
fr2 2ac
12.
~^"
21.
7.
26.
28.
aW
29.
x--
H.
19-
"
6c" (3ac
16.
-15.
(2)
...,-.
23.
(6" 2ae)(aa+
-
x*
-L.
.
c-).c + (/,29ac)8
=
~aV
"
27.
0.
".
20-
24.
0.
"*("*-4ac)
6")
"
0.
"
o7
22.
0.
0.
19r + 0
0.r!+ 11.c-
--.
18,
2,
0.
+ b- =
10.
mn
0.
2px+p--8"j
10
14.
(3a2-6s).
a.
q-
J^Z).
^"j.
/;)-(,/fc)
"(1
15.
aziTTT+ b-
1.
11.
^0
23.
IX.
+
V^T).
^"=T). 18-
7-14''
26
3.
EJ.
5
17rtrt
111-
1
22.
"(5-6
4
19
9
19-
14.
""-=
1+
n)*ac.
"".
hinix-{m--n-)- 0.
=
Ji. A.
34
530
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
IX.
2.
-2.
1.
Page
c.
(ln'-l'nf=(lm'-l'm)(mn'-m'n).
5.
"7.
96.
+ Ji'a)0.
(Jib'
(ha'+ Jib)
2ac' 2a' c)2 (b2 4ac)(b'2 4a'c')
; which
\bb'
10.
(ac' a'c)2=(ab' a'b)(be' b'c).
(aa' bb'f+
7.
reduces
to
X.
13.
a.
Pages
101, 102.
4.
17.
9, -7,
20.
4,
1"N/:I24- 18-
-J,y^".
2i.
2- ~4"
-1"*/71.
19-
3" "g'
2, -8,
-3"3x/5.
22.
3,
"
X"
-",2-^".
532
40.
HIGHER
""x/7, ift^/13,"3a,
0,
ALGEBRA.
"";
2a2
41.
"
#=
1,
a
"
"
; ?/
-a8
,716a4
"3;
3.
af=5, -1;
5.
.x
6.
8.
4, 3,
"3;
"5;
?/=
"=2.
2"Vi5i
t2;
?/=
8, -8; y
S, 4,
109, 110.
2.
5;
4.
8, -3;
2=7151
i5.
2=
5, -5;
; y
3,
Pages
c.
5;
"
V16*4-"2-1
"4.
z"
lf
2a,
-1
X.
1.
"
-3.
?/=
1;
7.
3;
?/=
3,
11
;
7.
jr=
9.
.c
2,
"
"5; y= "1;
3;
4;
?/=
"==
-;
"1.
*=1;
12.
.t=1, -2;
?/= 2;
3.
11.
.r
5, -7; y
a,
3, -5;
-.
10.
8.
6,
-8.
11
13.
4,
?/=
; */
"
7, -3;
6, ";
3,
'
2, -6.
14.
.r
0, 0;
0, a, 0;
^-^3'
16.
-2a,
"=a,
a;
"a, a,
X. d.
1.
2.
3.
Page
0, 0, a.
'a-
"
a;
=
2a, -4a,
(l"v/-15)
a.
113.
5.
7.
x=7p-5, 2; y=5p-4, 1.
9.
6.
8.
.t
21^-9, 12; y
11.
19p-W, 3;
13.
11
16.
To pay 3
guineasand
17.
1147
infinite number
18.
horses,15
; an
?/=
8p-5,
23^-19, 4.
3.
14.
cows.
12.
101.
15.
56, 25
or
receive 21 half-crowns.
19.
20.
28 rams,
21.
10.
of the form
1147 + 39
56p.
oxen.
16, 65.
533
ANSWERS.
XI.
Tacks
a.
221.
122"12-4.
3.
6.
40320; 720.
1.
12.
4.
6720.
5.
15.
8.
6.
9.
120.
10.
720.
11.
10626, 1771.
2.
15, 860.
7.
12.
1440.
13.
6375G00.
14.
360, 144.
15.
230300.
16.
1140, 231.
17.
144.
18.
224, 896.
19.
848.
20.
56.
21.
360000.
22.
2052000.
23.
3(19600.
24.
21000.
25.
yJ^-p.
28.
9466.
29.
2903040.
33.
1956.
34.
7.
b.
XL
26.
2520.
27.
5700.
30.
25920.
32.
41.
Pages
131,
132.
2.
4084080.
72.
6.
125.
Vn.
10.
(3) 3326400.
1.
(1) 1663200.
(2) 129729000.
3.
151351200.
4.
360.
5.
7.
nr.
8.
531441.
9.
11.
1260.
12.
3374.
13.
455.
15.
4095.
16.
57760000.
17.
1023.
19.
127.
30.
14.
'
yunrwr
18.
720; 3628800.
inn
315.
20.
21.
64;
22.
'
325.
23.
{\m)n
\ii
'
24.
(1)
P(p-l){p-e"
*Ji"l"-i""zi"
+ l; (2)
6
3"(g-l)(p-2)
g(g-l)(g-2)
!
,
hi.
6
27.
113; 2190.
2454.
28.
XIII.
15a;4+ 90a;3
270.r2 + 405a;
2.
81a:4 +
3.
32.c5
4.
5.
6.
+ 216.r-//2
+ 96.r?/3
+ 16//4.
216a;3//
+ lO.r//4if.
80x*y+ 80.r3y"40.r-y3
-
18rt2+ 135a4
540"G + 1215a8
1458a10 + 729aM.
+ 2 la;2*/2
+ 35a; V
35a;3*/3
7.iv/
~
tlxhf
7"V
16-48a;2
54arl-27.c6 +
16
8.
729o"
972a5 + 540a4
21x2
Ix
9
1+T
30.
143.
142,
81a;8
7.
(p+ l)*-l.
243.
""
6666600.
Pages
1.
26.
29.
a.
~T~
35a;3
~8_
160a3 +
35a;4
^
21xn
^
7xG
x7
x7'f'
5199960.
42.
534
HIGHER
64a;6
10*
32a;4
729~~2~r
1
11.
12.
+ ytv + t?
2ob
lb
lb
10
1-
45
+
"
+"
+^T4
120
-Z
X'
5-
35750a:10.
r
a;1
14.
210
252
x*
'
64a;6
8a;4
_
5~
8
"
729
+
4a;2
210
+
243
_
35ft4
7ft3
7ft2
135
+
^~
^T^
a'
13.
20a-
ALGEBRA.
45
120
"
8.
ft
xv
:8
112640a9.
10
15.
1120
40ft763.
17.
J~(5a;)3(8?/)-7.
MK
18.
81
;27|3_
70x6y10
10500
20.
19.
21.
2x4 + 24a;2+ 8.
23.
140^2.
26.
-^a;14
29.
1365, -1365.
32.
18564.
34.
( 1)"
a:3
+ 5ft4).
(16a;420a;2ft2
22.
2x
24.
27.
110565ft4.
(365
189ft17
19
30.
31.
'"I6a
252.
25.
84ft3"6.
28.
21
312a;2.
130
16.
x,.io
iC9
18*
In
33.
Bn
-
|i("-r)!4(H+ r)'
XIII. b.
9th.
1.
The
5.
The3rd
The
2.
6|.
Pages
12th.
147, 148.
6th.
4.
The
=Jrj"
9.
The
3.
6.
11.
I2n+1
xr-ian-r+l.
12.
14.
(- l)p
13.
n-r+1
14.
2r
15.
XIV.
Page
a.
".,
2n -p
p + 1
n.
155.
3
3
1
"
+ _a;-__a:-.
2.
i +
4.
l-2a;2 + 3a;4-4a;6.
6.
l+
2a-
-2
_
3"
5*
2__8_
25* 125
x-
14
5.
a;2
-
a;3.
a;
+ 2a;2+
a;3.
"
7.
l-aj+ga^-g^3-
9-
1+X+6-U-
8.
10.
"
a;
;r a;-
l-2ft +
-ft-
"
"
ar
"r
11*.
3, n=5.
r-1
26a;4
10th and
2, ?/
10.
2/i*
|"|
z*"-*"+\
535
ANSWERS.
U.
4(l+.-|..+|..).
i(l "*"+|"").
!4.
2a-i\
1040
18.
21-
a-
"/""/
lb
250
10//
._
-lra"
19.
a?-.
(r+ 1)**
20.
2-43rt,.
(r+ l)(r+2)(r+ 3)
x
23
"'
22.
(-1)
(2r-3)
...
_r
lr_,11.8.5.2.1.4,..(3r-14)
*J
(
I
*"
3r|r
10719
24.
-1848.113.
-i^-z"\
25.
XIV.
Pages
b.
1.3.5.7...(2r-l)
*"
x"
^y
2.5.8...(8r-l)xr.
4"
3'- r
t
5
/_nrfe"llt"2)r-r
*~.
^_
*"{-*)
2.5.8...
13.
The 3**.
17.
The
20.
9-99333.
(3r-l)
14.
21.
The
18.
5th.
The
10 00999.
XIV.
1.
-197.
4.
(-l)"(n"+2n+2).
(2,-1)
\r
1.3.5...
U"
V"--'
3'lr
xr.
2.1.4...(3r-5) ^
(2r+ l)
3.5.7...
fi
6.
br
9"
"
"
(3r-4)^,
^1.2.5...
161, 162.
2.
c.
15.
The
13th.
3r"1.
22.
19.
G- 99927.
Patqeb 1G7"
142.
The
l)
7,h.
989949.
23.
-19842.
1G9.
3.
6.
16.
(-1)"-1.
v/8=(l-|)
.
.rr
53G
HIGHER
2\-'v
|2n
1VH
14.
Deduced
18.
from
(1 a;3) (1 #)3
-
Series
21.
22"-1
the left+
on
xr in
in
terms
3.r2.
'
{l+ x)n f1 +
c2+
..
.c
J2
x-n in
Pages
XVI.
8,6.
2.
_4_4
5*
2,-1.
w(l-^x* ^x"~x?
^xA.
157.42
5'
2'
~2*
91ogb.
7-
9.
12.
-"log
-^,-i.
11.
-|.
-4,
4.
"
"3'
'
3'
3'
-loga
-logb.
-logfc.
178, 179.
--loga
3x* +
3.
8-
10.
173, 174.
Pages
a.
b-
18.
61oga
(1 .t2)-*
15-
8.
=z2(l+ o;)n-2.
XV.
3'
( 1)"qn2 coefficientof
-
6561.
In ire
[Use (c0
+c1
1.
16.
|2w
ALGEBRA.
-gloga--log".
7
a
-log
logc
loga log b
b.
13.
2^"8fl19.
2
.
'
loga + log b
21ogc-loga + log6*
22.
loga;
51"^
loga + 3 log "
X~
g(a
logw
log 6
\oga'J
log (a ")
1
+
36),log?7 g(a-26).
=
16.
41ogm
'
1
=
-51ogc.
14-
24.
+ by
log(fl
'
log 3.
537
answers.
Pages
b.
XVI.
185, 186.
1.
4,1,2,2,1,1,1.
2.
3.
5, 2, 4, 1.
4.
5.
1-8061800.
9.
place.
1-1072100.
6.
1-9242793.
1-1583626.
10.
-6690067.
11.
-3597271.
12.
-0503520.
13.
f-5052973.
14.
-44092388.
15.
1-948445.
16.
1915631.
17.
1-1998692.
18.
1-0039238.
19.
9-076226.
20.
178-141516.
21.
9.
25.
4-29.
28.
4-562.
301.
23.
7.
3-46.
24.
frJ
32.
log,2.
9.
e*~-cy~.
Pages
50 in
log,3 -log,2.
2.
(2);
?*
(1);and
?i
(1)respectively.
+
"-1"r"'3r
2r^.
13.
(2.r)2(2x)4
(2x)-r
2ji+^.+i_X+...+i_^+...{.
"
/)"4
/""-
/y"6
/y"*-7*
H"1"
1L~1124.
1000 in
(.lr..r"i".
L
-0020000000666670.
6.
10.
10 in
195"197.
14.
.,"*,
1.
12.
,*"
1^+iog.a-*).
log,(1
A^
-040821995
XVIII.
Page
a.
(l M
-log,
a=
log,f1
iA
=-105360516;
-012422520.
202.
1.
"1146.
14s. 10J.
2.
"720.
3.
14-2 years.
4.
5.
9-6 years.
8.
"496.
9.
10.
XVIII.
b.
"3137. 2s.
6 percent.
4.
3 per cent.
5.
28J years.
6.
8.
"6755. 13s.
9.
"183.
18s.
10.
"1308.
2.
12s. 4 U.
15.
"4200.
"119.
Pack
1.
13.
14-200.
XVII.
27.
5-614.
?,l0gJ
""-"",
log 7
log
2
7i
1-206.
26.
log3
31og3-21og2
2*0969100.
loS2
.-_""".
log -log 2'
29.
8.
19*.
4frf.
16s. 4^7.
207.
2U.
3.
"1275.
3} per cent.
"110.
7.
11.
"920.
2s.
538
HIGHER
XIX.
8.
a3 + 2"3 is the
14.
The
22.
44
greater.
greatestvalue of
55 ; when
33.55
xs "
12.
or
is 1.
213, 214.
#2 +
"
15.
4 ; 8.
23.
9, when
2,accordingas
XXI.
b.
Pages
218, 219.
a.
Pages
241, 242.
11.
12.
SameresultasEx.il.
14.
17.
x"l, or x
1, convergent; .t"1, divergent.
16.
Convergent.
Divergent.
(1) Divergent. (2) Convergent.
18.
4.
5.
8.
9.
10.
15.
or
"
2.
Convergent.
Divergent.
13.
"
XXI.
1.
x"l,
or
2.
Same
result
4.
"
x"e,
Page
b.
252.
as
1.
3.
11
5.
"
#=1.
3.
2.
Convergent.
Convergent.
#"1, or#
l, convergent; x"\" divergent.
6.
7.
Same result as Ex. 4.
Convergent.
l, divergent.
#"1, convergent;x"l, or x
Divergentexceptwhen p " 2.
#"1, or x=l, convergent; x"l, divergent.
If x " 1, convergent ; x " 1, or x
1, divergent.
1.
3/2
/3
Pages
a.
3.
XIX.
,n
ALGEBRA.
1
or
convergent ;
x"-
convergent;
divergent.
x"e,
or#=e,
divergent.
Same
result
as
Ex.
1.
540
HIGHER
X-l
+ l
ALGEBRA.
BiiWsoW "Pn-r-4n*.
12'
_il
13
ld"
1flll(-1"'-V
+
"
3(2 + *)' 3\
3(1-*)
+
3(* + 5)
15.
-L.
-1_
-
""
'
,-4{1+
1-2*
5
1+
l-#
2)'1
3(x +
a;
'
V~*
3V5'-+12^+V
(- l)r-1-2r+2}^.
'
'
!{9r+8+(-l)'2~}V.
(r^y8(I^j-3(I^)
llr)a:'4lI^)4(l1^p;4M(12
Tfx(TT^-2T3i' (-V ("+"-"?)*
+
""
18-
31
19'
2la^I)
(l-sc)d
j(a
-
(l-x)2
1-sc
*"-+2
b)(a c)
_JL J_l_
1 + ax)
'
x*
(l-.r)2(l-3
Page
(4r+1)^
(TT^25
xn+l
l-^
i_xn+i
272.
{1+(-1)r2r^r-
2-
l + x-2x*"
12* + Use2
5'
l=^flE?r"5^
7.
1+
"
XXIV.
.-r(l-a")(l-.'c2)"
5r + 9)
l + aP+tx
anx
25
'
f+"-W
(I^-)2 r^;
*'
(1-a)2 \l+
11)
f9\
"
(6 c)(6^o) (c-a)(c-b)1
+
-(2^p-2^
c^"2
+
1
23
^r+2
j
22'
1-
3a;
"
'
l-4x
tr-+1)"r-6'
2(1-3^")
1-3*
1-Sx
3-
2n-l;-(3"-l)+
3(1-2^*)
1-2*
2n-l.
541
ANSWERS.
l-3".r"
l-.r"
l-2'l.r"
13.
(2n+
2
L
(2**+i+l).
1)3+|
15
13
1'
6'
12
2'
'
*"
074
150'
313*
2 +
2 +
'
95
JU3
105'
232'
1497'
85
121
43
'
11
Pages
'
26
37
"359
3+
2+
1+
1 +
2+
1+
2 +
157
3;
"30"
3+
3+
Ill
_1_JLJ^JL_!
3T
3+~ 2+
IT 1+
5+
"
12
109"
3+3'
3+
'
'
JL _L JL JL J_ JL *"
3+
'
1117
277, 278.
1174
'
3+
7'
323
13'
36
13
'
4+
6.
28
f7' 22'
10
a.
2' 5'
'
XXV.
11
5;
1+
35"
J__l_ J_ J_ _1_1. _7
1+
2+
1 +
3; 19"
1+
2+
2+
11111111
?5i
J_J^AJl_X
7+
5+
6+
1+
35
223'
G3
10.
3+
3+
n'
o+
1 +
"
jt
//
7i
+ l
and
n2
~T~'
b.
?j3 n2 +
-
11
Packs
1
"'
281"283.
151
1
"
"2(1250)**
115'
a*+3a+3
11
4.
a+
29'
~n*~
and
(203)2
33'
3'
39
161'
47
194*
n+~l'
XXV.
i'
(n-l)+
(n + l)+
208*
10'
1+
GO*
3'
r-
2+
1+
259
J__l_l
4 +
3+
16.
6+
3+
aa + 3a- + la + 2
'
are
542
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
XXVI.
7m
290, 291.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Four.
"r
8*'12' 8;
12'
4, y=2, z l.
3, 7, 2, 6, 1; y
S91.
?/
8'
12
9.
1_
8'
12*
9, y
S,
S.
"c =
14.
aj=l, 3, 2;
15.
280" + 93.
17.
18.
a=ll,
19.
The
20.
21.
425.
12.
ll, 4, 8, 1, 5;
5, 1, 3; z 2, 4, 3.
4
-.
5,
6,
7.
9, s=7.
?/ =
1, 1, 2, 2, 3.
181,412.
16.
107th and
5
-,
10,9, 8, 6,4, 3; 6
104th
305.
899.
22.
XXVII.
Pages
a.
end.
1829 and
23.
1363.
294, 295.
26
10.
as=2,
11.
355.
6.
13.
109.
Seven.
"6. 13s.
355; x=320,
5.
^3117
8.
Pages
2889
"
n4+"",1292"
"""15*
1+2+
"
1
3'
J +
2T4T'-;
11
5-
d +
198
9-
d +
1+
""'
6+
2+
_1_J_
6+
4+
1+
2+
8+
2+
"390"'
1+
2+
2+
12+
1+
'
1+
1+
5+
2+
_1_Jj_J_ _1
1+
2+
1+
1+
1+
24+
1+
1+
1+
1_
10+
8+
.
'""'
""
'
'
20
55*
_1
47_
270'
10+
1111111111
280
ie
"D'
1+
3+
1+
35
12
'
5+
10+
21
111111
1+
1+
-;
253
13.
4+
1+
1+
198
1_
JL_J_ JL
161
12 +
1+
33
42
11111111
12.
6+"-;
197
1351
'"";
1+
1+
119
J_
"'"'
111111
11.
1+
31
_L J_ JL J_ JL J_
2+
1+
35"
116
2+
1+
IT4+
+1+
1197
3-f
1+
99
-;
J. J_
6'
'
1111
7.
2 +
4-
3970
3+"6+";
485
16+
1+
3+
2+
3+
1+
16+
"'"'
351*
5291
1_
2+
"
'"'
4830*
""4.*"
ANSWERS
4030
1(577
9'
20-
401
483
2 +
1111
22.
""
24'
4( +
2+2
""
111
"
r"
21,
1+
1+
"
"
...
'
1+
1+
23.
"
4+
2 +
"
3+
1+
25'
11111
4+3+3T-;rT2+8+3+3+-
26.
Positive root of
28.
4^/2.
3" -3
x-
0.
"
27.
30.
-.
lOx -4
0.
XXVII.
1
1
1.
2a+
2a +
2*
8a:,+ 4a
a-l
1+
8a2 + 8a + l
2a +
2+
"'
2+
'
'
b+
'
8a2 + 4a
2a262 + 4a"
1111
+
2a
2a+
6.
2a +
b +
+ l
'
2a"*+26
2a +
1111
6.
2a- -1
""'
2(a-l)+
1111
4.
8a-4
1+
2(a-l)+
8a2-8a
*,;
2(a-l)+
2+
1+
1_
+2T 2(a-l)T
1
3.
""'
2a+
J.
301, 302.
8a4 + 8a2 + l
Pages
b.
2a/i-l
a-l-t
"
""
1+
2(n-l)
1+
'
2(a-l)+
2/i
141a4 + 36a2 +1
Page
XXVIII.
l.
1, 2/ 4; s=7 or 5, y=6.
x=3, y=l, 11; *=7, y=9, 19j x
s=7
or
311.
2.
6.
10, y
5.
x
3, 2; y=l, 4.
11;
4,3.
x=2, 3, 6,
y=12, 7,
x
79, 27, 17, 13, 11, 9; y=157, 61,29, 19, 13, 3.
7.
3.
4.
9.
12.
2, y
l.
18, 22.
15, ?/
4.
x=32, y=5.
2.r =
8.
10.
lG4, y
2V'3
(2+x/3)n+(2-v/3)";
21.
170, y
39.
x=4,
11.
l.
integer.
13.
2x
even
14.
2x
(2+ v/5)n+(2-^/5)'1;
2^/5 ^ (2+ ^5)"- (2 v/5)";n being uny
integer.
positive
(4+ v/17)n+(4-v/17)n;
2V/17.?/ (4+ x/17)" (4-v/17)";n being
.
odd
positiveinteger.
any
The form of the answers
to 15
17, 19, 20 will vary
mode of factorising
the two sides of the equation.
"
according to the
544
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
11fi
15.
17.
x=2mn,
19.
m--n-\
3/t2,y
m?
2mn.
5m?-n*.
m2 + 2mn
m2
?i2.
16.
18.
+ n~;
20.
2mn; m2 + w2.
m2-n2j 2mn + n'2.
Anna
Hendriek,
Geertruij.
; Claas,Catriin;Cornelius,
21.
XXIX.
Pages
a.
321, 322.
1
1.
+ S).
l)(n+ 2)(ti
^n(n+
3.
2.
+ 4)(3n+ 7)+
(3"i 2)(3n+ 1)(3/i
-
"
-(n
+ 7).
l)(n+ 6)(/i
5.
; 1.
t-t^
^r
=^^
+ 3)'
4(2/1+ 1) (2/7
2/1 + 5
'4
+ l)(??
+ 2)
(7i
S-nT2a(n
+
9.
'
,~.
12"
1
3*
1
11
4*
+ 2);i'
l)(i"
+ 4)
6(3/i+ l) (3//
'
24*
2
h
3+(u+
3)(h
4);6*
""'
"H"
j^+l"""
15.
+
+
j ("-l)(w l)(n 2)(2n+l).
""(*
-?i2(n2-l).
"
^T
24
36n2 + 151n+
(n-l)"(n+l)(n+2)
6(2n+l)
n(/t+ 3) 3
~^~
+,
3"2 + 7i;
240)
32.
ig
"(n+l)(n+2)
n+1"
1
1
20-
2~^2~
(n+l)(n + Z)'
XXIX.
1.
50)
l)(n+ 8)(n+9).
l
-
19,
90/i2+ 45u
"
t^
12
1?
3;i+l'
1
o
8.
16.
-(n
7.
'
n+1'
14.
{21n* +
n
fc
6.
12'
11
71
4.
+ 4).
(n+ 1)(n +2) ("+ 3)(/t
b.
Pages
332, 333.
2.
5/t2+ 3/7;
+ l)2.
?i(7i
1-7l+~r
+ 7).
(n+ 1)(5/7
3.
+ l);
7t2(/i
4.
-4raa(n-3);-77 (/7+1)(n2
5.
rc("+l)(n+2)(n+4);^n(n+l)(n+2)(n+3)(4"+21).
"
"(n+l)(n+2)(3n+l).
-
3u
2).
l-a; + 6.x-2-2.r3
l + .r2
7-
(l-.r)3*
1-aJ
_
(1+.t)12.
gj.
2-.r + .r2
8-
'
(I-*;3
(l-a;)3
1 + lLc + lla^+g3
(l-z)0
13.
3.2"
+ /7 +
2; 6(2"-l) +
W^
5^.
545
ANSWERS.
14.
S*-i +
15.
n"-(n+l)s;^(Sn"+2n*-15n-26).
16.
2"+"-ns-2tt; 2"+2-4-
17.
3--1
"("+l)(.+ 5)
(3"+1 8)+
(1 a;)2
-
n+1
2)
58n +
+
k(k + 1)(9h2
13k +
25.
2"t+i
(n-l)3"+1+3.
|k + 2'
1-3-5
2.4.6
2(k+1)(k + 2) *3"'
k
'
(K + l)(K+2) 2n+1'
2""^T2
(ex e~x)
338"340.
1+
2.
x.
Pages
c.
+ 4
1-
33.
XXIX.
+ 1
(2/t+l)
(2k+ 2)"
+ 1
31.
2".
(2k+ 1)'
2'1.3.5.7
29
30.
8)
(k2-k+ 4)2"-4.
27.
28.
1-
37n
8)
60
12
26.
1.
+ 33na
(k+ 1)(12k3
23.
15
24.
32"
7TT2-~^~+3
2n'
4n+1
(n+ 1) xn
2(1-a?)
(1-*)"
21'
'
)i
"
(1 xf
1
20.
22.
"i.rn
xn
"
"
19.
18.
t"(u+1)(2"+7).
nx11
xn
(n+g)
3*+n~+"
n;
-log(l-ar).
"
(ex
5.
8.
ieix+
c~x
ie~ix).
(l+ x)ex.
k(2"-1).
9.
log"2-",
14'
"X"
15.
7.
1.
0.
10.
4.
3("3-l).
13.
e*-log(l + .r).
n3
71*
n8
(1 +
20.
W
H.
?i7
2--6+42' (J)
(1)
17.
lot'.
22-
{p + q)r
12.
?i5
?f
n6
71"
?l'
(r-2)|r-T
II
11.
...
4.
2 \
1 +
n2J
'
-')2lo-a+.T)-3^.
21.
4.r
3
H.
7k4
12
24
ir
+12
+ 1.
+ 1
"(n-fl)2"~".
+
"-)
I1+ 2"+i + (-!)"+'}"
5l2
A.
7kb
(_1)
(n+l)(n+2)/'
35
54G
HIGHER
XXX.
1.
3, G, 15, 42.
7.
23.
Pages
a.
is
1 h
"
a.
356"358.
Pages
18.
XXXII.
5.
Pages
integer.
an
XXXI.
2.
18.
6.
8987.
33.
139t + (jl,where
348, 349.
2.
:. b.
20.
ALGEBRA.
a.
367"369.
1 ; it
Pages
can
be shewn
that
qn=l +j"n-
376, 377.
2 to 3.
2197
10.
'
20825
11
16.
4165*
(m
7i)
(m+n-1)'
XXXII.
b.
Pages
383, 384.
XXXII.
c.
Pages
389, 390
1
.
4.
"
Florins.
9.
me
11
to
5.
-.
1
o.
10.
b.
o
548
26.
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
The
determinant
27.
is
w'
v'
v'
v!
10
equal to
=0.
Pages
XXXIII.
b.
0 ; add
first and
427,
second rows,
428.
third and
fourth
1.
1.
3.
(a + 3)(a-l)3.
6.
6.
abcd(l+
2.
_/,
z)(y+
7.
-(x
8.
(ax-by+cz)''
+ y +
2ca
2ab.
-).
a)
2bc
1\
+ T+
a2 + b2 + c2
4.
rows.
x) (z+
y) (x +
a'.
9.
z).
.""-"""-"")
; "c.
12.
(a b)(a- c)
"
13-
k(k-b)(k-c)
('"cTVT
(a b) (a c)
B
""
x=",
X-{a-b){a-c)(a-d)'
XXXIV.
a.
Pages
439, 440.
1.
-102.
3.
x3-2x2
5.
6.
7.
8.
l; -loz+11.
2.
3a + 6
4.
3.
2iabc.
9.
+ 62 +
("-c)(c-a)(a-")(a2
11.
14.
27.
+ 90x-" + 4S2x-7.
10.
13.
c2 + "c +
ca
12.
aZ").
(a+
12a6c
6 +
c).
28.
29.
2.
31.-
1.
30.
'
XXXIV.
5.
28
0.
(a2+ bc)(b2
+ ca)(c2
+ ab).
b.
Pages
7.
32.
+ b +
+ d.
442, 443.
A
ax+by
+ ay,
bx-ay.
549
ANSWERS
XXXIV.
1.
x3 +
xy2+
4.
y-
a(x-Sa).
7.
9.
a4-4"/c3 + 364 =
ay-
0.
Pages
c.
449, 450.
0.
2.
5.
a*-a*=l.
+ rt =
6.
8.
0.
aB3+y"=o*
""+ys=2as.
loa;=fc2(a:+a)".
3.
?/--
10.
"4-2a2"2-"4
12.
5a263
+ 2c4 =
0.
abed
11.
-3=1.
l+
1 + 6
1 +
6c5.
1 + d
1+"Z
13.
ab
14.
a3 + 63 + c3+abc
15.
(a+6)*-(a-5)$=4c$. 16.
a" + b2 + c2"2abc
17.
abc
20.
c2 (o+ b
l +
c.
(i- a-b
c)2.
1)-
"2-4a"c
18.
{a+ b
2a6 + "2-
1)(a-
l.
+ ac3 + 463-"V
b)+
ab
0.
0.
22
0.
1
+
(a-b)cr+(a- c)bq
(b c) ap
(b a) cr
(c
a) bq+ (c b)ap
bcqr+
ab'
23.
ac'
ad'
ac'
a'b
a'c
ad'
a'd
bd'
1.
6x4-13x3-12x2
3.
x6
4.
re4
ox*
2
0.
b'c
b'd
a'd
bd!
x* + 2xri- lis*-
2'
2'
p
~"-
6, 2, g
8.
16.
XXXV.
2
ldb^-3
~3'
~2~
d'
3.
-1=^/2, -l^V^7!-
5.
-1, "v/3,
7.
x4-8x2
+ 3G
~"
1*2^/^1.
=
0.
0.
"n/3, j,
14.
|,|,W2.
4' 3"
f,|,2,3.
19.
21.
2(/2.
2.
3'
2'
3'
"1
460, 461.
-g,
-3,2"N/3.
4.
"7^1, _2"VTT.
6.
.t4-2x2
8.
ar"+ 1G
+ 25
=
0.
2*
17.
Pages
/o
11-
2' 4*
b.
113
12.r3+ 3Gx2
1,3, 5, 7.
5.
2'
c'd
0.
_3
b'd
cd'
abpq
0.
456, 457.
2.
80r
Pages
a.
+ 39.r-18
ad'
a'c
a'd + be'
XXXV.
carp +
0.
.)
9.
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
50
s4- 10^+
1=0.
10.
re4
12.
11.
ar"
6a;3+ 18x2-
13.
One
15.
One
positive,
one
positive,
16.
Six.
17.
(1)pq
21.
pq-r.
22.
^-3.
24.
pr-ls.
25.
26a; + 21
0.
imaginary.[CompareArt.
negative,two
one
pq-Sr,
23.
Pages
c.
470, 471.
1.
a,-4-6a;3+ 15a:2-12a; + l.
2.
3.
4.
a;4-24a;2-l.
5.
16aa;7i(.r6
+ h6)+ 2bh
+ 7a;4/*2
+ 7a;2/t4
+ 10.r2/r+ 7i4)
+ 2ch.
(5.T4
10.
2, 2,
1
1,
3.
1, 1, 1, 3.
11.
1
14.
15.
1, 1, 1, -1, -1,
17.
a, a, -a,
0, 1,
22.
(1) -2;
1
'
'
"x/3,i^/3,1
/3 l"J-7
2.
16.
6.
18.
^Wg'"
n"j*-*
20.
(2) -1.
XXXV.
l",7r23
/3
4p"{n-2)"-*.
99,795.
28.
Pages
d.
5.
27.
^/^1.
;"\/2'
"
-|,-| 0, 1, -|,-|.
19.
1
"
110.
3, 3, 3, 2, 2.
12.
^/^3 1"J~Z
13.-2,
554.]
r;
XXXV.
0.
least four
negative,at
=
0.
478, 479.
2.
+27=0.
+ Sy'2-9y
?/4-5?/3
4.
6-
2,2l,L(l"Jl3).
2'2'
"2^/2,2
^/3.
in
1U*
11.
14.
15.
y*-2y + l 0.
2/6 60i/4 320r
12.
"
+ l
?/4-4?/2
717?/2 773?/
-
t/3-^|2+^-^
0.
42
0.
13.
4'
'
2'
y5-7y3 + 12y2-7y=0.
+ ll2/4
+ 57y2-132/-GO
+ 422/3
2/5
16.
18.
+ 4y2+ 37/
+ 3?/3
+
?/4
19.
20.
ri/+ kqi/2+k*
21.
y'i-q2y2-2qr2y-r40.
22.
23.
+ (l-r)3
?-^+ "/(l-r)2/3
0.
+
+ r3
+
2/3 3?^2 (53+ 3r2)2/
+ r(r2+ 223)
;V + 3?^2+(3r2+ "/3)?v/
0.
r\f
?/3-2^2 + 92y+ r2=0.
25.
26.
0.
~5*
0.
+ 19j/-15=0.
?/3-8?/2
0.
+ 8
+ 33?/2
+ 12*/
?/3
17.
24.
qif-1
0.
0.
0.
0.
28.
"1, "2,
5-
551
ANSWERS.
XXXV.
1.
d*""Lll.
5,
Pages
e.
488, 489.
2-
10,-5"7V^8,
3.
4,
5.
--.-iVJ?.
6.
11,11,7.
-2"5j~^S.
4.
10.
13.
7^~3.
-6, 3"4
-ld=7^1.
1"72, -1"7^1.
1,-4*^/6.
U.
4, -2,
14.
1, -3,2"75.
1, 4
15.
2,2,|,
|.
16.
17.
18.
22.
-2"76, "72,
25.
2"73.
28.
3.
2
"72.
sV
23.
12.
-3-^.
g"+8r*=0;?,
I-3-^-5
"715,
+ (l-44
+ r(l-s)3j/
2s(l-*)2?/2
MISCELLANEOUS
EXAMPLES.
2.
6, 8.
4.
6.
8.
9.
(1) 1,
+ 2b
-,
5 ;
x=
490"524.
1,
y=
3;
5.
(2) 3.
-(oft+ a-^"1).
1 ; common
First term
7.
difference
a4 + "4 + c4 =
15.
x-
y1=
J
+ b + c
; or
13.
a-b
c-a
Jc-a(a+ b- + c2
where
^.
10.
14.
be
,-=";
ab) d.
-ca-
16.
One
17.
(1){b+e)(e+a){a+b).(2)
13.
(1)
^/-g- ^
+
"
'
2~.
18.
; 22G8.
^105
(2)x
22.
Pages
putting x 4 y,
y2 3//+ 1 and
original
equation.
-pCp8-^); (p2-q)(p"-3q).
^-3;
or
0.
Eight.
3.
^?.
""
26.
1,2,-2,-3.
y="7^;
1"*5; nine.
a^6=-(J+26)="\/y+a623.
i {(1+
2 + 3+
..
(l2+
/")--
2-*+ 32 +
...
+n-)\.
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
552
24.
29.
31.
Either
or
5fc; where
40 minutes.
33.
6, ft 7.
32.
35.
1 +
37.
-l^y-3^1^/gj[a,.4_.r_5(a;2 l)
^x2--xi
x\
"
pr
38.
8;^"
480.
30.
3fc,?/ 4fc,z
25.
The
40.
-.
a;
0.]
firstterm.
.r-
13, 9.
41.
"
(1) 3,
43.
2,
^^"
"
ssl,
2=1,
-\, 0,
l,
[Add a-2+
-1,
-|,
-|,0,
(2) x
",
a2.,,.,,
-|-o- +
'
0,
0;
-1,
0;
4 to each
c-
side.]
0,-1.
5780.
17.
150
48.
persons
majority350.
7J'2m+l
[Put (a
6,
53.
(2)
rrt.
'
a-b-c+d
c)(6- d)
60.
^"
males;
"
"
b-c
"
-r"
"
a;2- 16
,-
y4,we
find
females.
difference of the A. P. is
is the reciprocal of the
H.P.
a(n-r)'-+ -^
b(r-l)
-
"
n-1
68.
...
the in
19.
U'
0,
,...
69.
is
"
b,
"
a+b
"
-=-"
term
l)th
'
[The rth
term
(n 1)
aft(n-l)
e rr
rv -1
a(n-r) + b (r 1)
-
-.
"
"
l"V-3
*
; common
is
-^St.
"
v/a+ ^/6
63.
ab
"
"=-,
b-c
n-1
which
^/a+ ^/6
Common
64.
30
"
",
55.
--577-.
58.
men.
ad -be
".
0,
C1)
i*
51-
936
50.
2m-l
250, the
minoritywas
first the
at
"78.
-1*^-3
*
'
and
+ ft),
[(a+ ft)3-a3-ft33aft(a
=
a3 +
(a- ft)3-
63 =
-3aft(a ft).]
-
is
553
ANSWERS.
72.
73.
-.
79.
*4U
.,*]""
log
(1)
v
'
7,
2.
*
!f
o
3, 6
1.
85.
Sums
86.
503 in scale
95
T_5
*-6'
_"
100.
invested
[Put x-a
"7700
were
109.
(1) x
111.
1+
JL
25
-z
82.
ar
3.
25 miles from
126.
84.
"1100.
was
London.
10^
/5
96"
'
\/3'
2y
"21'
2(l-2'\r") l-(-l)".r"
-"
1-x-
,
l.
v.]
l + 4x
is
2i-
-^
suru=
.,
"
"
'
--
2.c
1 +
d.
b,
(2)x
c.
-i--L
-=-
a,
3 or
12 persons, "14.
108.
1;
,"
b;
1, y
3,
y =
2, 2=1
948,
2a\
a,
or
1;
|f=l,or
y
*
492.
2b, y
18s.
3.
15*.
"12.
113.
b.
3;
or
l~^TWd
a(J"'1)
(2)
121.
b=
"3500:
?/_3
"*"-d'5'
1+12+1+1+1+9
12"-
a,
(1) x
(2) x
and
."c=
{2"+ ( l)n}xn~K
c-
and
seven.
..
+ 6
2)
91.
,.
Generating ,function
a-
...
29
r,
107.
hours.
ItthE}.
!
*"
nih term=
117.
a6c
81.
'
or
80.
+ 6 +
(1) -=*f=-=sO,
'
*=*2(^?l0S2)~*l-189
log
74.
*"*
v
(2)
+ **+"
{*"+"-
(2) x
0, y
13.c
0,
0; x="2,
124
^-
or
y="lt
lO.r-1
23
y-
(1)
122.
+
(n+ 1)2*2 + (2*"
2=
2li
1)x
n-
1
.
"3.
(.r23x
-
1)
(**+*+ 1)
1; scale of relation is 1
125.
1=
127.
(1) .r=-6, 2; y
128.
(2)^.
(1)^".
130.
(1) x=
(2)
2^+1
'
2x- ;
'
term
general
(2) *=-;
9, -3.
12, 16;
129.
or
is {2'1~3 +
(- l)n_1}.r"-'.
y=y
48, 4.
"7.
=
I
b
"
JL
where
"2 =
a4
64
c4.
2abc
133.
11,r-1.
137.
(1)*="-^,
y"
V2' y="^.
138.
134.
384sq.yds.
v/2
(2)
"^;
136.
a=
"2,
*^/^-
3,
"2.
554
139.
141.
(1)
i"("+l)(2"
+ l). (2) ~n(n
(3)
|n("+l)(4w-l).
(1) x
(2) x,
142.
or
have
may
y,
-
(xn 1)
or
the
8r
0.
3 + Ua; -157a:2
'
1 + 5x -50a;2
146.
A walks
that
subsequentlygainson
^6-1
147.
(an
150.
-(a +
a(l-nanxn)
y"
'-
"
a2x
H
spondingfunction
b+
c), -(a +
on
wb +
u)2c), (a+
-
(o'2b
+
wc).
153.
(1)
-7,7"8y~8(2) ^
156.
(1)
| ^ 0"^4
B,
an-1xn~i)
(1
*_
-
and
denotes
corre-
of B.
151.
(1-aa;)2
ax
him
overtakes
a;"-1; Sum
"
a-b
A
bn)
"
is -*
nth term
where
and
148.
(63 d3)
overtakes
144.
-8a;3'
3*
in successive
B walks
so
l).
the values 3, 5, 7.
permutations of
x-l'
(x-iy
6n +
l)(n+ 2)(Bn2+
y.
(1)
?/=
y;
143.
ALGEBRA.
HIGHER
2p3 q2
0.
"8"
4"
154.
days.
89
22 years
162.
(1)x
nearly.
r*-
-=r=
(2)x
[Itis
h (64
+ c4
a262
easy to shew
a2y+ b2z +
(a+
b +
c2x
c)x (be+
=
(1) ~n(n
44 hours.
.-
s="i,
a?e2)"c.
that a2x
ca
[Equation reduces to
164.
"I
161.
-7"V217
,""
157.
163.
11
T92
".
a;3+
"2;
,
y==F2, Tl;ar=-y="V3
where
2/i;2
(a6+ bG + c6
ab)"
(a+ b +
3a262c2)1
=
J (be+
c)x2-
b2x +
c2y.]
b+
=
c).
0.]
556
223.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
1("15W^);
(l)^=l("15"V33)j
,=
or*
4, 6, -4, -6;
6, 4, -6, -4;
5, 5, -5, -5.
V~b
a;~fl
(2)
g-c
_
6(C-rt)~c^rT6)-X'
a(6-c)
a2 + 62 +
("-c)(C-a)("-")x
where
226.
230.
Scale
of
2*"-i
^n
23"-i
T
ar
232.
233.
a3 + V +
235.
(1)
Xtenn-1{""
"
(l-*)^=l+4o;+^-.(n+l)3a.n+(3B8+6|l
"%"+"
(3m3 3n2 3k 1)"*M
+
J
(2)
'
8
+ 2)3(n+ l)2(7i
236.
237.
3hours51min.
244.
3,4,5,6.
246.
247.
2, 6, 1, 3.
248.
a*V"
2 or
240.
aux*
+ a20;r,6"
"^28 + ^
242.
140.
(ab*-"f.
a*(c*-Sd?)*=:(ab*+2")
"
.
13
l)(2,tl).
2*-H-2-jU(n
(1)
(2) -_^!L_
(n+ l)(n+ 3)
T^
"3"
when
250.
+ 6"-ca, "c.
N/a=*
249.
+ 8"
"21
2T3-
convergent.
+ 32.-
1-12.,
11
231-
=|;
f(^-l)}
"
is
relation
c2_"c_ca_^
(l)*
*
(2)",
S'
*""P
-he-
even
'Jiz*^)
If*^
+
odd.
is
2/=
2/+
a(-a
2
_
0or|.If
-a,
and
the solution is
c)
xy
0) then
indeterminate.
z
V
+ b +
b(a-b
c)-^(^b^c)
1
'
"
flM
253.
(i
-"+BE1C,H-A, +
A
y/a (6 c),"c.
-
B,
s/l- +
a
*"+
cjja-b
+
c.)"4,-B, + 0,)(Alf
c)(a + b~^~c)
"+ Xre
55?
ANSWERS.
(1) .""
256.
1,
z=-(a
(2)x
to-
w,
S,
or
7,
or
y
257.
To
262.
2ga-6pr+24".
at least 3r-2
(1)x,
266.
0,
or
-4
4,
or
-6
places.
have
y,
(i j_
l;
Clergymen of
24 Doctors
20
Lawyers of
average
average
"
(1)
274.
0.
267.
30 years.
age
"C.
"
Va2 +
age 45 years ;
age 35 years ;
X=
3 ducks.
; "c.
="
of average
270.
Go".;Coffee,1*. 6d.
b -f-c
269.
2s.
turkeys,9 geese,
permutations of the values
263.
the
(2) as=f/="
16
Tea,
258.
11
la(b-l+sJb*-2b-3),
\ (b JJfi^W^3).
a,
268.
+ /yu).
-(i/w'-
"
0.
"
V"2 +
62 + c2
"c
273.
fl-?Viog(l-a;)-2.
(2)-^ jl- ,w'^"
a-1
(
v'\
c~$.
^2 + c2
xj
"
+ n))
(a+ l)(a+ 2)...(a
(1)*=?,?, 2;
275.
?/=-l,
2
-g,
4'
4'
'
(2)z="4,
-1;
"5, t"="2,
2/=
*="3 Vi"
w="l.
^t2v!'u=4v-3'u="\^-
276.
a2 + ft2+ c2 + d2 + \.
277.
-p18+ 3^0-
279.
^, 6 birds; B, 4 birds.
281.
2.
287.
a,
289.
S1=
291.
.4 worked
294.
+ c2
(ft2
300.
Walked
or
CAMBRIDGE
-5a, -5a.
walked
Bp3.
"*
-ft"?^'fl'-fr"??,
miles,worked
PRINTED
BY
C.
J.
3 hours
CLAY,
M.A.
day.
AND
SONS,
AT
THE
UNIVERSITY
TRESS.