APPLICATION NOTE 89 MAGNETIC TAPE RECORDING HANDBOOK sewer i macxseo‘Application Note INTRODUCTION a 12 13 9 CONTENTS Why This Handbook and What's tat How It All Began... TRIG and Is Standards MAGNETIC RECORDING 2 22 Direct Revord/Resroduce Blas High-Fiequency Response. Other Charatoristie 1 FM Recording “Standards” 22.2. FM Recording Systems. TTAPE RECORDER HEADS 3.1 Record Heads 32 Reproduce Heads » 1? 33 Head Care and Head Life ‘TAPE TRANSPORT MECHANISMS 41 Tape Reeling Mechanisms See 4.11 Nasonsl Association of Broudeasters (NABI, 42 Spood Control Systems. cere cee eee 43. Tape Motion Iegulaies, 431 Flutter 432 Skew. 43.3 Stretching ©0001 434 Effects of Fluter ELECTRONICS 5.1 Direct Record/Reprouee 52 FM Record/Reproduce. 53 Other Features, 53.1 RemoteContral s2 sss 5.3.2 BiDiretional Recording. «= 53.3 Overlap. 53.4 Tape Loop Adapter 53.5 Signal Actuation... MAGNETIC TAPE 6.1 Types of Tape 62 Signal Dropouts 63 Handling of Mage Tape 64 Cleaning 65 Storage 66 Physical Distortion 67 Erasure or Saturation SPECIAL TECHNIQUES AND MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 7.1 Bulse Code Modulation (PCM) 72 Pulse Recording 721 SystemNoise Not Minim zea 72.2 Improger Bias Level 72.3 Recording Level Impropaiy Set 724 Pulse Response 72.5 Recording Pulses from Recsivers 72.6 Revordee Adjustments... 13 Predetection Recording. Ta Dubbing 7 1 2 3 - q “4 Response Standards forthe Direct Record Frocess. Re 710 u 12 B 14 15 16 newman paceano CONTENTS (Continued) ITS STANDARDS «Heads. Tape. PACKARD INSTRUMENTATION MAGNETIC TAPE RECORDING SYSTEMS {and International Service Organization ILLUSTRATIONS Tide Se Dagan of hs Map Roerdng rec Equivalent Head Model { Equivalent Head Model Carver. A Typical Magnetation Curve, or Hysteresis Loop Head-to-Tape Transfer Characteristic with No Bias rel Rerematatin Showing ew AC Diy Alay Tat Sigal ‘One Linear Section of the Cure to the Other Serer cat AA Graphical Representation of Gap Effect. Head Core Showing Dimension Definitions Open-Loop Drive Closed-Loop Drive ‘TwoDiameter Canstan DualCapstan Closed-Loop Drive Refined Open-Loop Drive. Signal Attenuation Caused by Poor Tapeto Head Contact ia Piya « Erasure asa Function of Field Interaity. TABLES Title ‘Tape Characterists. PCM Code Comparison IRIG Direct Record Parameters | TRIG Single Carrier and Wideband Fat Record Parameters, IRIG Proportonai Subcarser Chanrels f RIG Constant-Bandwidth FM Subearrer ChannelsINTRODUCTION WTRODUCTION 11 WHY THIS HANDBOOK AND WHAT'S IN IT. ‘Thaoughout the world there are many Cats gathering systems that rely on magnetic tape for data storage. The fcuipment found in these systems will vary, but they ‘unaly contain antennas, receivers, miscellaneous sensor, displays, and tape recorder. The tape recorders are often the most rites units in thesysem, since to large extent the succes of an operation Is measured by the quality of the recored data Except for the tape recorders, the performance of ll devies can be measured and calibrated with the use of readily avulable test equipment and wellunderstood techniques. Quantitative results from presperaton tests will vouch for the equipnent’s readiness. But, unfortu nately, there is no simple quantitative measurement of a reorders performance. Thi situation is further agravated by the fact that operatirg and maintenance people are vunally aot concerned wih data analysis and unfortu- rately do not get immedate feedback on the quality of the tapes. As 2 result, mantenance priority is often given to other units inthe system when routine maintenance toa tape recorder would significantly improve the quality of {ata forthe entire operation. ‘The purpose of this handbook is 0 give those people concerned with operation and maintenance of tape recorders a better understinding of the tharos and tech. niques of magnetic recording. Only a very few undergrad tate engineering curicula include basic magnetic recording theory, end pethaps the material here can Eep shed some light inthis area. In addition, some practical considerations tue offered relating to the sppication and limitations ofthe ‘rect ard FM recording processes. These considerations Should te of value tothe system dosgmo in adapting magnetic recording to hie system requlremens. 1.2 HOWIT ALL BEGAN. ‘Magnetic recording of information began with Valdemar Poulsen and his “Telegriphon” in 1893 in Denmark, although the base fdes war documented but apparently not bull in 1888 by Oberlin Smith, an Americ. Since that tine, gest strides in the technology of materials, tech flques of manufacture, and constantly increasing need to record and store information have produced the highly ‘complex magnetic tape reorders of today. As originally ‘conceived, the recorder used stel wire spirdly wound on a drum where a stationary transducer recorded or reproduced ‘variations in magnetic Mux into of from the wire asthe frum rotated. Developirents in magnetic materials and Drocestes using ste! ribbon tape, especialy in Germany Shuring, he 1920-1930 era, resulted in several machines similar to present day configurations, In 1935, che first plastic tape was introduced by a recorder manufacturer, ‘ABG of Germmy. Tape recorders made in the United ‘States used sted ribbon tape untl just after World War I. Liberation’ of several German-nade tape recordes by the Aled Forees st tho ond of the war accounted for the beginning of magnetic tape recosling as we Know it today Inthe United Sates, In spite of the difficulties In itsuse, wie recording had pretty good foathold in this country by the end of World War I, where it was used in home entertainment, in the business world, and by the armed forces. By 1950, how- fever, the many advantages of tape over wire were widely ‘accepted and wire recording became a thing of the pat. Following 1956, great improvements were made in audio recorder technology, and. by 1955 stereo recorders were tallable For hemo use, In the same period, instrimenta: tion recorders moved up to 6D-ge operation, 14 tacks on Finch tape, and JOO4Ilz response. By 1957, television recorders were on the market, anc by 1959 instrumentation recorders were capable of L-MHE response at 12Cips. In 1966, home telvsion recorders were available ant instru: ‘mentation machines capable of LMHz at 60ps were being fuilt. During the noxt nine years marked improvements ‘were made in signal to noise rato and Mutter specifications. ‘Today’ instruments exceed 2MBz response at 60%ps while Incorporating these improvements ‘An intgral pat ofthe growth ic tape recorder capabilities has been the reat strides made in tape technology. Prom the paperbacked tapes of 1948 to the teslized polyester tapet of today, many improvements hve been made. Oxides, binder formulas, base materials, processing tech rigues, and exacting quality control standards have been ‘combined to produce the highsesoution extremely smooth instrumentation computer and audio tapes in use today = all exhibiting, many times the storage capacity avilable 25 years ao, ‘Today's magnetic recorders ate capable of many orders of magnitude beter performance than the 1893 motels, but they sill use the same baslc magnetic principles; only the ‘materials, techniques and requirments have changed over the years, 1.3. IRIG AND ITS STANDARDS. [A standard in the fled of telemetry for guided misiles was ‘established in 1948 by the Committe on Gulded Mises of the Research and Development Board (RDB), Depart meat of Defers, and was thereafter revised and extended {Se result of periodic reviews of the standaré by the ‘committee's working group on Telemetering of the Panel fon Test Range Instrumentation, The last oficial RDB MWApplication Note 89 revision of the standards vas published as RDB report MRI 204)6, dated 8 November 1954. Since the termin- fation of the Research and Development Bourd, new Standards Lave been prepared by the Inter-Range Intra mentation Group (RIG). ‘The steering committer representing IRIG and the Department of Defense test ‘anges has assigned the task of promulgating new o revised {elemetty_ standards to the Telemetry Working Group CIWG).” The importance of magnetic tape secording to ange instrumentation and iss widespread use in telemetry ‘operations long ago led to its inclusion in these standards. TRIG Telemetry Standards, document number 106-73, dated May 1973 represents the latest such standard document and is referenced thecughout this handbook simply a8 IRIG 196:73.* Copies of the document may be ‘bisined from, the Defense Documentation Center for Scientific and. "Technical Information, Cameron Station, ‘Alenanérla, Virginia (27314), by ordering AD-78.868. ‘Any applicable fables on IRIG spéifcations referenced in this document are contained in Appendix A. “NOTE ‘At the time of revision Application Note $9, RIG ‘Telemetry Stindards Document 106-73 supersedes {06-71 Howeret, it is most likely ttat IRIG wall reisue their document, in 1975 10675" ‘Although changes have boon made to various artes of the IRIG document, none of the changes seriously affect the information presented inthis brochure.wemaare ff escxano ) MAGNETIC RECORDING MAGNETIC RECORDING ‘The following are thre basic elements reqezed to make a amagpetis recording and later reproduce it 1. A device which can respond toanclcteles signal and create « magnetic pattem in a magnetizable medium. 2. A magnetizale medium, which will conform to and retain the magnetic pattern. 3. A device which can detect sich a magnetic pattern and convert it once again to the original electrical signal ‘These three elements take the physleal form of the record head, the magnetic tape, and the reprodice head. Add some eectronic amplifation anda mechanical tape handler, and abasic magne recorder ress. 21 DIRECT RECORD/REPRODUCE, ‘A recor} head is similar to 2 transforme: with a single ‘winding, Signal current fows in the winding, producing & magnetic fx in the core material, To perorm asa record head, the core is made in the form of a closed ring, but unlike a tansformer core, the ing has a shrt nonmagnetic ‘up in it. When the aonmagnetic gap Is bridged by ‘magnetic tape, the lux detours around the gap through the tape completing the magnetic path through the core material “Magnetic tape is simply a ribbon of plastic on ‘which tiny particles of magnete matedal have been Uuniformiy deposited. When the tape Is moved across the record head gap, the magnetic material, or oxide, is sub- jected toa fux pattem which is proportional to the signal Carrent i the head winding, AS it leaves the head gap, each tiny pariele retains the state of magnetization that was last Imposed on it by the protruding flux. Thus, the actual recording takes place atte trailing edge ofthe record head 1p. simplified dlagram of the recording process i shown In Figure Papa barren St operas pr eine era bomen os femme eas Ue te ef ato ta ps ez, eo Suppose the signal to be recorded on the tape is a sinewave voltage described by Asin ot), Both the current in the ‘Simplified Diagram of the Magnes Recording Process Figure record head winding and the fx, @, through the record head core will ve proportional t this voltage VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER: The induced voltage inthe head winding follows ‘the law of dlectromagnetic iadvction: 4 Nop / dt. Leis important wo note thatthe reproduced voltae is not proportional to the magnitude of the lux, ‘but to its rate of change (see Figure 2). Ifthe tape retains ‘this fax pattem and regenerates it in the eproduce head core, the voltge in the reproduce head winding will be «it repo * wee ob a sn on A cos (ot) Thus the reproduce head acts 1s a differentiator and the reproduced sigal is actually the derivative of the recorded signal and not the signal ite. This fact imposes wo well: known limitations on the dieet reproduce process. The ‘output of the reproduce head is proportional to the signal frequency, anc to maintain amplitude Rdelity, a 6-db-per- octave sist in the head output must be compensated for in the reproduce amplifier by «proses known as equalization. aApplication Note 89 Figure 2. Wollage Equivaleat Brad Model (CURRENT AMPLIFIER: The indiced cent in the head finding wil follow the equation i, = nL (se Figure 3) The corresponding curent inthe teproluce head winding vallte 6 Srepro * 1 wher $= Asin (wd) Figure 3 Curent Bquivalent Head Model Since this eliminates the 6 db per ootve rise in the heed ‘output (see Figure 4}, the required ecualizaton cicuity ‘nee only compensate for the nornal high frequency loses Gangreph 2.1.2) encountered in tape recording, The resuffant signal ctlenation is much gieater for te short twarclengths (high frequencies) bat Js flat for the lower Tegiencies An LC buvat clicult afer the proauplifisr fan be employed in the higher frequency repions to, in fect, duplicate the voltage ead circuit and thus meke the {two stems equivalent. A sligat gen in signal evel is attuned in the cureat model because we have eli:inated attenuation of tie higher Frequencies due to head loss. {An overall compassen would yield the following data on eunent amplifies 1. "The outputs independent of tape speed, 2 The bandwidth limitation of signals oy he inet capacity inreduced. 3. The effect of head loses on signal amplitude is smirmized. 22 es Vig. OUTAGE PREWMPLIFIER) (curser PREAWPLIFTER) PAROVETER AMPLITUDE (68) —~ Frequency —= Figure 4, 1Vs. V Cures 48, The effect of head inductance varicons on high ‘Frequency signals is removed, 5, Although the SIN characteristics of both the ccrrent and voltage amplifiers are the sime, high Q leads may te used with the current amplifiers to achieve higher SIN ratios, For both -ypes of amylifiction another limition ooours as the rcctded frequency approaches zero. At some point the output voltage from the reproduce head fils below the Inherent noise level of the overall recording system. So, there is ow-frequency lit in the direct reson process, below which reproduction eainot be made. 24.1. BIAS. Up nov out dsason te assumed eat magnet Ihe meting reson ineiy cote mapetzng fre of IS ot eal As mt bo expected, peony mis sor lf a the spon Werke tre pares on th fp ex thro expned t's ae fag oss "A ped apezton cae, oF hyrs icon iawn in Pg 5 His the magnetizing force and is determined by the number ‘of turns and the curent in the record head winding, B is the resultant induced ragnetizaion on the tape. ‘As a demapetized partie on the tape approaches the fecord herd gp, Ivete no residual magpetam. Pont O, Br the orgin Figure 5). Adsming that a cycle of the ‘eeonled dna along the tape is very Tong compre to Ube ‘Bp ene the pale al pass through an exenaly con Sant mapietizing free created by the recording caren Referring to the curve of Fige 5, such afc, (ip), wil carry the particle up the cise OA Yo post Ral the center Of he gap. As th pace ewes the gap Halls to 2x0,WeBeRs wmeren? vvour.see METER Figure 5. A Typical Magnetization Curve, or Hysteresis Loop Dut the magnetization of the particle will follow a minor hysteresis loop, RBp, retaining resid, or remanent mag. tization of By. The transfer characteristic ofthis process 1s shown graphically in Figure 6 and its inherent norlin- fait is readly apparent. High ditortion in the repr duced signal sults unles some corrstve action is taken. Figure 6 Hecd-to-Tape Transfer Charactorsds ‘with No Bias Fortunately, there ate two fally tnear segments in the transfer characterise eure, one on each side ofthe origin with their conter about half way to saturation. (See Figure 6). If the recording can be confined to one (oF both) of these stnight sections, low distortion can be relized, Similar to the manner of Basing a vacuum tube Into a repo of linear operation, some method of “biasng"” the recording function into the linear transfer region must be used. Eanly reaorder designers went naturally to 3 de HEWLETT, g PACKARD Dias proluced simply by adding a constan) de current 10 the signal and obtained operation in one or the other ofthe ‘vo linear ranges. With ively limted range thus aralable, dobiased records give a very resiricted dynamic range, bit they are quite improved over zeeobias recording. If both linet sections of the eure are to be used, some means of rapidly switching from one to the other mst be devised, This is exactly what a high-frequency ac bias does ‘There awe several theorles shout how an ar biss performs this function, and no one of them really accounts forall, aspects, One of the older and sll widely accepted theories, however, i that since he bias itself is not seen at the ‘output ‘of the reproduce head, because of its high Frequency, its switching finetion is aot detctable and the tap between the two linen sections dissppeas. Figure 7 shows graphically how a lowdistortion magnetic signal 8 thus recorded. Some further redaction in non- neal i also obtained in the same way as in push-pull amplifier: operation, since nonlinearities are symmetrically leaving the particle magnetized in propertion to the signal. For sorter wavelengths th recording signal may vay 600- siderably asthe particle i eaving the field and cortespom ding reduction in the remanent magnetization wil result. 3. Selfdemagnetization occur in the magnotle ‘medium itself wien the external magnetizing force Is removed ind is most ronainced when magnetic poles are roma loser and closer (shorter wavelenghs). Actually, selfcomagnetiation is probably the leat important ofthe ‘igh frequency limitations. 4, Penetration :osses are wavelength-dependent and cease another reduction fh the reproduced signal level ‘The fall depth (or thicknes) of the magnetic zoating on the tape becomes magnetized at long wavelengts, but as the ‘wavelength decreases tie depth of magnetization i reduces and, at very short wavelengths, only the surface layer of particles are effectively magnetized. Thus, the shorter ‘wave eng influence “ewer particles, cere bles Intesiy Jn the recorded magnetic pattern, an the reproduced outpat fal off. 5. Head losses, Unlike the lintations dscusod shove, head fosss are not wavelength depenlent, but ike any 2e-den ferromagnetic materi, ae elted strictly to frequency. Both core and winding otses at to reduce the clfetive recording cutrent at the high signal frequencies, Hysteres and eddy-current losses inthe core material nd the distributed capacity of the windings are the major contitbutors and, of course, they increase wih frequency 6, Separation Loss. This effect sen in the repeo- duced sighs very Short nd random reductions (r drop cuts) In sgnal level. Actually, dropouts are aot eaused by the recorder, but result from impecfeet tape-tohead contact. A. detailed disussion of dropouts and hhead separation willbe found in paragraph 6.2. Moder tape iechaology has reduced dropout problems by several ‘orders of magnitude but they have not been eliminated. It fs Interesting. to note that in audio recording, dropouts cause very Ltd problem bscause the fama eat tends fo integate short smoorhing process they ae not discernible. amplitude yarlatons and with this7. Azimuth misaligament, Short warelength losses ‘covur when the reproduce head gap isnot precsly parallel to the record head gap. These are defined by the equation: vaya We track wath Whee: ‘A angle of misalgnment (radians) A= wavelength or example, with a track width of 37 mil and» wave Tength of 25 mill, a3 db loss oceus fora 1)6 degree (.003 rad) misdignment. Obvicusly, proper heal alignment is {important i reducing azimuth losses, however, there ean be lier contibutors sich as oversized or wom tape guides, Subnonnd tape widths, Inproper capstan >resture collet alignmen:, ete. On extromely wideband recorders azimuth fdjustment screws ate bulk into the reproduce head stack ‘mounting bate, Optimum reproduce head azimuth can be ‘Oblained by "Mwesking” this adjustment to maximize the reproducid high frequency signal, Tt is interesting to note that all heads in a reproduce head stack may not be opt rum fora given saimuth setting 21.3. OTHER CHARACTERISTICS, In the dicussion of bis it was shown that dhe finear range ‘ofthe trinsfer characteristic gradually became nonlinear as ‘magnetization approachec. saturation, This gives the recording process. what it aptly described as “graceful” iting, of i other word, increasing the recording level ‘above mera will pradull Increase distortion before hard limiting, caused by magnet saturation, occurs. To define the maximum signal evel which can be reccrded itis thus rnovessary to state the maximum distortion which can be tolerated. In practice, the specified maximum signal level SS umullydod'to 0 18 bed harmon dor CHD) specification namie range or sgal-tonoise ratio Is quoted In db and Piney oth he naxinaum signal (for a given THD) tothe ‘minintm signal whieh can be recorded; the minimum signal being. determined by the noise level of the entire system ‘er the banda oF inteest, Fefore ve leave the direst record proces, the problems sociated with the use of audio recorders for instrumen. tion work must be diseased, Probably every reader is Familiar with the lage vaity of audio recorders that are valable today. Most of them do aa excellent job record ing voice and’ music, but they must not be confused with instrumentation recorders. They are actually avery special ized ease of the direct record process. Comparing the specifications of audio and inetrumentation recorders will feadily show some differences, For example, mdio feeorder quote response Jown to 40 or 50 Hz and signal tome of 50 10 60 db, wile instrumentation recorders stop at 50 Hz and hate SIN ratios of 24 to 38 db BONE ply POE ‘Only wien the purposes of the two types of recorders are examined can those differences be reconciled. Audio ‘machines are sold to record voice and music and are designed to take advantage of the rather peculiar spectral ‘nergy characltstis of this kindof rignal Years ct study, primary in the telephone business, have showm chat the nergy content of auch signals i not distributed uniformly fret the sudibe frequoney range, but In heavily eoncen trated in the md-audio band with lative ite enespy at the high or low frequency ends. As a result, each end of the bind requies very Little dynamic range. Tle audio ‘machine's record amplifier boosts, or preemphasis, these band-ede signds a they ae puton te tape. When played back, the audio reproduce amplifier operates with reduced fin ‘st the band-edges to equalze the signal and restore fidelity, This fctor also improves the overall nose evel of the audio recorder because iti tthe band-edges thatthe system noise level is highest. With reduced gain in these regions the cumulative noise within the passband is greatly Tediuced. This fancy footwort has gained the audio recorder a lower frequency response and a lower nis level in the reproduced signal, at the cost of Tess dyna range (or earlier satiation) at each end of the audible spectrum, Ley at 50 Heo 14,000 He. an audio recorder may saturate with a 12 to 15 db signal, yet at 400 Hz where SIN is measured, the machine may handle a 55 db signal. This type of pre-emphasis and postequalization has been widely accepted in aulio recorders, beth for home and profes: sional use, and standard audio equalization curies have been adopted ty the National Assocation of Broadcasters (NAB). They are similar to the welhknown RIAA equal ization wed in the record making industry. Instrumentation recorders cannot favor any portion of their recorded bandwidth because of the nature of the signals they must accemmodate, Thairlow frequency response is ‘quoted at 50 ops $0 that the added noise contribution below that point ean be elisinsted. Of course the added roles from the higher frequency response does acd to the cumulative nose and reduces the S/N figure. Also, in Stving for the higher frequeney response, much narrower taps are used Inthe reproduce beads witha corresponding eduction in signal power. The defitition of maximum record. level also. works. against. the instrumentation machine, ie. tat level which produces 1% THD, while for tuidio recorden itis that level which produees 3% THD. ‘As you can se there are many differences between audio ‘eeorders and’ instrumentation recorders. Some are ‘obvious, some are very subtle. There are very few oceasions ‘when an audio machine will reord Instrumentation data Without compiomise, Be earefl if you select one for your recording job. 2.14 RESONSE STANDARDS FOR THE DIRECT RECORD PROCESS. ‘As a reault of the neod to insure compatibility when recorded data was to be exchanged between machines at Afferent Tocstions or of different crigin some form of ‘standardzation was required, Table A-T of Appendix A is 2sApplication Note 89 reproduced from IRIG 106-73 and shows the standards fstablished for four groups of direct record parameters. Tt should be noted that the IRIG Standards, frst ost lished in the early 1950', are applicable only to 1/2 and inch ‘tape systoms, while technological adramoss have enabled mannfacturess to offer 4, 7, and 8 chamel instru ‘mentation recording capability on 1/++inch tape. The lack (of IRIG standards for 1/4-inch tae has not prevented the Incorporation of the applicable high performance specitice- tons to the newer recorders, There are many industrial, redial, government, and other users who do not require the interchaage standards of IRIG, and who should be aware of th pricoperformance package thest 1/4inch recorders can provide. 22. FM RECORD/REPRODUCE. Following World War I, the linitations of the dtet record process severly restricted the uso of tape recorders for feneral instrumentation Work. By 1950 the growing 2ero- ‘missle business and the soverd itary test ranges had to record an Increasing amount of de and very low frequency test data, To sore in these areas, magnet recording had {0 somehow provide de response, good de linearity and Detter signal-to-noise ratios. ‘The recording industry filed this need with the develop ment of FM recording. The technique was widely accepted fand the majority of recorders in use in the 1950's were ‘equipped for FM operation. Still in wide use today, the first FM scleme used center frequencies and deviations adapted to 80 KHz to 100 kz recorders and put a single fatier on each track, ecorded to saturation without bis. Data recording using a frequency modulated carrier is accomplished by deviating the carrier frequency in response to the amplitude of a data signal and recording it. A de signal of one polarity increas the carter frequency and. the opposite polarity decrease it. An ac signal altemately Increases and decteases the carrer above and below its center frequency at a rate equal to the data signal fre- (quency. In the reproduce process, the carre's amplitude Instability is esentlly wiped out by limiting and the data signal it reconstructed by detecting zoo crossing. Residual tarier signal and out of band noise are removed by alow pas filter. BUT, FM recording has a problem of its own, Tis extemely sensitive to tape speed fluctuations (utter) since in either the record or “eproduce mode, tape speed ‘variations produce unwanted modulation of the eatlt (or noire). The increasad noise level in the reproduced signal and corresponding reduction in dynamic rang isthe rst order effect of fluter. A second order effoct isthe setual time bbase varlation of the data signal, much the same as the Aiect recording process. ‘A detailed technical description of FM theory canbe found jn text books but a brief discussion of «few ofthe more pertinent factors will be mace to asst he layman in a fursory understanding of the FM recording. process, 26 at few definitions: fg = carer center fnquency ‘Af = max cari deviation ftom fe £7 = data gna freauency £ max = highest data sgel froqueney Af deviation ratio, or modulation rmx ‘index percentage deviation « Deviation ratio is ene of the most important factors in any FM process. Basil, the higher the deviation rato, the ‘ore immunity te system will have t0 noise. In FM recording, however, there aze practical its to deviation ratio singe Af is restricted by recorder bandwidth limit sijons and {" max must be kept high to accommodate the fata signals, Common deviation ratios in use today range fiom 5 in the tolometry FM subcarers to 0.675 in vide bond FM recording. FM broadcasting, which enjoys an srcellent_noien inmnity, we a eontion vatin of 5 (A= 75 Kil, fmm = 15 KL) ‘The percentage deviation, 100 AL, is another fector in FM recording. When recording low percentage deviation systems, such as the FM telemetry sabeariers (7.5 percent and 15 percent), the effect of flutter is esentilly mult: pied with e corresponding increase in nose. For instance, Mt a 75 porcent frequency deviation corresponds <0 a 100 percent input signal, 2 1 percet deviation caused by fiuter vil appear az 100/7.5 = 13.3 percent noise signal. ‘The same flutter imposed on a 40 pecent deviation sytem will eause only 100/40 = 2.5 pereent noise signal. The higher percentage cevaton systems ate thus less influenced by tape speed varistons but eircuit design limitations nake ‘ toT5 percent a practial limit ‘A welldesigned PM carrer recording system will give reasonably good amplitude accuracy, de response, good de Tnearity and Tow distortion, The price. paid’ for this Improvement over direct record performance is greatly reduced frequency response for gien tape speed, aéded ‘complexity and cost in the recordreproduce eleteonis td a much greater need for constant tape speed (low ‘utter ‘There are many Uses for FM recording, The obvious acvan: ‘ages, of course, ar the de response and stabilty, Tako is avery handy tol for time expansion and compression tech: riques. AS an example, § KHz dats recorded at 154 on 2.27 Kila cartier can be reproduced at 15/324ps with the date frequency spectrum reduced by a factor of 32. Com- nations of chang tape speeds and re-recording can pro vvde time base change and frequency shift factors to we ‘ter 200, Data raduction, spectrum analysis, hard copy ‘autput, and other laboratory chores ean be simplifid with suc expansion and compression techniques,2.2.1 FM RECORDING “STANDARDS”. ‘As long as recorder response was limited to about 100 kttz 2 6Dips, tue were fairy well defined standards for FM. recording. Tape speeds 1-7/8ips to 6Dips ware assigned FM carrer frequencies from 1688 Hz to $4 kHz, all harmonically related; ie, dovtle the tape speed and double the FM cari frequency. Peicentage deviation was estab lished as 240 percent and a deviation ratio of approx- imately 2 wis selected. The major recorder manufacturers adhered to the standards and FM recording proceeded in ‘mn orderly fashion, From 1958 to 1965, however. tape recorder response moved up by an order of megnitude and many extensions fand modifisions to the old standards came into being. By 1955 there was consdercie confusion in the industry ‘and among the users regarding FM recording. Such terms ‘a widebund FM, single carer FM, standard response FM, extended reponse FM, and even double-extended response FM wore ied to doseribe tie many new kinds of FM recording, but truly authortaive definitions were lacking, Finally, n 1965, an updated version of the IRIG docarnent, “Telemetry Standards” (IRIG document no. 126-65) was published atd has since boon revised several times, the Tatest being 106-73. Table A-2 of Appendix A i eproduced fiom the [RIG publiction snd shows the cape speeds, center frequencies, etc, which are recognized as standards for I/2and ‘inch instrumentation tape records. 22.2. FM RECORDING SYSTEMS. “Single caner FM recording” i the name now used to describe the orginal FM teeinique which sec saturation recording, Fit called “wideband FM” to cistingush it from telemetry tubearer recording, it has relrquished this name to the new schemes wich Use Tratiors deviation ratios and ars truly wideband. ‘The various parameters of segle carsier FM recording ae shown in Appendix A, Table A-2. The majesty of the ystems in ure today sill record the earl ta saturation fon the tape without bias ulag FM electronics provided by the recorder manufacturer, Un this manner, the maximum possible voltage 4s obtained from the reproduce. head, Direot recording (with ac bias) may also be used with voltage contolled oscillators and discriminatorsexternal to ‘the recorder Cait fequencies ate propcitional to tape speed and have ‘een selectod near the middle ofthe recorder’sresponse to ‘Keep distortion products abore the passband of tho head/ amplifier combination, FM record amplifies ean usually be "tuned" to any of the stindard carir frequencies by selection of the proper plugin or switchable tning unit. Similarly, the FAL reproduce amplifier is set fora speciic cartier by selection of the aroper Frequency determining tlementandlow pass filter. Single casir FM recording uss #40 percent deviation with 4 deviation ratio of approxivately two. Performance will ‘ually equal or exceed the following: Frequency response: 40.5 te 1.0 db over the specific band. RMS SignalteNoise 40 to $4 db if full deviation rato: 4s used and futer specifi. tion 16.25 to 0.7 pereent, peakete-peak. De duit: less thin 1 percent of fu deviation over 24-hour period. DC Linearity Within #.0 pereent of zero bated straight lin. electronic Aut:er compensation i used, the first-order sffcts of flutar or Nutter induced rise can be reduced to 2 point where other noise contributors set the noise kvel {AE best, a signal=onoise ratio of 5) dh to S6 db may be ‘ebtained at tape speeds of 60 or 1204s. Techniques of utter compensation are disused’ in chapter 5, Hectroies. ‘Rotary head video recorders which appeared about 1958 {aso use a type of FM recording, Primary designed for TV “oadcast use, instrumentation versions ofthese machines ‘ein-now provide outstanding perfermance. The cost of ‘ich a machine wil certainly restric: its usage, but the fact that such performance can be provided in & produstion sachin is an outstanding tbute ts developers. “There are two other techniques of FM recording pt multiple eutcarier: on a single tack, The direct fReording proces: i used to minimize distortion and wold ‘rosea between carries. Basclly these schemes provide {means of freqeency-divsion mufiplexing of many low frequency data signals on single tape track, ‘The fist and olest scheme uses the FM/FM telemetry subcarrier osilsis. Their availablity and standardization Tong. ago made their use a natal for FM subswtier recording. "A liing. of their parameters i shoam in ‘Appendix A, Tale A'3. Based upon a constant perc2tage deviation (7-1/2 percent of 15 percent), these units provide Increased bandwith with each higher center frequency. As discussed earlier, their low percentage deviation makes them highly sscopibe to fluterincuced nolo. Elec tonic flutter compensstion must be usd if data ampltude scuray is important. Unlike the sige earier PM stem, however, utter compensition for multiple sut recording is compcated by the characteristics of the band pass filters, which are used to separate the subeariers in {he repradace process, Space Tat been allowed in the RIG. subcarrier frequency assigaments for a 17 Kile reference tone 1o be r0corded between channels 13 and 14 nally this reference frequency is used for tape speed compensation of the tape drive mechanism, A100 kHz fo 200 Hf reference tone ie also oflen recorded fer use ty the olectroni Futter compensaton equipment. 27‘The constant petvoutage deviation, or proportional bandwidth system fall short in supplying the need for a Tange number of channels having relatively high frequency response. To fil this requirement several felemetry ground ‘equipment manufacturers provided “constant bandwidth” fulbearrier systems. Deviation ratios of from 1 to 5 can be used, however, 2 is most common. Percentage deviation varies with the subcarrier frequency. A typkal system right consist of a baseband of subcarriers, peihaps § in number. Ther centr frequencies and deviations might be 2442 kl, 32-42 Kia, 40 42 Kile, 48 #2 kie, and 56 #2 kHz. If additional channels are required another ba band. of 5 “subeariess is gonerated and. tandated Frequency to be recorded st 64 Wiz 22 Kila, 72 Iie A2°KH, ote. "Soveral bassbands cf subcarriers can recorded in this manner “if. appropriate transaton Tequences te used for each. Appendix A, Table A ist tho standard) FM constant-bandwidth FM subcanit ctannols. The letters A, B and C identify the channels for Shem ir tae sn teeg a jong with maximum flequeney response: o 24, and 8 Kile, respectively. Th ‘be wed ‘within the limits of maximum subearTAPE RECORDER HEADS TAPE RECORDER HEADS Key to the success of any recorders performance ar its heads. ‘Theve ae record heads, eeproduce heads and ense heads, There are rato case: such as some FM eater recorders where a sngle head i usee for both the record ani reproduce function but the grest majority of insu entation rovordes use separate record and reproduce beads : ‘Tipe recorder heads aro electromagnetic trunsducers. A revord head converts an clestrical signal to. magnatic ‘Smal sultale to impose on the tape, and the reproduce Ineid convents the magnetic signal of the tape into an lectleal signal, Erase heads are sort of specialized record head designed to saturate the tae at a specific fre quency, however, ttay are seldom used on instramentation fevordets, When tapes must be erasec, bulk erasure is most cammonly sed because it provides a more thorough tring job and isla likely tobe done accidentally. ‘The most carefully guarded proprietary secrets in the recording industry are those concersed with head man feoture and assembly. Many aspects of the assembly of high resolutiin reostd and reproduc heads are close to being an art than a science, Successial head productin is mote often selated:0 the exparlence and knowsow of key Individuals eather than established production techniques. The basie eanstruton of both record and repraduce heads fssimilar, consisting of a magnetic cere on whichis wound ‘8 number of tums of wire (se Figure 9). The core consists ff two "C" shapeé half ssetions which are made from a ‘umber of bonded laminator of thin, high permeabiity, fearomagnelle mateal. ‘The surfaces of the Talf sections which interface with each other are lapped and polished ‘ery catsflly and the gep material is deposited on one ‘The two cores and their windings are then joined together 1 form shea. ‘One heal is used for each tack of de tape. In multirack ‘poration, several heads must be assembled together with ‘ntertace shields to form a head stack. Excreme precision ie necessy in aligning the heads in head stck since the ‘ups of ll heads mast fal within 100 microsinch band. ‘After alignment, te heads are potted, The head stock i. finished by contouring and lapping for optimum head-to- tape contact and then it is mounted cn a. precision rhachined mounting base by which i Is secured to the tape luanspor. The complete head assombly thus includes a ‘ase With a mounting surface whose plane & perpendxular to the gap line at she comact surface of th head stack. Tt {s because of the precision mounting baso that head stacks may be emoved far cleaning and navy head stacks may be insalled without factory adjustment whe maintaining ‘inimar "lose due to azimuth misalignment (see Ptagrph 2.1.2). $4 RECORD HEADS. 1e was explained easier thatthe record proses takes pace tthe tualing edge ofthe record hesd gap. Because ofthis, ‘the recerd head gap lengt has ite effect on a machine's ‘requency response, Most machines use a record yap length ‘of 0.2 10 05 mil. The acuracy of the gap edge, however, § very important to the recorder’ high frequency eszabil: ity and extreme care is taken (0 get a sharp, well-defiried pedis. ‘The ideal record head/ecord amplifier ctmbination_will place an equal amplitude fux pattern on the tape for a fiven signal level, throughout the recorders frequency fangs, ‘This would tuly be a “constant Mux” recoding. Actually, performance osely aporoximating this idea ‘onditien is obtained in nodern recorders, through the use 5f reconling pro-emphask, Both bead loses and to some textont the record.ng demagnetization loses ae made up far by che ute of « high frequency “boos” characteristic cn the record amplifier. Additional pre«mphasis i not sted, however, since the constant flux condition is ‘optimum for best dynamic range and minimum distortion product, 3.2 REPRODUCS HEADS. ‘The high-frequency response of a tape recorder is ‘termined by tho gap length and the quality ofits zepro- ‘duce heads, For 2 machine (0 reproduce 2 2 megahertz Signal a: 6O-ps, it must "See" recorded wavelengths on the tape as short 88 30 mierolnches, ard this equles repro tice head gap lngth ef approximately 10 microinches 3aIn addition, the gap must be sharply defined and have ‘equate depth to withitand the abrasive effect ofthe “ape. ‘The gap material and the core material must have silat wear characteristics for the gap to maintain its definition. ‘To produce several such heads in a single headstsck, in production quantities, is one of the greatest industrial Schlevements in the United States today. The price of such 4 high resolution headstock may run several thousand Gollan. ‘The push for sherter and shorter gap lengths has one dlsadtantage, Unfortunately, as the gap length decreases, the output voltage from che bead winding also decreases, tis Towering the sipia-tonoie ratio of the recorder, is imeresting to note that one ofthe fist symptoms of ‘excesve head wears increased hea output a lower signal Eoquencics, This results with the lengtvening ofthe ga. yen with such adverse conditions, however, present day recorders obtain 38 db or bettr sigral-tenoise ratios while realizing packing densties of 30,009 to 33,000 cycles pet inch. 3.3. HEAD CARE AND HEAD LIFE. ‘The cae and the life of tape recorder heads are completely interdependent. Factors which can affect the life oF the ‘ead during normal use include the following: 1, Cleanliness of the tape, the transport and the ‘environment in which the equipment is operated. 2. Maintenance procedures which involve the checking of tape tensos, tracking te, 3, The abraiveness of the tae being use. 4, Solvents used for cleaning the heads Cleanliness in and around the head sea is of utmost fmmportance in all instrumentation machines, Not only ‘an the dirt parties tecome a serious threat to the data “take” In terms of spaing loss, but they can aso become minute scrapers, gauges, and eutters to the head and cape sarfaces when dragged between them. High tape-tottead pressures are necossary 10 Koep tho spoeing loss low, and Such pressures not only increase the abrsive offcts af the ‘ape, but any piace of dirt is erushed that much harder inte ‘ne head or tape materi Maintenance procedures involving nzrly all aspects of the smechunical part of the recorder wil affect the head rea in ene vay of anotier. Tape tensions must be kept a specified 10 ensuze te optimum compromise between ‘Wear and performance, Care must be tiken not to veh ‘he heads’ with any metalic or herd abject for fer of scratching, gouging. or magnetizing th heads. ‘The recordingteprodusing of shorter and shorter wave- Tengths demands intinate contact between the oxide parties and the head gap t0 eliminate specing Kates. Higher tape tensions and more abrasive tape surface have resulted, and both tend to inotease head weat. Gunma ferric oxide partcls are very sharp and hard and reseble 32 ‘extremely fine sandpaper particles. The tape binders used ‘on wideband tapes are ao soother and aarer and form ‘firm base for each semtching particle. If high packing densities am not necessary, do not use premium tapes. Clean heads are necessary if good recording i to be done. Hlowever, it isnot safe to use just any solvent that appears to dissolve she residue left by the tape. The material used to hold the head core in the head assembly Is In some cases softened by such solvents a toluene, methyl ety! ketone for xylene. [fone & in doubt about the head constuction, tue ony akool, napcha, freon TR, gavel or even jet fucl!!Preen TF is probably the best allaround cleaner and is now avaiable in an aerosol can for convenient storage tnd use, ost head cleaners wil also dissolve lubricating teases and tape binders and should be used carefully specily around bearings ard the tape. A cotton tipped appliczor makes 2 good disposable cleaning tool for the majority of leaning requirements. ‘Clean all uansport parte thst come in contact with the ape. Oxide buildup can cause degradation of high fiequercy response, distorted record and playback, and tape and had damage. Cean tape heads with cotton tipped applestors dampened in head cleaner by rotaing applica:orsgunst head sarface and noting she discoloration ff cotton, Use as many applicators as required to avoid Wiping esd surfaces “with dirty applicaters. When applicator comes away clean, head surface is clean. Also the applicsore to clean Lape guides, voller, capstan Pinchreler, Take partialar care to clean underout edges ff guides and roller grooves, Accumalation of wear produis in corners of guides or roller grooves will damage the tape Magneized heads produce unpredictable results in the reproduced data. Under no circumstance should con lity of ahead be checked with an ohmme-er. High second Tiamorie dstorton reat fom + magnetized record head; the demapmtizing effets of the ac bias used in the direct, record process, however, reduce the chance that record heads wil be magnetized unles subjected to lage unidiect- fonal carent surges (such asa continuity check) or close- proximity 0 highintensily magnetic fields. It is unwise, therefeee, 10 remove record electronics cards from the recorder while in the Record mode. ‘The ast current surge 8 one removes an amplifier may serve t magnetize the record 383 Magnetization of the reproduce head is more prevalent and affects ts performance ia an unpredictable fasion, though feneraly inreased noise leves result, Demagnetizaion of Tecorder heads is accomplished by using any of the com mercially avilable head degaussers..‘The recorder should always be tuned off wen cegaussing heads nd on some machinas removal of the head assembly simples the job and ensures more complete degaussing. Proper procedures an usually be found in the recorder’ ins:raction manual Be sure. to understand the complexity of head removal before removing the head assembly, though, 3s. head assembly removal and replacement always cequtes extreme ‘are and attention to detaTAPE TRANSPORT MECHANISMS ‘TAPE TRANSPORT MECHANISMS ‘The sole purpose ofa tape transports to move the tape by the heads ata constant speed and to provide the various ‘winding modes of operation required for tape handling, Without staining, disorting or Wearing of the tape. To accomplish this, « transport must guide the tape past the hhoads with extreme precision and maintain the proper tension within the head area td obtain adequate tape-o head contact. Spoolirg of rating ofthe tape must be done smoothly so that a minimum of perturbations are reflected ‘nto the head area. Takeup torque must be controlled © that a good tape pack results on the taeup reel. Ttisalo {he job of the transport to move the tape from one rel to {he other quickly inthe fst forward or ewind mode, Even with fast speeds, the tape must be handled genty and ‘ecurataly $0 that a good tape pack is maintained on each reel. In going from 1 fart mode (0 sop (or vice vers) precise control of the tape must be maintained sp thet lundae slack or ste not incurred by the tape. Most of thesr fUnetions are provided in modem instrumentation tape recorders but improvements in the atea of uniform ‘upemotion ee constantly being Sought ‘The ealest instrumentation recorders were an outgrowth ‘of the bast audio recorders of the tine. They used the ‘openloop tsunsport sign (see Figure 10) where the taye {in the head area has only one end controlled by the capstan; the other end being tensioned directly by a reeling function. As instrumentation demands increased, audio machines were refined and specialized electronics. wee built with the opendcop transport predominating uati the ‘mid:1950's, It was basically 2 sound design, both simple fand reliable, however, its Aluter performance left som: thing to be desired. ‘There were (wo inherent sources of ‘unwanted tape speed variations inthe had area. One came from the perturbations eased by the supply rel, its drive rotor or braking methanism, and the other resulted from erratic vibrations in the tape because. of the long Unsupported tape Tength in the head area, Vibrations wee flso Induced by frietin between the tpe andthe heads or fixed guides. Figure 10, Opor-Loop Dive ‘The clowedloop transport design shown in Figure 11 would seem to save both these preblems. The unsupported tape Tength is halved and, if both ends of the tape in the ead aed are under positive control of the capstan, the reeling function perturbations would be eliminated, Actually these charscteristes are only partly achieved, Figure 11. Chsed-Loop Drive 1 there were no slippage or reepage between the tape and the capstan at ither poin: of contsct, then any inital tension in the loop would be maintained. ut the only tlements which ean apply tension to the tape are outside the loop; ie, the reeling fuactons. ‘Ths, there hss to be seme creep between the tape and the capstan for the reeling furtions to maintain tension within the loop. $0, even in the closed Toop transport design, motional pertur: bations in the reeling functions will sil eause uneven tension varations inthe head area and corresponding tape spoed variations, but th effects are greatly reduced witen compared tothe old open loop designs. By 1958, nearly all manufécturers were using closed loop transports, but stl striving for improved performance. ‘About this time, one manufacturer developed a new tapstan dive design which provides a diffeentat action. Tes basicly a capstan with two discrete diameters, (only ‘few thensandths of an iach difference). As shown in Figure 12 special contoured pinch rollers ae used and tape entesing the head area i forced again the smaller capstan dhimetee while tape leaving the head area is forced ‘against the larger capstan diameter. Thus tension Is gen- tated wihin the loop beeaise of the speat differential between the tape entering and the tape leasing the loop. In this desig, less tape tensioning Is necesary from the reeling functions and mora elation i htained inthe head tree from reaing perturbations. However, the drive isnot fuitable for bi-directional operation ‘There is yet another type of transport configuration which fs now widely used. This i the (wo capstan transport shown in Figie 13 and caled dualcapstan or diferential capstan, Some desigas tun Doth capstans at the same peripheral speed. and rely on the reeling functions to ‘xtablish the tape tension if. the head area; uch the same alFigure 12. Two DiameterCapstan Figure 13. Dual-Capstan Closed Leop Dive 4s the conventional-closedJoop transport. However, most ‘wocapstan machines turn the capstan atlighty different peripheral speeds and establish the tape tension inthe head ‘area wth this differential action. Lass cenion, external to the vead ateais required and considerate isolation from ‘ee ng function pertarbalions is thus ootained Inthe nid 1960's the openoop tansport reappeared in a refined form which conpetes quite well with the more sofhisteated closedoop designs, A majr effort in cne rmanufscturer’s design shown in Figuse 1- was devoted to the use of swinging danper arms with a high inertia fgh torque capstan. The sgaficant reduction in the length of Unsupported tape allowed for a substantial improvement in bigh frequency flutter. Allin al, the new opentoop design retain ll the simplicty (of the old, yet provides grealy Improved performance at considerably” Tess cost chan most clasecloop machines, Figure 14, Refined Open-Loop Drive 41 ‘Another Zeature which appeared in transport designs isthe climinaton of the pinch roles. ‘These drive systems us fs capstar. with high surfaze friction and large tapewtay © fngles, ‘When used with the dual (differentia) capstan rive, resonable isolation i ontained from reeling pert: ations. One design, however is similar to the closed-loop ‘wansport, with the high sarface friction capstar replacing ‘the turnaround idler. In tis machine, ape tenonin te head. areaand isolation from reeling pertupations is provided by vacuum contteed tape chutes before and after the record md reproduce heeds. Flutter and skew per ormance of ths machine ae sd tobe exca.ent. With the elitnstion of the pitch roller, one more source ‘of tape spend irogularity and tape guiding is removed. Pinch rolers with surface deformations, ick or sticky spots, or noisy bearings 2an be large contsbstors to a ‘machines Muster and dynam Kew. 4.1 TAFE REELING MECHANISMS, Early tape transports provided the necossary reeling functions by simply putting a torque motor or both the supply and takeup reel shafts. Both ac and de torque rotors have been used, and they are designed to gie an essentially constant torque over a wide range of speeds without overheating at extrenely slow spocds. Holdback tension nthe supply reel side is obtained in several ways; Les a simple mechanieal drag brake, or reverse electical torque. The tension created this way will vay from full reel to erapty reel howeves, because of the changing radiue fof the tape puck. Minimarn tension is proved with fall feel and maxmum tension wits one almost empty. Both schemes also contribute thort term tension varstions be cause of iregular braking action or cogging pulsations in the torque motor. When auch tension variations ae tans mitted te the head area, tke transports futer performance will suffer. Much design effor: has been spent to eliminate these perturtations with varying degrees of success, Most schemes use some form of tape pack sensor, to determine the amount of tape on the ree. One method uss 2 rlling flee on a Teer arm which sides on the tape pack. As the ‘arm moves, a linkage coats the braking action of a mechanical drag brake. A sinlar version uses the same Tever arm {6 position a potentiometer which controls the tensioning voltage applied to the torque motor. Other sensing cevies Include te we of photoeectic cols, 3 Tightly loadee spring arm which tacks the ext paint ofthe tape from the reel, etc. The necesity for such sophist cated contro is, of course, dependent on the transport design and cay those machines that are most vulnerable 1 reling perturbations must ue these technique: ‘There is one highly dosiate feature which te exthor feels should be included in very tape recorder reeling mechanism, This is a failsafe function in the form of & band oF dise brake mounted on the rel shafts to bring the tape to a safe controlled stop in the ovett 0° a power falar. Some older mach:nes €o not have sich feature, and in the fist forward or revind mode, a pover failure fan put several hundred feet of irepacestle data into 8 horrible pile of creased, stretched and manged tape‘he packaging of -ape reconders isto some extent dicated by thelr ulkimate we. The applicatins have imposed vere limits on the sizeof the recorder but the uset has nat been wiling to reduce the recording time, As a result, vvciety of reel configurations have been developed; often at the ‘expense of simplisity of the recorder, ease of threding ‘an Jonding/unloacing of the tape. ‘The side-by-side rel transpent, ie, ane on which both reels ‘urn in the same plane, is the most convenient and conventional way to: move tape past the heads. However, space recerders and some o:her data sequisibon recorder, ‘where volume is aa premium, use 3 concentric reel tans For, one an which the reels are staked one on top cf the bther. Concentric rel machines require a eemplex nech- ‘nical assembly atthe reel hub, bots in respect to the rel dive and. tape-el loading. and vnloading, mechanisms. They also have a complex cape pati and unless great care is taken in their design, they will ave rather poor skew characteris. 4.1 NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF BROADCASTERS (Naa), ‘The tenn NAB, often used with reference to zape rels and qualizatca, 1s derived fiom the National Association of Broadcaster Thi organization is composed. of menbers involved 11 and eoncemmed ‘with all phases of commercial tao brocdeasting — AM, FM, and TV. NARTB i the slder term forthe same organization which stands fr the [National Asociation of Radio and Television Broadcasters, 42. SPEED CONTROL SYSFEMS. Since the capstan is supposed to control the tape speed, its dtiving power in early tape recorders was chosen for con- stant speed. The most popular choice was the hysteresis ‘ynchroneus motot. Such amotor eins phaseocked 1 the power “requency and iis‘ong ten speed sublity i chus £8 good as the power line “requency stability if operating vith a cozstan load. With a varying load its phase relation vith its eapply fequeney will vary but st wl not “ip a pole” unless i is overloaded. "The pole construction of {hese motors lso causes a small periodic vatation, of cogging” in their torque output. Considerable snoathing rust be supplied by a Ay-whed and semetime: the elasticity of drive belt. Sach a system is best. desebod tt highdaerta low-torgue dive. Dependency on powerline frequency for speed stbllty in ‘any applications is strong disacvantage. Even In 1b- ‘ratory Use, With } matropolitan power souree, some insta bility ean be expected. Such a power source will show ‘xtromely good long term stability but shert term var ‘ions a high 8 20.25% are not uncommon. ‘These fictors Jong, ago lod to the development of precision 6O-Hz rower supplies consisting of very stable ODIs frequency scuces (Ganing forks or countedaown crystal oscillator) and ower amplifiers capable cf 50 te 150 walls. Caystant powered by this means ae independent of pawer line fe tueney fluctuations but suffer disadvantages size, weight ind power consumption HE oer PACKARD ‘There have been several quit salsictory constan: speed rive wchniguat using dc motors, On» of the earlier ‘methods placed an ac tachometer generator on the capstan ‘motor shaft Its output was reoified and compared with a de reference voltage. The output of the compartsor wat then vied to control the speed of the eapstan motor. ‘Another techniqae drives a tone generator with the capstan ‘motor and its output gos toa sees of frequency divides. ‘A speed selector switch then selects the appropriate divider ‘output for phase comparison with a highly stable reference Frequescy. The output of the ghate comparator is then used to control the field current of the stuntowaind de capstar motor. When both signals are locked in phase, the peed of the mator is constant, This control metaod, it audition fo being independent of tine frequency, has several advantages over the ae dnve. One relates to the 2ase of, changag tape speeds. Simply switching ane more divide byctwo elu ito the dvider lait wl double the motor speed, Another advantige isthe reduced siz, weight and power since & high-powar, lowcefficeney amplifier i= not fequie. arly de powered capstans were aso relatvely high inertia systems, but with somewhat more torque than the dives. ”‘There i increasing usage of de permanent magnet motor which uses a printed czcuit rotor with many poles ‘This device has made posible + lowinectis higv-torque dive system, which sveral manufacturers have incorpo- rated in thle recorders. Standard tape speeds cf 120, 60, 30, 15, 7-1/2, 33/4, 1-118, 15/16, and 15/32inches per second ae available and most instrumentation recorders provide easy selection of thyee tsk of them, Some of thewalir recorders required drive belt changes if «speed change greater than 2-1-1 was required ‘Any of the above methots of capstan drive control vill ive reasonsbly aceuate tape sped in the record operation. If precise reprodvetion of -ecorded data is required however, thea srvo speed contol is neoessiry in the reproduce ‘mode, There aro several techniquss used for this and they all operate from & rofetence sigrl recorded on the tape with te data signal If the secordiag machine is driven ty a hysteresis: synchronous eapstan motor, its precision 60-2 supply is Used a the referonce signal and is recorded by modulating & 1 7-KH carter. IC a de capstan motor (otter than the new low-inertia versions) powers the recording nachine Cen the GO reference i generated fron the speeddetermining refererce osilcor and weorded inthe sare manner. ‘Thus cither system cin provide a refernce sigyal which can be ‘used ty elther system, Servo control of a hysteresis: fynchrnous reproduce machine is womplished by recoveing the reproduced 60H reference sinal and phase Comparing it with the local precision GOHz reference voltage. The output of the comparator isa de or very low Frequescy ae signal wah contrels the oxtput of a 60H voltage controlled osellstr, This outputis then amplified 43and used to drive the capstan motor. The zewo action cffectively locks tho recorded reference signal tothe local precision reference signal and a Iength of tape equivalent fo one cycle of the recorded seerence is passed trough the ‘machine for each cycle of the local referene. Servo ‘control of + reproduce machine with a de capitan drive is tually accomplished by replacing the local toue generator Signal with the reproduced efernce signal frem the tape Both methods are phase comparison systems and thus are basially pesitional servos. Palin range i limited by the high mass af the eapstan dies, but the higher torque capa bility of the do motor gives that system a small edge. Pol. in ranges fiom 1/2 to 3 oF 4 cycles are probably the limit of thei eaponse. ‘The appearance of the low-nertia high-torque de motors for use in capstan drives brought a totaly diffrent repro- duce speed control into existence. The “snappy” response fof these devices made It posible to eliminate practically al long and short term speed variations up to 10042 or more. The majority of these systems use dual servo Control system embodying 4 rate control furction and a pporitional control function. For recording, there isan ac fachiometer generator attached to the capstan shaft which ‘rocuces several hundzed eyeles for each capstan rotation Frequency variations in ths tachometer signal are sensed by & discriminator and become a dc contal vltege for the capstan motor, Basically a rate servo, this contol is used to bing the capstan to the proper speed. The tachometer signal is also phase compared to 2 loel refer ence oscillator after the proper speed is reached and phase Tocked operation is provided. using record, the signal ‘fom the reference oscillator is also recorded on the tape. For servo control of the tape speed inthe reproduce oper- ation, the corded reference used to rplace the tachom- fter generntor and estentdlly the same oferation just Aescribed tkes place. Flutter specifications are very similar for both the high inertia and the low inortia capstan drive systems, a far as percentage Mutter is concerned. There is, however, a ‘marked difference inthe spectral components of the utter {in the (wo systems. The hah inertia system will exhibit ‘reater amplitudes of low flatter frequencies and only the ‘sul higher fequency fluter eaused by tape scrape and ‘vibration. ‘The low inertia systems, when sero controlled from the tape, will praetialy eliminate the low frequency Autter but in being to respensive they actually add to the rotmal high frequency flutter by a form of spectrum spreading. ‘yen though both systems scem to show approximately the same tota futter percentge, there is a srong point favoring the lov inertia systan; I. the dramatic improve- ‘ment in tine base eror. Specified TBE on some of these ‘machines 20.5 microsecoad absolute. This means Fheween tun points, anywhere on the tape, the timing error will be no greater than #0.5 microsecond + the crystal reference tolerance. 44 43. TAPE MOTION IRREGULARITIES. , Ideal tape motor may be simply éefied. The tape most | nove os the rads with an sicily uniform, prsiely iowa veloc. Actually, no tse transport ieee nin tus ed notion though improvement sre etn. ously being made, Medium or loge deitions rom the dosed vera: sped can be comet by Sev means th preiuay ced Infact, he owner hih-oraue Sapna sappy enough to cet some ofthe ket team vanations, but in-geera, al shoterm vations Cannot be eliminated in ths manner. Asa result they must be considered among the baie charters of eee 43.1 FLUTTER Short-term speed variations which ae uniform across the tape can be caused ia many ways Ina tape transport mechanism, Sore of these aro: pulsations of the torque rotor, rel eocestrictes,iregulaties inthe tape pick or tape physical characteristics, vibrations in the tape caused by friction asi pases over Gxed guides or scads, ‘mechanical rn-out of rotating pats, slight cogsing 2 th ‘apstan drive metor, power ine voltage transients which ‘may affect the motors, pinch rolers with surface defor- ‘mations, atcky bearings, etc. The problem is further compouinded by reels and reel drive assemblies whick have varying velocities and a mass whick is constantly changing. Velocity variations that aze uniform across the tape have been variously described as utter and doit. Futter denotes variations in speed whicr occur at frequencies above JOH, and drift (or tape speed accuracy) i used for ‘those frequencies below 0.182. As applied (oInstrmen- tation recorders, common usage hss broadened the defini ‘don of the term “flutter” to inclde all variations 0-H fo 10kHz, Tine displacement error (TDE), tine base ‘error (TBE) and jitter are terms used to descabe the same {ape speed variations from a different point of view. These terms are sometines improperly used and some confusion can reult in trying to deerbe the ability of «recosler 10 reproduce a signal with it orginal time relationships. Tt thould be remembered that TDE, TBE or jitter ‘igures rust slate the time over which Ley were measured and ‘utter must be qioted in either rs or peak-to-peak values ‘over a specific band of frequencies. “The flutter spectum of & welldesiged machine is made up of a combination of smal, discrete sinusoidal components and a more-orless uniformly distributed noise signa. Because ofthe ncis involved, 2 cee, well defined measure ment of fiuter i dificult. The liter signal itelf van be ‘obtained by roccrding an extsemdly stable reference sine- wave and pasting the reproduced signal through at FM discriminator. The signal thus generated would te zer0 if the tape spect were exactly the same for reproduction 1s for recording, Any variations between the two speeds will deviste the frequency of the reference tone and produce an outpet from the discriminator. [tis customary to measure utter components to at last 10kHz ininsto mentation recorders. The flutter metor is the most common device used to make the pealctopeak Mutter ‘measurements wren verifying utter specifications.(One common form o flutter specificaion is “cumulatne fAuter” mesturement. This ean be made by passing the flutter signal through 2 variable cutoff, low-pass filter and measirng the filters output for inreasng values of cutot Since the noise contribution in the flutter signal i essen: ‘ally uniform the shape of the cumulative flutter curve wil rite with frequency. At each point where some rotating component produces 2 discrete sinusoidal contribution there will be'a small sep function in the cumulative cure Many manufacturers publish curves of this type but they ste usually the averap results of testirg many transports and will not show the extremes-that mey be found in ind vidual machines, ‘An rms measurement for flutter has Jong been used for ‘dio machines but the peak-to-peak measurement is mow ‘sefl for instrumentation machines, Actually a true rms value of flutter is alnost impossible to attaln since the Autt signal contains ade component, anole component 1d. many sinewave components." As avery rougt ‘approximation, the rs value can be assumed to be 1/6 1/4 ofthe peak-to-peak value ‘Thewe are many techriques used for measuring time bas» perturbations eaused by Mutter. Basically they all invohe comparison between a precise electronic time delay and the time base represented by some length of tape. A repro- duced pulse ftom the tape is used to intiate the electron delay, and some period of time late, a second pulse fron ‘the tape is compared with the eleetronkzally delayed pul for ime coincidence.” Time mismatch between the tW> pulses then represonts atime base error tibutable to tape speed variations. ‘The equipment to accurately make sue) ‘meatrements is costly and not realy wallable. 43.2 SKEW. ‘The term shew is used to describe the fied and variable time differences between the several tacks of a singh hoadstack. Tt implies that the tape is moving in some ‘mane other than longitudinal at it pases the heads, i, skoning or yawing. Fixed, or stati, skew contributes a ‘constant relative timing difference and dynamic skew prow duces a variable timing Terence between tracks _. Find skew is usually caused by misalignment of head to ape, misalignment of individual heads in a headstack, and _-misulding Which wil produce fixed differeneas in tension {/ dacibution as the tape crosses the head. Dynanc skew is produced when there is uneven tension distribution across the tape. Such fluter producers 2 tape scrape an “bation wil iniiste dynamic skew. © ad stow and some frm of dyn sew produce le i tnng er etree the ka whe proper Hered ke wax pig Mat aes ere GS i chal by pe draw ops 3 sewers Bf excxano and randam flutter components, and the timing errors S0 producd are not correlted. ‘As with foter, skew errors ate imposed 2y both the recording operation and the reproducing operation. Tapes reproducec on the same machine they were recorded on wll have les skew error thar thove eproducec on different machines. ‘Tape tramport specifications usually show skew, oF dynamic tkew or total intenhannel time base emor (atic tnd dynamic). Figures are given for differen: tape speeds tnd some of the modem machines can provide £0.5 mero: second or Setter at 120ps between adjacent tracks on the same headstock. 43.3. STRETCHING, ‘There is siother source of timing error which will occur between add- and evenmmbered tricks due 10 the spacing between the two headstacks. If the physical dimensions of the tape vary due to environment or streth- Ing, after the recording is made, a corresponding timing error will occur when it fs produced. As at exaggerated fxampe, sxppos there Isto be a I-percent change in part fof a tape'sIength, This represents 15 mils fora distance of. fand might sopresent many wavelengths of recorded signal. The less the spacing distnce between the headsticks, the lest low of ignal will be observed forthe sare change in tape length. Difference: in tape tension between the record and repro- duce machines can alzo contsbute to this type of timing error. NOTE; Gross timing erors wil est if data is fecorded en one machine and reproduced an a machine ‘with a different track format. 434 EFSECTS OF FLUTTER. Flutter hes several harmfil effects on recorded data, Perhaps best known isthe nose it produces in FM earier recordings. A constant fieqiency carrer willbe frequency ‘modulated by tape speed vaations and when the earir i reproducec and discriminated the expected de output will also include the nolse ofthe unwanted modulation. When ‘the caries is modulated with a data signal, thn this noise Js added with the data inthe demodulation process. Thus flutters ft order effect ist increase the noe level of the reproducec signal with a corresponding. reduction in ‘dynamic range, For a given percentage Mutter, the ability fof the flutter noise to interfere with the cata signal is ‘dependent on the deviation rato of the FM carser system boeing recorded (see FM Recording. Systems, paragraph 222). In the dict record mode, flutter primarily perturbs the time base of the reproducedsignal. Akin to tis, but some. what more rubile, the reproduced swaveforn will shaw broadening ofits spectral components in spectral analysis, 45ELECTRONICS ELECTRONICS ‘The clectronic circuitry of an instrumentation magnetic reoorder perfoms two distinctly different task: tape speed control and data tandling or signal condtioning, Each performs rather independently of the other, with an interdependency being cealizee In the quality of the reproduced dala. Tape peel control systens were discussed in the previous ‘soction and che remaining electrons wil be covered here. Each type of record) reproduce opestion requires 1 own rather specialized slectronss, but only the dect and single camer FM modes fre described, Flutter compensation circuitry will be briefly introduced with the FM electronics. 5.1 DIRECT RECORD/ REPRODUCE, The divect wecord/repreduce operation requires an mpliferhead driver, 2 bias osllator, 2 reproduce head preamplifier, and a repreduce equalizerampliier. The Emplifierhetd driver is more commonly called 1 record amplifier and it provides sevenl fonctiors. It should pretent 4 nominally high impedincs to the data signal to fminimize loading of the signal source. A frst approxi ‘mation of is galn/frequency characteristics would suggest ‘constant cument output for all frequencies. Unfortie rately, the impedance ofthe record head will change quite drastically over the frequoncy range covered by modem ‘widebanc machines, Also, as mentioned previously, Constant flux recording (equal magnetic intensity on the tape for all fequencies) i ideal, yet head lowes and recording demgnetization are a function of frequency. For these reasons itis customary for the record amplifier {o provide Increased cutput, or preemphasis at the higher fiequencies.. This should net be confused with the ‘exaggerated pre-cmphasis tsed in audio machines: only the high frequency boost required to approximate a constant flux recording it used. As an example, ono. videband machine provides 8 to 10 db of pro-emphats at 1 SME. ‘Another function of the record amplifier is to ade the bias Signal to the data signal, while providing a buer forthe bas oscillator. Somewhere in the recording cteultry a monitor point fs ‘often provided t0 allow obserntion of tho record hea furrent waveferm. Usually the monitor level is about 10 ‘ohms abore ground and presorts a very lowevl signal Considerable gin Is requiod inthe esciloscope for proper viewing. Waveforms at this point, especially on the wide- band machines may. appear” quite disto-ted, and. the ‘chines iastniction book should be consulted for details on their use. Recording levels should be set to obtain an ‘optimum matching between the Iynamic rrgs of the data Stnal aoa the recorder. A woll designed record amplifier will not saturate before tho tape does, and it should be Temembered tit saturation of the tape -s a somewhat ‘zadual process with very quick recor. "The d-storton that results when the tape is overvecorded can sometimes ‘oe tolerated in exchange forthe slightly increased dynasic range ‘A record Jovel meter Is often provided on each recard amplifier but they ars of lite use if the data signal isnot sintsoldal. Loa duty cycle pulse traias can be drasticaly Sattratng the tpe with little or no indication on the cca- vensonal mms meter, Peak reading meters have been offered by some manufactures a8 an accessory but thoy axe, unfortunatly, net in wide we, ‘The bias osellator mast operate at several times (3.5 to $.0 ‘oF more) the highest frequency the recorder ean handle, A up sinusoidal wave'orm is required since any distortion will be reflectsd by the recorded signal. A single bas ‘ullator is ued to dliminate syne or “beating” problers A tulferampler, usally located in the record amplifier, provides the necessary bias drive for exch track ard atthe fame time eliminates the possibility cf crosstalk between channels fom occuring through the bias dissibution ‘wiring Integral with this buffer amplifier, there i some times provided a ecavenlent means for monitoring bas curent on the rcord level meter. ‘The output of a roproduce head can bea very small sia, i... a vey few microrolts in awieband machine. At thes Tevds the signal is susject to all kinds of noise pickup and ‘groand loop problems, ‘The output of the eproduce head Is immediately applisd to a preamplifier, through a cae fully shielded cab cf minimum length. ‘To a large extent {his preamplifier sts the system noise level and great cre rst be taken in is design to provide low noise epertion tnd optimum impedance matching with the hesd. The Het design wil probably result with intograted circuit preamplifiers embedéed in the reproduce headstack, but 4 of thie woating tls has not boos attained yet in a prauction machine The next operation on the sepraduoed signal I accom plied by a reproduce amplifies. Tis i the unit which bqualizes the reproduce head's outpui/requency chara triaic, When 3 voltsge amplifir Is ued a 6eabsper-octve ‘ollff must be inserted (rom the lowest frequency 0 the midirequeney peak of the head's output curve. AC Dis point, egardless of amplifier fyfe, an iereasing amount of fis (up {0 12 or I8abpercetave) must be idded 10 ompensate far the drooping head cutput characteristic fang, 10 some extent, other high-fiequency losses. A diferent equalzer network is required for each tape speed fn order to properly match the different head output corres, and. etch network has two to four adjastmeats fusocisted with it, Fach adjustment affects 2 specie portion of the response curve ‘and when properly set can saApplication Note 89 provide the machine's specified response. Partcultly in the wideband machines, one ef the adjustments is usually associated with phase response. Iti used to provide phase ‘equalization, or in other words, to ensure thatthe various Spectral components arive atthe output with te proper time relation Phase equalization is especially desirable tvnen reprodveing ple type data signals to minimize ver thoot in the produced wavefer. Selection of the proper equiizer network for the tape speed in uie varies from one type machine to another. In ‘some, selection is automatic with speed seletion;in others, ‘switching with a Front panel cantrol is required and others require replicenent of plugin units when speeds are changed ‘The last funtion of the reproduce amplifier i to brig the signal to a etandard output volage and impedance level and perhaps provide Tor switching to a meter for monitoring. 5.2. FM RECORD/REPRODUCE. Single carrer FM recording slctronics are supplied by the recorder manufacturer as plugin units which canbe inter changed with the direct record/reproduce nit. An FM record amplifier contains an amplifier, an osilitor whose frequency varies with the datz signal and an output amplifier used primarily 2s an impedance match for the record heed. A$ indicated carer, the signal is corded to Saturation on the fape at a coastant amplitude. Each tape Speed requires @ different center frequency and in the feeord amplifier this is prcvided for with plugin or tlectically avitchable frequency determing. units. ‘Typical oscilator ctcats are multivbrators or a modified phantatran Jsign. ‘An FM repeaduce anjplier contains an amplifier to aise the level of the head output, limiter, an FM demodulator, ‘Tow pass filer and an output amplifier to bring the signal toa standand output voltage and impedance level. The design of the fist amplifier i not critical since the satu- rated signal already enjoys anexcellentsignal-Conoise ratio. fon the tape, and the center frequency is located to minimize bend output variations over the frequencies used. ‘A hard limiting operation is used to eliminate amplitude variations aed provide a standardized signal to ‘he demod- lator. Several types of demodulator are used. The Simplest method i nothing more than a z= crossing ‘detector, which triggers a constant enszey pulse for each frossing. “A one-shot multivibrator may be used withthe real challenge lying in developing the constant energy pulse. Both pulse amplitude and duration must be precisely constant since these are the bass for the aecuacy of the reproduce init. The resulting pulse tran is then passed through a owpass filer to remove noise and residual cartier compononts, and amplified to provide a standard ized output. Another democslation technique sometimes ‘used consist of phsolecked oscillator wihose frequency fs phase compared to the reproduced signa. Differences {in the two frequencies produce an output used to drive the local oscillator to obtain a mall The diving voltage thus 52 {sa duplicate of the data signal. Again a low-pass flter is used in the output. AS with the FM record amplifier, higin or eletrcaly switchable clements are used tc set taner frequencies and filter charactettics. ‘Tae harmful effects of Mutter exuse serious deterioration iran FM recorded sigal. Ifthe utmost resolution iso be ‘obtained a method of flutter compensation must be used ‘One of the simplest forms of compeasation is provided by demodulating a reference signal which was recorded with the data Con a separate track) and thus generating the fluter signal itself. Ths signal is then simply subtracted fiom the many dita channels as they are demodulted. Great eaze must te taken to match the phase-and gain chartctersies of both the reference and data demodu- Tntors. In a shar system, the futter signal is simiarly covered from the recorded reference but is used to fontrol the duration of the constart energy pulses being fsenerated in the dala demodulator. Ccther FM recording techniques include the wideband FM, constant bandwidth. FM subcarrier and the IRIG prepor. tional bandwidth subcarirs.. The equipment for wing these tectniguesisalmost totaly suplied by the telemetry fgound equipment manufacturers and their signals ar all Ireorded by the diet record mode. They are not pecs {0 tape recorders aad wil not be dissed here. 53 OTHER FEATURES. 53.1 REMOTE CONTROL, Neatly all operating modes of magstic recorders are con tolled by relays or electronic switching When osing emote control the operatingmaie is controlled by ‘momentary contact switches, ete: by closing or is the fase of the Stop circuit by opening appropriate circuits Remote controls penmit the activation of all tramport ‘modes from another postion, with the exception of suming {ower on and off, Other indications ofthe recorders mode ‘Coperation often presented at the remote control include 4 tape break indiator, a tape reralning meter, an ind tation of tape speed, and a capstan servo syne indicator. ‘With today's emphasis on interface standards among tlectronie measuring devices the ality to interface the remote capabilites of instrumentation recorders further Increases the machines Mlexiblity. $3.2 BLDIRECTIONAL RECORDING. ‘This capability hasbeen made possi by the dul capstan transports and improved reel servo ystems, At las: one manufacturer as used this technique to greatly extend the secording ine of few data channels. IFtwo, four or sven data signals ayo all that aze to be recorded, a special sequencing cicult may be used in the following manner. ‘The recorder ie put into operation with the desied numbor of tacks being recorded. At the end of each pass, the Tecordor senses the end of usable tape, reverses the tpe's rection and ahils the data signals fo the next set of tracks, This opention continues unt sll tracks are used a which time the recorder turns its off.533 OVERLAP, Overlap or recordertoxecordar sequencing allows wo ‘eoorders to be operated as one, continuously with no loss of data. As the running recorder reaches the “endof- sable” tape, the waiting one stars and is up to speed 3s the running one shuts down. Tape is sethreaded cn the tow-waiting machine making it ready for the soqience signal from the running machine as it reaches the “exd-of- tasable" tape, Daca signals are usualy connected in pure, to both machines, 534 TAPELOOP ADAPTER. Tepe loops are used for special inetrumentation purposes, Loops ean be associated wath any type of capstan dre and can be tensioned reversingdler loop, a random bi loop, for a Tubricated-tage circular Toop. Loop adapters fo: com ‘ventional machines are avalable fem some manufacturer. Storage from 5 feet to 150 feet Is commonly avalable ia HEI were PACKARD most [oop configurations, They are Heal where data fnalyss problems requite continual replay of data into the snalyss equipment or for any applicaton that requires reootding and continuously reproducing data without the necessty of stopping and rewinding tape. 33.5. SIGNAL ACTUATION, ‘As the name implies, a signal starts the resording operation bby exceeding some prositthroshold level. Inthe event the econder cannot get up “0 speed in time to catch the signa, ‘tape Loop machine may be used also With the loop ‘operating constantly, In the record, reproduce, erase ‘sequerce, and the loop delay between the record head and the produce head, ‘he sudden appearance of signal allows the loop-delay time for getting the data recorder ‘up to speed. The signalis then dubbed tothe data recorder from he reproduce head of the loop machine. Following the reproduce head on the loop machine the tape is eased snd th operation deserved above continves.MAGNETIC TAPE MAGNETIC TAPE About thisty yeam ago recceding tape was a paper ribbon. oated with a erule red oxide materal similar to red bara faint, Teday's tpe is 2 thin rlb;on of plastic, ually polyester (Myla), on which an emulsion of tighly refined Inagnetiocxides is placed. The binder, necesary t0 retain the oxides also contains a variety of chemicals to reduce fiction, improve the wetting chanceristic of the axide particles, reduce static charge, lubricate the tape. te The tape backing or web is manufactured in wide (ually 24 to 2Ginch) sontimuous rolls, and after the binder ‘containing the oxide) is ccated on the web and cued, i Ait into the desired tape widths by precision siting machines Aun instrumentation tape must have avery uniform overall thickest and a Very close soleranoe on width. Nonnally, the width tolerance (aso kaown the sliting tolerance) '5 40.000 and -0.004 inch, ‘The coiting shoud not rab off nto the Leads or tick to ether portions of the tape rans: port mechanism, even et high tape spoods. Oxide particle fistnbotion must be constant throughout the thickness of the oxide layer a well as che length of the tape. Oxide piatlele size and magnetc characterstics must be extremely tell contolled for tapes What are to be used in very short wavelength reprocuction. asmi | r>25mi | A>25mil | A>DeOSml | A>.0025 mil Recorded only only only Wavelength a SIN Poor Goo! Goi Porte Evcellent @ Got YD 25 mil SIN Poor Poor Poor Good Good @ A<.25 mil Reliability Poor Poor Got Good Good of Tape Performance Frequency = Tape Speed 62Figure 15 shovs attenuation as a furction of the separation-towawlength ratio. This is a universal cure, applicable to any speed, frequency and separatcn. Tt should be noted that Figure 15 Hlastrates the losin signal level in olayback only, assuming that the head and tape rake adequate sontact during recording Obviously Similar signal los will ccovr if ther is tape/Lead separation I Uie second heal dosing the egcoud process In adltion fo ach fequensy dependent Toses, very high bias fre ‘quencies are perturbed by spacing ss tothe extent that all frequency components of a data signe) will suffer atienuauon or distortion. jos i Figure 15. Signal Avtenvation Caused by Poor “Tapeto-Head Contatin Payback In the playback of low Frequency signal of 15 mil wave length, 2 separaton of 1 or 2 mis affects the level oaly slightly, 2 at ahlgh fequency of 1 mail wavelength, even 4 half] spacirg ruts in a drop of more than 20 db, (ACL mil waveleagth results when one reccrds 15,0002 at 1Sips, 60,00)H2 at 60-ips, ote). In instrumextation recording, a 6 4 of SC% drop in signal is considered critcal, With a | rll wavelength this takes place with 111 ‘mictoinches (0111 mil headto-ape separation). Since a ‘dst patile might easly approach this size, the possibility (of spacitg loss and the importance of keeping the reorder ‘extremely clean is obvious. When he heads are not cleaned {or extorded periods of time, ccmplee less of high fe: (quencies can exily occur; and every othor part of the teeorder may te blamed before the heads are finally cleaned. 63. HANDLING OF MAGNETIC TAPE, When tape is handled, a5 during splicing, the operator's hands shouldbe thoroughly lean to prevent contamination of the tape by body oils and slts which wil cause the tpe, ‘co coataminated, to pick up foreign particles. The use Of sticky maskieg tape ov cellulose ("Scotch cellophane”) {ape as splicing cr ta-end hold-dovn is strongly notecom- mended, Small depotils of the adhesive wil stick tothe tape. Heads and guides should be clemed to remove accumu lations ef foreign matter each tine 2 tape is placed on a recorder "The machine manufacturer's recommended Cleaning procedure should be followed. If extreme inport- foe it placed on the dsta to bo recorded, it sheuld be sswuerr Bf pxcxano remembered that a tape which has been run through the transport sevesal times will have fewer dropoute than ew one, due to the resulting polishing or smoothing 64 CLEANING, 1 there is difizulty wit slgnal dropouts arising from con tamination by aust, carefully wipe the surface and backing of the tape with ‘2 lntlree coth, such as a very sof chamois. To got rid of contamiaation that does not brst. off exsly, use cloth slightly moistened with Freon TP. Aliphaue’hydeocatbon type solvents (heptane, gasoline, ‘aptha) can also be wsod, but care should be exercise ‘because they ere flammable. Freon TF is non-toxic anc rnon-fammable, Do rot use carbon tetrachloride, ethy alco, trichleethylene or other unknown cleaning agents ‘because they may soften the oxide, deform the backing or both 65. STORAGE. When not in ase, tapes should be placed on 2 orecision reel, uniformly wound at a moderate tension, end then tlven protected storage, Recommended takeup texsion fo- ‘ot instrumentation :ecorders using 1 mil tape i 410 5 ‘ounces for each 1/4.inch of tape width, The bes: method ‘of storage is to place the reel of tape ina slfsealing plastic tase and to sere i¢ on edge In storagebin equipped with partons between each reel. ‘The plistic case protects tape from dust and sudden’ humidity and temperature changes. Tt also guard both tape and rel from damage in handling when the tape-is transported between work ant storage area. The plistic envelope and cardboard box ix ‘which tape i aupplled will probably fd much more use than special containers and is reasonable protection under all but the worst conditions, IF the tape must be stored in the presence of magneti> Fels, either a2 or ds, special containers are avallable, ‘These will protect the’ data from erasure under all but extremely high felds, However, itis moro desirable to ore way from the fli if a all posible Extremes of temperature and humidity should be avoided, Tn general, recommended storage conditons for both types ‘of base ate as allows: Relative mumidity: 40 10 60% ‘Temperature: 60 0 80° F I extremes in temperature ar encountered daring th: storage or transi, tape should be brourht to equlixium before itis used,” AStming, for instance, that a tape hat been in slorage or Uanst at subzere temperatures, it shoud be stored for ¢ minimum of 4 to 8 hours at room temperatures Fefore it is used. Actually, i wil not regain complete equllibrium for approximately 16 hours. This time ean be shortened by accelerating temperatures, but these temperatures should not exceed 100°F; ctherwise, 63condensation will form on the tape, whieh may prove te ‘era problem. Avold using direct heat, su as from lamps ar other spot heaters to warm up a tpe, ‘Tempsrature and tumility conditions during shipment are unpredictable, especialy when shipment is made by ai ‘Temperature and humility vary so rapidly on take-off that ‘te stesss seross (or dhrough) the tape pack do not zach ‘equilibrium before thee conditions revese during landing Uneven stretching across the width of the tape results in ‘edge ruffles when th> tape is reproduced. Thermally ‘aulsted plstle containers, taped al the edges, reduce the tlfect of temperature and humidity shock and depending {pon the time of she fight, the tapo should be allowed to reach temperature equilbriim as dscetod in the previous pperagaph. Procurement of henpetially sealed tape ‘pring cartons may be necessary ifthe ultimate in tape salety i sequiced. If the tape has boon subjected to combinations of temper stare-and. humidity which eause betweenayer sticking, i may be beyond siving. Do not place the recorder in fst forward when uaroling a reel suspe:ted of abnormal Morage or transit conditions; instead use a low speed drive Imode._ All tapes that havo been stcred for long peleds of fime should be uncoled and reweund to ensure normal ‘ape pack on the sappy ree 646 PHYSICAL DISTORTION. ‘While most signal dropouts in instrumentation ecordings a caused by specks of dust and other contaminants whieh Tin the tape aay fiom the head, two other significant ‘cases are dents and class in the base material. Dents can be caused either by foreign particlss becoming wound u> lghty in the roll or by roughness in the surface ofthe hu> ‘om which the tape i wound, ‘These may cause a permanent ‘dent or crease in many layers of the tape which cannot be ‘retched out flat asthe Lape pases over the head. Stresses ‘nthe roll which are sufficient to stretch the backing 5 ‘percent will gererally Teave a 2envanent. impression. Btreses below te 5 percent paint are not nosmally emmanent, Creases usually are caused by handling. te tape Gie., threading, splicing, remeving the tape fom the auldes, etc.) or by danage to the edges the tape because jf useven winding. Most causes of distrtion of the ba mate ean be slimated by the use of a precision reel. A typical pre sion reel has straight or tapered flanges which are acca rately machined and spaced to minimize the catering of ‘urns doring winding. The flange design also affords greatly Increased protection sganst dust and cushing of the tape edges The hub has no threading dots which eause distr ‘on of the inner turss. Instead, itis often covered by a rneofrene friction bani to aid in'ceacing. This ring acs fa cushion for the innermost tape layers and tends to {minimize distortion fiom winding presture and expansios- eontacton stresses. 64 6.7 ERASURE OR SATURATION. Magnet properties of instumentation tapes are stable indefinitely," Magnetic retentvty is permanent unless altered by magnetic mesas. Itmay be altered, for example, bby magnets flelds from permanent magnets or electro: rmagnels. These, vory Hkely, will cause part erasure if placed-within a fos inches ofthe tape ‘This psincple fs used in th bul ereing process in which a whole rel of tape is demagnetized widhout unwinding. ‘The Tels necessary to produce complete erasure, however, ae 30 Intense that ft x aot ikely that stay magnetic fields ‘will cause trouble of ths kind. Complete erasure (Considered for purpose of this discussion to be reduction ‘of sgral fa point below tho noise level of the system) ‘does ot uivally take place unlos the field i strong enough to exect noticeable attraction forthe tape, Sight erasure ‘en oscar, howerer, without any noticeable attraction or vibration, Figure 16 ilustrates the lation between fled intensity and ‘razure as shown in exyeriments conducted with a typical tc bulk ener. Some ersuure is noticeable at a Held intensity of only 100 oorsteds, A 6 db los is generally considered critical because it represents a 50 percent 1e- ‘duction in signal strength. In some applications a loss of 1 ab might ext. 28 e 25 i Bon Eo Ene ee 2 Os0is In (Seo crs AT 7.3 TPs)e 0.08 = Figure 16. Erase ava Function of Field IntensityBoth unrecorded and recorded tapes should be kept away from electromagnetic bulk erases and storage eabinets with magnetic latches. Unrecorded tapes should not be placed neer de magnet feds, suchas waveling wave-tubes fo magnetron magnets because they may become heavily biased or even crests gros distortion in the record prooiss (he, the realtant signal-to-noise ratio will be reduzed. If parts of the recorder become magnetied, they can cause tape erase, possible tape saturetion and signd Aegredation, As preventive measure, seriodie demagne! ination ofeitial pars, particularly heads, s recommendeé ‘To guard against accidental erasure of recorded tape during shipment, tape can be packed with bulk spacing (such a Sesatdmuiiel — subsuansin wood) between the tape and its shipping carton. Bulk Spoeing is elective In reducing the possibilty of accidental trasure by fisids encountered during tansit because field Strength varies inverely with the square of the distance. ‘Assuming that no field strength greater than 1000 oersteds ‘would be encountered during shipment (this unverifiable but a reasonable assumption), 3 Inches of bulk spacing ‘would give adequate protection. ‘The specil shielded container described in the paragraph fon storage may be used in shipment iFlarge stay magnetic fields ae expected during shipment. Expererce, however, indiates that standard tipping. cartons are usually satisfactorySPECIAL TECHNIQUES AND MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION SPECIAL TECHNIQUES AND MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 7.1 PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM). Pulse code modulation is 2 method of coding digital data in the form of diseoct pulse to enhance the transmission tnd recording of information in digital format. instruments esigned for or sble to ute a PCM format will normally use ‘iect recort and reproduce slectronics. ‘The wide band- ‘width that direct offers allow; succesful recording of high density 2CM data, The limitations of direct electrons at the low end of the fisquaney spectrum can present problems in the recording of de levels asocinted with Continuous sting of unchanged data bits (Le. along run of OQ" level dis). OF all the codos which exist minimize thoes prnblome only a few listinedy different ones (see Table 7-1) are usually encountered in the recording Industry. 7.2. PUISE RECORDING. ‘The use of instrumentation recorders to record radarlike, narrow pulte-sigals requires some compromises because these machines are largely optimized for analog (sinewave) recording The purpose of the following discusion i to understand the Imitatins of these compromises. Act aly easonable pulse fideiy can be produeed by the direst reeord/repeo- Euce proces, aswell. ae-n the wideband {de-500 ke) FM recond/mproduce method. Each method, while somewhat tifferent in response i effected by the same basic problem; the lack of igh or low frequency response. Much too often, recorded pulses are burct in the recorder system's ise even though they enjoyed several db of gnal-tondse ratio when tey left the eceter. One or more ef the following factors can contibate to this. 7.241 SYSTEM NOISE MOT MINDAIZED, Noisy taps The use oF vigln tape doss not guarantee ‘minimum Tape noise. I the normal hand ing of magnetic tape fain manufacturer to the recording ste, the noise or “fis” level may increase by soveral db because of ststy ‘magnet felds encountered enroute. Inadequate erasure fr degamusing ean increase the tape nose level if the tape Is reused. Uf there isa doubt concerning the residual noise level of a gven reel of tape, several spot checks should be made by reproducing the unrecorded tape witha “standard- faed™ reproduce gain soting. Actually, elatve levels be- tween ces are all that 2 important her, andthe entria may be set by the level produced from 2 vipin or care fully dagaassed tape. agneticed record or reproduce heals, Magnetized record ‘r reproduce Tels wil Tncretie the noise level of the reproduced sigial Head demagnetization should be done ‘weekly on a routne maintonanse schedule and whenever systam noise appear to increase While not affecting the signal on th tape, nosy reproduce drevitry can deprade pulse type data reproduction. Noisy fubes or comporents may cause this degradatior and ‘careful election of tubes, tatlstors, or components to feplace the noisy ones may improve the performance significantly 1.22 IMPROPER BIAS LEVEL. Many tape recorder instructor books outline a specific Drocedure for ssting the proper rave of bias and signal Zavwont through mach record head aénding, Sore speclly nominal value, others rely on the shape of the cutput raveform. Unfortunately, nether method is toolproot. ‘A nominal valu of bias current, especially in widsband fecording, does not ensure maninum performance. Opti- frization of the bias while reproducing a square wave, fnsures maximum performance, bssed of course, ch the sumption that the reproduce (and equalizer) clcutry ie propedly adjusted. If pulse signals ae to be reproduced on a machire capable fof phase equalizition adjustment, tapes on which pulse type data is fo be recorded sould be biased for fat G5 do) sinewave response (Inslucing preemphasis Le, ho changes should be made in the Eas adjustment fran the ‘Sinewave ease, Tr the past, it was observed that changes in bias setting apparently resulted in better pulse recondings it was found however, chat even higher fidelity pase waver forms could be recorded and reproduced by optimizing only the equelizer adjustments for pulses and leaving the bias set as rooammended for sinewave recording, 7.2.3. RECORDING LEVEL IMPROPERLY SET. ‘The proper record lvel setting for any signal s that ting ‘which best mates the dynamic range ofthe signal to the “dynamic range ofthe recorder. The dynamic range of the recorder fs defined as that range between the amplinde of f signal at a rater apbitrary value of harmonic distortion (usually somewhere between 3% and 1% total) and the amplitude of the reproduced system noise. Because pulse {ype signals ere unidirectional, the dynamic range realized ‘won recording tnem is 6 db less than for sinewave signals; ‘assuming the tie harmonic disterton. This means that the peak-tovaak value of a pulse type signal must be re fiveed 10 oneal (6 db) che peaktorpeak value ofa sine- ‘ware signal, If not, higher Cistcrtion will esalt. Pulse HHgnals, however, tolerate mor harmonic distortion than finowave signals forthe same apparent fidelity. uMTable 7-1, PCM Code Comparison uguinan | cou torence | atcnres | crock i Goose’ | Eas | SR | mxceng | aur enton ‘ Gaon? | Gaeomse | excretion | bessny | xBliasurry a sate | Tingice | pam | Dimi are | dete | Bae Meee | tae Bid 1/5 The 1.4 Times, ‘Self > 12k Bit > tin 108 Brawn | Mints | atom | Eble | Ra me ao na shor sar pacar | >1inie Bin | atau Sikes | Re ree iu é be ie ee SS [Normalized bitrate in bits/eeond, Tape speed ia inches/secord. Fo Suggested upper band ede cutoff frequen: Fo" 15 Fy7124 PULSE RESPONSE, ‘The pulses referred to in the preceding information aw assumed to be 1 to 10 microseconds wide and oocurting st rates from 100 to 4000 pultes per second. Occasionally, itis desirable to record pulses having higher or lower wid and sates. A rule of thimb for direct eeord recorders sys “The recorder must hae a sinewave frequency response te times the frequency of the square wave to reproduce a acceptable rsp time and one tenth the frequency of the quate wave to reproduce an acceptable droop characte ‘sic’, Le, a LOMMHz machine will reproduce a 100K: squaze wave or pulse equivalent with a yood rise tne; and amuchine recording 10 3004Hz will reproduco 2 3000, square wave with a pood droop characteristic. If longer pulses must be recorded, and rise time requirements ate net to stringent, wideband (db to S0O-H2) FM may be use. ‘This method of recording pubes producss excellont low fequeney performance, good signal-to-noise ratios, ant 00d pulte fidelity at omewhat reduced rie time respons, ‘Best pulse recordings wil be made when careful adjustment of bias and record lev it made while observing the output of tie reproduce amplifiers (asuming they have been ‘optinized for square wave or pulse response). This ope ation is usually refered to as “downstream monitoring” and i most effective tc ensure good recordings. 712.5. RECORDING PULSES FROM RECEIVERS. ‘A sigal from a reeever equipped with AGC can usually ‘be handled by the reorders dynamic ange with Utd iffcalty if the rocoler nolso Is set t> record a few do above the Inherent recorder system noise level. Unfortt- rately, AGC derives its control from all signals inthe pass ‘band and a vry strong interfering signal can desensitize th recoier to the point where a weaker signal is wipod out. If ‘the weaker signal ist be recorded, manual gain contrcl rst be used. Ifthe difference in level between the inter fering signal and the signal of interest then exceed the ddynanic range of the econde, a good meording cannot be made A scmowhat different problem erses when recording the ‘utpat of a scanning receiver because this type of receiver’ noise level wil usually vary several db as the receiver i tuned or scanned thecugh Its range, To record 4 seanning receirer output, the record level must be set to record the ‘minimum receiver nose just above the ecorder’s systen, noise. This may male the recording nore susceptible (> faturation, but is probably the most acceptable compromise ‘The only sute way to make 2 good recording of a signs which has a Tatge vation in amplitude is to “rida the {ln much as Is done in broadeast and recording studios. ‘This would appear to be an impossible addtional task > Impose on the operator, but whenever a received signs ‘i viewed on an oseillicope by the receiver operator and necessary adjustment of the receiver gain made, prolonged ‘overload of the recorder can usually be prevented, TD newuerr ff pxcxano do this, the signal amplitude which causes saturation in the recorder should be referenced (with a grease pencil) ‘on the fave of the osolosope during the pre-operation setup. Whon this level is exseeded, the operator can adjust the receiver guin to lower the signal amplittde. A litle sffort expended in this manner can ensute groper record levels higa percentage of tin, NOTE [Receiver gain adjustments during. an ‘operation may be contrary to the system ‘operational doctrine. Be sure to check before employing tis technique, Monitoring of the record level during an operation will ‘often not be practical or posible. Special eave inthe pre- operation setup, however, will stil provide usable recordings, It should be remembered that most signals ust be recorded right dows to the receiver's nose as thet levels fhicuate, ‘The receiver noise, therefore, must be recorded above the recorder’s system noise, If large vat ations in signal level are expected, saturation of the 10 Corder and consequent distortion may be expsrted but this fs probably more desirable than losing @ weak signal, Act. wally, satring a recorder isa rather gradual proces. A. ‘Sgnal that is 10db above normal record level wll add only 4 few percint tothe distortion, The process iaot ike that Of a saturated amplifier, where a well defined tipping level 4s reached, Truc, saturation will lengthen pulses and ean, snake two closely spaced pulses look like ons, but this i usally preferable to missing the weak signal. Analytic methods may recover signals recorded when th equipment ‘was opersied in an occasional saturated ccndition, but pulses buied in the noie may never b> recovered. Recovery :0 normal records operation from a saturated condition quite rapid, usally only a few mscroseconds Saturation, as discussed abow, refers to the actual magnetic saturation of the tape, In"some recorders, the record amplifier sooms to saturat> before the tape. Longer recovery ine and greater distortion ean resul inthis ease 7.26 RECORDER ADJUSTMENTS. ‘To record pulses propeny, the machine mast be kept in excellent condition. A right maintenance and adjustment ‘schedule must be followed, Heads must be kept clean and demagnetized, tension adjustments must be checked often, and tapes must be handled carefully Careful attention tothe foregoing factors will enable good recordings of pulses on the tape, but there isa possiblity ‘of pulse degradation occaring dusing the reproduce ‘operation, Some recommended equalizer adjustments result in exentialy an underdamped filter. Pulses through such an equalizer will cause large overshoots and singing. Equalizer adjustment which gives a criteal damped charactelsle will reduce these distortions. Further reduction can be obtained if the machine dso provides for phase equalization, whi, rather than affecting. the 73frequency response, affocts the phase response; Le. keeping ‘he pecteal Componeats of the pulse in the proper time relationship. Reproduce equalizers with phase response {djustments, once optimized for pulses, donot require readjastment for sinewave use eis assumed thatthe reproduce amplifiers output contea has beon set (0 produce an output lee similar te that deseibed in the Fuamofacturer’s manual. Some repreduee ‘amplifiers can themalves be saturated by large signals from the tape, even thegh dhe tapes nct saturated. Avoid {hi condition at all ies Gross differences between the many different recorders, ‘and even the subtle differences between cach track of the fame recorder, preclude the listing of standardized settings for pale recording. The purpose of this section has been to emptarize that the manufacturers recommended setup procedure is not necessarily optima for pulse recoding. Teiscertainly the place to start from, but the best stings can only come fram “downstream monitoring” the result fof éach adjustmen: as itis made. 4.3. PREDETECTION RECORDING. A data colletingsocsving system my be required 10 process many typet of modulated signals, e., FM/FM, PDM/FM, PCM/EM, PAM/EM, SSB/FN, FSK, FM, PN, PAM and AM, The bandwidths of ese signals vary from few hertz to several spegahertz. Information may Single channel or rultichanne for on one cate It isin such systems that predotection cording has been sted to great advantage. Signals mcorded in this fshion ray be played back for offline (oomeabtime) dat. reduction. Less sgnal processing equipments required fer this since a single demodulation system can ‘be used sxjuculally uu several Wacks of predetcted signals Alb, If the demodulation process must be optimized, ot refine, succesive demodulations may be mide until the bert results ae obtained. [In a typical predetection recording system the receiver I aumpliier sigals are translated down a frequency band ‘ompatible With a wideband, direct record, instrumen:ation ecoider (usually ia the range of 10OKItz to 1.542, Such a signal sl retains the original modulation -f net resireted by recorder bandwidh. When reproduced, this data can be detected and reducec dirctly or it may te Trandated up to a higher frequency (usually the origina frequency) forthe data reduction operation. ‘The jor use of predetecton recording itn mise range applets whee raulichannel telenetiy It used 1 iulteneousy monitor the many tenshucers installed fet the fst or fight The major advantage of predtecon tecoring in thir apolcation te chat one: tack of the fSooder can hold mony chanaeh of dat ‘This aly Simplifies the reste site equpment and also. permis ieter contol over the demodulng snd dent ex ‘of the data. a pre 14 ‘As an example of prodatestion recording, suppose the entire. stardard broadcast band (S60-1640Ktt2) were recorded on 2 wideband instrumentation recorder. When Teprodced, a convention broadcast receror could be ‘sed to ture in any station that was on the ar at the time the recording was ma. is natura to ty to use predetection recording instead of ‘postdetection recording for signals of unnovn character- Istcs since there i a strong possibility tat fe detection process may be something les than optima. Ia short, the ‘quality of the data from a postdetection recording of an Unknoam signal is subject fo the accuraty of a oneshot field jadgement made by the operator. However, thre rust be an understanding ofthe limitations of predetection recording i it is to be used with succes. CContrezy to the normal Jete:tedrecevor signa, undetected signals can have a wice dynamic. range (60 to 90db), ‘especialy fn rceivers used for surveillance wors. The wide- band recone, in direct record mode, has about 20 t0 25 range. In predetection recorlingsystems used ranges, the recewer frequency translator, and range telenetry transmission characterises are arranged to match the recorders capability. In deling with survell- lance activities, however, one does not have this sort of contrcl and needs the ~ide dynamic range offered by the receiver, The capability give up by matching the dynamic anges of the recelver and the recorder wil probably estoy some signals, eszecilly ifthe signal-to-noise i low ‘or if szong interfering signals exist in the recor passband, All telometry systems employing predetection recording tue a fequency-modulated carser transmitson link, AS recorded en the tape, this PM signal is relatively Insensitive to the amplitude istabiliy encountered in a typical instrumentation recorder since the information isin the signal zero crossings, not the signal amplitude. However, aay signal containing information in its amplitude will be serlousy distorted by the amplitude instabilities normally fencouatered in the diet wcord proces, These include drop-cats, variations in resgonse of the magoetic material on the tape, spacing loss during record, ete. All of these effects ooturring in either record or reproduce ean give ‘rosy erroneous results On AM data. ‘The bandvidth of the recorder used for predetection recording is usually 1002 to 1.SMEKe. “Frequencies below 100Ktiz are not used forthe wideband predtection signal as distortion due to spectrum foldver will occur in the up conversion process The recorder therefore limits the bandwidth of the signal that can be recorded by the predetection method. If signals of wider bandwidth are received and recording is attempted, distortion products will occur which wil Uioroughly confuse he dita reduction proses Flutter or time displacement error affects predetection recording a it does any detected signal recerding. Espe cially deleterious to FUL signals, utter may be compen- sated for to some degre ty either electronic or capstan uve servo techniques, whichever Is most applicable.‘The discussion just presented hab assumed tha: a longitu: inal recorder is used which offers a at (13-05) response from [bz to 1.SMHlz at 120ips. This type of recorder is or 14 chasnel and is universally used in tastrsmentation work If one noed record only one channel of data by pre- detection, the transverse or “spinning head” recorder provides up to SMIz of bandwidth. Te use of this ‘machine reduces the effects of dropouts and spacing loss 5 the dala is recorded by FUL cartier means. Bandwidth fi much greater and hight cester frequencies may be used to record a wider band 0° deta on the tape. Flutter and TTDE are very low; TDE in the range of #25 nanosecond. Dynamic range is somewhat better iypieally 38) than Tongitudinal recorders, but the gost por ckancal is much higher and the machine is vorisideably mor complex, especialy tomaintain. Predetecsion recording is 4 useful instrumentation tech- sigue a ong 28s imitations are understood and observed. If predetecton recording limitations are lgrored, very misleading dita can be ponerate, 7.4 DUBBING. Since a tape recording must fequenty be wsed for analysis in different locations, dupliate tapes aro made, Tho process of duplicating the master tape s known as dubbing". "Several important consideratiors must be made when dubbing 1, Both recording and reproducing machines should be of equal or beter quality than ‘he original recorder. rewuern By Pa CKARD 2, Both machines must have the same track format as the ceigial recorder. 3. If the reproducing machine has a wicer band- vidth than the orginal recorder, improved high-frequency response -may be obtained, bat reduced signal-to-noise ‘ats wil ikely result from the wider bandwidth. Specific signal parameters can be optimised by proper selection of. ‘ho reproduce cqusization. 4, Flutto. characteristics of both the ogi! machine ‘and the two machines doing the dub>ing will ‘fect the dubsed recording. As a raul, Mutteraffcted parameters wil alvays be more obvious inthe dul than on the orginal tape. 5. The ontput lovels of tae reproduce machine must be earfully matched tothe input of the record tenplifies of the cord machine. When optimally set the Aub wil be at Feat db less than the orginal in siga-to- 6, Recordings made with FM cartier ceccrding dleetronlcs may be dubbed by the direct recording process. However, tests indicate that even though unsupyorted by theory, better reults can be obtained when the FM recorded data i demodulated in the normal manner and re-recorded on an #M recording mactine.APPENDIX A IRIG AND ITS STANDARDS [A brief averiew of what IRIG is and how th: standards ame to be established was dicussed in pargraphs 13 and i. ‘This syyeadix contain other information regarding some of the specifies of the IRIG standard and the tables referenced throughout this priner. A RECORDER HEADS. Over the year, the IRIG standards have sbisined a standardaton in track and head geometry which guss- fniees compatibility between instrumentstion tape fecordets, 12, tapes recorded on one nvanufacturer's ‘actine wil play back on another. IRIG 10673 contsins the latest details and only some of the highlights will be mentioned fere. Track w ath shall be 0.080 inch, tack-to- track spacing shall be 0,070 inch center-o-center, seven {tacks wil be used on 1/2inch tape and 14 tracks on Inch tape. The tacks, at group, willbe centesed on the tape, ii, on |/2-nch tape tack #4 will be located i the center ofthe tepe, ete, Standard head placement i 1 locate the heads fer alternate tacks in separate head sticks. Thus, to record all tracks of a stardard width tape, two record Inead stacks are roqurell and to reproduc all track, «wo reproduce bead stacks wil bs sed. The two stacks of a fecord (or produce) pair shall bo mounted such that the ‘enter lines through-the head gaps ofeach stack ae parallel Sand. shell be spaced 1500 (£0001) inches apart as ‘measured along the tape path, The aljgnment of individual ‘ips within a head stack shall be withio £4 minute of are feferenced :0 a straight line perpendicular zo the direction fof tape travel in the plane ofthe tape, Until recently, IRIG has hal trouble imposing Its track numbering standard, For many years there was both en TRIG standard and an Ampex standard, The IRIG standacd ‘numbers the tracks | thiough 7 (14) from lft to right 35 You foci down the tape in “he direction of travel, on the ‘oxide side, Thus track #1 isthe first track on the let in the firet head stack. Thesecond head stack contains all the fren numbered tracks wish tack 6 (14) on ths right edge. ‘This stenderd prevails for al ecorders including Ampex) manufactured in the last fev years. The Ampex track numbering standard was ‘widely used at ons tine however, fnd sorte woorders using the Ampex format ze no doubt sill in use, The Ampex standard mumbers the tacks 1 through 7 (1) from right to left as you look down the tape fn the ditetion of travel, on the oxide side. Thus, trek 1 3 the frst track on the right in the first head stack. ‘The second head stack contain all the even-numbered tacks ‘ith track 6 (18) on the let edge. Only in afew aolated instances willa tape recorded i one format be reproduced by a mackine with the other format, ‘ut an unusuel problem arises when this occurs, Track spacing and track width are the same for both formats, thus tach recorded track will be reproduced; but recorded trac, ‘ill reproduce a track #14, rack #2 will reproduce as innck #15, ete. At fist glance, simple translation in the rumbering ofthe reproduce amplifiers would seer to clear tp the confuson, Unfortunately, thee i a serious intr ‘rack tining. error which artitery numbering of the Dutputs won't cure. This incompatibility occuss in the ‘lowing mancer. ‘The even-numbered tracks are recorded by the #2 heed sack ata point 1.Sdnches “downstweam”” orn the odesnumbered tracks (either format). When ‘eproduced with aead stacks o° the opposite formal, the ‘enenumbered recorded tracks are reproduced ty tie #1 {all sack, and 3 inches (2 15 inches) of aditionl tape travel is necessary to get the tmecoincident data of the Didd-numbered recorded tracks beneath the #2 reproduce head stack. At 60-pe tape speed, » SO-milisecond delay plus twice the uml stack-tostack timing inaccuracies is Incurred by al dita originally recorded on odi-nuirbered tacks in rlaton to the data Waicl: was recorded on ever: ‘numbered tacks Ad TYPES OF TAPE, ‘There are th:ee general clases of tape avallatle today. ‘The wideband tapes, which are used for recording wave Iengths as short as 80 microioches (LSM at 120ips), 2 medium grade tpe for wavelengths as sort as 240 micro- inches (0.5-MHz at 1204p), and 2 standard grade tape for wavelengths # short 48,600 microinches (IDO4H at {60%ps)._ As may be expected the price varies quite propor. tionally with the ability of the tape to reproduce short wavelengths. Ad‘Table Al, IRIG Ditect Record Parameters RECORD BIAS RECORD LEVEL ‘TAPE SPEED 3 DB PASS BAND SET FREQUENCY SET FREQUENCY aes) uz") cx) (Kuz) Low Bind (overbias 3 ab") 60 100— 300,000 100 100 30 100— 50,000 50 5.0 15 100— 25,000 5 25 Tape 100— 12,000 2 12 33/4 100— 6,000 6 06 178 1oo— 3,000 3 03 Intermediate Band (overbias 3 ab™™) 120 300~ $00,000 500 50.0 60 300- 250,000 250 250 30 200 125,000 ios 1s 1s 100~ 60,000 6 60 a 190— 30,000 30 30 33/4 100— 15,000 15 1s 1716 100-7500 75 075 1.5 Wileband (overbins 1 ab) 120 400 ~ 1,500,000 1,500 150 60 400 50,000 "750 8 30 400 375,000 375 31s 15 400 187,000, 187 187 map 400 93,000, 93 93 33/4 = 46,000 46 46 20 Wileband (overbias 2 ab) 120 400 ~ 2,600,000, 2,000 200 0 400 — 1,000,000, 1,000 100 30 400 's00,000, ‘500 50 1s 400 350,000 250 25 72 400- 125,000, 1s 1s. 33H 400- 62,500 os 625 Passband response reference isthe outut atthe record level set frequency. Ung an input signa! level $ to 6 db below normal record level, the record bias curent is adjusted for maximun, reproduce Output and then increased und an output of the indicated dl lee below the maximum value is obtained Aaseers rscxano ot 0 stout ee sresmongninarjeoudinbo panos? Agus} 249 wos; 20> Apueund sey SpIO% 30344 Janpang sur sonpoid oy Arsea2eu sr vorsanstydos yo 31g 8 ann T motog sponds 3 ragop se uayhs Buproce! Ra DORGSPA ‘a umoup sy “Ser ] Je ssuodsa pros joaip (Lever 10) “ana $-€1 oq sou 205 74 O01 PE evONE PUR AEH SET HEUUEND ye HOH ano qT OF psuejar asuodsON KOU ONY 4a pannbar os am spuueys Soyeue yy sou x0 a sigs siapione! uopostepand pts asm Zo} Aauad are stouonbay atR9 Wy PURGRPIA JO dros PHOS UL, 4g 24 ieee geaorqeed syo4 901 10°F Jo YOR INGO ‘uonessp Aouonben Try sonpost 1 ‘.00P 01 944 oor cout 006 coozeda | onsite cosas cosy oot aa | osust oszer ose coos oroa | ose SCOP osctr cose moa | suese scree osv'es oser mag | sam6t vse scree esl a0¥9) Jaxvasan, ie goog e900 vest 109 over | ( shoe) oct i ‘oor 91 3a Sect reo osc | (ist) 09 | ¢ ioe) R oor 15a | 0089 cist O80 zal) oF ie coor sod | ove ose oo¥s G coos oa | over oss oot oosz oda | ors ost ost G osct oa | oso ost 059 > 1B seo oa | cen7 sy sige ) 5 sieo a | clot rd $897 ee ) set sel Gap apd, (a) ay 1anox5 ‘aNva ‘aNva NOT suintranva | aonandsaa | Nolviaaa | Nouviaga | Aonandaws | GNVEIGIA | SLVIGaISLNT Ivaswoasma | Nouvindow | snniW snd ‘YaLNAD (Sivan) sat wannivo | xarrivo | yannivo aaas gv {SLINTT NOTEVIASO WARTAVD ‘oveureg paoooy PCH PUEGADIN PH UIED-aRUIS ONT “TY TEL reTable A:3. IRIG Proportional Subcamier Channels “£7.5% CHANNELS: Lowe: | upper | Nominal | Nominal | Maximum | Minimum center | Deviation | Deviation | Frequency | Rise | Frequency | Rise Frecuercies | Limit? | Limit? | Response | Time | Response** | ‘Time** Channel ‘ez) tz) 2) (iz) | (msec) (Giz) mseo) L 400 310 430 6 | 58 so | a7 2 £60 58 soz 8 | a2 a2 8.33 3 30 ers 785 nu | 32 55 6.40 4 £60 sss | 1,092 us| at @ 4.86 5 3,500 1,202 | 1,308 2% | a8 98 3.60 5 1700 asr2 | 1aa 23 | u 3 2.14 1 24500 air | 2bara 3 | to 313 2103 8 3000 airs | 3,225 45 1.8 225, 1.56 9 3,900 3,607 | 4,298 59 6.0 293 1.20 vb 5,400 4,95 | 5,809, 81 43 405, "364 uw 7,850 6,79 | 7,901 | 110 32 581 635 R 10,00 gj7z | anze8 | 160 22 788 444 B a4soo | 13,412 | 15,588 | 220 16 1,088 322 u 22,000 | 20,950 | 28,850 | 330 ia 1650 cia b 80,000 | 27,750 | $2,250 | 450 ‘18 2,250 156 B 40,000 | 37,000 | 48,000 | 600 583,000 tnt u 52,00 | 43,932 | 56,498 790 448,988 +089 B 70,000 | 64,750 | 75,250 | 1050 133 5,250 1087 » s,coo | 85,025 | 99,875 | 1395 25 5,975 050 2 124,000 | 114,700 | 183,300 | 1360 19 9, 300 Tosa 2 165,000 | 159,625 | 177,375 | 2475 fd 12,375 lo29 +15% CHANNELS*#+ a 2,00 | 18,700 | 25,800] 660 53 3,200 +208 3 30,000 | 5,500 | 34,500 | 900, 394,500 lors. ce 40,000 | 34,000 | 46,800 | 1200 29 6,000 loss D 52,500 | 44,625 | 60,375 | 1875 22 Tat on z 70,000 | 59,500 | 0,500 | 2100 “iT 10,500 033 : 93,000 | 73,050 | 108,50 | 2730 113 13,950 025 6 azt;000 | 105,490 | 142,600 | 3720 09 18,600, 018 H 165,000 | 149,250 | 189,750 | 4950 oT |- 24,750 lout = Rounded off to nearest hertz, = Indicated maximum data frequeney response and -wnimum rise tine axe based on the maximum theoretical response that can be eblained ina Eandwvidth betweea the upper and lower frequency limits specified forthe channels, Channels A chrosgh H may be used by omiting adacent lettered and numbered channels. Channels 13 and A ‘may be used together sith some inerase in adjacent chanel interference AtHEWLETT, recrsne Table A, IRIG Constant Bandwidth FM Subcarsier Channels A CHANNELS BCHANNELS C CHANNELS Deviation Limits = #2 kB Nominal Frequency Deviation Limits = kl ‘Nominal Frequency Deviation Limits = #8 kite Nominal Frequency Response = 0.4 kz Response = 0.8 kil Response » 1.6 KHz Maximum Frequency Maximum Frequency Maximum Frequency ‘Response = 2 KH” Response = 4 kilt Response = 8 Kile CENTER. CENTER ‘CENTER FREQUENCY FREQUENCY FREQUENCY CHANNEL | (KHZ) cHanneL | (KHZ) cHanneL | (KHZ) 1a 6 2A 4 3A, 2 3B 32 3c 32 48 40 SA 48 se 48 6A, 56 7A 64 7 64 Es o 8A n 38. 80 8 80 104 88 nA 96 nB 96 ue 96 1A 104 13A 12 1B 12 1A 120 15a 18 158 128 sc 18 16a 136 1A 46 1B 144 18A 152 19A 160) 1B 160 ise 160 20a, 168, 21a 116 218 176 * The indicated maximum frequency is based upon the maximum theoretical response that can be obtained in ‘bandwidth between deviation lite specified for the channel. (See discussion in Appendix B for determining practical scoursey versus response trades) ASAPPENDIX B HEWLETT-PACKARD INSTRUMENTATION MAGNETIC TAPE RECORDING SYSTEMS Ba INTRODUCTION. |All HewettPackard Instrumentation Tipe Recorders provide Figly flexible yet eas) 10 operate systems to cord and reproduce elect signals on 1/inch magnetic tape. The intent in offering the nonRIG compatible 1/4 fnch tape machines ix to allow customers not requiring TRIG compatbilty choice of high qualiy instrumen- {ation recorders at 2 substantially lower orice. These taustomes who tse the sar recorder for both data acquisi= tion and reduetion have feund that they ean often buy «vo ff tives, T/4inch ovorde for less than one IRIG Compatbie system. In so doing they not only guina great ‘eal more flexibility but wry often superiae performance in thei pactcular application, Future cusiomers should flso consider that several €ousand of the 5960, 4channel recorders have alady bees sold and are regurded by some Customers as the 1/éinch, 4channel tape standard, The feeent introduction of te 3968, 1/4-nch tape B-channe fecorder s another step forward in trying to offer the best prloe/performance package iallable to sore the problems Of instrumentation tape recording. ‘The follwing page inlue a brief description ofthe 3960, and 3968 system along with the accesories available to further extond these syste capabilites. B.2 PRECISION MILLED ALUMINUM CASTING ‘TRANSPORT BASE PLATE, Provides mechanical stability of tape motion control ‘components such as heads, guides, and motor, thoughout the life of the system, This subility means the perfor mance will nat degrade duc to warpage, which often happens with aluminum jig plaks. Precision, n-rrically Controlled milling means ea replacement of components Sttached to tht casting, such as beads, without precision ‘lignment(ools and without shining. 3 NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL SERVICE ORGANIZATION. HewletLPackard believes that as a manufuctuer of measuring insimments it has an obligation to help each ter get maxiemim usefulness from his Hewlett Packard products, To this end, mest Hewlett-Packard field offices Five customer service facilites for providing repair and maintenance at a fair price. Local repair facies are backed up by Regional Repair Centers, located in major industrial ares around tho Woill. A list of HP sales and fervice office is included following this section. IF you dlesite more information on any of the products in this appendix, plea retuen the request card which is enclosed. BLHP 3960 FEATURES TRUE PORTABILITY/ECONOMY in a 1/4-" tape track, 3speed,FM/Direct recorder REEL SIZE: standard S-or Finch, ‘TIME BASE EXPANSION or contraction by ether 16:1 of 10:1. TAPE SPEEDS are: any 3 of octal spoods 15/16 thrs 1Sips or decade speeds of 1.5, 3 and 15.ps REFINED OPEN LOOP tape drive with precise crystal reference speed control. EXCEPTIONALLY LOW FLUTTER, as exemplified by 44 db (158.1) FM signalto-oise rato at 15/1€-ps BIDIRECTIGNAL record and sepreduce. PEAK-READING METER. BUILTIN FM CALIBRATION and switchable Mater ‘compensation ELECTRONICS-10-ELECTRANICS mode, OPERATES from mott commos power soues: 115)280 VAC 48440 Hz or 12 or 38 VDC. HINGED CHASSIS for simglifial, quick mainte NO PERIODIC LUBRATION REQUIRED. COMPLETE LINS of sooessories salable, eer HP 3968 FEATURES ‘TRUE BCONOMY in a FM/Dinost recorder. REEL SUE: TIME BASE EXPANSION or contraction of up 10 32:1 ratio, TAPE SPEEDS are: 15/32, 15/36, 1-7/8, 3.3/4, 7/2, and 15. RENOTE CONTROL — All operating and speed selection controls, except power om-of® are contact clotre and TTL compatibe REFINED OPEN LOOP tape drive with precise crystal reference speed conto EXCEPTIONALLY LOW FLUTTER, as exemplified bby 40 d5(100:1) FM signal o-nose ratio at 15/32ps, BIDIRECTIONAL record and roproduce VOICE CHANNEL fo voke annotation on channel & PEAK-RZADING METER BUILTN DIRECT AND FM CALIBRATION and switchable Nutter compensation ELECTRONICS-T0-ELECTRONICS mode. ape, Stack, 6-speed, standatd See Pinch OPERATES from most common power sources: 115/230 VAC 48440 2 cx 12 of 28 VBC. HINGED CHASSIS fo simplified, quick maintenance, NO PERIODIC LUBRATION REQUIRED. (COMPLETE LINE of secasoresavllable, Ba