CHAPTER 2 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE TORQUE ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS 6. Salient Pole Torque Angle Characteristics. In Chapter 1 the relatively simple case of a synchronous machine with a tran- sient reactance which was assumed constant, regardless of the angular position of the armature reaction with respect to the rotor, was used for illustrating the elementary principles of a transient stability analysis. This may be called a case of zero transient saliency (x//x4 = 1.0) in contrast to synchronous (xq/xa # 1.0) and even sublransient (x%’/xi! # 1.0) saliency. This is equivalent to assuming that the direct and quadrature axis transient reactances are equal and that a slowly decaying component of rotor flux link- ages exists in the quadrature as well as in the direct axis. Actu- ally most of the rotor circuit flux linkages decay relatively rapidly except those supported by the main field winding which has a _ Fig. 2-1. Vector diagram of salient pole generator. (+, sf za with x, = x4) relatively low resistance compared to its inductance. Therefore, it is more correct to assume that only the main field winding flux linkages are constant during the transient period and to neglect the other more rapidly decaying flux linkages in the rotor except when subtransient effects must be considered. This section will show the relation between the steady state and transient torque angle char- acteristics of a generator having transient saliency when saturation is 22 GoogleSc. 6] SALIENT POLE 23 neglected. This analysis applies to both salient pole and cylindrical rotor generators. While the latter type has practically no syn- chronous saliency (Section 16, Volume I) both types have transient saliency. If there is only one main field winding, the direct axis main field winding, the vector diagram of Fig. 2-1 may be drawn to represent both the steady state field excitation voltage Ey as in Fig. 2-3, Volume I, and the quadrature axis voltage corresponding toa voltage generated by the flux linking the main field winding of the direct axis ej. Eg, is the voltage back of ixg. T (Per Unit Torque) 30 co} 90 120 150 180 3 (Electrica! Angular Displacement in Degrees) Fic. 2-2. Torque angle characteristics of salient pole generator connected directly to an infinite bus, machine initially at no load. (% = 0) It is evident from this diagram that if for sudden changes &, is constant, whereas E; is constant for slow changes, the transient torque characteristic i is similar to the steady State power character- istic except with 4 substituted for Ey and x4 for xa. Accordingly, we have from Eq. 2-11, Volume I, by replacing Ex by ¢ and xa by xj the transient torque angle characteristic, : 2 (xa — 0) T= sind + @ sin 26 [2-1] aa Figure 2:2 shows the ee state and transient torque angle char- acteristics of a salient pole generator initially at zero load connected SCONSIN Google24 MACHINE TORQUE ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS (Ca. 2 directly to an infinite bus. It will be noted that the peak of the steady state torque characteristic occurs at an angle less than 90 electrical degrees and that the peak of the transient torque angle characteristic occurs at greater than 90° because of the change in sign of the reluctance torque component, and with a much greater torque magnitude. This is evidenced in actual operation by a greater electrical stiffness to sudden changes than to slow changes under the condition of manual control of excitation or constant exciter voltage. 40 Infinite Bus eho 3.0 20 3 s 5 pee ° 30 60 ‘90 120 180 180, B (Electricat Angulor Displacement in Degrees) Fig. 2:3. Torque angle characteristics of salient pole generator connected directly to an infinite bus, machine initially loaded at unit power. (P. = 1.0) Figure 2-3 shows the same generator connected directly to an infinite bus of normal voltage but with an initial loading of 1.0 power at 96.6 power factor overexcited. This corresponds to an initial field excitation voltage of Ey = 1.589 and a voltage behind the direct axis transient reactance of ef = 1.136. It will be noted that the steady state and transient torque angle characteristics intersect at normal per unit torque T = 1.0, corresponding to the initial condition. If the angular displacements were to be suddenly changed, increased or decreased, the torque would follow the tran- sient characteristic, whereas if it were slowly changed it would follow the steady state characteristic, provided the excitation voltage was not changed. inal fr viatizea by (GOC igle‘Sec. 6] SALIENT POLE 25, In comparing Fig. 2-2 with Fig. 2-3 it will be noted that the maxi- mum magnitudes of the torque angle characteristics have increased because of the increased excitation required for operating under load and that increased excitation has increased the steady state torque a greater proportionate amount than the transient maximum torque. The transient torque angle characteristic with external reactance can be obtained in a similar manner from the corresponding steady state power equation. From Eq. 2-12, Volume I, by re- placing EZ, by ef and xa by x4 the transient characteristic is e2 (xt — x4) T =—— sini Bt mnt Or + mallee +a) Figures 2-4 and 2-5 show a comparison of the steady state and transient torque angle characteristics when connected to an infinite bus of normal voltage through an external reactance (x, = 0.5) sin 25 [2-2] 2.09) Infinite Bus erto = | ur 0s | 3 Tronsient = 1.0) | 5 i. = 3 es ay °o 30 60: 30 120 150 1980 & (Electrical Angulor Displacement in Degrees) Fic. 24. Torque angle characteristics of salient pole generator connected to an infinite bus through reactance, machine initially at no load. when initially at no load and when loaded at Py = 1.0 with normal terminal voltage. The initial loadings and excitations for Figs. 2-4 and 2-5 correspond to Figs. 2-2 and 2-3. It will be noted from a comparison of Figs. 2:2 and 2:4 and of 2:3 and 2:5 that the effect of external reactance is to lower the maximum transient torque relative to the steady state. oianzeo Google26 MACHINE TORQUE ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS [Cu. 2 The transient synchronizing torque coefficient can be obtained by differentiating Eq. 2-2 with respect to the angular displacement. This yields aT feo &lxt — x) — = 1 — cos 8 + | 08 28 [2-3 a Ota t tale tH) 23] At zero angular displacement and with ¢, = 2, corresponding to no initial current, Eq. 2-3 reduces to | dé xg +H (2-4) Equation 2-4 is independent of the direct axis transient reactance. Therefore, the synchronizing torque coefficient of a salient pole 20 Infinite Bus eri z Tronsient z é = g'o}~-~ é Deen + ° 30 720 150 180 B (Electrical Angulo Dispiecement in Degrees) Fi, 2:5. Torque angle characteristics of salient pole generator connected to an infinite bus through reactance, machine initially loaded at unit power. machine at zero initial current with negligible armature resistance is independent of the direct axis quantities. The slope of the steady state and transient torque angle characteristics are identical for this case.Sec. 7) CYLINDRICAL ROTOR 27 As was shown in Volume I, Eq. 2:14, for the steady state power angle characteristics the angular displacement for maximum tran- sient torque for the torque angle characteristic of Eq. 2-2 can be similarly determined from 8 = cos! (—Va? + 0.5 — a) [2-5] leq + 20) where a = dea(xh — 34) 7. Cylindrical Rotor Torque Angle Characteristics. The cylindri- cal rotor torque angle characteristics correspond to that of the salient Infinite T (Per unit Torque) Steody stote 60 90 20 B Electrical Angulor Displacement in Degrees) Fic, 2-6. Torque angle characteristics of a cylindrical rotor generator connected directly to an infinite bus, machine initially at no load. pole generator, except in this case xq = %g. Figures 2-6, 2-7, 2-8, and 2-9 are for conditions and constants identical to those of Figs. 2-2, 2:3, 24, and 2-5, respectively, except with x, = xg = 1.0 rather than xg = 0.6 and xg = 1.0. As shown by these figures, although there is no saliency effect shown by the steady state torque angle characteristics, a saliency effect exists for the transient torque angle characteristics (second harmonic of torque). SCONSIN Google28 MACHINE TORQUE ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS (Cu. 2 Infinite Bus eo 3 Steady State 1 Steody Siete | T (Per Unit Torque) ° 30 60 90) 20 150 180 B (Electrical Anguior Displacement in Degrees) Fic. 2-7. Torque angle characteristics of a cylindrical rotor generator connected directly to an infinite bus, machine initially loaded at unit power. 20 Transient 3 Fu 5 é state = ° 0 60 90 120 150 180 B (Electrica! angulor Displacement in Degrees) Fic, 2:8. Torque angle characteristics of a cylindrical rotor generator connected to an infinite bus through reactance, machine initially at no load. , GoogleSec. 8] SUBTRANSIENT EFFECTS AND FLUX DECAY 29 20, Posto Fo" L035 sotinine Se ev 492050 fF 01.0 oN," Transient o—-L | ba | 7 (Per Unit Torque) Po] \ t | I t \ i | 1 I ° 30 60 B (Electrical angutor 0} 20 150 180 locement in Degrees) Fic. 2-9. Torque angle characteristics of a cylindrical rotor generator connected to an infinite bus through reactance, machine initially loaded at unit power. 8. Subtransient Effects and Flux Decay. Although the effect of additional rotor circuits is usually neglected in a transient stability analysis, it is important that these effects be understood. Their effect is, in general, to produce a damping torque and therefore in this way to increase the transient stability. This can be illustrated by considering the performance of a generator with constant exciter voltage (no voltage regulator) connected to an infinite bus carrying the load as shown in Fig. 2:10(a), when one of the parallel lines is opened. Figure 2-10(5) is a vector diagram of the initial condition. Figure 2-11 shows the transient and steady state torque angle characteristics before and after one line is tripped out. Figure 2-12 is an expanded plot of a portion of Fig. 2-11 to illustrate the resulting torque angular oscillation when one of the two parallel lines is switched out. With the tripping out of one line the electrical torque drops from the initial value at point 0 to a value approaching that given by the transient curve with one line switched out. However, because of the subtransient or additional rotor circuits, the torque drops to point a only part of the way. As the angular displacement increases, because of the accelerating torque represented by the ordinate oa, currents are induced in the additional rotor circuits so as to produce a component of electrical torque which adds to the syn- chronous component. At point 6 the rotor velocity is a maximum. , Google30 MACHINE TORQUE ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS (Cu. 2 The rotor swings to point c so that the area bcc’ equals oab according to the equal area criterion (Section 4). As the rotor then decelerates, the rotor velocity or angular slip relative to the infinite bus voltage Xgt 10 Xq + 06 ep as (od Fic. 2-10. System diagram and conditions for torque angle characteristics of Figs, 2-11 and 2-12. 3.0 <4 Feo ren & "Froralent Bom lin in 5 a steady stote - Both 5 = SH. tines in. © i509] = Att al i Steody store - TS | ne ine out = 1 T ° i | ° 30 60 30 veo 150 180 B (Electrical Ang. jocement in Degrees) Fic. 2-11. Torque angle characteristics of salient pole generator connected through two parallel lines to an infinite bus. See Fig. 2-10. is negative so that the electrical torque due to the rotor motion changes sign and the electrical torque follows the curve as indicated by the arrow. Because of this component of torque developed as a , Google oNSec. 9] APPROXIMATE METHOD 31 result of the motion of the rotor, called damping torque, the area ce’d is less than bec’ so that the magnitude of the rotor oscillation decreases. In this way the oscillation is damped out and the path of motion is along a spiral until it finally comes to rest at 0' corre- sponding to the steady state torque. 3 a 2 5 B EpeT = i | 0.5. tL = pre eel r i Bo i 0 H 30 4 60 3 BXElactricol Anguldr Oisplocement in Oegrees) Fic, 2:12. Portion of Fig. 2:11 showing nature of oscillation from transient to steady state characteristics. The additional rotor circuits, amortisseur windings, or solid rotor circuits all tend to produce a damping torque which damps out the resulting oscillations following a disturbance. The decay of field flux, on the other hand, allows the rotor angular displacement to fall back to the steady state value, 0’. 9. Approximate Method. Although methods have been developed for taking into account the saliency effects, damping torques, rate of decay of flux linkage, speed change, ete., it is impractical to include all these effects for most stability studies. As a result, approximate methods have been developed and compared with more exact methods in order to arrive at a practical procedure for the usual study. One of these practical approximations is to assume the synchronous machine can be represented by a single reactance, its transient react- ance, and a single voltage behind that reactance. This in effect assumes that there is a main field winding in both the direct and quadrature axis such that x = x’. If this assumption is used, it is Google32 "MACHINE TORQUE ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS (Ca. 2 not necessary to calculate the actual angular displacement of the rotor but only the angle of this equivalent voltage or flux linkage behind the transient reactance. It will be shown in Section 24 that this in general results in slightly conservative limits compared with taking into account the saliency effect, and is an entirely reasonable approximation for most cases involving externa] impedance. 3.0, ey [ : de | 7 | i cr t : Teva Ch ewes 1] Z eee = or e was — TS = te fet tat tt [ale f ARK { Ci iz ° 4 o 30 60 30 120 150° 1890 B (Electrical Angulor Displacement in Degrees) Fic. 2-13. Comparison of transient torque angle characteristic of Fig. 2-11 with approximate torque angle, ae ‘ic neglecting transient saliency, xg = xy = 0.35. A comparison between the transient torque angle characteristic based on this assumption is made in Fig. 2:13 for the case discussed in Section 8, with one line switched out. As will be noted, there is very little difference between the two transient characteristics in the region which determines the oscillation. As will be shown later by Fig. 6-6, neglecting the saliency effect results in only a slight reduction in the transient stability limits. In conclusion, the saliency effect may be included using the two- reaction method of analysis or the saliency effect may be neglected and good accuracy obtained by using equations of the form of the general network equations, Eq. 1-6. For this latter case, transient reactance represents the synchronous machine, with a voltage behind that reactance representing its equivalent field flux linkages. REFERENCE 1. Synchronous Machines: III. Torque Angle Characteristics under Transient Conditions," by R. E. Donerty and C, A. Nick, A.1.E.E. Transactions, Vol, 46, 1927, pages 1-14. inal From UNICHAPTER 3 SYSTEM TORQUE ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS 10. Method of Analyzing Faults. In Chapter 2 the torque angle characteristics of synchronous machines were discussed and a rela- tively simple type of system disturbance was also analyzed, that of switching out one of two parallel lines connecting a synchronous machine to an infinite bus. The following is a discussion of a method used to analyze the phenomena which take place with the occurrence of a fault on one of the circuits and the switching out of the faulted line. There are in general four types of faults which may occur on a system: three-phase (3¢), double-line-to-ground (L-L-G), line- to-line (L-L), and line-to-ground (L-G). In analyzing a disturb- ance, or in predicting the stability performance of a system, these are the four types of faults usually considered. However, an actual fault may be any one of the above types, or a combination of them occur- ring simultaneously. Intinite rf Bus Porallel Circuits Fic. 3-1. To illustrate the method of analysis used to determine the stability of a system following the occurrence of a fault, the idealized system of Fig. 1-3, Chapter 1, will again be used. The fault will be assumed to be located on one of the parallel circuits over which power is being delivered to the infinite receiver system. See Fig. 3:1. In the ideal system chosen for study here, saturation and all resistances, including those which may exist in the are or fault circuit, are neglected. The power generated by the generator is all received at the infinite bus. The theory of symmetrical components! pro- vides a most valuable method for the determination of the phase sequence voltages and currents for unbalanced faults. At the point of fault an impedance (in the ideal case above, a reactance), called the fault impedance, is placed as shown in Fig. 3-2. 33 oianzeo GoogleaM SYSTEM TORQUE ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS (Cu. 3 The diagram of Fig. 3-2 is the phase sequence diagram for phase a. The upper portion is the positive phase sequence portion of the diagram, whereas x, is the negative and zero sequence diagrams lumped into one equivalent reactance. Any voltage measured between the zero potential plane and a point in the positive phase sequence diagram is the positive phase sequence voltage (Vg) in Phase Sequence Circuits Zero Potentio! Plane Fic. 3:2. phase a of that point. Also any current measured flowing by a point in the positive phase sequence diagram of phase a is the positive phase sequence current (J,) flowing past that point. If the magni- tude and angular relation between V, and J, are known, the power is readily determined in phase a as P = Vala cos @ where @ is the angle between V, and I,. Since the positive phase sequence component of the power is equal in all three phases, the total positive phase se- quence power is equal to 3V,J_ cos @ or in per unit simply Vala cos é. For the ideal case being discussed, in which there are no resistances, only positive phase sequence power is transferred. Later a more general case will be considered, where there exist both negative and zero sequence real power components (or losses since there are no generated negative or zero sequence voltages). For this case, there- fore, it is necessary only to determine Va and J, in order to deter- mine the electrical output of the generator. Determination of xz. In reference 1 it is shown that the complete phase sequence diagram for a three-phase fault can be drawn if at the point of fault a zero reactance is placed between the point of fault on the positive phase sequence diagram and the neutral plane » GoogleSec, 10) METHOD OF ANALYZING FAULTS 3 (x; = 0). For a line-to-line fault it is shown that the negative phase sequence diagram as viewed from the point of fault should be placed between the point of fault and the neutral plane. The lumped reactance of the negative phase sequence diagram is called x3. Therefore, for a line-to-line fault, x; = x2. Likewise, for a line-to- ground fault, xp = x2-+ x9. For a double-line-to-ground fault TABLE 31 Type of Fault xy 36 0 LL a LG w+ x0 LLG =o x2 + x0 xy = xg and xp in parallel or xy = xx9/x2 + x9. Table 3-1 sum- marizes these fault reactances, derived by the method of symmetrical components. The values of x2: and xo must be determined by looking from the point of fault into the system. That is, x2 and 9 are the reactances which limit the flow of negative and zero phase sequence currents caused by a negative and zero phase sequence voltage which is developed or is highest at the point of fault. ; Determination of Power Output of Generator. Assume the type of fault is known and x, has been determined for the system of Fig. 3-1. The diagram of the system as shown in Fig. 3-3(a) can now be drawn. The A abc can be transformed into a Y by a A to Y transformation (Section 11, Volume I). Figure 3-3(a) then reduces to that shown in Fig. 3-3(b). It is now only necessary to determine the voltages and the currents resulting from these voltages to determine the power output of the generator. Assume that during the first swing, constant voltage is maintained behind transient reactance of the generator. The reactance branch in the diagram of Fig.3-3 (8), x1, should therefore include the transient reactance of the generator. Figure 3-3(b) may then be redrawn with the voltages designated as E, and E, as shown in Fig. 3-3(c), where E; is the positive phase sequence voltage maintained behind transient reactance and E, is the voltage of the infinite bus. The power flow or torque between (1) and (2) is then determined from Eq. 1-6, which for the case of two machines, resistance neglected, yields 1E2 E, T= sin d12 [3-1] wz 0 Google36 SYSTEM TORQUE ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS (Cu. 3 where 7) = electrical torque of machine 1, E, = voltage maintained in machine 1 (in this case the voltage back of transient reactance), Ey = the voltage of machine 2 (in this case the voltage of the infinite bus), X12 = the transfer reactance between voltages E, and Ez (Eq. 1-16, Volume I), xi: =ntm+ xs 512 = 6, — 4g, the angular displacement between the voltages. E, and Ep. Infinite Bus Infinite Bus fe) Fie, 3-3, Equation 3-1 defines the transient torque angle characteristic of machine 1. After the torque angle characteristic of the generator has been determined its stability may be investigated for a particular fault and fault location. » GoogleSec. 10) METHOD OF ANALYZING FAULTS 37 ‘The following example will be worked out in detail. Example. Determine the torque angle characteristics of the generator of Problem 1-1, Chapter 1, for the four types of faults located at the center of ane of the transmission line circuits, Assume that the transformers at cither end of the 4210.15 cireuit are Y-A connected, solidly grounded on the high-voltage or Y side. Also assume that the generator negative phase sequence reactance is 0.18 (Fig. 3-4). 1, Determination of Initial Conditions, Since the initial generator terminal voltage (before the occurrence of the fault) is unity and the generator is g initially delivering normal or unit kva ae over the circuits, the initial voltage behind transient reactance and the load of the generator can be deter- , mined. a] is ince the infinite bus voltage is | _—_4 unity and the machine terminal volt- le age is unity, unity power factor must exist in the center of the line. Also Fic. 3:5. since the generator is delivering unit kva at unit voltage, the per unit current must be unity or 1.0. The vector diagram of Fig. 3-5 can therefore be drawn, where oe r=10 Ep J Ep = generator terminal voltage b2 = sin" ae = —8.63° 1,00, Therefore, the voltage at the center of the line = 1,0 cos 8.63" = 0.989, and 3, = 0,35 0.989 b1 — ba = 19.5° + 8.63° = 28.13" and Ex = V0.999? 4 0.35" = 1.05. Initial 0 X 1.0 X cos 8,63° = 0,989, Summarizing, we have Ey = 1.05 £2, = 10 By2anaany) = 28.13° P aitiany) = 0.989 2, Determination of xj. First it is necessary to determine x2 and x9 as viewed from the point of fault, tan~ = tan~' 0,354 = 19.5°. The initial angular displacement is 612 = power = El cos@ = INSIN « Google38 SYSTEM TORQUE ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS (Cu. 3 From the point of fault the reactance network as shown in Fig, 3-6(a) is pre- sented to the flow of negative phase sequence current. From the theory of sym- metrical components, the sources of generated positive phase sequence voltage, 40.08 Point of infinite Foult Bus Bronch 40.25 0.1 7 jos Zero Potential Lato Potential Zero Potential ) ro) «) Fic. 3-6, Reduction of negative sequence fault impedance. Ex and Ea, are points of zero negative phase sequence voltage. Figure 3:6(a) reduces to Fig. 3:6(5), by a A to Y transformation. Therefore, 0.30 x 0.15 m4 = 0.025 += = 0.125 shown on Fig. 3-6(c) xo may be determined ina similar manner. Since the fault is in the center of the line with similar YA transformers at either end, no zero phase sequence current ean flow in the unfaulted circuit. Therefore, the zero phase sequence reactance of the int of Fault JO.15 This Bronch Neglected = Becouse of Symmetry No Current Gon Flow in It. Zoro Potential (oy Zero Potential to) Fic, 37, Reduction of zero sequence fault impedance. line may be determined without considering the effect of mutual coupling with the other circuit. Methods for determining the zero sequence impedance are given in reference 2 when less ideal cases are considered and when it is necessary to consider the zero sequence mutual reactance. Assume for this case that the zero sequence reactance of the line is two times the positive phase sequence reactance of the line, INSIN 0 GoogleSec. 10) METHOD OF ANALYZING FAULTS 39 The zero phase sequence network is shown in Fig. 3-7, Therefore, _ 0.20 + 0.1 2 = 015 *o ‘The following tabulation of xy can now be made for the four different types of fault: Type of Fault xy 3e 0 LL 2 = 0.125 LG 2+ £9 = 0.275 ie 2x0 ¥p + 9 3. Determination of x12 for the different types of fault. The next step is to deter- mine the transfer reactances for the four different types of fault. The reactance 10.20 Infinite o>) Fic. 3-8. diagram of the system is as shown in Fig. 3-8(a). Figure 3:8 (a) can be simplified to Fig. 3:8(b). 1 = 0.35 we = 015 xa = 0.025 + xy *i2 = 0.35 + 0.15 duns ds 0.025 + x; Substituting in the value of x, in the above expression for the transfer reactance, we obtain the following tabulation. ¢ GoogleSYSTEM TORQUE ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS [Cu. 3 TABLE 3-2 Type of Fault xy x2 No fault — 2 lines in 3 0.50 36 0 2.60 LL . 0.125 0.85 L-G 0.275 0.675 L-L-G 0,068 1.065 No fault — 1 line in o 0.60 The torque angle characteristics may now be determined by substituting in the equation E.E; Tr = — sin 50 az where Ei = 1.05, Ea = 1.0, and x12 are given in the preceding table. Tronsient Torque Angie CChoracteristice Sa — 22 Betore Fault se [Foulty Line : Switened Out 2 |e rea ee aio 5 We Bie = 10) 7 g 5 * os -\-}-- é os avit 0.8 Se i oe eS 10 20 30 40 50 66 70 BO 90 [00 110 120 130 140 180 160 170 180 Angular Displacement in Degrees Fic, 3-9, Therefore, the equations for transient torque for the various conditions are: Tibetore fault) 2.10 sin di Tap tou 0.404 sin 312 Tart. tautty 1,235 sin 812 Tac muy = 1,556 sin b12 T(L-1-6 toute) = 0.986 sin d12 T(tautty line switched outy = 1.75 sin 52 Original from » Goc gle UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN‘Sec. 11] SWITCHING 41 On Fig. 3-9 is a plot of all the torque angle curves. It will be noted that the order of severity of the faults is 34, L-L-G, L-L, L-G, as would be expected. Problem 3+1. For what type of sustained faults is the system stable on the first swing of the generator rotor? Unstable? Problem 3-2. Is a fault in the center of the line as severe as one at either end of the line? Problem 3+3. Is there any advantage in low-tension rather than high-tension bussing for prolonged faults? Discuss briefly the advantages and disadvantages. Problem 3-4. Is there any advantage in having a high-inertia generator to increase the first swing transient stability limits for faults existing on a system for at least_the first swing of the generator rotor? 11. Switching. The system studied in Section 10 is unstable for the particular operating conditions assumed, if the faulty circuit is not cleared for the more severe faults (3¢, L-L-G); it is stable for the first swing of the generator rotors for the less severe faults (L-L, L-G) without clearing. Practical systems, as well as this ideal system, are seriously handicapped in the amount of power they can transmit through the more severe faults, if means are not provided for their prompt removal from the system. Circuit breakers and relays have been developed to reduce toa minimum the time required to disconnect a faulty circuit from the system. This section will develop the methods by which the switching time required to maintain stability on the first swing of the generator rotor may be determined for the ideal system (resistance neglected) of Fig. 3-1. The equal area criterion will again be employed to assist in the determination of the switching time. Consider, for example, the system studied in Section 10 when a 3¢ fault is applied at the center of one of the parallel circuits. The system is definitely unstable if the 3¢ fault is allowed to persist. However, if the fault is switched off simultaneously at both ends of the line (for example, when the angular displacement is 65°), the electrical torque output imme- diately increases from 0.37 to 1.6 and an appreciable restoring torque becomes effective. (Sce Fig. 3-10.) From the equal area criterion we know that the rotor velocity with respect to the infinite bus will be zero when the area a, equals the area dg. With the application of the fault, the rotor velocity will increase until the fault is removed. At e; the electrical output ex- ceeds the mechanical input and a decelerating torque, de, becomes effective. The forward rotor velocity above synchronous speed now begins to decrease until at point f this velocity is zero, At point f this velocity is zero, but the rotor has a decelerating torque fg acting oiatzeay Google42 SYSTEM TORQUE ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS [Ca. 3 uponit. This torque will cause the angular displacement of the rotor to decrease, and the rotor will oscillate about its new angular position of equilibrium h. It should be noted that h is a point of stable equilibrium; an angular displacement in either direction from this point develops a force which tends to return the rotor to its normal ‘Tronsient Torque Angle Chorocteristics < Ze No Foult Foulty Line ‘Switched Out AN Per Unit Torque or Power 38 Fault oes ° Ji ° 20 40 60 60 100) 120 140 160180 Angular Displocement in Degrees Fic. 3-10. Position. All the above is based on an ideal system and a generator which has constant flux linkages or voltage maintained behind tran- sient reactance. Actually, of course, the flux linkages or the voltage back of transient reactance will change during the disturbance. The magnitude of this variation and its effect are discussed in Chapter 7. By carrying the above analysis further, it is realized that there is an angular displacement for switching beyond which it is impossible to go if stability is to be maintained; whereas, if the switching off of the faulty circuit is accomplished before this angular displacement is reached, stability will be maintained. The time that it takes the rotor to swing to this critical angular displacement is the maximum time that the fault can be left on with stability. The procedure necessary to determine the maximum switching time for a given load condition requires two steps: first, the determi- oianzeo GoogleSec. 11] SWITCHING 43 nation of this critical switching angle, 6,, and, second, the time it takes the rotor to reach this angular displacement when the fault is'on. Determination of the Critical Switching Angle 5, (Resistance Neg- lected). The switching angle 8, can be determined graphically by plotting and by the use of a planimeter or it can be determined mathematically. The graphical method requires no explanation, it being only necessary to find the angle 6, at which the areas a, and ag are equal. (See Fig. 3-11.) ae 12 (before) ie eit on Ste 12 (otter) EE, o—eiR Te tauringy "Bie Fic. 3-11. The equation® for the critical switching angle 6, in radians is 3 = cos! [| 13-2] aE where (8s — 40) is expressed in radians (degrees multiplied by +/180) m= transfer reactance before the'fault: _ sisters) ae a = + transfer reactance during the fault ~ x12;during) transfer reactance before the fault __ x12(before) and = = se transfer reactance after fault cleared — x12¢after) Equation 3-2 can be derived as follows from Fig. 3-11. ‘The limit of stability is reached when a; = az or when the area of the rectangle abcd is equal to the area under the heavy curve. Expressed mathe- matically, the limit of stability is reached when m Eiliy (j= 85) aay - [2 aa ad 12(before) % %42(during) . 7 + [7 sin sas 13:3] *12(after)4 SYSTEM TORQUE ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS [Cu. 3 By dividing both sides of the equation by ExL2/xy2¢elor Eq. 33 becomes, be = X12 (before! - (8, — 80) sin d9 = Seeraee f sin 6d5 + %12(during) 44, Integrating Eq. 3:4, we have (dy — &) sindy = =2E? (—o0n 8, + ene Bo) *12 (during) Eiabetore) (_ cos 8/ ++ c08 8) [3-5] *12(after) Let xj2betore)/Xi2(during) = 71 AN Xi2Qbetore)/Nia(atter) = 72. There= fore, Eq. 3-5 becomes (8; — 89) sin 89 = (r2 — 14) cos 8, + 71 cos dy — rg c08 8, [3-6] Solving for cos 6,, the cosine of the switching angle, we obtain the following result: _ (6 = 69) sin 89 — 71 cos dy + ra cos 8 = ran cos 5, (3-7] from which Eq. 3-2 is obtained. Example. Determine the critical switching angle (,) for the stability limit of the example in Section 10. For this case, assume a 3¢ fault. 28.13 Kr bo = 28.13° = 72S radians = 0.491 radian «1 Tot zcater) = p= sin! Toa, us aia but sin 8 ‘sin =) rs | From Table 32, Therefore, 0.50 n= Foy = 092 50 ee ra = Tog = 0883 ay = 145.5"Sec, 11) SWITCHING 45 Substituting the above quantities in Eq. 3-2, we have eet (a = 0.491) sin 28.13° — 0.192 cos 28.13° + 0.833 cos uss") ais 0,833 — 0.192 = 80.1°, the maximum or critical switching angle for stability Determination of the Time Required to Reach the Angular Displace- ment 6,. In order to determine the time it takes the rotor to swing from the initial angular displacement 5g to 4,, it is necessary to solve the differential equation for the motion of the rotor while it is being acted upon by an accelerating torque equal to the difference between the mechanical torque input and the electrical torque output. Ta = Tm — Te where T, = accelerating torque, 7, = mechanical torque input, and T, = electrical torque output. The differential equation for the motion of the rotor from Eq. AI-7, Volume I, is af dP Tm — Ter (3-8] where f = frequency in cycles per second, t = time in seconds, 3 = electrical angular displacement, Tm = mechanical shaft torque in per unit, Tt electrical torque in per unit. where _ 0.231 WR? (rpm)? 10° H= Eva (bane) kw-sec per kva Accordingly the equation for the motion of a synchronous machine rotor connected to an infinite bus through a reactance tie can be expressed as follows: H d*62 E,\E, . ya =In— ig sin bi [3-9] Equation 3-9 may be integrated once to determine the angular sent : dé velocity as follows. By multiplying both sides of Eq. 3-9 by 2 ae we have H 2db,y d°,9 dba E\Ez . ) z cat Ey pad) eee 3-9) a ae 2 ai Pa a sin 619 [3-9(a)] ITY OF WISCONSIN Google46 SYSTEM TORQUE ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS (Ca. 3 or £ (Hay 24 a(r, Elen.) 5 (#2) =F at Tm Fe sin 619 [3-9(6)] Integrating, and taking the square root, we have for the angular velocity d9 Ed f wip T, dt Hi? No literal analytical solution of this bah exists. It is neces- sary, therefore, to resort to a step-by-step method or to use mechanical methods of integration such as a differential analyzer.t For the special case of constant acceleration torque, Eq. 3-8 yields for the angular velocity and angle, respectively: #2 (cos 5 — cos «) | 13-9(6)] dha Sp, , (de Be Ly 4 (Se ). B9@! and boo ey (2), 1+ bio 139) Equation 3-9(e) may be solved for time ¢ for the case of zero initial velocity, and we have 5; 6, 2H “ (ra = 8120) 2 conds [3-9(f)] afTo when the angular displacement is expressed in radians, and (612 — d19)H t= {age seconds [3-9(g)] when the angular displacement is in degrees. The per unit angular velocity or slip may be obtained from Eq. 3-9(d) by dividing by normal angular velocity (2zf). Then Eq. 3-9(d) becomes i 1diz_ Ta Tar =! att% (3:9(4)] Equations 3-9(g) and 3-9(h) are useful relations for the special cases of constant accelerating torque. A series of solutions of two machine problems have been worked out completely by mechanical integration and by step-by-step ¢ GoogleSec. 12] DERIVATION OF THE STEP-BY-STEP METHOD 47 methods so that it is possible by the use of the curves derived to determine the motion of one machine relative to another. The use of these curves will be explained in detail in Chapter 4. However, when more than two machines are involved or two machines with resistance included, it becomes necessary to use the step-by-step method of calculation. This method of calculation will therefore be derived and explained in detail for the simple case of one machine against an infinite bus. Fic, 3-12, 12, Derivation of the Step-by-Step Method.’ Consider the suc- cessive time intervals of a step-by-step calculation, n — 2, » — %, n—i,n—%,n, etc. See Fig. 3-12. bn = bn + Abnig [3-10] where 180 dé Abn, = — AL G) [3-11] = dt) mie The factor 180/x is necessary to express the increment of 6 in degrees, as dé/dt is expressed in electrical radians per second. At is in seconds. (d8/dé)n_1, is the velocity during the interval (n — 4), or ‘dé Ch) ‘ds. es . Gi (2, Bel From the equation Hd yan m — Te [3-13] Google48 SYSTEM TORQUE ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS [Cu. 3 where Tm = mechanical shaft torque and T, = electrical torque output, the following expression is obtained: a(2) - a2 (tm - 7.) [3414 And for the interval (n — 1), 8 At 4 (@) = SD Pamn — Ten] [3-15] Substituting Eq. 3-15 in 3:12, we have ds a6 Ataf G) Gg + tan — Tan] 6 But from Eq. 3-11, By _ Ab / Gi = “Fa0ar ea Substituting Eq. 3-17 in 3-16 and solving for Ad,_y,, we have 2 op a (“) 4 180fCasy Bh) 4 Fy Tm) — Tan-n] [3-18 An equation similar to Eq. 3-17 can be written for the rotor velocity during the interval (” — 3). ds 7 ABn—s5 G nu 180At [$9] Substituting Eq. 3-19 in 3-18, we have 180f(At)? Minis = Magy + OO rey — Teen] 1920 This equation is valid for any time interval but the first. This equation states that the incremental increase in angular dis- placement, Aé,_;,, is equal to the previous incremental increase Abn_g plus a constant times the accelerating torque of the previous interval. This constant, which is multiplied by the accelerating torque, we shall call the acceleration constant, k, 2 180f( at)? 7 [3-21] and is determined for a given time increment (Af), frequency (f), and inertia constant (ZZ). oianzeo GoogleSec. 12] DERIVATION OF THE STEP-BY-STEP METHOD 49 For the first interval, the following relation can be written: S) wia(e 3-22] Bau 2 Na). [3-23] or da ds a(=) =#2(F : Bs a be B28 Substituting Eq. 3-23 in 3-15, we have ) afAt a =n [Tmcn—1) — Toin—1)] [3-24] Substituting Eq. 3-17 in 3-24 and solving for A3,, we have 180f( at)? Adn_ag = wee [Tmen—1) — Tecn—v] [3-25] for the first interval. Equations 3-20 and 3-25 can be rewritten as follows: Abnyg = Abn—sg + &Tacn—y for any interval but the first [3-26] Any = ; Ta(n—1) for the first interval [3-27] where 180f (At)? k= H [3-28] and Tacn—1) = Tmin—1) — Te(n—1) [3-29] These equations make it possible to calculate the increase in angular displacement, A5,, when the preceding accelerating torque Tay is known. The use of these formulas in making a step-by-step calculation will be demonstrated by the following example. Determine the maximum switching time for the case under discussion in Sec- tion 11: a synchronous generator delivering power to an infinite bus, 3p fault in the center of one of the circuits. Assume H = 3.0. Data previously determined: Traits! pu) = 0.989 Tyctautt 00) .404 sin 5 Soctnitial anc) = = -28.13° Saiwwitching angtey ~ 80.1° ke 180 X f( at)? - H 0 Google50 SYSTEM TORQUE ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS (Cu. 3 Let At = 0.05 second (this has been found from experience to be a good time interval to use). __ 180 X 60. (0.05)? _ k 30 = 9.0 Table 3-3 contains the calculations necessary to determine the time it takes the rotor to swing from Jy to 8,, the maximum allowable switching time for this case. TABLE 3:3 Step-py-Ster CALcuLations *kTan—1) = 9.0Ta(n-1)| Abn = AB(n—38) + bTa(n—1) 3.593 |10.582 |17.036 |22.810 Bn = Beaty + ABn—H [28.13 {31.723 [42.305 |59.341 82.151 0.4715] 0.5258) 0.6731| 0.8602] 0.9906) 0.1905] 0.2124] 0.2719] 0.3475] 0.4002! 0.7985) 0.7766) 0.7171] 0.6415] 0.5888) sin dy Ts = 0.404 sin 8, Te(ny = 0.989 — T, * Except for the first interval. For the first interval, use #/2T, =4.5Ta. By interpolation the time to reach the critical switching angle of 80.1° is found to be 0.195 second. The critical switching time for stability on the first swing is therefore 0.195 second. In this chapter, the symmetrical component method of repre- senting a system fault on the positive sequence network and the determination of the critical switching angle and time have been illustrated for a simple idealized two-machine system without resistance. Chapter 4 will consider more general cases of two machine stability. Problem 35. Determine the required switching time for a double-line-to- ground fault (L-L-G) in the center of one of the circuits for the system discussed in Section 10, WR? = 40,000,000, rpm = 180, f = 60 cycle. Generator kva = 100,000, which was the base used for the determination of the circuit reactances. Assume simultaneous opening of the breakers at either end of the faulty circuit. REFERENCES 1. Circuit Analysis of A-C Power Systems, Vol. 1, Symmetrical and Related Com- ponents, by Evita Cuarxe, Chapter IV, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1943. 2. Chapter XI of reference 1. 3. “ System Stability as a Design Problem,” by R. H. Park and E. H. BANCKER, A.LE.E., Transactions, Vol. 48, 1929, pages 170-193. 4, “A New Differential Analyzer,” by H. P. Kugunt and H. A. Peterson, A.L.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 63, 1944, pages 221-228, 5. Appendix XII of reference 3. ¢ Google