Professional Documents
Culture Documents
*
*
arid of art
Bolton, Lancashire,
in
From 1950
until
in
and
at
1964
to Ife
until
Oxford.
and Archaeology
and from 1976
at
to
1990 was
He
is
Illinois,
Museum and
now Honorary
where he
the author of
Ife in
is
If
you would
like to
in all its
receive a complete
In
WC1V7QX
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to:
aspects.
list
Frank Willett
African Art
New
288
edition
illustrations,
78
in
color
Mask
Frontispiece:
April
1973
in
Kwango
river, in
it
was used
in
dances
for
entertainment.
at top of
(25
In
/? in.). In
a private collection.
memory of my
very good
taught
me
of African
who
first
my enjoyment
art by increasing my
to
deepen
understanding of
it
All
Rights Reserved.
may be reproduced
No
Willett
or transmitted in
any form or
permission
First
in
published
in
paperback
Inc.,
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in
Fifth
Avenue,
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York,
New
thamesandhudsonusa.com
Third edition
2003
ISBN 0-500-20364-4
and bound
in
in
1985 by
10110
York
Contents
Preface to the
Chapter
8
New
Edition
Introducing Africa
Chapter 2
26
The Development
42
Towards a History
of the
Study
of African Art
Chapter 3
of African Art
Chapter 4
no
African Architecture
Chapter 5
130
Chapter 6
150
Chapter 7
220
246
Recent Research: An
256
Notes
262
Bibliography
268
Acknowledgments
269
Index
Illustrated
Guide
New
Preface to the
Edition
This book grew from the author's dissatisfaction with the books
when he
available
Its
approach
first
seems to
still
Kerchache
et
fill
in
its
continuing relevance by
of African
it
1988, confirms
al.,
in 1966.
in
more
It is
art,
foundation stones of the subject over the last thirty years and so
pioneering studies
underlie
may
first
published.
still
These
valid
and
all
The
exponentially
further
is
reader
who
in
Monica Visona
referred to
et
al.,
Monni Adams,
do
in this
it is
possible
book.
NOTE
Bantu names are used
capital
in
prefix. In this
letter
However
in
common
use
is
few
used
cases
to
indicate
the
root,
and
BaKwele.
have employed
e.g.
prefix,
is
in
Chapter
Introducing Africa
There already
much
of
most
it
more valuable
The
dealing with the art of a single society or area. Books and articles
of this kind do not usually have wide distribution, and the general reader sees only
books
of the whole continent. Most of these share the major characterA Peoples
Fulan
Kilometres
istic
if
this vast
and
in
and
homogeneous
effect of
unit.
so
it is
'
art,
advisable to view
all
Its
them,
artists or
built into
the dangers
is
The 48
con-
is
it is
only
it
Its
mast al
immense distances
in
the-
densities below
at
in
(the-
arc-
feet) high,
and the flow of water over the Stanley Falls on the Congo, now
Zaire,
is
in
in
tural effect in
latter of
way
their
inland. Penetration of
came only
after the
Industrial
Revolution,
in operation,
cul-
little
to the coasts,
all
materials
kinds of com-
Western
society,
which are
its
are changing as they always have and so are their arts, which are
new values.
Some
which
there
commonly
is
is
is
never used
point),
and
in the
Horn
is
found, of
(the eastern-
The
scat-
(known
fact,
limited in extent.
word
in
most
is
as
quite
year),
we
through
name
implies
find the
a
its
On
dry
forest.
is
succession of savanna woodlands, which become savanna grasslands (known as the Sahel from Lake
desert areas are approached.
The
Chad westwards)
as the
in
10
Forest
""
Forest
>888
Savanna Woodlands
/Savanna Mosaic
H Montane
Mediterranean
''.'/.'
2.
of Africa.
belt.
of savanna
in
is
establishing pockets
now
230
in
BC the Sahara was open grassland, supporting as the rock art shows.
large herds ofcattle. At
human movement
all
than
two millennia
//
arc-
it
The
we
arc a long
is
unfortunately
to
soil
exposed
is
at
study of the
still at
such
able to draw
different times in
left in
the successive
man
in
their
environment
changes.
changes
Human
them
is
in climate, for
in
our
some
as the temperature or
is
very
many
is
used
in
in the
in
young men
germination and
Modern
at the
Africa
is
Bushmen
good harvest.
still
whose hunting
still live
their ancient
it
centuries
they have been pushed by neighbouring peoples into inhospitable areas, so that their present
reflects
some readjustment
mode
work
to
iron
The Pygmies
too,
who occupy
existence,
exchanging the
produce as well
;t
results of their
'
hunting
their livelihood.
tural
seem
of living probably
hunt
in
symbiotic
for agricul-
arrowheads
3.
Dance headdress,
in
the
who
the
spirit
chi wara
introduced agriculture to
Bambara
Bamana. These
or
headdresses, attached to a
in
of the
who
at the
time of
dance
in
Museum, London.
Ht79cm(3iy4
in.)
in their
Pygmies
gi\cs
for
in their
little
homes
are. therefore.
decoration
of their
homes
(in
contrast
to
the Native
6.
Mask
representing either
hawk used by a
organization called Do
a butterfly or a
religious
in
ceremonies asking
for fertility of
and
for rain
appear
in
great
first
swarms
rains,
Similarly the
is
when
burned ready
vegetation
for planting.
though these
shells used
way of
life
mean
that their
The
made
are attracted
tipi,
life is
both
in
societies."
York.
hunting peoples
the
(like
Metropolitan
of
on natural features -
The
places
where these
arts
been the centres to which these hunters returned time after time,
assembling
in large
of the young
groups
for
when
a regular
arts,
how
i.e.
on an agriculturally based
7.
Nabib
Bushmen
desert,
(5 /8
cm
in.)
ing arts
is
vessels.
high
Level, since
the art of
in
pastoralists too
when
itself"
express
group or
One
as rock shelters
and
peoples,
when
their
youths were
initiated, for
it
is
this regularly
16
migrant
Among
in
often
is
the main institution which expresses their unity and which also
demands
it
is
who
have produced most of the well-known sculpture of Africa, espeof the rain forest
cially those-
some of
crops, and
is
usually small
who occupy
people
the-
The
the-
all
so-called 'true-forest
the
of one-
among
of 'eastern
in
root
wood-
stature-, living
is
probably due to
One
tors
is
the-
community, which
permitted permanent settlements where major works of sculpture could be safely preserved and architecture developed which
in
purposes
suit all
is the-
a\ a liability
of timber
Where
like
its
'ordia
wooden
shows
wood-
the lighter
in
scale
varieties to
iroko (Chlorophora
like-
sculpture occurs
is
An examination of the
tomb
pillars
exceed
the w hole
group being
masks
median of
1965,
show
metres (with
range
a single
in size
whole continent
in
William Fagg,
example 75 centimetres
1
tall)
and
median
It
appears
17
wood
is
The
avail-
ability
institutions,
artistic
dependent on
this. It is
production
seems
in
to be in part
have given us some of the finest African sculpture for high productivity indicates sufficient commissions not only to keep the
gifted carver in practice but to enable
be sure
too.
it
also
means
has had
what
is
many
work
style.
To
he
in
abilities. It
is
full
development
in a district
18
of"
supporting
It
gave much of
its artistic
carvers could
he-
modern
rise
power
similarly
employed - and
employed -
fully
in
group would
There seems
woodlands.
It
seems
settled
is still
of the forest
obscure but
from
at least the-
second
the-
West
comes from
Nok
Africa. Precisely
in
in
ma
subt
rac tiv e
sculpture,
some
to
produce
normally
preclude an interest
arts.
in
fields.
decorative
in
University,
Hampton,
both
of
Hampton
Virginia.
19
Many
0.
African peoples
who do
and decorate
everyday
their
wooden
stool, inlaid
and brass
is
with copper
began
to
make such
tourists in the
pieces for
second quarter
of
Museum. Diameter 23 cm
known
(9
MaShona
for their
in.)
are
decorative
This one
was
collected at Umtali,
Htllcm(4 3/8
12.
Plastic art
(formerly better
BaRotse)
in
is
museum
basketwork
in.)
best represented
collections by
in their
gBSSl
characteristic
carve
on the
20
fflftT'
jffST
yfcffH.''
'XL**.
13.
(left)
Figure sculptures
seem
to
have been
produced by peoples
who have
thought
is
known
of
its
use.
been intended
British
cm
It
is
may have
for trade,
not use.
Museum, London. Ht 63
(24 3/4
in.)
MaKonde, who
mask for use by
produced
their
this
men's
who have
society, are a
group
to the
Wis.
London. Ht 25.5
cm (10
in.)
21
\ironment
influence
people to
v be
environments-
It
live
lated communities, in fear of the forest and of each other; that the
all
their
their
15,16. Bowl
in
the form of a
it
until
he sold
Coll. R.
P.
it
in
1953. Formerly
Armstrong. Ht
29 cm
(ll'Ain.)
spirits. In contrast,
with
and ceremonies to
a theoretical picture
expressing
how
artist,
This
is
and public
very
much
observed
facts.
(It
admiration
felt
by some
to be already civi-
and the relative contempt for those who retained their own
23
rc#
'f'-'lS
17.
representing a
who
of the
resting
dancer
Museum, London.
Ht (without the
122 cm (48
fibre
costume)
in.)
peoples with
logical
showing
in Zaire,
life
who
among
Drum from
the Baga,
in
///.
in
1 7.
the
demba mask,
This type of
ceremonies but
be
its
this
is
London. Ht 112
in
cm
funeral
in
unlikely to
Museum,
(44
most happily
some of
the
most
for example. In
drum has
the
seen
Colin Turnbull
model
ized as
Ife
as central-
fixed
their role
in.)
in
the ancestor cult and from their connection with the land.
Many
least,
officially at
though
On
continue as
art,
thecourt
the other hand Griaule points out that the Bambara, the
Kurumba and
the Baga*
all
3-5
17, 18
material; in the
life
tin-
much more
some
This
11
Poro society, well documented from Liberia but influential
also in Sierra
in its rites
abound
in isi,i82
museum collections.
25
Chapter 2
The
made
heritage of mankind
is its
ture
own
in
and refreshing
its
effect
is
tion.
yet
it,
of primitive
art',
There was
it is still
a concept
sometimes discussed
as a subdivision
a theory, derived
painting was the highest form of art and the latest to evolve
It
the
in
The word
basic sense
is
'primitive' of course
is
Protean
in its
meanings.
Its
none of these
primitive in
things,
its
is
is
art
it
would not be
art.
is
but
An
tify
attempt
is
art'
know what we mean by it' and that the various traditions share in
common a disrespect for naturalism in the proportions of the
human body. Art historians may think that they know what they
mean by the term, though they have failed to produce a working
definition; if we accept the disrespect for naturalistic proportions
19. Three figures, called bateba,
symptomatic, then
as
means
art should be
of
spirits (thila) to
obtain protection
Such
figures are
more commonly
British
London. Hts44.5
72 cm (28
3
(14 /4
in.)
/? in.)
cm
Museum,
(17'/2
and 37.5
lumped together as
'primitive
sense 'primary
painters
26
in time',
when they
art',
while the
in.),
cm
Moreover,art histo-
who
are in a certain
Even
as
27
re, in Paris,
It is
ing African, Oceanic and Native American art at the turn of the
The term
'primitive art'
concept it
is
who
it is
it is
a negative, not
hiental art,
it
(If
an ethnocentric definition.
is
own
art.
We
must say
drawn
African art
is
we know from
of
,+
The
on their
them by
American
modern
is
Africa
the earliest
fact,
- paintings and
is
much
less
ments
in
contemporary African
and graphics
in
many
part
>
of Africa, and
been
of
West
single sites.
It is still
we are learning
sculpture, so far
we shall
look at
when eventually
it
comes
to
be written.
In
number of
some w
it
at all.
in
the second half of the nineteenth century, a period w hen the idea
of
all
scientific thought.
<)\
In conse-
art.
was
through
Many
of those involved
whole.
The
first
discover^
Before these
whose
argument
This
line of
lea<
argument wa
ministic, materialistic
Western
art
forms.
Semper had no
syi
The
facts to su
StTUCted by extrapolation
tec
s\
geometric are
tc
difficult
Realism
in art
was exp
a gt
which led
strongly evolutionary in ch
of thought which was no
sis
theory',
>n
for
its
is
and building
known
as the
iddon"
.
studies
the
A.
all
museum which
classes of
all
diversity built to
rom
principal
II.
was
the last
The
forms.
geometric-
purely
to
to
is
udied was
all
man-made
The
>n
'survivals'.
still
On
work was
quite self-
their data
had to
/alue.
made
inferences
The
nen were
id its
is
same
the
this hypothetical
and sought
its
cal-theoretical study by
He
ions.
He
this
though
from
at the time,
reflected
grad-
by the
fact
Yet
is
in the
Worringer was
thoroughgoing evolutionist,
which
led logically
and inevitably
to naturalism so
all,
Afncan
natives'
and of
"artistic achieve-
purely ornamental
gifts in a
field.
who was
to
work was
North
a study of
it
major
Pacific
and reprinted
print;
The
influential
first
in his Primitive
in
is still
kept in
The rest
of this later book draws on work carried out under his direction
by
In this book,
since the
American Indian
more
to
ornament than
to
sculpture. Boas considered that art could not exist until the artist
skill to
in
this is true
He
practical application.
also
its effect.
was collected by
Northcote Thomas at Sabongida,
Benin
Its
went on
as if
it
Having made
to concentrate
on symbolic
art.
is
art
and
Cambridge University
of
Museum
Ht62cm(24 /2
I
its
Boas
meaning, almost
is
(Ills.
and
Edo-speaking
better-
art
as 'geometric' art).
kinds of art
that the
different societies. It
follows of course that form and content cannot be considered separately in studies of
in space,
we
in.)
call 'diffusion'.
Another
tioned, for
it
classic,
men-
is
is
its
One lesson from these early studies is still important; it is perfectly true that
31
22.
given
Vlaminck
who
Derain.
was seen
It
sold
it
to
Andre
also by
first
was
Vlaminck, but
it
appears
to
be the
not
certainly identifiable.
is
Musee
Ht48cm(1878
in.)
nomorphs' since
their
form
which we might
arises
'tech-
call
is
likely also
other media,
e.g.
in
is
strong possibility
upon another.
in
It
much
32
study than
a far
its
more
forerun-
employed throughout
but
less pretentious
is
Africa.
The author
is
it is
available.
is
some of
is
the judgments
made do not
as
in
the
last years
which
is
and even
knowledge
unnecessary for
is
knowledge
understanding
its
appreciation. In
its
to
other, for
and art
art history,
critics are
background of African
cultural
art
for,
after
integral
all,
which the
artist
is
an
At
first
regarded as
in
a childlike trait
from over-attention
taken
in
at
a shift
to details at the
sculptures.
the
to
left
the end."
One
tield
of the
first
anthropologists to
make
meaning -
i.e.
tions to
society to which
pursue
it
form has
this
are,
of course,
meaning only
for the
went on
Similarly,
in the practice
33
to carry conviction.
is
"-'
European culture
in
when European
1900,
ences, but
it
artists
its
mask
saw
make
He
were avid
distinctive impact.
One
piece
for
new
artistic experi-
is still
Maurice Vlaminck
bought
it
in
turn showed
The
bronzesmith.
it
and had
it
it
is
1905 or 1906.
in
began to
identifiable;
it
it.
22
when he
to Picasso
Ambroise
revolution
under way.
Many
artists
first
encoun-
'les
masques
opened
new horizon
for me').
This
is
Leiris's
is
recommended
European
apartment
Michel
his
Laude (1968);
many
to see the
les
1984).
works which
Musee de l'Homme
to read
of these artists
in
33
more than
average quality but their interest led others, not only practising
artists, to a
An
judging any
tural
of the
is
valid
enough
first to
background was
is vital.
in its social
and cul-
34
in
One
to me?'
artist's
fullest possible
mean
it
He
in
190
modern Europe,
is
own
to express his
He goes on
probably responsible for the fact that for a long time no one bothered to ask the names of
only
eties,
artists.
As
known
is
the
artist,
become
will
in a
great
many
African soci-
at
five
that of psychoanalysis,
though he began
as an art historian. In
Plastik, I
Die
West
ond
literature.
This
is
in
1954
(In the
ingas
Kingdoms
it is, is
trip,
of the
/;;/
in
no more- than
travelogue
and
Negro
Sculpture),
Copenhagen, 1935-38);
(Antwerp, 1946);" and
(New York,
in
M.
F.
P. S.
four
collec-
Kjersmeier,
volumes
(Paris
and
1950).
aspects
worked
museum
of
African
was published
(ed.
monument of
The sec-
posthumously
this
is
and
F.
M.
made by two of
Boas's
and
artists in Africa:
James Fernandez.
A. Maesen,
field.
P. J.
L.
W.
Similarly, Olbrechts
encouraged
to
his pupils
work
in the
Dogon
in 1931, 1935,
visits.
His pupils
who accompanied
J.
P.
35
Independently
F.
H.
Lem
1933 and
did field-work
in
later)
and
his
in
by these
the field
later.
Anne Docquet,
negre)
193
in
\\
African art
ith
at
(I'art
in Paris as
had
study of the
Dogon masks,
1938,
is
exemplary
in its
His
thorough-
fell in
water supply and lobbied the French government for the benefit
of Africans as a whole. His method, however, was his undoing as
all
small town of Sanga, to spend time with him at his house answer-
had to
stop.
in
to its renewal.
interested in the
to
mythology
call "la
the simple
all
enquir-
in their enquiries,
difficult to
our
eagerness
an
for
and that
it
is
instance to
They appreci-
level.
which
understanding
earlier
more important
to us than
anything else..
36
lin-
we
knew nothing of it at
failed to find
teric information.
proper
myth,
creation
neither
that the
Dogon know no
by
given
version
the
in
Ogotemmeli nor
death
work, Le Renardpale,
in their joint
965.
Many of Griaule's
double
is
star,
astronomy
is
of very
unaware
little
importance
that Sirius
Nommo
all
Dogon
star.
is
and
religion
He
also states
is
nor
us,
in
double
is
in
Dogon
Ogotemmeli appears
new information
to
P.
my
in
late
colleague Ronald
conversation with
me
Cohen
to
Thomas
as 'the Saint
in
Dr
R. E. Bradbury,
who
him whether the people of Benin associated the right hand with
left
with
evil.
it.
Bradbury
She
said that he
it is
deep knowl-
You have
to press
layers of
the information.
similar methods.
It is
on
dents collect
a plan based
among
the
that, for
example,
Cameroun
Dogon any
laid
out
his stu-
37
Iii
luseum
in
the
field in
He worked
especially in Nigeria
where
later
Nok
the
we know
outside
and Forms
in African
Art (Paris,
Fagg's work
Murray, the
in
first
Nigeria
owed
Kenneth
a debt to that of
whose researches
results of
36
Museum
Murray worked
in
Lagos.
An
and art
artist
in
1943
Congo Basin.
now almost a sine qua
Work
non,
and
very few writers' views on African art are taken seriously unless
they are rooted
valuable
Some books
do, however,
draw
this
is
carefully
and
critically
utilizes
on
of
especially in
unpublished as well as
is
heavily
23.
(left
in
Ketu,
24.
be used
to
Ooni
of Ife in
1938. The
interlace
in
may
shrines or simply
Modakeke,
was
128 cm
(50'/2 in.)x58.5cm(23in.)
ture in Benin
Museum,
(58
in.)
(Dahomey). National
Ife.
Right:
Ht
Left:
152.5
147 cm
cm
(60
in.)
collected
National
in
Museum,
Ife.
Ife.
39
museum
collections
with Griaule
among
(who worked
is
the
African
though unfortunately
the-
is
organized
aits of the
attempt
to discuss the
whole of African
all
The
art
Delange)
has,
et
very
The author of
however, published
a fuller
book Arts
The
arts.
in
her
have men-
tioned earlier.
and the
'art
produced
it,
it
is
a classi-
in
which belongs
in
category.
The
sculptures of the
egungitn,
which are
54
directed both at ensuring that the ancestors will rest in peace and
at
sculptured doors on palaces and houses are intended for the glorification of their
for the
honour of the
spirits
worshipped
it
there.
in
shrines are
Without informa-
statements on African
I
art,
initial
data
are draw n are of uneven quality and are often silent about certain
aspects of the societies. In principle, correlations are sought
between
in
artistic characteristics
23.24
it is
For
which had
king
not
argument on
a priori
and
pp.
1415 by showing
fixity
little
somehow
'that
lower - we
know
relatively
This approach
in Africa.
is
patrons of art
both nucleation
among
is in its
the principal
it
points the
way
to
further investigation/
Progress
is,
numbers of detailed
this
is
of the art are being supplanted daily Fortunately, anthropologists already orientated tow aids field-work by their discipline
are
art in
and more
in
the
fit-Id
which, superficially
at least,
more
undertaking studies
Ins
me
understand African
The success
of Art
al.,
one of
if
we
be
are to
in Africa
(Visona et
art
that
his students to
may
be judged from
A History
2000).
It
its title, it
number of societies.
41
Chapter 3
if it
were
and
static
it
although the rate of change has varied from time to time and
from place to
place.
Ife lasted
shows an
styles
essentially unaltered
it is
richly varied,
of the several
sculptors
whereas
at
moderate naturalism to
a considerable
from
be demonstrated.
is
available
from
a vari-
The main
come from
European ones.
Mozambique as
72 1, and the first mention was made of Bushman paint-
unknown
752,
43
in
until de Sautuola's
daughter looked up
The engravings
Oran
in 1847;
\\
ere
at the
of North
Army officers
arrows.
When
the great
Timbuktu
in 1850,
all
in
the Fezzan.
it is
now
clear
They
are not
been employed
ij
in
in
all
theTassili."
1000 Mi les
l
1000
25.
Map showing
mentioned
in
the
places
text.
Kilometres
is,
style overlaps
The
any given
series of
engravings or paint-
is
drawing
in
one
now extinct in
known
as Bubalus
43
'}':.
im<i
J:
in
either the
Period. Ht
20 cm
(8
Bubalus or the
17.8
cm
Oke
in
Akure
State,
Nigeria.
pecked
into the
from the
a fish
left
and
is
its
now
in.)
at Igbara
antiquus
cate
Cattle
(7 in.) to
age
"^.r:..
wmm
V:
Bardai
appears
to represent
66 cm (26
in.) long.
still
found
(a
still
in the
large-horned sheep).
human beings
The weapons
made
ings,
which
it is
a reliable indication,
is
however, for
is
not
at all
more
heavily patinated
where
they have been exposed to the sun than are the parts on the shady
side of the rock.
to distinguish
spondence
has
been
established
between
these
in
and
it
the
would
simultaneous
use.
However
ences
the condition
in
of engravings
with environmental
More promising
is
only
//
The
hunting way of
earliest reflects a
animals as
in part
the extinct
life,
is
on that of their
subdivided.
The
wild
buffalo
drawn
detail: the
at
in
humans
inches long;
armed with
are
and formerly
'the
art.
is
The
This
animals
Hunter
have caused
cattle
shown, per-
cattle are
phase of the
in a naturalistic
Wadi Djerat
men
late transitional
is
tall);
the
this latter
term
to be
on quite
Period
in
late,
lie
Cattle Period'paintings.
less attention
cattle.
The
is
paid to details,
is
rather
perspective',
style
is
frontally,
when
twisted
in
is
drawn
The earliest
is
is
stiff;
in profile.
between forty-six
ally
in
in length.
the
i.e.
The
mostly
four feet)
The elephant
is
occasion-
increasingly
V
V
\V
*
jfeL
Archaic
appear
style
on
it,
to
be superimposed
it
is
sequence
studies of rock
in this style in
art.
was covered by
was
to the fifth
painted
first.
of establishing
The
difficulty
such relationships
Ht
Tassili,
a deposit dated
millennium bc
99 cm (39
Id
in all
A painting
in.)
represented.
29. Stone figure at Eshure,
Ekiti,
North-eastern Yorubaland.
The trunk
is
at
Ife,
to
sculptures at Eshure
related.
It
is
two
chariots
are
still
triangles.
size
is
and knife continue, while bows are also represented, but the
choice of weapons seems to reflect local preferences in different
areas. In all areas,
dresses,
time
in.)
in
at this
(42
probably
Ht
few
of
107 cm
covered with
style
reflects the
though
horse-riding,
to
the introduction of
shown, but
style coarsens,
still
found.
cattle
though some
The drawings
one cm (seven
fine semi-naturalistic
drawings are
to sixteen inches).
is
Latest,
owners
but
its
ing.
still
represent
it
humped
is
occasionally found,
still
stirrups
The style
is
of human figure gives way to even simpler linear forms, and the
later
first
twenty
the spear
supplemented by
This general
in
At
the-
is
the only
cm
(six
as a basic guide
A more detailed
framework, however,
more numerous
styles of
at all
they must be
1957,
most spectacularly
to
fit
in
in the
1956 to
into the
same
of paint-
47
numbers,
ously
in artistic
known
The
paintings
been distinguished,
in
many
all
the previ-
der,
sometimes known
as the Archaic
Period there was considerable use of symbols, and also masks are
represented which appear to resemble West African ones of the
present time.
the earliest
first
It
known
the head
art
by black Africans.
featureless, as
is
it
is
It is
for
interesting that at
example on
a stone
later.
map
all
The whole
uncommon
made by
a variety of
Homo
with
its
tanged
The
Aterian complex
is
less
abun-
human
Age
for
cattle-raising
excavation
in
the Sahara
is
this, for
because of the lack of water, and cattle bones have been excavated
from
occupation
deposits
of the
moved
period.
Gradually
masked dancer
30. Figure of a
at
Inaouanrhat,
Tassili.
of
masks alone
Tassili sites.
It
There
are paintings of
several of the
in
is
natural to
wonder
whether
painters
some
of the
of
mask-using peoples
though
c.
79 cm (31
in.)
How
The major
demonstrating
positive connection
difficulty
is
that of
we may
The
is
few
human
it is
49
from the
art.
Ouan Bender.
this.
L'Abri Lancusi
in
cattle
Tassili, has
in the
Tadrart Acacus
millennium BC with
cattle.
The
when
still
which
BC,
Titerast-n'-Elias no.
3, for
on the walls and there were bones of cattle round the hearth
These dated
levels
as a
itself,
from
JO
8.
its
One
attempt
lias
The
walls,
cover-
resulting radiocarbon
date of 300
200 BC
itself. It will
much
too
destroys the
it
made with
tions to be
first
millennium
seems
to
have
it
BC. In the
Hoggar, as we have
in
the middle
may be
Where the round-headed
late as this.
The cattle
life,
and with
cattle,
4O00
bc;
it
from the
also
\\
ritings
ings seem to reflect Cretan influence not only in the style of the
drawings (such
as the
came
Sea'
as allies of the
at
this time.
In the next
cation
made
life
difficult for
horse-owners but
subject of the latest phase of the Saharan rock art, but the
is still
disputed.
It
by Roman times, and may have been introduced about 700 BC.
Painting and engraving appear to
different traditions, for not a single
reflect, in
engraving
is
part at least,
found on
is
sites
plenty of
51
Human
suitable rock.
in
paintings, whereas
commonly
in
meaningful
It is
introduced by pastoralists,
known)
these
in
three
different
reflect
suggest
areas
common
- southern
in
although
that
the
ideas.
race,
Capsian layer
in
since an
southern
in
The
paintings of
men
Cro-Magnon
type.
which remind us
in
a general
from the
way of masks
still
used
in
Tassili,
archaeologist.
The
art;
like the
is
hair,
who nowadays
Cameroun Grasslands
to Senegal.
in
It is
The
the Middle
in this
painted the cattle scenes in the Tassili, but the weight of the
evidence
more
at
detailed
present
is
not
sufficient
to
prove
this.
With
we
shall
to
make
this assertion
confidence.
To
The horn
of
terracotta moufflon at
Tamar
32.
Tazarift, Tassili.
neck and
its
in its
mouth.
vary between
and 35.5
cm
5.3
(14
cm
(6
in.) in
in.)
height.
in
There
Saharan
tion
art. It
was
(),()()()
at
BC.
it
can
slides
and
initiation rites.
Subsequentlv
it
"'
in
Europe
This investigation
is still
as
into Late
being continued by
south-western Namibia.
"
1 1
in
other parts of
53
cm
fifteen
were excavated. They bore paintThe site has been very thoroughly dated
by a suite of 39 radiocarbon
around
'2.5,500 to
industry.
dates, three
art mobilier. In
Europe,
both rock paintings and art mobilier carved on bone and ivory are
far
more
is
it
may
One
an
in
as old in Africa as
anywhere
humankind appears
is
may
well be
ings are
commonly referred
to as
Bushman
or three horn
some years
killed
from
earlier,
who wore
The
Bushmen from
Bushman
is
seen as a
Bushmen, suggests
the light of
is
the
quarry of the
made by
in
in
beliefs
who went
communal
dances. This
is
Anne Solomon
55,
myths are
that the
52, 1997, to
sufficient to
same journal
in
2000
how
in
in
in
attendant interest
its
in
it all is
indeed
is
e\
were
It
it
is
somewhat resembles
it
cry end
of the
in style;
however, seems
although
at
Apollo
The
gins.
be largely derived
to
Cave show
first
that
Bushman'
art has
Abbe
Breuil claimed
without any direct evidence had been used for making the paint-
Windhoek region of
The Chifubwa stream shelter in
Zambia
lines,
is
).
down
some traces
found
in the deposit,
5 10
at
sterile
I,
was
sand which
Nachikufu
itself
run from
we cannot be
so that
\\
as
at
date of AD 770
100 (Gxe-
in a
ralistic
'
motif's.
Stone Age N.
granite,
J.
still
Western Zimbabwe.
in
in
is
been introduced more than 2,000 years ago. Thus we may regard
it
antiquity,
to the last
two
essentially of a
The
Late Stone Age
centuries.
art
and the
type, but so
is
of considerable
it is all
to be dated
life it
depicts are
economy itself.
It is
both
in style
at the
paintings and the southern African ones. That the other rock
show
arts
they
lie
little
conclusion which
exists, a
may
Africa, has
s<
chronology
\\
for
the paintings, with the exception, however, of the cattle and fat-
tailed sheep,
ings, often
scarcely visible.
The
earliest
of simple engrav-
the
art
recognizably
56
is
moreorless
modern
naturalistic
subject-matter.
The
and
there
is
no
less carefully
monies, raids and battles. In the early phase of this period the
different populations
seem
stant struggle.
is
It
(tall stature,
Bushmen
with ornaments on the arms and legs and armed with spears and
shields)
Many
art.
horses).
The Abbe
some
subjects as
beads
in
fact
like
in
amount
southern Africa,
The
stimulated
areas and
numerous
In some- areas
it
local style
many
as seventeen
rence
in
shown
'
though more
monochrome
paintings precede
monochrome
style
two
i.e.
The polychrome
paintings belong either just before or just after this divide; the
Bushmen were
57
Cavern, Site
1.
Drakensberg,
Africa.
than 5
cm
is
apparently about
Each painting
is
less
(2 in.) long.
Namibia,
is
a dark-skinned male
Htc.
38cm(15in.)
58
Bushman hunting
of
sition
of
and
figures
an
understanding
of
Cape
W. 66
cm
(26
and Bleek)
in.) (After
Stow
foreshortening. Sometimes
mal heads.
It
human
figures are
shown with
ani-
such disguises
elsewhere
is
well documented
in Africa.
One
among
the
Bushmen and
Bushman
bow
in his
hand, while
in
However Garlake
is
mere
Zimbabwe
well-drawn human figures with animal heads are not armed but
is
less well
known
than that
in
to detail; then
Human
in
Uganda, occur
era; but
eral
Ugandan
it
seems
centuries
if
not millennia.
latest
phase
ofwhite figures crudely daubed over the others. These are cer-
motorcar.
60
one example
in
Mbafu
in
the
an area where
is
late fifteenth
chiefs
when they
sit in
century
become
judgment. The
cross and a
XP
on
a platform
the consecration of
first
Don
and stands
group of fig-
do
commemorate
Thus
is
a pectoral cross
There
is
much more
life
of the people up
Lower Congo
is
reflected in this
BaKongo
in
to represent a
European dress,
man
sitting
above
woman. Manchester
Museum (Forrester- Warden
collection). L. 43.5 cm (17y8 in.)
a kneeling
in
1518. Ht 33
61
woman
bent) in her
hand. This
left
of the largest
is
which
it
is
It is
one
Ancient Sculpture
art
we have been discussing is, for the most part, outside the area
of distribution of sculpture.
It
seems
in paint
and
line,
in
sixteenth century. Ht
the early
115.5cm
is
(A5V2
the evi-
in.)
still
art
we
in
39.
One
of a
in
group
of cast
if not
Wood
sculpture,
chiefly terracotta
vessels
were practically
bronze
Museum, Lagos.
L. c.
15.3
cm
(6 in.)
40. A
number
of bronze-casting
hippopotamus
is
to
Nigeria. This
of a
at Ikot
Enyong Division
River State.
Two
one
Ndemeno
of the Cross
related pieces
L 21.5cm(8 /2
1
in.)
63
27
many
parts of Africa,
in
West
.Africa
we have been
fortunate in
:*3:
z-s-
Z'~'5~
Z-"
-r
:.
'r
\?r
-;
-:
.'.i>
Z-5
-.-
~g rzcce
="C T<~
'ZV5
:--.:-
:.-:ci
*.
I". Z_
'
first
came
c.
to light in tin-
".=;
Z'-'r
t .'f~
"f - _~~i~2"
2-
.'.
.-
Z"
i:L
Z"
5
Vjjc---
04
;".
-lirmj
Z:.Z
I-
"'Z_5"
f'5
r E-f'"
5.5
I"
ZS "Z'.-C
":"
:~
'
ZZ.Z
5 I'Zf
i-r''
Z r-Zf
5
"Z-~rZZ
Zi
'
E'f-
:"
"f
"ZZiV' Z"~_.
~"
3
'
~'z
-: :~
200
Z'-Z
-Z'-C'Z-
z"
_Zv,f
'
Z"
'
"f
from the
"
5
:~
the culture has been found at Taruga, where there had been an
t I
"
43
Fragment
of the face of a
The treatment
of the
mouth as
which
projecting block in
details
during the
last
Museum,
Jos. Ht
16 cm
(6'/4 in.)
Charcoal sealed
in
which Nok
in
440 140 BC
a different
is
large
number of thermo-
Luminescence dates
\i>
a plastic
to
medium
is
The
is
carved by
between
date
500.
initial
medium
more
wood carving tends
towards cubistic representation. A few of the Nok sculptures
show basic forms which would be more expected in wood: the
mouth or beard forms a block projecting from the face, incised
lines often mark the teeth and the edges of the lip. It appears that
tive technique.
plastic
of clay appears to be
the
Nok
wood
sculpture which
is
unknown
how
far
to us since
no carved wood of
in the area,
it is
natural
65
at
Nok,
The
in
characteristic
Nok
sculptures from
Museum,
Jos. Ht
21
of
the
National
cm
(8
Gelede society
in
Ife.
/. in.)
of the
Meko
in
western
the
community by
entertaining
entertainment value of
is
dancer's face
is
visible
below the
makes
effective
use of imported
plastic materials.
to
reflect
which are
Tassili paintings,
might not
figures,
The Nok
inches) up to 120
It is difficult
cm
(four
to establish
the exact size of the larger pieces since they only survive incomplete.
We
thirty-five
cm
if the
human
is
in scale; the
or conical
in a
in
is
way as tubes
usually cylin-
lid
forming
segment of
66
is
length
drical, spherical,
which
full
trils
itself
Nok
lid
usually
a circle,
which
67
the lower
Lid
is
The form
of the eye
is
the
in
stylistic feature,
is a
is
worn on
top of the head like a cap and the wearer looks out from between
the clothing below the mask, as
is
may be seen in
15.
///.
So far there
so this
in a stylized
although both share the same kind of eye. Himmelheber was told
by
that
human
face so
Nok
were
more or
human
figures
less naturalistic
is
found
the
in
it
the cul-
connection,
6fi
Leone
(pp.
92-93). H7 Again,
commonly found
legs - are seen in
in
the
African sculpture
the small
Nok
figures
in
Nok
Nok
among
the small
culture were
making
in
or
terracotta
sculpture until very recently, for example the Tiv, the Dakakari
different, these
tradition
going back
Nok
fill
culture in the
fifth
time
single pos-
68
in
century ad and
sites
near Zaria.
first
fiK
There
is,
many
features in
common
style.
This
the art of
is
the city of Ife, the religious, and earlier the political capital of the
human and
when
this there
right through
is,
is
ani-
of extreme
in,
for 46.47
Yemoo
in Ife indicate
The two
other groups of
4a
is
while Garlake's
Another
Iff
Nok
cm
It
should be
older they
cupied
at
may
produced
a little
site in Ife
was
when
a similar date,
later
the date
deposited, not
have been
is
showing
that
at a
we have no evidence
culture, although
in
Ife
at
at
this
early
[gbo-Ukwu
Moreover,
Anambra
State,
tal
Although the
ferent
from
art style
those
of
the
Ife,
fact
that
brilliantly
skilful
metalwork, both cast and forged, was being made from locally
casting at
Ife.
little
is
Ife sculptures,
a cultural
and an
artistic
connec-
obscure.
know
in the
artistic traditions
we
life size.
The frag-
in
their
hems of wrappers
69
51.52
46.
Mask
copper
in
which
Ife
piece
was
art
is
best
known. This
clearly intended to
worn, perhaps
of a king of
Ife.
in
It
is
said always to
palace,
is
it
known
Ife
the town.
in
the
in
long
for a
be
metalIt
was thought
Obalufon
who
to represent
is
supposed
National
Museum,
Ife.
Ht
have
to
Ife.
33 cm
(Bin.)
47. A group of highly stylized
of Ife
in
an intensely
naturalistic
shows
a blend of a conical
left
head
naturalistic
Museum,
Ife.
cm (5 in.), 19 cm
(7'/2 in.), 16.5cm(6 /2 in.),
16cm(6 3/8 in.)
Hts 13
70
48. Figure
of Ife
in
found
brass of an Ooni
at Ita
Yemoo in 1958.
showed
contemporary terracotta
sculptures
in
larger in size
Museum,
Ife.
Ht46.5cm(18 3/8
in.)
National
71
sometimes
is
on
set
a globular
very similar
is
of course,
is
which
is
is
in disease
and deformit v.
may
also
as
though
there
Ife
naturalism.
Nok
sculpture
is
human
Ife
human
both
some
Presumably
a
change
in the
philosophy of the
towards naturalism
Ife
reflects
One
of a large
of sculptures
number
human face.
excavated by the
Ife.
These
appear
to
number of sculptures which show an increasing degree of stylization in the representation of the human face - the eyes begin
be of nineteenth-
developed Yoruba
Museum,
it is
Ife.
in
style.
Ht 24
a fully
National
cm (9V2
in.)
forms
is
ear.
These
sculpture
it is
modern Yoruba
sculpture.
Classical Period
Ife,
in
its
limit as a hemisphere, a
well. Sculptures of
72
at
some
we can
call
antiquity
may
be found
is
the Palace
as
styl-
revealed a nineteenth-century
still
Ife
In
Ife,
though here
it
is
in
modern
as
use,
usually a case of
among
it.
Modakeke
fine terracotta
sec-
heads
Among
which they
They were carved by an earlier and differwho occupied the same territory, but their
call tellem.
adorned
large
use.
use in the
seems to be ancestral
to that of the
Dogon.
fragment of
one was subjected to the radiocarbon test and found to date from
1470 150 ad (Sa-61), roughly to the time of the
earliest
Museum, London.
Ht49.5cm(19y2in.)
British
73
51
Bronze
by Thurstan
Shaw
at
Igbo-Ukwu,
Nigeria.
site are
stand excavated
altar
this
openwork panels
and
spiders.
featuring snakes
National
Museum,
Ht30cm(ll 3/4
52.
Many
of the
Lagos.
in.)
bronzes from
upwards and
ceremonial
Museum,
5
(6 /8
in.)
staff.
is
thought
of a
National
Lagos. Ht 17
cm
by gold-miners
Stream,
flat
in
protrusive lips
ears indicate
position
style of
that of
its
and
between the
ancient
Ife
naturalistic
sculpture and
Htl9.5cm(7 3/4
54. An
stylized
intermediate
Mokuro
the
Ife.
Museum,
in.)
egungun head-dress in
wooden disc with
the form of a
partly
a cloth
human head
central sculpture of a
mass
wrapping.
It
is
covered by
terracotta
attached to
be seen) -
it
it
is
all
can
natural to associate
whom
society celebrates.
in
It
Egungun
was in use
the
the
late
it
on the Western
art market.
75
travels.
crafts.
in
the eco-
rarely to have
Among
in
the
first art-
hybrid styles
carved by African
workmen
sixteenth
century.
European models
after
in
the
in
are, apart
forks.
The spoons
in a style closely
accompanied by
rice
and palm
fibre
what
in
man
some
of the
ivories
to
(///.
in style
Afro-Portuguese
be of sixteenth-century date.
Sierra Leone.
Museum.
Ht
Manchester
28 cm (11
in.)
76
salt-
brought back from the Guinea Coast. The ivories are always
is
at this
rice
now Guinea
Temne and
the
56. Sowei
masks made
for the
young
girls in
life
best-known
Sierra
Vai
woman who,
It
is
in this
who
and
worn by a
example,
slits
beside
Manchester Museum.
Ht38cm(15in.)
Buloni
who live in
Benin
this area as
fibre mats.
in 1588,
being skilled
in
An Englishman, James
Welsh, vis-
made upon
still
buying
1659.
The
Benin and
still in
the
Wieckmann Collection in
is
mentioned with
This
same
Yoruba sculpture
and
wooden
to be
brought
tray which
Benin (Dahomey).
The
to
were collected
at
Ardra
in
modern
Bini-Portuguese
arms
style,
wear on
to
as a special
their
tray
is
Wieckmann Collection,
Ulm Museum. Ht of section
century.
shown: 12
cm
3
(4 /4
in.)
important
58, 59.
Two
One
first
seventeenth century.
frogs;
cow heads
alternating. Yoruba. Wieckmann
Collection, Ulm Museum.
the other has birds and
cm OVs
10cm(3 7/8 in.)
Max. diams: 8
and
in.)
customs by making
ivory bracelets
who is a vas-
sacrifices
on
it
to
employ
in fetish
This offering
to their gods.
to under-
stand why so little was collected in the first four hundred years of
contact with the African coast - such objects were viewed with
was made
No
The
attempt
tray
was
at
cer-
tainly not used in sacrifice, but for recording the signs indicated
by the oracle in
What is
ity
Ifa divination.
noticeable about
80
all
three pieces
first
is
while the
human
78
of the
to those carved
on
Owo,
60.
A modern board
for Ifa
(Dahomey).
The colours and motifs should be
divination from Benin
compared with
at the
top
is
///.
said by
Bascom
to
pantheon. Linden
Stuttgart.
23 cm
xl9cm(7 /2
1
Yoruba
Museum,
(9
in.)
in.)
7.9
in Ifa
divination
first
Weickmann Collection,
Ulm Museum. 56 cm (22 in.)
Yoruba.
x35cm
(13 3/4
62. Staff of
office
BaJokwe. The
staff
in.)
and two
figure
figures,
on top
of the
chief,
of a
Museum, London.
Hts30cm(ll 3/4in.),35cm
(13 /, in.), 28 cm (11 in.)
1
80
in fact
collected only in
1887.
were made
BaKongo,
till
recently by the
to
Museum, Rome.
64. This
BaJokwe
chair
shows
however are
BaJokwe
in
characteristic
style as
the backrest
is
the face on
of
upholstery nails
chiefs' chairs
is
also found on
made
in
Ghana,
London. Ht 51
cm
Museum,
(20
in.)
as at its height.
when
during the
shown
in
67 now
///.
societies.
in the
An example
is
Manchester Museum,
to
which
it,
according to the
it
label,
Governor
it
in
note that
imported
oil-paint.
it
81
'<*
H"
65. {above,
used
in Ife.
left)
pierced
is
fine headpiece
Museum
Nigerian
at
Lagos, earlier
in
the Bankfield
have been
lost.
Museum,
National
66.
(left)
Owo collected
1831, probably
in
Museum
Berlin.
fur
in
the centre
cow head
(///.
at
been acquired
in
it
was collected
Yoruba
staff for
Museum
in
London
Benin.
59).
had acquired
ibeji,
Perhaps rather
very
later, a
Vblkerkunde,
Ht 17.5
cm
(6
15
/i 6 in.)
German
collector,
Georg Emil
Schiiz,
who owned
Towards
Ijo
Manchester Museum.
33 cm (13
in.)
it
for
L.
the
in
Museum
for
is
Ivory bracelet
The flange
them
to their
dispersed.
Fagg
as
sent
sailing-ships,
for centuries.
that the
who
The
common
sight in Brass
a device
83
68
1854 at Old
Museum,
Calabar. National
Lagos. Ht 26.5
cm lO ^
1
in.)
ships' carpenters.
been
felicitous.
impact
number and
as curios.
The
first
African art to
make
in
Navy
as
reparations
Expedition of 1897.
was considerable
still-valuable
in
s
'
It
skill
and artistry
in Africa,
and
Punitive
that there
number of
Museum (London,
1899), by C. H.
the
C 'ity
in
Halifax
ofBenin.
in
1903,
in the British
84
this
that
his
Leo Frobenius
own
set
collection.
It
If
these pieces
had not been collected many of them would certainly have been
destroyed by now, but
it is
most regrettable
that records
were
dealers
in
'in
same
piece as
lack of documentation of
private, inevitably limits
pointed out
in
museum
in different
books the
different places."
This
and
e
general idea of the sculpture of the Igbo, Ibibio, Ijo and Efik." All
69.
Two
large
wooden
in
figures
members
'King' Ockiya.
They appear
to
be
is
Ht
84 cm (33
in.)
85
me
is
making
or this
is
consulted by the
He may
parents.
advise the
of a pair of
such
figures,
may be postponed
till
one
fed at the
is ritually
same
is
thus
Museum,
cm (10
Ht 25.5
71.
Stuttgart.
in.)
This type of
originated
number
of
There are
museum
neighbouring peoples.
in
which lack
one was
County School
Museum,
is
known.
to the
Manchester
63.5
cm
(25
in.)
X(>
Bk
Awka
remedy
it,
research workers
collec-
shown
may
Although very
little art
from the
during
the
One
in
of the
town of Nyani,
in
Mali Empire,
in Malli,
he saM
now believed
modern Bambaraland. He
first
the fourteenth
until
century,
we can
to be
describes the
88
They
make-up and
stand
in
front of
and protector
village of
Niger. This
is
one
examples taken
of several
to
England about
their
an animal. The
offering box
chest
and
in front of
the
removable. National
Lagos. Ht
lids of
of the rectangular
48 cm (19
Museum,
in.)
was
The
early
recall the
them so
that the
good deeds of
memory
his
of his good
is
very old
and
it up.'""
European
made
for their
own
use.
Pacheco
local
way of life
'idols'.
without knowing why, and have no laws; and because these are
things which do not have
much
to
89
Mask from
74.
used
in
plays of social
comment
represents a
is
in pairs
a performance in which
by
men
one
whose behaviour
girl
boy dressed as a
girl.
Manchester
Museum. Ht 51 cm (20
75. Agbogho
Spirit
Mmwo,
mask from
in.)
Maiden
and
men's society
festivals in
at funerals
which the
National
Lagos. Ht 51.5
cm
Museum,
(20
/. in.)
90
91
left)
Two
Igbo
many
abuses
way of
in this people's
their fetishes
life,
hand,
of his physical as
i.e.
opposed
to his
The
is
cult
mental powers.
The
is
among the
Museum, London.
of rank
),
tell
of
cm
in
the area.*
sculpture.
He also
tells
Benin
in.)
Igbo. British
Hts 28.5
leave undescribed so as
scarification
24 cm (9V2
modern name
is
evidently derived
form appears
among the
to
Igala.
be derived from
one on the
left of
illustration. City
the preceding
their
Museum,
cm (18
name was given to them because when the islands were discovmany idols were found which the inhabitants were
in the habit of taking and worshipping when they went to sow
ered, a great
in.)
rice.'
This account
is
92
in
it
seems
to
echo
Mende
show
forms.
of the
a great variety of
National
Museum,
Hts61 cm (24
(14
in.)
and 53
Amda
Ogbodo
in.),
cm
(right).
Lagos.
35.5 cm
(21
in.)
(who call them nomoli) and the Kissi (who call them pomdo, ancestors).
and make
it
expected to
prosper. Indeed,
steal rice plants
The
mask
is
first
in
it
illustration of
do not do
fields to this
this successfully
ure
who
a fig-
rather like one type used by the Guro. Froger tells us that the
King 'wore on
82.
The costume
in
a pair of cowhorns',
wear
of the
is
illustration of
in
an African mask
about
Gambia
his
Africa.
94
a similar
83.
Mask
representing Zamble,
which
a mysterious being
by
its
qualities are
its
dance
of Ivory
form, though
in
mask
it
of similar
cannot be identical
fifteen
zamble mask
is
worn
vertically in
London. Ht 47.6
Museum,
cm (18V4
in.)
them
At
all
it'.
Gambie
(Paris,
Isles
Lemaire's sketches.
One
of the houses
is
sectioned to
show the
Godefroy Lover in
houses, one of
is
up
man
made of
from
95
Benin according
to Pieter
de Marees
at
city of
in
centuries. There
what the
artist
heads were
is
has represented as
in fact
real
of
many
Bini
of the details.
bronze castings.
96
J*
Aw* .As
t^mJkitr.
shown
in
Dapper's
illustration.
it
is
1550.
Vienna. Ht
in
engineering drawings.
The most
documentary
what he
Many
of the drawings, of
Sometimes there
may have
is
misinterpreted
human
heads placed on top of sticks round the grave, the text informing
us that these are the heads of a wife, a child and servants
willing to
who are
94
tall staff,
this
was
97
python and
bird of disaster.
on the
Museum,
(24
in.)
Berlin. L.
61 cm
a flange
Two
later
so that they can stand directly on the altar and support carved
human
seen a
Benin
City,
skull
another altar
in
have
altar in
some grounds
for
wondering
later in place
is
staff
Less controversial
lished
this
we
right (though
is
cannot be sure that the bronze heads were not placed on the
is
by Olfert Dapper
in
yf
'
number of ways;
for
exam-
in
two of
we have from
tall
is
is
Benin, but
it
is
the
box now
in
first refers to
in the Palace. It is
He
speaks of
in
Benin
palace surmounted by a
turret
which
carries a python.
of these
One
survive.
pythons
of R. E.
Bradbury's
to
stand
bronze plaques
seen
at the top of
Ethnologisches
Ht
Berlin.
the tower.
Museum,
48 cm (19
in.)
which
on an
altar in
Benin.
L. c.
the Palace
61
cm
(24
in
in.)
'wooden
\\
m
i
huh
pillars,
from top
to
A few
cast copper,
years
later, in
1701, David
like a
is
is
the finest
have seen
fully
than
chimney about
on
is
in Benin.'
very well
These
ser-
Y?
Goodwin
98
Nyendael
V-
'half thrown
rebuilt'.
ported on
human
in
which
my
like
it is
men or
etc.
by much
as
good an
artist as the
is
He
former carver,
more
99
art;
late
massive
on an ancestor
ivory tusk
in
altar
Benin
to
by the Oba
Osemwede (1816-
Museum, London. Ht 51 cm
(20'/8
in.)
is
one
in
of
seven
the cult of
spirit Igbile at
Ughoton
to invoke
appears
to
in
1897. Their
be derived from
Ijo
of the Niger
songs used
in
in
the
Museum,
London. Ht 79 cm (3iy8 in.)
llaje dialect. British
is
It
includes the
first
description of the heads and the tusks upon them, and the
first
on top of the
Why
does he not
Many
It
may
many
like a
card index
when
we know from an
the expedition. The
was
to
was
storm had probably blown down the birds from the tops of the
turrets too. Yet, as William
it is
quite
possible that the supports of the roof in the second gallery were
not
100
many of which do
It is
interesting to
tiitik.
"S
Mi
jj
ji?
'i
4
m
fKS&v.v. 1.
^sK
if'
was
from
Gradually, however,
Ife.
it
apparent
the face
of
in this
is
w''
is
'
framed by a rectangle
ass
tf
Ht
28 cm
(11
93. The
late
Akenzua
II,
the
in.)
is
strikes
ji-l^
A*t
< |V'
crown and
to
in
in
///.
90. His
an ivory
ivory armlets
1959. He
collar of coral
those represented
shirt
VI^H.
photographed during
beads similar
in
'%
VI
Lagos.
Emobo ceremony
wears
AVi
4p
Museum,
Ifrfl
In
JlfT
bell
He
and wears
and has
41.
low-relief
/ *
>
70/
to indicate
represented. This
is
Shamba
Nyimi
who
reigned about
to
In front of
game
nowadays widespread
which he
is
him
of wari,
in Africa,
said to have
Ht54.5cm(21 /2
1
95.
(far right)
who
live
Jhe NDengese
have
in.)
BaKuba
also
much more
Musee
in.)
we have more
to
draw on than
the tra\
Oyo
in
1826 says
figures of
in their
courtyards.
The
figures carved on the posts and doors are various; but principally
102
men
slaves.'
"
These motifs
only houseposts
still
was able
man on horseback
leading
in
to find at
occur
no representation. A number of sculpNew Oyo, however, were said to have been brought from
tures in
Old Oyo.
96.
Wooden housepost
{right)
woman
representing a
an
in
it
Oyo
in
was claimed
have
to
in
Ife.
Ht of figure:
Ht of post:
97.
the
Wooden
{far right)
Shongo shrine
Oyo
at Koso. Its
name
Shongo, carving
figure
of the
is
of or for
from
King of
ere Alafin
King
Shongo,
become
and
identified with
lightning.
who
Allison,
thunder
According
to Philip
to
who
be
made for
visited the
in
where
left
behind on
The king
is
never allowed to
visit
is
in
the
(38
in.)
103
233-36
itself today.
This
is
mask
still
It is a late
worn by
the Ata of
Commander William
way:
resentation
in the
fine
- or
moon".' 102
work of art,
libel
- of
The libel
as we can
the
is
human
his neck,
face,
very
was
in
a gilt rep-
like the
"man
see by
comparing
his
drawing with
the original.
The
may prove
valuable.
Dapper's and
to
98.
Commander William
drawing
Allen's
1832-33. He
is
wearing a mask
or
libel
very
like
'a gilt
of the
the
representation
human
"man
in
it is
art.
U)i
we must
look
art,
but
face,
the moon"'.
104
mask which
called
wears
still
Allen saw.
is
It
and
is
It
is
late fifteenth or
when
there
were substantial
was intended
Benin masks
Ife
it
found on similar
in ivory
feature
with the
below
that
for
face, a feature
In this
slits
which indicate
it
and bronze.
may be compared
mask
in
///.
46.
Ht29cm(ll
/2
in.)
Egypt
in
Africa
In the history
of African
art, as in
clear,
but some writers have seen older influences which are more
notably those from Egypt, which although
difficult to prove,
is
more
tific
study
of the
distinguished history.
ancient
Egypt
at the
African
history
unknown.
came
infancy.
It is
itself
scientific investigation
still in its
usually regarded as
long and
known about
century, when
for
commonly
attributed to influence
all
J.
when evidence
among
achievement
in time.
Moreover, the
105
Trow ell
still
influential.
many
persist in
is
The
Margaret
found
" Unfortunately,
writers.
Africa have
evidence of Egyptian
all
Bohannan expresses
nent. Paul
Egypt
it
way:
this
is
Africa,
What happened
in
a basi-
civilization....
many
African religion;
assume that
were invented
in
Today we know
all
that such
It
\\
as
Lowie
upon
it.
Museum
From
El
Ahaiwah.
of Anthropology,
Ht 25.5
cm
(10
in.)
in
///.
102, dating
form which
is
in
harmony
The
developed Egyptian
onwards
style, yet
it
retains
all
the characteristics of
many
to
sented.
is
completely practical
any case
it
which Egyptian
skill
with which
106
it
The
naturalistic
form
aflair,
whom m
nP\r\nn(Lp
101. Part of a rock painting
at
Nyero, Teso
showing parts
district,
of
long. (After
The more
76 cm (30 in.)
in red.
is
Posnansky)
and concentric
Nag'
el Deir.
Lowie
of California, Berkeley.
23 cm
(9
Italy....
that
it
secration
upon
effected
representation of the
sitter....
may have
shown
lite...
died, he
is
spirit
was an
ideal
in
the
prime of
full
a successful
From
Museum
of Anthropology, University
Ht
concentric circles
complete canoe
Uganda,
is
"primitive'',
and that we
in.)
tation of the
human
Egyptian
in
be a local manifestation of a
African
art,
Egyptian
art
is
seen to
artistic or
other ideas
have spread from Egypt to the rest of Africa, 111 but rather that we
should show
chronology.
To
we need
to
Africa
is
made two or
dangerous.
symbol of life.
None
Roman
or Phoenician)
It
is
is
likely to
be older
707
number of
o Ashanti such as
late
from dissimilar
be :eautrful too.
.:
may occur in
paid to the
several unre-
which contact
is
is
known
may
similar in
not always be
clear.
though
Without
copied from Egyptian ones can certainly not be supported, especially as the
nation,
it
was understandable
at
that
it is
less
under-
still
line,
and seventeenth
akua
mma sculptures.
of
Ghana. Hts 13
to
15
cm (5%
cm
dence, a
new generation
grown
up,
who
own
University
(5
in.)
in.)
109
Chapter 4
African Architecture
Architecture
been made
is
a field in
long time
it
field
most.
at
of African architecture
is
The
by Susan
Dmochowski, 1990;
b,
West African
architecture in
tecture begins.
as
shelter by
the
move unencumbered
nomadic peoples
in
more
Other
where nature
hostile environments,
has been less liberal with building supplies, have had recourse to
tents which can be collapsed and taken to a
who
new
site.
These are
examples
in detail
shows
a conical
roof which
con-
is
The Tiv
are
at its
The houses
simplest, but of
renowned
as thatchers
painted designs
110
all
Many
village.
is
at
Jos
prefabricated roof
Ill
on a foundation of stones
underneath
which
in
a fire can be
chill
of the
lit
-a
have a space
in clay to
veritable hypocaust
to
when
of as
in
the rear.
is
nearly ver-
is
swells out on
both sides forming large cavities accessible only from the top of
the wall.
fires
surface
in the clay
of the walls.
design which
is
Ham
grasped
European builders
fully
in clay
and thatch.
relief decoration
in plaster rather
on the wall
than directly
something more
Other peoples
in the
is
set in clay to
///.
their
made them
into
ring
Upon
this
is
set a
pre-formed dish
built.
Apertures
are cut in the wall to give access, and the surface round each
decorated
wide enough
for
When
with
clay.
filled
from the
cal
top, a lid
is
is
is
is
reached,
when
the
is
112
is
in relief.
to that in///. 1
in style
08. Bafussam
Cameroun.
113
roof ready
Cameroun.
in
northern
in
clay
114
110.
Wooden
chair,
BaMileke,
and certain
notables. British
Museum,
London. Ht 117
cm
(46
in.)
we
development made
In the forests
The
piles.
development
tant in
in
monumental
As can be seen
in
in
a particularly striking
example of
Ills. 1
07 and
is
do not in
the
In
is
fact
who
further flanked
118
116
^^^^jgg^T
been decorated
been only
in
Muslim north
it
seems
to
of
be decorated.
In
modern
and
bicycles.
Zaria
was allowed
a dispute
about
while
who
should inherit
can be achieved.
feet)
often employed.
is
limited to a
The
The
is
it.
Zaria, Nigeria.
feet),
town
alone
flat roof:
and
house
to collapse
of
decoration which
The Hausa
late
for
have
flat
tion.
bowls are set into the walls and ceilings. This mode of decoration
appears to have originated on the East African coast where on
in
The prac-
this
way in
tice
were inspired by
It is
Nupe
117
rills
on the convex
surface, with
which
they decorate the walls and floors of some of their houses. These
saucers, 7.5 to 10
cm
with the concave side against the moist clay and tapped with
The
shatters
resulting surface
is
and
Ham
flat
its
plastic qualities
houses.
tall
sensitivity to
itself,
form
is
shown even
in the
is
of the Niger Bend and the Volta Basin. " Clay buildings here
was
collected at
Ht
Dogon.
(After Kjersmeier)
45 cm (17%
Sanga and
in.)
it falls
wooden
rainfall
is
not
house
of
an important person
in
the town
of the
form.
lis
The
earliest
monuments
unchanged
Mosque
at
Timbuktu
cult
on
to
529)
it
at
in essentially the
same
tinuing fame
to the
who
was the
its
con-
which led
late architecture.
The mosque
at
The interior has all the loftiness of a Gothic catheThe Mopti Mosque is similar in style and has a sculptural
quality which echoes Dogon architecture and masks.
The Djenne and Timbuktu types eventually merge, leading
the building.
dral.
to
two other
of Kong
115. The front of the
at Mopti.
face of a
is
to the
striking.
mask form
of the
is
mosque,
but this
seems
unlikely since
by Djenne
Faso and
mosque
The resemblance
Dogon mask
in
The moister
tresses and
more
in
mosques
where they
in
liberal horizontal
Kong
119
Timbuktu,
built in
fourteenth century.
bristles with the
the early
The surface
permanent
consequence
to
be
it
rebuilt.
120
timbers become so major a feature that the style loses most of its
vertical character.
that sculptural
tural form.
mosques,
like the
The result
is still
it
is
The
interior
no longer used,
is
it
this has
the
entirely
its
been done
Kwara
is
are.
Thus African
made
Kawara, we find
ceremonies
at
minimal.
one
own. Of course,
in different
small mosques.
///.
of Africa,
in different parts
number of
in
delightful
ofWest
Africa,
is
the
Edo
found, the
mosque
at
Kawara,
Niger Bend.
mosque on
the
structure
it
is
much
closer to
evolution of the
in
square courtyard
it
clearly
121
all
tha:
:'.:_:
v-:
--.
.
-.:'.;.
::
Lirtyard
me note
has bee
courtyard reduced to
the rain
falls,
Provision
is
made
:er
away
md
sometimes a pottery
pipe,
drains
In excavations at Ife
bddbD,
sometimes
drains
worn-out
kind of funnel
through which the water could pass without eroding the wall.
built in
Yoruba
are bi
numbers of
-_
lc
ngm den
are
still
inhabited
uses I
Yoruba
to have
classified
distribution.
The
Palace in Akure
is
a different geographical
when he
embodiment of the
ple, that
I,
was
traditional
he 'rebuffed finally
us, for
exam-
He considered
that
it
would be
a superfluous
venture since, as he
in the Palace.'
1Ji
is still
Thanks to
preserved,
and one can see that the impluvial courtyards vary from uwa nla
in
the
in
feet)
///.
hundred and
fifty feet)
wide down
A modern
cement-covered tank
now
the rain
catches
in the plan)
in large
pots
of the
to the tiny
In
Expedition period,
numbers of small
but not too
much
impluvia,
heat.
by Agbonbiofe between
1900
enter,
and 1920.
still
i.e.
which serve
as shelves.
rooms which
lie
is
provided by
The
been very
traditional building
method
here, as
has
course of clay
fully exploited.
is
Ji
The
continuous
number of courses
The
surfaces of the
tall
than
which
is
show
in
the fluting
permitted on inside
124
\nrjTJTJTrirjT-"jTJTriJTrLrLnj
Reference
A Uwb Mo
J.
Uwb
Oriole
Ogogb
K.
'
Ojukbtb
C.
Ele**
L.
Og'orb
0.
Odb Owo
M.
'
Agobo
E.
Ibiiro
N.
F.
IKbmb
, .
0.
P.
6.
H.
Imprun
Ojutb
Cbyo
Q.
Lake
R.
lit
1.
, i
Agb.tb
Odo Aya
Odb Ult
Courtyard
Covered courtyord
room
fi
veronda
Storeyed port
Mud
pillar
Wall
Mud steps
Idoni
Scale
Wooden steps
n_TU
::
--||
eOFett
Anthony Harrison
125
all fluting.
maintenance
is
The
mud
are only
the walls themselves but also on the edges of the tank in the floor
a national
The
monument,
late
told
me
that before
Western education
'sand'
it is
are
in
King's Palace where works of art intended for the royal cults were
to be exhibited,
is in
air.
the foreground
between the
trees.
The conical
fire, in
in
works of humbler
some modernization
to inhibit
in
favour of a
126
whole of Africa
monument
in the
has caused
it
is
It
as a
mine by the
conducted
in
It
lifi
In the valley
six
tall
feet) thick,
enclosing
who
Great
metres (twenty
at
is
divine king,
it
was
Monomotapa
also in
some sense
a temple.
About
which
is
is
a granite hill,
make
a fortification; access
this site is
refuge,
known
is
by
as the 'acropolis',
hill
it
in a
Norman
castle.
Between
ruins, a
complex
The
The
seem
to
is
recognized
clay,
in
ad but it is not known when it ended. The third phase, some time
between the tenth and the sixteenth centuries, saw the beginnings of stone building.
The
and some of
the earliest stone buildings are found there, conceived as extensions of the natural rock, rather than as independent walls.
Mortarless dry stone walling was used to fill in the gaps between
the boulders. Eventually, the idea of building true freestanding
walls
was conceived.
not keyed into each other as stone or brick walls usually are, but
all
between
Class
this
is
and Class
which
is
PQ
in
is
moderately
intermediate
analysis of
that this
The same
so that
site,
The
built.
ble to
is
found
distin-
it
scheme
styles are
terms.
PQ
The culmination
of this development
in
Class
Q walls produced
the finest buildings and the neatest work. This level of skill
reached
in
was
AD 1450
to
Conical
Tower and
which
Corporation.
124. Decorative stone walling
at
BaRozwi
in
eighteenth centuries.
l'JS
were
The
Class
mined
here
by
the
in
the quantities
Ancient
fifth
Ruins
phase of
built
may
This technique
well be
seems
architecture in Africa
always
to
copy
This example
town
of
mud
is in
prototypes.
the abandoned
Old Somorika
north-east of Benin.
in
Afenmai,
The stone
for the
is
until the
833,
when
merely as
a cattle kraal.
Great Zimbabwe
is
in
stone
buildings
are
Mozambique from
throughout
scattered
the
Limpopo
Zimbabwe and
to the Zambezi.
These are
all
from prototypes
in clay. It
ing in stone arose from the need to terrace the hillsides for
make platforms
cultivation and to
north
at
Engaruka
in
They are
By this
and it may
AD
1500. 127
buildings in
in
arrangement
wooden poles.
is
built of reeds
and
128
129
Chapter 5
126,127. (below)
Collectors have
by
its
two
which passes
vertically
in.)
some
is,
of course, to look
crow
1913. Manchester
was
46.3cm(18 /4in.)
in particular.
near Opobo,
it.
selves ethnocentrically, as
in
Nigeria, in
in
through
first
at
in
figures with
The
appear-
variety'.
that
it
129
had
Her
as
all
'little
to
commend
it
as of serious interest.
The
ingenious
little
in their
wealth
Many
currency of Ashanti.
of
them
of collector's
Akua
trifles,
Mma with
fertility figures
is
supreme
whom
remains',
deeds
men
live
with
human
merits a
i.e.
it',
jawbone one
rewards have
is
added
to
be earned;
to
Akowua
[a
celebrated warrior]
to lack
person
fire of
the
from a
real
okra
not
show
its
i.e.
there
is
fruit: 'the
okra does
seeds through
more
in
its
skin',
man's mind
Nyame
Coll.
F.
Nyame
Willett.
in.)
130
140
known
more
as
real
at,
and either to
like
is
the problem. Is
it
sufficient to
As Wingert put
it,
Tor
tant advantages over the study of other traditions. For one thing
there
that
is
it is
own powers
with primitive
all
art,
when
dealing
131
liking for
jaws,
some
of
which,
like this
one
be intended to
spectator. British
London.
L.
amuse the
Museum,
47 cm (lS
in.)
bush
pig,
Ibibio.
Museum, London.
L 41 cm (16%
in.)
132
judgments.' 11 Surely
'
may be
inhibited
and analysis by
ture'.
Most
it is
from exercising
his
own powers
visitors to exhibitions of
and analytical
Western
who
of perception
art,
litera-
ancient or
field
the
subject of a sculpture
may
not
gain the
documentation
in
The headpiece
ceremonies
called
for
of the
mangam
Mama (now
the
Lagos.
49.5 cm 19^2
L.
is
is
at the front
used
It
is
called
the
in
akumaga
cult to
who speaks
for the
celebrated,
Museum
fur
Berlin. Ht.
L.
at
simply to see
one
is
how
in
in
One
can observe
and
fortune
at funerals.
in.)
features
may
volkerkunde,
25.5 cm (10
48 cm (19
more obvious
ancestors
when good
on occasions
is
art;
collected by Frobenius in
1912.
is
left
was
is
an
human
A
The
in.)
Museum,
artists
all
bush-
cow
which
maximum
may
measure of the
in.),
of his purpose.
133
an Afo sculptor
among the
is
whole
of Africa.
It
is
in
finest
the
thought
to
mother
of the
similar piece
shrine.
The
Afo people,
is still in
use
for a
in
her
baby
at
is
more
Although few
in
numbers,
as artists
among
neighbouring
Ht70cm(27 /2
1
in.)
134
commonly
described as frontal,
are,
of course, exceptions to
this,
but
the
(ibeji) in
is
only apparent in
the
profile.
Profile of
Yoruba
ibeji (figure
movement, and
this
is
of Oyo.
expression
in
in
on tour
in
the
by
traditional
style to
represent everyday
around
life
an African
presumed
style of sculpture
that they
were being
Ona however
declared, when interviewed by
William Bascom, that he was
caricatured.
saw
it.
The group
constructed from
is
many
parts,
(16 /4
P.Armstrong.
L.
41 cm
in.)
136,137.
(right)
Two
figures of
which
admire
in
fine
and
African art.
critics
They
minor
divinities
concerned
32cm(12 3/4
cm
Museum,
(10
in.),
in.)
135
Western
appreciate
superfluous ideal
this,
two-dimensional
in
art.
could be freed.
They
were,
mistaken
in fact,
believing that
in
It
bush-cow
his
reasonable to look
perfectly
is
through Western
138. Male figure carved by the
eyes.
own approach
purpose
is
in
///.
in.)
liked
it
sculpture
has described
my
bought
but because
first
that being
felt
131 Their
.
Museum, London. Ht 67 cm
(26 3/8
African
at
masks seen
artistic tradi-
tion
more
became
rapidly
it
now
I
a painter
had to be
in the
movement Most
of the artists
Shortly afterwards
bin which are
easy to see
still
two of the
fetish
it.
my
finest pieces in
collection.
It is
is
weaving seemed
goddess.
The
to
They appealed
is
and
its air
me as
to
it
means
be so but for
if
one
me
that
it is
its
of profound meditation.
European brought up
test:
does
that this
speak to
it
in the classic-
me and
dot
is
or rare or a
move me.
Somebody may argue
and that
moved me
fetish
tradition of
me
all
have to
str
is
with
live
my
collection
I
ing
lived with
it.
who began
in a
similar
ay.
buy-
being seduced by
its
This approach
to African art.
nicates immediately,
reaction to a
work of art
136
is
enjoying
a valid one. It
is
artist.
it
for
what
it
commu-
a creative act
which
is
the counterpart
that African
Some
139.
of the
first
African
and
appealed immediately to
European
typical of
uses
a
taste.
human
number
This figure
is
of different types of
spirit.
137
appears
to
left
style
the
and centre:
Museum, London. Right:
formerly Coll. James Crabtree.
the sculpture. Left
British
in.)
sculpture
The
much
the
at this level
same way
scenes of pastoral
life
as
it is
that
its effect
increases
of study understanding
in the
represented
in
is
is
study of prehistoric
is
art
his
and himself;
Some writers, however, in adopting a similar sub'What does this sculpture mean to me?'
the
Underwood,
in his
artist
thrown great
sculptures, has
light
when he writes about wood carvings he sometimes suggests that his own interpretation is that of
in
in
woman
human
child]]
fertility;
\\
woman
is
hereas [a
child mankind, a
earth.
l.'iS
141. Two
Ijo
ejiri
of the
Western
to
British
appears never
Hts82cm(32 /4
70cm(27 /2 in.)
The creature
is
to
be represented.
probably entirely
The Urhobo
imaginary.
animal,
commonly
said to be
Museum, London.
in a
in.),
also
warrior cult.
139
142, 143.
Wooden bowl
for
used
in Ifa divination.
on horseback
for
is
The man
a favourite subject
bowl. British
Museum, London.
Ht28.5cm(ll'/4in.)
monumental
In describing an
Urhobo
134
piece similar to
The
leopard's head
less
Does
reduced to a
is
The head
is
interpretations
swift ferocity?
141 he
///.
legs.
The legs
it
in
the centre
is
.''"
.
spots of paint by no
in
///.
leopard, as
example
in
in a colonial
manner.
danger of treating it as
ideas into
it,
often,
has
it
a ventriloquist's
we
dummy?
Writers about the arts of the Western world pay heed not
just to the formal qualities of a
may be presumed
reflects ideas
it
is
ital
/(>
the background
it
is
writers trained
much of
is
familiar
in art
it
is
knowledge
it is
possible
mask
called
who
protects the
community
a hornbill
is
He
first
the horns of
some
the
an antelope and of
mask
is
intended to
recall
the
chameleon, two
The
and
due
formed surface
masks appear
and appear
held
he was the
of the earth.
in
groups
These
after
bowl
for
Wooden
Ht26.5cm(10 /2in.)
]
dark
mouth. Courtesy
of Chicago. L.
the
102 cm (40'/8
in.)
141
Gelede
dances
which
society,
to protect the
community
mask
in
They are
called
ogede and
///.
17).
On gelede
see
Museum. University
L 56 cm (22 in.)
of
Glasgow.
While
a
it
work of
is
art of
stances in which
for the
148. Pottery tobacco pipe
may have
of
BaPende sculptures
a chief, a
is
naturalistic form.
amusing
to
we cannot
is
more
Both look
their effect
worshipper or even
static
of a
this
work?
position or
is
Is
it
we cannot know
spirit
a god. Similarly,
of an incest
what detern.
it
intended to be placed
shown
1.8
sculpture
metres
m\
in a
twenty pounds
feet
Ht 7 err
is
142
itself, for
dominant
is
I
not
were
K5 kg - vet
an epamask.
in a
on a MuYaka.
Manchester Museum.
circum-
(Ills.
BaYaka sculptures
an exaggeration
o\ the
whether he
nose
is
maximum
can bring.
reflect.
it
at least a
was intended
hundred and
for
wear on the
149
;-:/. -z
-.>--.-
After circumcision,
:t.t ::~t--
which
is
the
boys dance
ail
in
masks
like this in
T -e-e
-: Eri'r:.
identity of the
3::..-~f
who
dancers,
honoured
for his
the carver
is
originality.
masks
is
commonly set
in
represents an animal.
Rtetberg
Museum,
Zurich.
Ht54cm(21%in.)
African sculptures
show
a variety of styles
ranging from
it is
meaning of the
collec-
intended to be visible?
which
in their
own
society
A very strong
may
in
African
i.e.
values.
We
see
many
museum
the
curator. Rarity
supreme
African masks
up as
set
exhibitions of 'masterpieces of
art', albeit
Even where the works are carefully selected with an encyclopaedic knowledge of the
field, as for
how
17
'Africa:
a single
whole
people.
we need
to study the
whole range
so that
when we
more
made by
each generation
in
the
who have
we
knowledge of the lesser ones. The true masterpieces must be studied in the
who
individuality. It
was considered important to determine the ori- a 'tribal' name was usually enough - but the
felt
group
artist
as a
whole
it
in
was
the
in
So long as African
art
in
the
museums
and armchairs of the West, so long was it possible for the myth of
150. The
the
initiation
BaSuku
of the
masks
of
carved
in
superstructure.
Museum,
Zurich. Ht
60 cm
work
somehow not
//
The
art
did, they
were apt
of woodcarving
to
is
soil
artists.
(23'/,in.)
it
field-
governed
in
'L'a
///.
153). Used
in
ceremonies
Tervuren. Ht
152.
in
{right)
Northern BaKete
who
live
among
JayT. Last. Ht 53
cm
(21
in.)
/<>
when
ineffective
with neither
ing,
progress, works by
rial
which
is.
correction.'
188
who practises
.easily cut,
is
itself to
commonly
soft,
it
locally
in
mate-
untrue.
is
more
now made
experiment and
method of carv-
the "direct"
efficient than
from imported
tem-
steel
pered for other purposes (for example matchets and knives are
springs), but
how-
ever good or bad the tools, carvings of very high quality were
carved
ness.
While
it is
work
directly,
without
first cut. It is
an amaz-
line,
or
modify the size of one section of the design to make the whole
fit in.
By
skills to
match
no drawing
his vision.
Father Carroll
later;
tells
piece.'
139
soft
wood. Here
is
is
to
group
whole on the
w riter. Such
among French writers are often based on familiarity with the Dogon. Let me candidly warn the reader that
myself, though try consciously to avoid it, may tend to general-
generalizations
ize
on
a basis
ofYoruba
practices.
with naturalism
artists'
148
in
Why
Western
is
art,
this?
more wide-
made
us
all
more receptive
to
53.
Mask from
the BaSongye,
of
induce fear
spectators.
in
the
Musee Royal de
Ht
56 cm (22
in.)
is
such a gre
BaSongye
masks.
in their
is
Op
The
pri
the reason
sense.
the
The
fact that
West shows
its
it
has so
much
importance as
p>
The peoples
provides the
it
<
is
we have to study
we cannot do
lis
we should pay
or, if
particular attention to
le studies
in the field,
emulated by scholars
in their
museums and
ommonly
and
studies,
It
in
has been
in Africa
very
is
is
made by
:ulpture, but
"he
the
is
1
is
spirit is
brought to
head
is
commonly represented
udies,
however, from
as dispropor-
many
Field
shown
that
The
The
first
at
the
person
Lower Congo
until
in
He
points out that 'the large torso, the big head, and the
50
infantile
and an
156-58
^^^^m
mayamba worn
in
January 1973
in
the village of
Damba in Angola.
Height of face 2 2 cm (8 3/4 in.).
Height of whole mask 74 cm
Luzuanda, near
(29
in.). In
a private collection.
151
ancestral aspect.
Wooden
figures
among
descendants'
BaFumu
the
in
had
its
has
left
removed and
is
called a tege.
The
the
their
He
qualities
...
in
affairs,
new born
which
their
is
power
of the fetish
specific:
success
is
in
butti.
The
said to be
comes
status.
such material as
ultimately from
head
tion
is
Ht
Museum, London.
17cm(6 /4 in.), 13 cm
cm (5% in.)
and 14.6
ritual
An
infantile representa-
(5
contradictory qualities
for the
Fang
that
aged person or an
and white
in
of a venerated elder
weaned away by
hunting or
Their power
in.)
production of
Wamba
in
,2
infant.'
if it
Similar ideas
it
a vitality
simply figured an
may have
Led to the
face is bearded.
it
in
is
infantile
at
although the
i& 2
has
commonly been
society,
in Africa,
when
all
African art
ever,
mean
is
valued for
edify, a
product
final
room or serve
as a status symbol.
European
art
had
a social
it
product,
may
Now
there are
The Fon
devout, or to
this
farmer
in
in
its
is
the noble.
Babaloke
academic
At one time
commemorate
Isola, a
how-
be used to
159.
which the
in
village of
itself,
decorate a
all
Western
which
no
religious. In
which
art
is
artist is
is
They
are
made
as objects of
beauty
the remote
northern
He was
1957 as a
wife. Some of his
calabashes as a hobby.
carving this one
present for his
tools are
now
in
in
the Manchester
Museum.
153
60.
type
shown
in
///.
mask
163.
is
It
of the
said to
animals
in
contrast to other
in
action
performance. British
London.
L.
a musical
in
Museum,
84 cm (33
in.)
man
(Dahomey), among
whom
they
own
bronze
regarded as a valuable
upon
become
Museum. Ht 9.7 cm
(3
13
/i 6 in.)
Nok
mining
at
the head
a
infantile yet
it
of
be considered exam-
only the wealthy can afford to buy them, and they are displayed
in the
home both
as objects of beauty
d'artfor
mere
*4
aes-
has
Museum. Ht 14 cm
(5'/2 in.)
thetic
in brass.
Such an object
or a
it
placed near
is
man and
his wife
with
"These
all
sorts
The
fine
young carver
in
in a
similar
way
who had
calabashes as
Similarly,
(
it is
all
who
carved
African art
is
religious.
,4i
Adrian
rerbrands " has demonstrated this very clearly, using the docu-
mented pot
154
lids collected
among
the
BaWoyo
of Cabinda, just
accompanied by musicians,
named
It is
the
ofkuduo by the
made on
top
related Ashanti,
weights
Htl2.4cm(4 7/8
in.)
made
F.
Willett.
his wife.
When
for the
to eat separately
husband
wooden
lid
sculpted with
Of
course, the
7.5.5
arbitrate.
is
entertaining his
community
number of
can
at large,
if
The
lids
vary
in
complexity.
One shows
would
come
in threes,'
must cook
therefore,
in
hence
over,
fall
is
some
good things
must be
is
children.
The
lid,
something lacking
the marriage.
In
i.e.
it
is
called nsosse,
which sounds
means
'I
like a
am angry and
am going
to tell you
and hence family life, harmony, and thus conveys the exhor-
tation to 'live in
secular art and this single example vividly disproves the assertion that
all
be found.
an elabo-
The
her hands.
Nevertheless,
it is
there
is
is
ing itself to be hedged round with rituals, since the tree which
provides the
wood
is
home
of
a spirit
home
Dogon,
the
it is
inhabiting the
life
wood needs
is
is
to be avoided.
in
controlled by driving
life
involved, as
figures of
that of the
to
is
little
the
in
still
the case of
needs to be
propitiated.
It
is
ings are
156
commonly
neglected. This
is
especially true of
masks
BaWoyo
woman
her
frightened lizard
husband's
tell
you what
is
am going
my mind.'
on
'I
edge
will fall
fire;
one
if
indicate that
that
who
set their
authenticity!
after
own
special value
Western
is
when
later supply
it
who does
this
between
such
a figure
/>/////,
and one which has not received the medicine, or from which
it is
it
call
call tege.
is
African Sculpture in
husband's
In the
pity in putting
it
right.
cm
Diam. 17
(6 /4
in.)
BaBembe have
its
Setting
as
meant
to be
a result of increasing
Leiden.
though as
commonly recovered
In
his wife
must look
something
to decay,
figures of the
removed, they
is
in threes', i.e. in
children.
much wood.
'all
the cooking;
of the
on the
pot
spirit
pity.
lid:
abandoned
like a
imploring her
nsosse indicates
shell
to
is
initiates of the
is
the figure in
Ogboni
///.
society,
169,
which
who were
the
BaBembe
small
in
carefully represented
trunk. British
on the
Museum, London.
Ht26cm(10'/4in.)
166.
{right) Terracotta
ram used
at the
is
safety,
head
of a
Omitoto Grove
Obaloran
cult
in
who
is in
in Ife.
Chief
charge of the
it.
For
it,
on loan,
L.
15.3
cm
in
the
(6
Ife
Museum.
in.)
157
156-58
Malongo
BaKongo. The
the
abdomen
involved
left)
from the
fetish figure
on
fetish material
is
covered with an
it
The
into a hat.
in
among
Some
the Yoruba.
it .still
shrine
figures are not seen by devotees, only by the priests of the cult. In
who
is in
in [fe, is
is
museum
was
already
collection by
1897.
Manchester Museum. Ht 27
(10%
cm
used
in
more common
sculptures of a
wear
the Yoruba,
special clothes or
in.)
When
shrines.
Bamgboye
left)
was a highly
when the British
of lloffa
reputed carver
administration established a
school at
its
We
removed
my photograph
training in Yoruba
He was appointed
to teach
been very animated, was hushed and deserted, but we were being
wood-
traditional
to
outside the
it
Omu-Aran which
embraced
forms
1906, he took
in
ritual place.
We
who kept
it
to its
16.2
cm
Museum,
in.).
Hunterian
1957. Length
in
cm
cases of smallpox had broken out in the village, but the villagers
considered that
and
his
(4 /j
in.). In
of handle:
a private
companions the
for interfering
in
with the
169. (opposite,
right)
This
was
Apomu.
in
the eighteenth
formerly used
Ogboni house
in
in
the
lie
conceived as female
is
The
male
must have
fetish.
in
was
its
except
and kept
in cloths
in a
in Ife
role of the
Museum,
buried
Ogboni
two.
in
the
Even when
by certain
in use,
shrine of the head of the village heroes of Soku, where even the
Lagos.
Ht74cm(29 /4in.)
:
in
spirit
Nigerian
150
moving the
of
it../
been both
collection.
century,
we had caused
University of Glasgow.
Letter
carver
10.8
3
(6 /8
model
handle:
priest
a
is
is
hidden behind
restricted to
one
sex.
Around
the
>s
museum
at
Of course, most
unable to see it
people interested
in use,
in
166
**
70 Face-mask
cult
which
is
for
the
egungun
primarily concerned
Northern Yorubaland
Ethnologisches
Ht
28 cm (11
in
1912.
Museum,
Berlin.
in.)
Kenneth Murray
movement
looks
tume.
It
for
Edogo,
is
it is
little
know whether
carving as
it
'
15 2
it
seen with
its
cos-
use beforejudging
Chinua Achebe
'When he had
a carver.
in fact
One of his
charac-
that he
was good or
in his novel
disappointed..
action to
in
highly.
when
to be there.'
a finer carving
is,
the hand
it
ei
*y
in
To appreciate the
we need to see it in
bad.'
artist,
it
out of
its
mask
is
itself is
danced
in to
music - and
made
it is
mask comes
60
\\
life,
hen
all
we would
we saw only the
only
to
masquerade
if
mask'.
Increasingly
made
in the field
danced, but even this conveys only a small part of the original,
for the
least significant
in
the complex.
face, in
wear
fibre
wearing masks,
areas wear
masks
at all.
in
Guinea,
and \gere
white-.
Not only are many figure sculptures not normally seen but
many African masks are not seen at all even when they are in use!
in
many
w ater
spirit
Robin Horton,
shown
that
represent
are
171. Headpiece
cult
for the
with
features,
egungun
carved by Adugbologe of
W.
173
SS^cmdSVsin.)
161
172
172.
are
On
worn
some communities,
Ngere
girl
prepared
like this
for a festival.
a ruff.
141
mask
as a
whole
is
shown
in
///.
it
is
hid-
for
human
175:
its
one
sculp-
gaze.
The
art'.
objects of beauty,
we imagine
that their
62
is
hardly looked
at.
'
do, yet
when
the
Indeed, the
sculpture
pared to a
who does
may evoke
of a god by one
'lest their
est
is
women
children acquire
big eyes and long nose, and so turn out ugly'. 18" So
its
little inter-
Members
of the
E/ewe
their
in their athletic
with their
are
sound
in
rhythm
movements which
emphasized by the
one case even the priest does not see the sculpture.
In contrast, however, their ancestor
intended to be seen. Moreover, these constitute another exception to the generally accepted idea that African sculpture
monoxylous,
i.e.
is
reflect
fit-
European influence
brightly
which
costumes which
movement
people
in
com-
resulting from the palm-oil trade in the Niger Delta, for these
5T^
"
atsfcs^
Sfc'v
I
:s*
':
'**
I
/
6/
all
Ngbula
him
away
to drive
contrast to
is
play, for
example,
emphasized
evil spirits.
'
is
The
a native
in the head-piece,
spirit)
pairs of
rr.
maiden sp
It
be used
in different
174. {oppc\
ancestors.
most
They are
conspicuous pc
assembly
the house
hall of
shows
ship
to live.
The
man was
that this
heads
owned r
Museum, London.
indicate that he
slaves. British
Ht 115.5 err
the Kalahari
Ijo
mask used
among
to rec
humar
hippopotamus features.
Ir
Museum. G R
Raymond and Laura Wtejg
honour of the late Rudy Professor
Emeritus Roy Sieber. L. 47 cm
University Art
n.)
176.
{right)
Broken bronze
huntsman
in
of
what ap:
be an attempt at perspec
may have
Ethnologisches
Berlin.
Ht 45. 7
Museum.
cm (18
in.)
shown
may
that although
262
Wobe
vary
in their
179, iao
this differentiation
of the ancestors
who
is
is
a channel of
communication
The power
of the mask to influence the ancestors depends on the social prestige of the
owner, since a
their help,
and
him.
the
An
inherited
man
his
mask
retains
its
more powerful
Figures
style representing
in
the Benin
Portuguese
show
is
deduced from
do the
information acquired
traditional representations
Again,
may be due
to
prestige
This
The
Portuguese
influence. Sixteenth or
its
Dan masks
different functions
the
field.
of identical appearance
The
may have
quite
is
regulated by the
Museum,
cm
(17 /4 in.),63.5cm(25in.)
1
hut there
66
is
is
179. Maiden
spirit
mask,
Mmwo
in
an Ekpe play
at
3
(8 /8
in.)
Mask representing
the
21.3
Lagos. Ht
180.
cm
Awkusu,
Museum,
Elephant
Spirit,
ugliness,
society of the
Owerri Igbo.
symbol
of
The
ears, tusks
and attached.
Museum,
Ht48cm(19in.)
National
Lagos.
167
":
of the
Dan
of Ivory
interior
shows
the marks
it
is
it
uncomfortable
and
are used
Pom
not
from
make
Masks
in
some
to
areas by the
though
society,
seem
to wear.
this
have been
Ht24cm(9'/2
in.)
it is
in his
hut that prominent people are buried and their masks preserved.
left
free
of this
power but
does
sacrificial
judiciary
com-
forcing
him
to
in
order
their
F.
Willett.
those used at initiation, not only to teach the initiates, but also
to entertain those
own
forest
in the village.
fire,
which
is
is
to protect
when
168
in
their audiences.
is
if
in his lifetime.
Thus
of a mask.
Masks may
damaged,
also be
demoted
ancestors. Formerly,
why many
if
have to be beautiful
for they
to Europeans.
of the examples
This
museums
in
one reason
is
are inadequately
documented.'"'
tion of spirits
which
live in the
human
beings.
which
is
concerned
with
worn with
is
circumcision
the
initiates
and
initiation
tall
the
of
conical
Dea mask
of the youths.
life
responsible
is
away women
for frightening
ing food from the mothers of the youths. These masks are carved
to look
like
beautiful
woman,
initiates happy.
indicates that a
mask
is
all
make
to
A huge
mask
the
feather
likeable
crown which
frightening or imposing
is
worn by
in
the northern
This
last
group
is
Vandenhoute. The
first
two appear
group mentioned by
correspond to
to
mask
is
in
many
places.
If there
in a
the
Gor
society:
in
this
is
may
respect
his
category
very similar
it
in
has joined
no peace-making mask
be promoted to act for
Himmelheber confirms
masks
of wig
cloth.
kinds, dancing
human
169
misbehaving,
by laughing
e.g.
whom
at a
deformity."-'
Girard, working
ent picture.
among
le tells
the
us that a
group of pure
a differ-
gave
spirits, kosri,
men and
these sepa-
rated
great
mask made
which gave
it.
Girard
insists
pejorative
(a
but
is
When
guishable.
kosri,
members
its
At
first
first
same
time,
from the
groups.
forming
derived
its
its
power from
men
received
in
group
kosri.
still
in the
lesser masks,
made
Girard's account
is
own
in his
Gnon
in the
same way.
likeness, to later
a refinement,
spir-
masks function
two
its
Later
first
men. In general
is
a fixed
masks the
the
mask
make
it
reliable
village possesses.
in
its
mask
clearly copied
its
role
confusing,
mask
is
all
role of
three accounts
not an absolutely
shows
mask
illustrates
is
similar to those
170
rank or function.
pi. 8.1 1)
be no guide to
gelede
is
guide to
Lawal (2000,
may
may
shown
in
Ills.
25 land 255.
William Fagg,
uses art
solidarity
from
and
to be
they were
whom
illus-
art,
universe to
itself...
is,
The
all others.'"'
He
and conversely
its
difference
more
stylized
The two
thought
to
rituals of
^m
sculpture.
plays
the
many
Mani
figures are
society
in
beneficent roles
society. British
the
which
in
Museum, London.
HtsSOcmOlV^in.J.SScm
(20 3/4 in.)and33cm(13in.)
171
The
figures of the
elaborate scarifications
art objects
is
fully typical
Museum,
London.
Ht49cm
stylistic features,
artistic universe',
do not adequately
indi-
They
show
left)
Bena Lulua
(19Vi 6
in.)
a single
many
societies
mask-using
happened
as has
in the case
where
from an adjacent
BaLumbo
cult group,
styles,
none of which
out
in
1946 that
in
is
fig-
area,
to be derived.
differ-
example when
cult
or
seems
BaBembe
style. ""
Olbrechts pointed
territories
much larger
is commonly
out
who
style in
wood
sculpture.
The deformation
of the
head
reflects their
own
practice of
make them
The
effect
is
heightened by a
is
also represented
sculpture. British
London. Hts71
cm
(7 in.)
tall
hair-style
in
the
Museum,
cm
(28
in.),
17.8
in.)
IT'J
its
area of influence,
may
Yet
widespread
Wooden
sample bones
of outstanding
form
as
as possible. Certainly
its
two-
copy of one
1922.
Ht
in
British
66 cm (26
191.
(right)
of a type
cardboard
made
in
Museum, London.
in.)
Wh ite-faced mask
Documented
among
Among the
these peoples.
Rietberg
Museum,
Ht30cm(ll 3/4
Zurich.
in.)
173
masks, many
of
mboy
type,
is
worn
initiation rites to
culture hero
royalty,
which
their
mwaash
at the
symbolize the
Woot who
originated
and most
of the arts
The superstructure
appears
and
crafts.
of the
of
it
is
a royal
men
(Collected about
of royal descent.
1892 by
the
to
important person
Ht41cm(16 /8
1
mask
in.)
Virginia.
society.
reported
in
BaPende
than
is
the
represent an
initiation, to
W. H. Sheppard.) Hampton
Hampton,
in
masks than
African-American missionary
University,
of
spirits
171
The
person
who has
benefited from
their intervention
required to
of the
wear
mask, usually
in ivory,
copy
as
may no
longer be possible
become
Museum, London. Ht
(2V2
in.)
c.
6.4
cm
Private Collection.
Ht31.7cm(12 1/2
in.)
175
the
same
in
///.
of
the
181.
Gallery. Gift of
Osborn
of African Art.
Ht 23
cm
(9
in.)
The Poro
variety of
wooden masks
in
masks
in
Sierra
Leone but
a great
Coast, including the sleek moderately naturalistic masks associated with the
name
in style
Porol).
may both
styles,
the very
artist.
'"
Without
simplified
three
176
181
196
Door
for a
granary
de I'Homme,
Dogon. Musee
Paris.
Ht 39.4
cm
in
may
sit
on
n.)
theBaJokw
One
aspect of the
phenomenon seems
may
of Benin, in 1959,
in
the boys'
177
199
mask used by
sub-group
of the
the Tsaye
BaTeke
is in
sculpture
Formerly
Musee
(Ills.
156-58).
owned by Andre
in.)
Lett:
Wooden
mpuwu and
village. Right:
Wooden
figure
which
Barbier-Mueller, Geneva.
Ht34cm(13 3/8
198. (opposite)
Tervuren. Hts
111.4cm(43 /8
7
17 H
in.)
179
in a
whose
carved
in
the door
(///.
Museum,
196). University
Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania. Ht 63.5
(25
in.)
cm
masquerade by
in
Ishan, a
away.
Coll.
(11 Vain.)
all
hundred and
fifty
in
uninitiated boys
hundred and
F.
in
Willett.
fifty
miles
Ht 28.3
cm
during
my
visit.
My
who
was
told
a local carver
a figure
carved
in the traditional
seem
were carved by
Ishan style.
to distinguish
style.
In another
it
since she
was
is
a child,
which
phenomenon.
181
is
masks
in
latter
it is
possible for
one, a desire to
all
1x2
all 'tribally'
life
67.200
mask
Edo
force in their
own
212
were taken
a figure
still
performed the
traditional acrobatic
ani-mhin of their
dance Ikhien-
home
area.
The
who wears an
mask from
to
III.
Ikot
Ibibio
Ekpene, similar
200.
183
Ishan
Ekpene
is
of Ibibio sculptures
was bought
doll
who
that
childhood. Coll.
Ht31cm(12
it
F.
/4
there
declared
since her
Willett.
in.)
Ibibio
masks
representing
made
for the
Ekpo
spirits,
society to
males used
which
all
adult
maintenance
British
is
kind, their crops, their stock and the animals they hunt, a notion
in
all
eties
all
Age
other
'tribally'
all
which seems
concerned with
it is
fertility
and increase,
is
Horned animals
are the
Some
it
in a
is
offered.
to be sacrificed
206.
in
in sculptures
organized soci-
artists of Europe),
growing
from
to be
in
in all
sacrifices that
tally, a
have been
art
neighbours. These
Idoma sculptures
reflect influence
Dance headpiece
society of
for
the Ogrinye
killed
an
man.
British
Museum, London.
Ht25.5cm(10in.)/?/gM:
for
Figure
rivers
chiefly
by
women
seeking to be
W. B. Fagg. Ht 38
cm
(15
in.)
185
207. An ancestor
altar in Chief
Oghiamien's house
Benin.
as a
in
tally.
186
made and
at the
same time
shippers.
wor-
i.e.
ram's horns
commonly used
fetish material.
filled
Vandenhoute says
that 'formerlv
amulet
in
from
The
now
masks sometimes
horns
filled
represented carved on
still
in
in
communal hunts
"
have
John
some cases
real
in this
way
208.
forehead
this decoration
in
order to win
households or individuals.
Musee Royal de
Tervuren. Ht
209.
I'Afrique Centrale,
in.)
is in
BaKuba
style,
the
Museum, London.
Ht46.3cm(18y4
in.)
187
renown
transferred to other
fields,
But
used
it
is
in
is still
men.' 171 Exponential curves are found too in the canine teeth of
carnivores and the talons of birds of prey which are, like the
e.g. in
would appear
The symbolism
here
in
the
shells, then,
appear
in
exponential curve
in a
it
sculpture
is
e.g. in
the drink-
is
dressed in this
the symbolism
BaMbala,
a subdivision of
London. Ht 20
cm
Museum,
(8
in.)
is
merely
However, no
viewers of the
communal hunts
conducted by young
enhancement
of their
men
for
the
of the reputation
age-group. National
Museum, Lagos. Ht 61 cm
(24
in.)
(where
it is
it
documented unequivo-
elevated
is
it is
it
it
mind on
should be
as a tentative hypothesis
to a doctrine.
189
in
district of Igbira
the
(about
in
the
the early
Nge
sculptor. This
which the
is
the
mask on
L.
56 cm (22
in.)
While
it is
tigation
light
fine
neighbouring peoples, an
Basa
Nge mask
Amodu
Ihiovi,
for
if
SO
it
would look
/<)()
is
tall.
liked,
quite eclectic
is
if all
this
choice of masks.
if
were
Evidently this
in its
it
placed higher up
Of course,
knew what he
which
that
carver
Museum. 'He
it
teat u res,
knew how
would have been better if the mouth had been
the face, and
examined
in\ es-
in a
it
society
3
213. Mask carved
in
the early
mask
Opopocho
the
of Igbira.
village,
hima
district
mask
of sacrifices, for
is still in
use.
of the
191
low docs
this affect
ment of
obvious
same
in
among
imply, or
our
level
own
Amodu
Ihiovi
would suggest?
artists
is
It is
not on the
and art
critics
few
artists
who
critics,
we might
art,
might be difficult
art,
concentrated on the
how works
to identify.
of art
ways with
artist, his
come
different groups.
on them;
in
the other
Akan peoples
in
forms
among
found
(e.g.
the
among
in
Cameroun.
British
London. Ht 40.6
Museum,
cm (16
in.)
lf)2
showing
judgments passed
queen
Some have
stool for a
in
the
but
African
214. Wooden
in
it is
Guro
in Africa.
accept a
made
ture.
mask
if it
to the sculptor
He conducted
a series of simple
among those
he preferred himself.
as the best,
When
'beauty of
that he
line'
vague
came up against
it is
little
wall of incomprehension'.
'a
he appears
replies, but
wonder
171
masks
many
In
name
the person
represented without any hesitation, recognizing him by the features of the sculpture, not by his scarification pattern.
To non-
Others
of an African
Himmelheber
followed
have
in
these
experiments
among
the
Vandenhoute conducted
Dan
the
Lome
studies,
is
judged
number of
is
face.
17
7
'
sculptor called
Yituwo chose
as
best one which had a fringe of stylized horns over the forehead,
a feature of
in selecting a different
carefully finished
was
slightly
When
three
more
mask because
it
was more
damaged, the
tip
Uwi Magbwe,
193
whom
it
village.
formulate as the
the ver-
portrays.
tical axis,
we
tend to
ay.
sometimes holding
his eyes
it
upside-down or back to
at
front,
screwing up
is
the think-
ing which the artist declared to be the hardest part of the work,
as other
for this
Dan
is
wood
elements of his
in his
final
criteria
Vandenhoute found
in
wear so
as well as out.
194
that the
show how
well these
in
it
masks are
use,
i.e.
well.
finished inside
216,217. Although
Afr,
as highly stylized,
resemblances
th.
surpris-.
to real
pec
sometimes be observed.
Yoruba twin figure carved
is
remarkably similar
in
the
to
who
represented
1963
'Miss United
Idowu,
IV
Ht28.5cm(ll
/4
in.)
initial
of finishing the
stage of
it
life.
sought
in
it
does
to fairly
absence of violence
in
sculpture
tutu,
In sculpture
a quality
it is
is
also
which
shown by the
among
This
no emotion
in situations
at the right
moment.
another world.
It is
.to reveal
,8
mind were
Women
movement and
is
considered
Some
Thompson was
able to elicit by
is
bility
all
23,70,
96, 97,
African art would probably agree with the Yoruba about which
233-43,
Yoruba sculptures are good and which bad, even without know-
254, 255
Thompson
in the field
been justified
admired
moral
in
Yoruba
able to
show
subsequent field-work,
In
ideal,
ideal
this
interring them.
in
Thompson was
is
is
a reflection
is
of
Armed
widespread. 181
criteria, the
Western
with Thompson's
of
list
check his
own
The
before
fact that
Thompson's
Western
of their makers.
found that
all
sensitivity will
produce judgments
art
Among
works of African
Bwami soci-
appearance... is inconceivable.'
As
""
celluloid dolls
result,
in
ivory and
wood. This
is
prestigious association
- only
is
initiated
membership
in
the
It
large
figure in ivory,
1952.
It
was owned by
Bwami society.
called 'One-Arm'
results
It
harm
part in a great
cm
(5 /.
many
It
is
this
very
fact,
however,
that
Biebuyck. Ht 13
is
and represents
member
grade of the
numbers of the
umbers alone are what matters, the quality and age of the
pieces
in.)
are of no importance.
Western
critics
aesthetic standards
common
frontiers. e\ en
obtain
opinions on
series
of thirty-nine photographs of
198
make such
in
ivory
palm
oil
the
ceremonies
to the
may be worn,
masks
hung on a fence
floor.
in
New
Haven, Connecticut.
To
with the
initiates of
initiation
judgments'
or laid
on the
duced
bias,
since the
styles,
in.)
cultural
Htl9.4cm(7 5/8
New Haven
photographs,
and
out the
in that
whereas
his
in
not,
making or
when
The informants
were asked to choose the four most beautiful masks, then the
four
most
repeated
beautiful
till
were given
to
199
.^H
^4&L^\^
^^^^hlSL J^l
221,222. Representation
human head
of the
with a 'heart-shaped'
is
found
Congo Basin
The provenance
this feature
distinguish.
(called
is
Ngbangba
carved by an Igbo
Bende
Division,
Ikoro)
to
left
mants could
State,
was
at Abiriba,
Imo
'''
masks with
of
sometimes hard
'^[
was
arise
by chance
less than
once
the individual
New Haven
in a
infor-
hundred times.
BaKwele
carvers, cult
cm
(8
Museum,
in.)
222:
British
London. Ht 26.5
20
Museum,
Lagos. Ht
cm
(lO'/a
leaders and four of the eight other informants with the New
judgments could
arise
in
Haven
twenty times.
in.)
tently ranked
more highly by
New
Two photographs
all
the
were consis-
New
single BaKwele.
These differences
first
four by
ith
each Other, and correlate with each other more highly than
2(H)
New Haven
consensus.
The
only
were
in a position to exercise
them with
felt fearful
favour,
masks. Since
'fierce'
it
It is
make
different
led
as well as
them
to
from the
aesthetics
background was
Fang
influential; they
were loath
seemed
this use
them
to place
that artists
other's work.
to criticize each
The answers
were expected
Without
ber.
to be
w ould not be
would have no
life
or vitality within
is
one -
uvwould
my
call
informants.
this
is
the best
it
'that
movement
They gen-
a real
all
mem-
Fernandez found
it".
opposite
its
stolid,
word - suppressed.'
""
and Western
its
art
is
precisely
in
Fang
society
is
is
sub-
working, and
cause of the statue and apply what social pressures they can to
the efficient cause, the carver, to see that the
their expectations'.
186
The
aesthetic acquiescence
artists thus
upon
came across
prevail that
whether
is
it
its
Fernandez never
all
to
187
view which
Tiv
in
Bohannan found
""
society.
and
artist
The Tiv
had
artists
made
liked best
little to tell
so,
explained
in
in
which pieces he
his critic in
that the
sewing
in
which
When Bohannan
come out
has
will sell
it
well. If this
Bohannan found
asked
told
it is
finished: then
shall
shall give
a figure of a
why he had
keep
to
it
were the
woman when
breasts.
turns
set
in
artist's vision,
would
in
is
one
well, he said.
And
if it
comes
mother-in-law."
critics.
carver
it.
my
'that
was making
pattern until
at a
belly.
The
old
man
not....'
where-
in
turn
preconceived design.
The
it
like
something
as are
faculty
all
spheres, this
is
in societies
artists,
and
study.
223,224.
Tiv figure of a
woman,
and back
house
for the
land'.
of a
tige
artist.
"'
fession,
of
Ht47.6cm(18 3Ain.)
do work
for
work
someone else.
In general,
no pres-
sculpture
of 'repairing the
Cambridge Museum
to
attached to the
is
Such
of the trunk.
up outside the
purpose
commissioned
The
is
is
talent, usually
by professionals may be
influence than
tradition.
is
it
affair,
which
runs
in families.
Bohannan described
where the
seems
in
art
is
the
work of
produced
15*"
203
have
artists are able to evolve their personal style within the sculp-
These personal
connoisseurship
in
artist
town or
styles can be
village styles,
and
finally
same
artist's style
from
workshop and
to trace the
his apprenticeship
One
though
of the
it is
first styles to
now considered
Almost
name
which
in
The
slight
degree of
is
British
l6.5cm(6V2 'm.)
ambiguous for it
sculptor's
names recorded
Museum, London. Ht
is
two caryatid
the 'long-
is
is
in
known but
development of the
dreds.
20
in a
short
227. Chief's
stool
BaLuba, carved
one
style of Buli',
of
in
from the
the 'long-faced
of the
first
styles
an individual sculptor or
workshop
to
literature.
be reported
in
the
more
t&
typical
Ills.
British
Ht
Museum, London.
53 cm (21
in.)
Among
the
could be revealed
when
the
list
still in
use,
mask ceased
totals
name
is
to be used.
193
The
in
in the files
is
recorded
Nigeria
Museum in Lagos and has thus not had the pubdeserves. He encouraged William Fagg to seek out
of the National
licity it
artists
all
205
and
his writings
One
ever,
Liberia.
*4
sculptors
He
in
Tame,
Si,
Tompieme and
Son.
them
in different
may
north-eastern
how
Moreover, the
Tame
of which has
mask.
in
the collection of
cm
(7
in.)
229. Statue
of a
female ancestor,
London. Ht44.5
Museum,
cm (17V2
in.)
207
in
Tame's
adze 195 he
first
form of the
bird-like
bill.
Then he
cuts
(After Fischer)
above and below the eyes, and two sloping grooves to define the
23 1
Tame's carving
of a
in
ngede mask.
nose.
He
and the
then cuts away the cheeks, and blocks out the forehead
eyes.
work
a
is
making
on the
The
the back.
a ngede mask
which has
human face, he first of all cuts the block of wood into an oval, the
outline of the mask, and then cuts four grooves across the face
groove
all
On
the back
lie
hair.
first
Without complet-
series of blocks,
still
a trans-
He
cuts a
He
even
Then he
and
then completes the adzing out of the back and, with a knife again,
the piercing of the eyes.
and
finally the
mask
In carving a dea
is
Aluminium
oiled.
mask
(similar to
///.
181)
Tompieme shapes
across the upper part, stopping short of the edges of the mask.
it
from
all
wood terminate at the groove. He takes out about two centimetres of wood in this way, then turns the block over and cuts
of
two grooves
in the front,
Taking
232. Stages
in
Tompieme's
a chisel,
proceeds to adze out the cheeks, Leaving the nose and mouth as
blocks
He
(After Fischer)
his knife,
which he uses
like a chisel,
wood
to cut the
gouge
to
is
own
it is
880, died
who was
(died
about
1945)
who had
own
father but to
himself been
Oshamuko
apprenticed
to
who was
209
cm
(25
in.)
of
(14V.
cm
in.)
2/0
is
the style
descended from a
family of carvers
style.
ally,
become Bandele's
apprentice.
He was
in a
this apprenticeship
cially in
and houseposts)
One
is
round (masks
usually distinguishable.
mounted
warrior.
Ills.
233
to
is
the
subject was
not usually
but
235. Detail from a panel carved
by Bandele, son of
Arowogun and
former apprentice of
National
Museum,
W. 67.3
cm
(26 l/2
is
falls
who complete
the design
minimum, producing
a richness
Oshamuko.
Lagos.
in.)
style
is
characterized
by
relatively
is
low
relief
with
well-
211
236
Lam id
i,
W. 73.7
cm
(29
and nose;
this line
Ife.
apprentice
in.)
Oshamuko
is
much
less
The
the
Ogoga
for
of Ikere,
Captain Ambrose
in
litter
with
beaded crown
his
and flanked by
his attendants
to
and
broken figure
British
is
indicated by the
at the
it
has
was moved
to
bottom
right.
is
less regular
in shaf>e, their
form
He
ized as bold.
is
more bulging.
which
is
by the
Ogoga wearing
The degree
the Palace of
showing
wives.
it
carved about
Pair of doors
1910 by Olowe
panel by his
lips
is
best character-
skill in
carving which
Museum, London.
Htapprox. 1.8
(6
ft.)
remarks that
'it is
quite
uncanny
hand
firmness'.
carver,
197
to
deli-
and
whose work
in relief is often
///.
236 shows
a detail of
in the
one of
the Palace in
212
Ife.
It is
one of a
gatehouse of
23*
i5
'2
V
Ki
life5?!
r>
l>t:
"^Ul%I
238. Part
of a
representing Captain
tour,
is
Ambrose on
Nigerian
W. 56
Museum,
cm
(22
Lagos.
in.)
It is
very
difficult to tell
Bandele's carving.
is
found
in both,
ear forms are also similar. In this particular example the prisoner
who
is
is
Olowe of
Ise (died
His figures lean out from the door, the upper part being carved
fully in the
Reeve Tucker.
was commissioned
of Yoruba kings.
to carve
One
in this
example are
Ondo Province
Olowe had
doors and
miles
in 1897,
a great reputation.
and
He
fifty
a district
who was
away from
his
still
stands in
almost grow out of the background. His fame was even more
u idespread, for
214
it
was
a pair
237
ona
a kneeling
of
in
the carving of
woman
offering bowl
Fakeye
of the blocking-out
Hie, in
made
1973.
In
Empire Exhibition
holding an
by Lamidi
the collection
Northwestern University
Program
for the
Museum
British
Wembley
at
in
London. In
now
in
the
in
he
Mr Ambrose, in a litter,
of African Studies.
Olowe
is
shown
in
///.
supporting figures
monly found
is
more com-
in
in a catalogue raisonne
by
When
ter himself
first
in 1960,
March and
preparing for
they were
all
assured of a ready
sale.
was interested
twin figure as
had made
model
for
them
or sixty of them.
fifty
to copy,
I
his.
how closely
He had carved
to discover
work resembled
artists.
One
in
the
of them, a
chiefly
employed
in
could detect
relatively
nephew of Lamidi
work of these
completing the
final
to carve
called
and was
stages of Lamidi's
months
earlier
his
own
style.
The
to spot the
this
failed to,
though
had taken more time no doubt they could have avoided the
confusion.
///.
as a
seemed most
lip to
merge
The ears
are alike in
all.
All
of them, however, have broader and shorter faces than their master's piece
lip
surface
215
of
///.
243
is
The
breasts on his female figures are conical and less bulbous than
Lamidi
s;
is
very prominent
younger
full
left in
///.
243
is
The
master's style, though the breasts of his figures are less bulbous
abdominal
Akande; although
Joseph's, he
figures
Museum
of African Art,
(25
cm
in.)
216
at
the
scarifications.
his style
to retain the
is
work
It is
young sculptor
not
is
Guro
for cut,
seems
to be an exceptional procedure.
'
9
)
of sculpture
lile
blocking out the main forms w ith an axe or adze, then comes
tunle
this
is
hair, eyelids
and
edes ona
says, the
lile.
apprentice
in
sharp detail
ale-
into
such as
a stage, sisa,
is
which pre-
outlined. In ona
lile,
he
visible.
little.
Lamidi writes of
finish the
share
in
work
perfectly
when
only carving out the surplus wood after the master carver has
indicated
where
to
this
cut The-
The smoothing
best
the sculpture.
is
final
stage- are
and as their
skill
increases
of
final
left
almost
sharp cutt\ng,Jifin
It
less
may be
the forms
whereas the
is
entrusted to them.
///.
make
Indeed, in other Yoruba groups, such as Ijebu, where no largescale sculptures are
made nowadays,
Ekiti,
205
In
how-
we can
left to
apprentices.
lile
and
ale-
Thanks
to this principle
241,242.
end
in
by
in attributions
local
in
Owo.
It is
woman
bowl
in
The
(opposite)
1973.
In
the collection of
Northwestern University
Program
of African Studies.
important
to be able to
do
this, for
more famous
more
its
owner
to the
hand of a
prestigious
the
name
of
On
Ibeji,
the
single figures
left is
the example
Joseph Fakeye,
30 cm
28.3cm(ll /8
1
be able
in
Hts32cm(12 3/4
we may
is,
in short, susceptible to
it
too
is art,
no
less
than
is
more
Western and
in.)
Oriental
art.
219
Chapter 7
When
tomary
to
write in
the present
known
is
as 'the
is
cus-
it is
without repeatedly
tense
ethnographic present',
kind of fictional,
who sought
to
demonstrate the
in a society
It
\\
ay
supported each
even led
at
times to
the total failure to report on aspects of the society that gave evi-
until
was shown
is still
it
make
reliable
am
it
may not be
in
appropriate
this
many
belief
casts
life in
have often taken the young people away from the villages. They
is
in
many
societies
Where
young emigrants
traditional
still
in festivals, the
This has
BaPendeby Z.S
tions,
220
St rother
tradi-
detail, naturally,
is
more complete
for
number of
life-size
representations of fierce
elephant and
made over basketry frames. These forms were short lived because
they were a reaction to colonialism, and had almost died out by
the time of independence in 1960.
Among
the Central
become secularized
BaPende
BaPende where their use in a ritual context continues, so one cannot easily generalize even about a single group of African people.
Ruth
the
Phillips has
secular, acquiring
a greater
sponding reduction
a corre-
Even where
itiner-
been the case since the 1950s and had become widespread by
the 1970s.'"" Phillips tells us too that new masks are constantly
244. Islam has not completely
animals and
human
groups.""
in
beings.
in
name
is
896.
it
Htsl0.8cm(4
13.6cm(5 3/8 in.)
F.Willett.
/4
is
in.)
it
is
very
difficult to
>
establish
221
245.
by
Over the
last half
not only
in their
own
many masquerade
societies has
The
Gelede society
community against
perform
at
his students
agricultural
still
still
continuing to perform
many
al.,
2000,
One
of the great
that
is
it
describes
The
in
still
going on
much
by Africans)
all
in Africa, in
is
so
much
artistic
produc-
it
seems likely that posterity will judge the second half of the twencentury to have been
tieth
Africa as a whole.
One
in
at
Mokwa
savanna,
in
in
North
is
Sudan
the
regarded as a
only perform
Museum, London. Ht 64 cm
(25 3/4
in.)
is
also to the
Muslim world
as a whole. In gen-
Africa
Nupe
whose
art
is
is
210
known nowadays
The
for their
ples in
West Africa.
21
'
distinctively
223
The
relief lines
round
it
are
Museum, London.
28 cm (11 in.)
British
Ht
shown
istically
as
Even where,
it
it
led in
did
as character-
some respects
to
new creativity.
may
its
pro-
be absent
is
found."
Coptic Christianity
to the
in
What
century.
mitted
to
the rest of
224
trans-
century onwards.
The most
at
proselytization
were
was the
Arman. Musee
de I'Homme,
Paris.
Ht 31
cm
(12y4
in.)
249.
a variety of
ways as
in
conceived as a government
messenger with
his pith-helmet,
secured by his
belt.
Manchester
41.5cm(16 3/8
in.),
in.)
and
in the
in
its
mark
European
leagues
in a
influence, but
The
Kingdom
its
BaKongo
cannot go so
It is
possible too
sculpture
far as
may be due
one of my col-
nail fetish is
225
37
250. Statue
of
Our Lady
in
the
Laurent Ndonc.
226
r**.
251. Nail
fetish called
mangaka
power
to obtain supernatural
Manchester Museum.
Htll8cm(46 /2
1
in.)
252. One
of the
Three Wise
Men
Birmingham
Ht
University.
56 cm (22
in.)
day,
and
in
that
the mistaken
indeed seem
Fortunately,
s<
ecumenism
is
beginning
to
in
how the
Gods
African sculpture.
embrace even
in
It is
tradi-
to utilize
interesting to
attempted to make
its
French administration
attitude, that
aspire,
is
to
They
all
clearly in
forwarding British
in Nigeria.
Oye
Ekiti
Father Kevin
was
in
after a
The
craftsmen.
No
attempt was
is
shown
in
///.
252: a
magus
made
house carved
in
whom Oshamuko
(see
234)
may have been apprenticed
(Picton 1994a, 57 and plate 25).
///.
Museum,
University of Aberdeen.
Ht 117
cm
(46
in.)
229
carved by
the
same
subject.
The
older
in
village,
ee his
grandchildren.
own
ht, is
I
great-great-
The younger
at
said to have
Odo Owa,
but
j'.umented.
National
Museum,
Htsl08cm(42
1 18 cm (46
!
/2
Lagos.
in.),
well
remember
Carroll in
Ogboni house
visiting an
in Ekiti
is
traditional
in the
The mandorla
in Christian
Among
Ekiti carvers.
has been
253
257
it
in 1965.
Oye
with Father
is
now
the best
known of the
many
doors for public buildings which often portray scenes both from
traditional
Yoruba
life
in
in
Bible.
On
Ibadan, carved
modern
1960, he repre-
With
new themes
these
first time,
the artist
is
lems. Lamidi
is
uniqueness
is
main
consequence he and
his apprentices
artistic
prob-
much
store. In
them
at
frequent
for
an Ogboni house
Htc. 91.4
cm (36
in.)
231
257. Baptismal
Bandele
in
font carved by
1965. The
traditional
drums
is
here entirely
in
harmony
intervals. It
was
this repetition
we have mentioned,
practise
The
in:
his practice
is
in the
I i
Enwonwu was
wu
in
The Oye
members of
the congregation
who
gos carved
of
the Apostolic
'
Kkiti scheme,
in
Oye
1965.
probably the
Western-trained African
in
in
ones. At
procession,
first
artist to
traditional festival in
232
in
233
of
S3
260. 'Leopard
in
a Cornfield',
Onobrakpeya, 1965.
F.Willett.
Coll.
Ht60cm(23 3/4
in.)
235
is
Oye
African art.
Then
all
Crucifixion, which
plaque.
In
Delegation
contrast Ben
Lagos are
236
in Osito's
great
many Western-trained
artists
258
1961
for
the Catholic
employs a
and a
to
trefoil
those
in
in
Benin,
design
frontality of
background, similar
which Benin
plaques
for
famous.
Left: Catholic
University of Ibadan. Ht
(32
in.)
Right: British
London. Ht
is
Chapel,
81.3 cm
Museum,
48 cm (19
in.)
practising in Africa,'
either for a
''
criticized.
enough
their
However,
ii<
h are
geared
tist at least,
own
subject,
1220
public insti-
work w
society.
is
in style.
in
Western-trained
mentation,
stimulated
continents, rather as
by the
European
art
traditions
artists
of the other
were stimulated by
237
Their art
is in
some
is
Picasso's work.
of, say,
African artists are thus at present being absorbed into the cos-
art,
which owes
its
character mainly
The wheel
has
come
and to play
this role
on the twentieth-century
operating here as
is
however,
in time,
it
art',
is
in
art scene,
to be important.
music. Perhaps
we
in
own
ingly to their
If
we may
they do,
New
already
in fact
in
themselves.
now
The
first
artistic
in Salisbury,
Harare, in
over
artists all
draw
Most
that his
out their
'spirit
well
oiled.
The
wherever
in
production
term which
McEwen
is
with
coined) which
European
is
if
furniture
a similar surface
and
Some
were
harmonize
the
to
some of
McEwen
identical
sitting-room
is
is
all
of
it
to be.
own
uninfluenced
ideas,
If
The Zimbabwe
The
good deal
school-'" has
its
is
in
only customers
seem
still
to
were repre-
see
American
art scenes.
We
must wait
McEwen's
new
it,
artists in the
-* deserves
to
be successful.
itself a certain
summer
series of
in
won
in
for
as a
Ibadan
1961 and 1962, were primarily for practising artists and art
teachers,
and aimed
at
freeing
inhibitions
open
263. 'Entwined
in
Figure',
to
in
drop
The
They were
participants were
carved
soapstone by Nicholas
Mukomberanwa of the
Zimbabwe school.
239
i-i
many
Susanne Wenger
The
Olaniyi,
for support.
who
is
also a
Taiwo
night-club entertainer (drummer and
pictures produced by
figures
Amos
from
as
This literary
Tutuola's novels.
is
work made by
Another
artist
modern MaKonde
in
It
is
very
sculpture,*" but
whose
creativity
is
was sparked
off by the
to
to be used by the
mount
1
1
bird Ghost, a
wing on
gro<
/.()
his
beads on
many Nigerian
259
265,266.
an unknown
is
16
Obo made by
artist for
Bronze
(right)
cm
(6V4
horseman 18.4
the cult of
man smoking
in.) tall,
cm {7Vt
his
the
in.)
Yemi
Bisiri of llobu.
Obo style by
was cast
It
has been
was
to
left in
be sold
to a
European.
Ht
38 cm (15
buildings.**
le
composed of very
fine
in.)
lines
and
The Oshogbo
other untrained
ents in the
artists,
summer
encouraged by
who
school, but of a
Ulli Beier
The
first
of these to
brass-smith trained
make
in
1
he remained
faithful.**
larger than
is
usual
summer
name
for himself
was Yemi
nowadays
which
is
Bisiri, a
in
in
making his
tal-
work
mgs
ires are
those
pieces
now
which
Ogboni
brass-smith.
Ashiru Olatunde
who was
is
table
ornaments
size of his
241
1966 he
onnnassioned to
subseque
headquar
ted
:
in
Oshogbo and
Airwj
f
Lagos
the Unilever
^rx> for
some time
ber
g
-
ano
leg
*t-
tin her
269. Part
of the
Oshun
shrine at
Wenger and
River
Expressionist
style.
number of
local craftsmen.
The undulating
to
own angular
of the
Oshogbo with
shrines
in
design.
Still later
ture, at
which point
Oshun.
pierced
her projects was the refurbishing of the grove for Oshun, the
great river goddess of
Oshogbo
in
river,
mud,
but she
known
as a result of Beier's
large-scale
well
dertaken
encouragement and
in
in all
is
said to represent
Susanne Wenger),
masquerade and
dog being
sacrificed to
He was
later
Ogun, who
is
nowa-
commissioned by the
243
sfe&y?
270. (opposite) Pierced cement
screen round the Esso petrol
station in
present Ooni of
shrines
Ife to
protect
Oshogbo by Adebisi
Most of the
Palm-wine drinkers,
Akanji.
in Ife to
>.-^-. W*,
expression
in
shown.
batik
artistic talent
clothes
wall-hangings
and
efforts in wax-resist
have been
artists
dyed
outstandingly
of the
successful.
Oshun
shrine
in
sacrificial
relief
Oshogbo, showing a
cow carved
in
by Adebisi Akanji.
low
ture,
Enwonwu
are outstanding
exceptions
What then
is
drew on
munity
in
It is
which he
lived
- and
is
Africa. Yet
it is
to
areas
ly
which to
ronage within
who,
ommunities during
Perhaps
com-
theii
al
'
draw; and
changing
own
areas.
Western-trained artists
state
may
well
art.
245
Recent Research: An
or lantana) in florin
beads {okun
in
Guide
stone
Drilling red
272. (betow)
Illustrated
1957 The
material
imported
is
When
this
book was
first
finally
The technique
ing,
is
become
valuable heirlooms
among the
commemorate events
in
is
it
field.
was intended
The number
to be only an introduc-
which
L 1 78 cm
(41
immense
contempo-
been discussed
Benin
of
It
rary scene.
It
(70
in.).
W. 104
cm
in.).
silver
making.
It
among
the
more
traditional
is
film
the part
of Africa that the author knows best and his aim was, and remains,
woven with
in
a floating weft in
weaving
skill in
colourful patterns
This piece
bs
was maae
by
an
purchased
in
Ibadan
The sheen
is
woman and
Igbira
in
1989.
produced by lurex
Two pieces
threads.
them separately
desired.
in.)
may use
or join
Each piece
is
tr e
58.5
made by Nike
Twins Seven Seven.
Olaniyi, wife of
The technique
of wax-resist
dying
ated in South-East
*'oduced to the
artists
by Susanne
techniques.
It
is
East Africa. W. c.
43cm(17in.).
In
a private collection
and
it is
possible to indicate
who wish
to
is
in their
warp
A number
this richness
copied y
cotton
regarded as
'crafts',
lent, well-illustrated
Museum
Many
in exhibitions
with excel-
2001) and
at the British
Museum
in
London (Mack,
al.,
n.d.) reflect
General Sources
An
making, wood carving, calabash and leather decorating, the making of camel saddles, of skin bowls (tandu), of stone bracelets,
spinning, weaving, dying, applique and drawing on cloth in vari-
in
Gardi,
969.
his scholarship
and hair
which
styles,
and
is
Sieber, 1980,
brecht, and
textiles
1975,
Gardi, eds,
(
l
>S9,
is
is
crafts
is
an
in
Textiles
///.
159, while
early, well-illustrated
One
Price,
is
Dark, 1973.
and Costume
whole continent
Picton, 1995,
is
is
with
and
West
1982
the
a particularly well-illustrated
a<
(3),
xtiles.
1992,
Boser-
established her
West
25
Afric;:
1975,
hapman
Africa.
Lamb,
same region.
specific areas
as Eicher,
and techniques
1976, on Nigeria;
1987,
280
men's narrow-loom
279
Gilfoy,
247
in
Hausa
knot,
which
is
very popular
Mud
277.
made
women
cloth
l ! AUAUi> Mil
cloth (bogolanfini)
by Bambara (Bamana)
in
Mali
and dye
it
who weave
the
using a very
in
smaller
has developed,
on an
These
in
by fabric designers
I.e.
(39
152 cm (60
in.). In
in
the West.
in.).
W. 99
cm
a private collection.
WM
MjMLi
m w+igmiitq
19 cm (8V2
in.)
strips
wide. The
The thickness
of
these blankets
owner warm
much
for
mosquitoes
is
to bite
West
in
it
in
This one
Ghana,
in
In a private collection.
weaving. Imperato, 1970, and Rovine, 1997, describe a very complex method of dying with mud, while Imperato, 1973, discusses
blankets that are traded widely over
West Africa.
thousand years.
The
its
still
being
the
the Ife
til
the mid-
recently by
OH<
y>86.
.
is
The magnifi-
more concerned
among
249
272
-**-
JsfiSSOSiliEfi
cloth,
is
thread.
cm
made from
The
strips are
A to 4
(3
by the
imported
in.)
9.5
wide. Collected
late Professor
Jack Berry.
/Ad/re cloth
made
of imported cloth.
on two widths
sewn
or
dye. Formerly
raffia fibre
indigo
it,
was
replaced by
where else
in
the world.
It
demonstrating
a real
is
described as already
how
970,
is
Museum,
was used
replaced
made in
silk
10.2
to
Pottery
its
imported
is
in
The whole
woman's wrapper -
-a
measures 198
170 cm (78
Interesting
a
monographs on
the Jos
Museum,
Nigeria; Fatunsin,
Arts,
22
(2),
is
a special issue
on
in Africa.
in
is left
sun before
Photograph taken
in
firing.
to dry in the
January 1957.
282.
(right)
by the
about 1958
of the
Waterpot
woman
in
of northern
and
up
the
in
fired in
1951 by the
Michael Cardew at
kiln set
English potter
by hand
Kwale
Gwari people
modern
made
potter Ladi
way by
made
incision
in
the
and
251
Iron
Working
The
art
or
ha\c to be sought
in
in
is
a short,
1991,
is
in
Chad, but
Works of
silver,
is
copper and
tin as well
is
a collection of papers in
in
history.
working
its
it is
Gold Smithing
still is,
worked
in
many
Very
little
survives from
some
Calabash Decoration
topic.
There are
this
and Kay, 1978, which must be read with Burns, 1974, Perani,
1986, and Rubin, 1970.
g of a dancing
m 1983
'
together to
make
by
gl
a large figure.
276
from southeastern
Nigeria, has
mud
adapted
sculpture to the
medium
of
traditional
modern
first
described
whose
instigation 'The
Uyo
on
their
card
in
his naturalism
Christmas greetings
1974.
The
arts have in
many
in
northern
in
Nigeria took to making ash trays and cigarette boxes between the
in
begun
also
ble before
them
make castings on
to
by casting sculptures
in several
ancestors. Cement w
rative
and even
as seized
a sculptural
medium, while
painted
human
in
as a deco-
in
south-eastern
the
making of life-
to their
which are
Magnin and
new
pouffes, footwear
Europeans
skills,
and satchels
while
for the
still
making
traditional
sell to
as handbags.
nand
Not all changes are the result of Western influence
- some derived from African creativity. Burns, 197
portsthat
Kane Kwei,
Ga
cabinet
in
in the
shape of a boat
life.
first
at his funeral
and
world.
Most related
to their present
life
- farmers commissioned
wealthy
cars,
253
285
capital. Bida,
in
punched, non-representational
patterns,
was bought
in
Bida
18.5
cm
(7 /.
a private
in.). In
collection.
286. Early
in
the twentieth
that
also less
commonly
bindings of books as
example
Arts of
of
Michael
West
Africa,
but
III
to the
HI
in this
E. Sadler's
London,
11
**
^a MWiP*
^1 ^C
1
in
vLiY^fc
~$WtHfmi'2m
flXyBHLW
*jImH^
'
26 cm
W. 20 cm (7%
publication. H.
(10 l/4
In
in.).
in.).
a private collection.
<?4
'jfefc.
<
'^|>^
ill
= j
254
287. Coffin
the shape of a
in
woman who
children.
has borne
Ornamental
of this type
many
coffins
were invented by
Kwei.
Initially
produced
'Mammy wagons'. Chiefs ordered eagles to reflect their high status. One woman who had always wanted to fly is reported to have
ordered an aeroplane!
him
to give
up
his
The
idea took
oft'
sale of his
work which
for local
now become
collectors' items.
soon became collectors' items. His son, Samuel Kane Kwei, continues to
church!),
in
and
a training shoe,
in Africa.
greater detail
is
all
recommended. Not
the result of a
1
workshop on
a topic
- for
instance, vol
valuable
CD-ROM
illustrated essays
( 1 ),
istopher
Roy
art.
To experience
'
by field-workers on African
often
in A
and
et al,
as Leiris
1988, Phillips,
much
still
255
k|
ATCC
(i
the text
purpose
of illustration
highly unreliable.
When
the
more advanced we
are
in
represented bv twetitv-
group
comparable way.
MaKonde,
shall
DOS
statistical
.lac
of plates
seven or eight
is
The
pit
es
MaKonde appear
to
It
cattle,
name which
who grow
husbandry
(Ills.
13, 14).
western end.
its
is
the
measurement
an
The median
in the
i.e.
25.
///.
it is
number, which
parentheses, and
which
is
is
laboratory
is
placed in
its statistical
probability,
two
a likelihood of
probability
one; while
to
is
997 to
3,
is
doubled the
usually regarded
is
lies
in a
still
thousand that
p.
91.
This
which
size.
i.e.
increased to nineteen to
is
if it is
too
of unusually large
simple
Standard Deviation
expressing
there
its
its
book
in this
kind of comparison
years,
rest
infinite
Colin
artists
London, 1961.
12 Griaule, 1950,
13
By George W.
14
Some
ensure
On
conspectus.
the technique
pp.
however
F.
Man,Twae Inc.,NewYork,i965,pp.
See \'h holas England,
168-91.
Bushman
<
Folk
1 .<)
64) pp.
'
ill-
Pygmy
in
Bushmen
lomme
I'eabody
music: Musi* of
Folkways Records
dsoG
II
People,
No
V
Musee de
!olin
Rougel and
;<>
thai of the
Babinga
Musee de
i'Homme/Peabody Museum.
Pygmies, Phoi odiw
I.I ><.
38.
social anthropologists
Aitken, 1990,
56-1 19.
in
I
p.
still
retain the
term
'primitive'
'pre-literate' societies
on the study of
which
was originally
their discipline
goods
for their
for export.
consumption
it
is
m-iw
^rt'
Webster
I'lass
Fagg
told
me
that
is
of the
fol
particular sense
seem
might broadly be
it
to survive.
For an interesting
term
critique of the
'traditional', see
writer
pre sent
to see
fails
why
should be found
'traditional'
word
who simply
A. Atanda,
Yoruba society up
to
c.
& 4),
(3
1988-83,
following T.
58,
p.
S.
much "air
'not so
is
abiding,
way which
that
is felt
them
relates
being
as
at
these in a
of
to an experience
once continuous
London, 1893.
series
Worringer
by
al
and Empathy,
New
York, 1953.
were summarized
ideas
transl.
till
1986:
its title, is a
connected
ed
it is
26'
1953 ed^p 54
27 Bulletin of
the
Amern an Museum
9, pp.
28 Cambridge,
William
in
7,
1991,
pp.
31-53.
:i7
the Art
own
Uou-ipits,
in
New Guinea
B.
Catalogues
123-76.
found
of Natural History,
18 Gottfried
Fagg.
in
this
13.
p.
which
as Sudanese
A comprehensive bibliography of
36
eight
2000,
Speculations, ed.
L.
Michael Bullock,
the constant
35 This eventually
J.
J.
Modern
York, 1938.
ailable in
London (Taunton
New
Painting,
34 A\
19()8; Abstraction
and other
Primitivism in
Goldw ater,
Abiola Irele
ites
vol.
898),
printed privately,
Journal
9CX)' in
( 1
pp. 1-278.
Leopoldmisch-CarolinischenDeutschen
Anthropological, Archaeological
10,
J.
New Guinea,
Academy Cunningham
Memoirs No.
The
Royal Irish
Societies of
Symbolism
in
in
tunea (Leiden,
Mededeelingen
19.32.
15, 1962).
and
and published
17
Anno
II,
SO This uas
was published
Hottot
Volume,
Holmes Anniversary
in
Washington, 1916,
pp.
401-99.
purpose appear
883), 3
13 (1896),
884), 4
886), 6
888),
890), 5
( 1
1985
own.
which
lere
we may
Shakespeare's play
n.s.
Advancement of
Swear by
my
(i. v.)
Indianerstudien in Zentralbrasilien,
died,
and
it is
that they
Berlin, 1905.
is
in the
have
Anne-Mane
1969,
hweeger-Hefel,
...
an effort to
i960,
some 930
t<
museums
stical basis
[)r
for thedefinit
ornamental art
statist
\\<-r
basis for
method
described in The
The
1959;
Gesellschafl in JVien,
27
( 1
p. 1.
Ornamental Art by
Lewis- Williams'
is
43 Willcox, 1984,
art styles,
while Patrn
of Bushma*:
Collected Essays in
1,
African sculptures h
3,
Sc
llolzplastik in Afrika,\\v\.:
(4),
in the
preparation
of this chapter.
20 Evolution
pp. 3-44.
This
drawn extensively
in
40 SeeHorton, 1966.
work
39 Described
in
sword."
p.
Science,
Massachusetts, 1894).
19 A. Gerbrands, 1957,
'lassu al
p. 150.
Marcel his
892),
1908. See
in
j,
observed by Robert
20 (1903); American
Anthropologist, 3
It is
first
parallels in our
in
in
38
pp.
99-152;
J.
in
Bandi
Maghreb
etal.,
1961,
Willcox, 1984.
257
Nos
rasaili are
th<
[nitincn
9g, 93,
and J.
hbbara
96,
:ji,
among
65 Allison,
!-',
II
Marghi
the
53
66
Initinenll
ibban n
\:
tl
Muhuggiagin
.in
ofthe
\, .
54
From Jabbaren
m ulptureoi
a l>\ ul
A tn
seems
thousand years
about two
Cf.
J.
58
round-headed figures
of
an Telocat
in
290 BC
(,\
18
38
Africa:
)ates
968),
we may
show
the
showed
d (.
Peoples
pp.
were
contemporary
in
use.
See
59 Willcox, 1956,
p.
On Bushman and
P.
Ife,
and
related cave art
Vinnicombe
73
Cape
other discoveries
.is,,
\\
ill,
be found
(il
trchaeolo
ngi of
\
Sowunmi, A
See
I).
et a!.,
works
will
mgs
Nig
Ijri
Birnin
() f
Kudu
an
'-.
>,
<"i
todaj and
ilqf
//,.
i|
120 (1-2008);
multiple
al Society
l!i,
>
gongs
in
London, L966,
writers
(.
Mat..
18.
75
in Willett,
Other important
of sculpture are
[gbo-Ukwu, described
1968s and b
llison,
u
n ird
The Stone
Nok
Connah,
the
inaidered to belong to
an eaih
mii, .n
i,
r,
BStl
i
I
II
.;n
the
Shaw. 1970
Fagg, 1977.
rom
n<>t
I)
No.
is
now
21
rock
prehistoi
in
19
di
History,
Prehistory,
The
t-
on Efik-lbibio masks.
Proceedings j the
1..
S.50
(1966), No. 3,
PP 51
1
ifirican
AD
>;<;,
Willcox's books.
in
Africa, larikh,
,
and
it
and E. Goodall
date;
VD 840
10 (Hv-1515);
AD875 130(Hv-1514);AD850
BM 21 VS BR \d6jk> 3io(BM
ARV \D 1010 370 (BM-21 f.'H
.-//,
anil
Vudah,
site is called
the place
is
For these
70.
Town, no
i
1974),
61.
York. 1959,
Odo Ogbe
at
ultun
<
130(BM
99-109.
Land,
Mum.
P.
.'/'..
have been
960 130
70 E. Eyo, Excavations
to
that several
The Languages
lay. \l>
Journal of Archaeology,
60
10601 130
00 M-2119).
see:
133.
rreentx rg,
p.
1150
Nigeria,
W Inch
72 This
hereas the earlier paintings
\\
\l)
Kvo
the deposit.
An examination
styles
these sculptures
In this
Taken with
shelter in Nigeria
Paintings
less fully
heen abandoned.
17
966),
pp. 31-34.
at I
( 1
West
and
up
not lived
lias
It
Willetl, 1986,
69
57
The technique
paintings
to be limited to
m
1
in
Bushman
id
96
pp. 501-2.
amino-acids
et al,
(BM-262)and
BC (Sa-66).
100
m.
stone
II
Bandi
must be older
the painting
in
V,
pp. 167-84.
2770 t S10BC
posit dated
Holm
by
3641;
Nos
1 ,
1.
e.g.
:i
pp
Hammacher, 197
Tagliaferri and
B.
Allison, 1968a,
Ul
and
V.
E.
the Apollo
30
-1
Fagg, 1988.
<;7
tail
968a, pp. 1
Stevens, 1978.
I.
ate
Stone
is
;s
and other
sites
around
and 1962
archaeological discoveries
Odu. B (1961),
pp 4-20.
in Ilesha.
1.;
76
in
from Benin
at the
This
For
African Arts, 21
and 9
Aug. 1988,
(4),
he illustrates
part of
55a and
b;
in
Manny.
powdered wood or
flour
pattern of 'marks
made
is
winch
hand.
is
is
made
of strokes
a pair
in
if
The
in
mer
in
body
diviner,
client's
who
kept
is
is
200
p.
divided.
The
ignorance of the
calls
his need.
See William
La GSomancie a Vancienne
Esclaves,
l'lnstitut
Travaux
et
'8te
des
M6moires de
in
15)7
The iconography
of the tray
is
is
is
known,
Leuzinger, i960,
PI. 30a,
and 1963,
William Fagg,
p.
90
p.
134.
5)1
p.
136.
92
p.
76.
111.
so far as
in
Hi'.'
Presumably she
Andoni Creeks
the
94 1919,
illustrated in
which
61,
15)45), PI.
is
Industries,
which there
Underwood.
clearly a product of
is
as yet
and
no
at all.
Graz, 1962,
*55.
Most of the
fig
///.
thermoluminescence
century: see
this book.
An
Nicklin,
J.
to the nineteenth
Fleming and
analysis of
K.
W.
515
S.
MASC
The French
95
C.
96 1903,
p.
f.
eg
P.
1931; E. L. R.
5)7
98
15)03, p. 160.
Kingship
in
Meyen"
'.vine
Ghana an
and other
has published
itrong
>ms
development
17 k
p.
162,
on The
Negro
icle
in
of Nigi
ind Africans,
.'
I.,
the
Garden City,
pp. 81-82.
Bight of Benin
1829,
101
fig.
in
It
132.
p.
to Soccatoo,
London,
F.
Willett, Investigations at
to the front in a
symmetrical pose.
is
modified from
48.
Roman
view of the
be actually derived'
Of the same
67).
49:
p.
may
it
100
illustrated in
in
he former
whom,
al.,
Africa, Jou
82
p.
V.
Elliot
London, 1929.
History,
Human
byH.A.R
On
the
it
329.
1925), p.
The Children of
Perry,
Civilization,
Smith.
(p.
Qw 'ted
.1.
which answers
104
laut-Senegal-S'iger,
the sculptures
to he found.
On
of oral literature
is
28.
p.
to
Forman and
evidence
given.
one.
if
Gibb, London.
935,
ML Delafosse,
Asia
to pick
88
to indicate
is
grave near
minstrel.
Modakeke,
Paris 1912,
used by the
is still
left
This system
';
is
as:
London,
.,
Dark, 1960.
1935,
Bissau, 1956.
the
Shango
86
id. R.
soon after he
ritten
having
so
2,
Offa
ivories,
p.
Modakeke', which
in
840,
and Pis
Ife.
78
5)
as
in
Dal, 1977.
pp. 179-86,
are
38^5
pp.
total includes
Old
draws
a parallel
p. 1,
where he
with Polynesian
practices.
110
259
There
example an Egyptian
iafoi
found
si.itui -ttt-
in
published bj R Grauwet,
1966, p 97.
18
to
clue
Yoruba Ogboni
referring
dan antiquities
186 For
rtich b)
Segy,The
I.
morphologk
in different
See
I'
Robertahaw
The
in
Archdeacon
Liu
130
Ibid., p. 15.
131
P. S.
its
and hence
religion,
.it
I.
1965,
1961
readings
1-21.
dis<
History,
I'ls
SeeM
Art,
W Smith,
\
:,-
ed., 1961,
how
Dmochowski,
135
1990, vol.
ski.
II,
title
North*
ol
it
it is
Ham
less refined
;i
is
41.
or
Girard. 1967.
Do Images
Shown
1966
969, pp
Really Talk?'
in Berlin
is
as Fagg,
p.
p.
HortOl
Frobenius's interpretation
1966, p. 81.
mentioned on
I
81.
to
4-7.
171
33.
p.
Hottot. 1956.
he.iutilully llhlsii
72
Pu
ton.
JT
t.
173
i
rakovita, 1938,
hnot howaki,
voL
II.
pp.
s tt
II.
nandez, 1966, p $9
IL
26.
and
21.
and
p. 11.
and Pis
IX
J.
examples
bl
more
for a
nong
i.
in
is
accessible
I'l
his
163
is
rowell, I960, PI
///,/.
is
Himmelhebers most
recent account.
Koto
]
117
p.
42.
u.i
shows
r.
of
jram
p,
pp
Ibid., p. 14.
161
II.
-ion
suggests
160
39 and 64.
13,
Ibid., p.
137
51
of the
Western
in
Tribal Studies in
than that
Ibid., p. 12.
PP 74
this t\
Ibid., p. 12.
159
p. 15.
ughtin, 1988,
pp
Nos
Iiikii
to
158
162
Cliffs,
(1958),
pp
p. vii.
work
7-55.
168, p|>.
will be
Knglewood
by William Fagg.
in
23.
collection of
il
p.
l.'.o'
History,
pp
95.
1, p.
57.
38
Egypt, London,
lent
in
p.
Traditions
in
1
1900,
195
the for;//'./.
l>o<>k
p. 13.
M. W. Smith,
Ihe Religion of
as,
In
Horton, 1966,
158
These
pp. i36ff
parts of Vorubaland.
l.'.l
(4),
theory of
assumptions. Anthropos,
al
.it)
and
ba statues aa archetype,
Africa,
general
a well-illustrated
Oyo.
Information from Dr R. E.
182
cult in
lay bricka'.
See R Morton-Wilhams.The
IB
mistaken
is
Himmelheber, 1935. pp
nmelheber,
p|
dleChitti.k.Kilua,
19<
W Smith.
175
1961.
p.
Dan sub-group.
96.
176 Another
.
177
lis
d
ii
dish'
has been
much
also
'
iiiisus.
show china
'.'..ills
nd
magu
b.
should
<
ivi.
al
ilj
p0W<
ontaining
in
maun
to
obj
their
al
Dan sub-group.
pp. 111-21.
lubstat
>
among
the Igbira.
It
which have
ts
own
its
10.
Fischer,
and more
right or by
I
ind'Azevedo,
i?*ts. pp.
i^-6i.
fully
words, though by
p.
132,
Willett and
F.
2,
p.
Restea,
J.
An
20 1 Fakeye
et
al.,
(p.
d' Azevedo,
Ibid., pp.
to as the
pp. 31-32.
disc usm-s
206
Phillips, 1995, p.
207
Ibid., p. 70.
208
On
book and
eds.,
p. 17.
This account
comments
M.
D. Fraser and H.
in
African Art
in this
21
the
Government
the Belgian
in
i9.'3.'S,
Nigeria Magazine,
Mokwa
at
now performed
then
in
truly reflect
Religion,
pp.
London,
arc-
Gugu, illustrated
The
1!C>
214-16 and PL
masquerades
an earlier time.
is
28.
t,
espo
ially.
On
i75 77
the
sun
mann,
i;7
ival
Studies Association,
in
an African society,
189 K. C. Murray,
tribal society: a
pp.
in
Nigerian
Smith.
96
in
Akan
Ross and
p.
100.
No.
Wood
3, pp.
93
pp.
Ibid., p.
2;
de Grunne, 200 1
217
et
same
Fakeye
197
now
15.
Lamidi
etal., 1996.
Ibid., pp.
art
scene
in
Nigeria,
sec-
Eckhardt, 1979,
as
ritten as a
companion volume
this one.
pp. 10-29.
V.
L. Grottanelli,
F.
( 1
Arts,
R. Barton,
924),
n.d.
93-94.
Ibid.,
al.,
218
plane.
Fayeke has
artists.
pp.
56-59.
axe
of the
the
many
Form and
8-13, 72-73;
London, 1962,
215
York,
Engraving, African
260-65.
Ibid.,
New
Sec- Beier,
232
T F Garrard,
Somali
1
Jan Vansina.
'Transformations,
95-101.
191
Function,
ed. D. H.
I 10
231
The artist
comment,
of the continent,
187 Loccit
(l 969),
75.
p.
and 1990.
contemporary
55.
219
Beier, 1991,
n.d.
No. 3
Ibid., p.
and
34;
2,
experiences by
Nigeria Magazine,
Mohl,
NdakogboyaxnA
p.
89.
and conducted
p.
pp 16-66.
Other Nupc
60 (1966),
pp.
all
Pis 52-54.
pp. 57-61;
elo, ia
as not
that
p.
field-work
827
228 See
Stevens, 1973,
outlawed
in
Beier, 1968,
Ibid.,
Stout, 1966;
by
sometimes referred
225
in
is
224
Cole,
Madison/Milwaukee/London, 1972,
pp. 7-20. It
Drewal
210 Illustrated
22)
name Zimbabwe.
99
and leadership,
p.
(illustrated
Yoruba viewpoint.
Abiodun, 1983,
aesthetics from a
88.
970,
p.
by McEwen, 1968,
94-95.
132)
1968,
94.
p.
e.g.
204
McEwen,
222
(illustrated
22 1
aesthetics
Nigeria
art,
African
No.
having compared
, .
Compare
Beier,
960, Pis
219 Articles on
appear regularly
do
in
their
to
they
still
53.
work used
in African Arts;
4 and
3,
and
M.
Kelly,
Nigeria alone.
261
to
BIBLIOGRAPHY
tbiodun, Rowland
1989
and Ideas,
\l.i..(lun.H
and
..
Femberton
Drewal
Adepegl
\kcn/u.i.
Allen.
Jamea
Vere
1989
African visual art from an art historical perspective. The African Stud
l'oruba Artist:
Cultures
pp. 13-30.
'l/ie
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55-103.
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1990
lid.
1944
A Yoruba carver,
1968a
1965
Allison, R
I,
1994
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No.
III
tdama, Monni
Aitkcn.
I,
1968b
1988
History, Design
Symposium organized by
at a
the National
Cloth,
Papers presented
Museum of African
Art,
M.
African Arts, 34
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Balm. Paul
1996
Archaeology:
1961
The Art of
Adire Cloth
in Nigeria,
Africa,
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Berger-Kirchner,
H. Lhote, E.
\
of Natural Historv.
16-35, 94.
(2), pp.
Museum
Holm and
Lommel
Barbour,
and
I)
Barle) N
BaSCOtn, V\
in:
1993
1969
\'.i~:i
Baaaani, Ezio
Baaaani,
ag
Bastin, Marie-Louis.
WB
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1961
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ACKNOV
c r--'c
It is
NT s
the help
book
doing so
for in
many
of the
am
art.
who
first draft
to
made
Susannah
typed the
who
who
at
great inconvenience
first draft; to
helped
prepare the
Esther Greene
multitude of ways to
in a
final version; to
John Picton,
I,
237, 246.
_'
258, 26
VI,
Dominique Darbois,
Zimbabwe.
with
Hamlyn Group,
stimulating discussions; to
Roy Sieber
quote unpublished
Klaus
for permission to
David
n-;
have formed
Paul
of this
am reminded
friendships
7;
The
Publishers, 266;
Hans
Bayo Iribhogbe,
13-15;
Low le Museum
D Lajoux. 28,
J.
30-32;
of Anthropology.
102, 152;
Georges Mortelmans,
l'Homme, Pans,
Musee Royal de
I'Afrique Centrale.
Carroll,
York,
6;
Helen Maetzler-Prohaska.
Stephen Moreton-Pnchar
1.53.
Nigerian
Merrick Posnansky.
Brigitte
Men a
1.
Georges Mortelmans,
Mundy-
Hans
Si
'.-
P.
Leon
Ian
Wai
hi
Paul
reasons
i]
,K
63;
labelle Prussin.
Rietberg Museu
rich,
\'olkenkunde. Leaden, 16
Ritzenthaler. 106;
i.
Arnold
K<
ibin. 3t>.
'
s,
mm on.
Is.
Anns du M IS
220; Edward Soja, 1
l'Homme,
22.
Phillips S<
IDF. La
Raymond Widgus,
175;
R WiTJoox,
ai
publishers
knowledgment
2,
Vansina,
17;
Wingert and
w tde variety
I.
Museum. Rome,
K")l;
fur
68, 22 1,284;
C.
Allen
Museum
sky,
16,
Musee de
208;
EmilSchultl
37;
Museum. Lagos.
7;
New
of Art.
make
to the owners
INDEX
Abeokuta
P-Kota
Abigan, Bassi 2
190, 191
", la,
188, la,
'
Chmua
Achebe,
Adesida
.\doOdo
.abi215
Afenmai
lb,
Afo
133
lb,
A fori so
BaMbole
74
BaMileke
Agbonbiofe 119
Ahinsan 108,
Akamba
Akan
21
105
25,
/s.
122
123, lb,
I')
Bardai 8
Bargery, Rev. G.
Barotseland 189
Commander William
2
K 815, 837,
Hums Corporation
Ankh 107
A VI la. 21
BaKo/wi
189, la,
187,
Basa
Nge
BaSotho57
BaSuku la. ISO
Apomu
An hmic
lb. If if)
BaTeke
Period i^
Battuta, Ihn hh
Arowogun
;.s.
//..
59, 81
Bauchi
BaYih
ft
804-19
Ashanti 108, la
architecture
181-88, lis
10,
130,
BaYanzi
la.
Bena Lulua
Askia
Mohammed
1!*
148-50
198
236,253,
207,
Australia 15
Awka
King of 78,
72
183-85
104, 165,
174, 176-78,
Benin
la,
>8,
7(
//
Atutu 193
lb,
68
221
lb,
Aterian complex 48
Azande
83,
239, 24 1-4
I'lli
Bende
214
164
247, 27')
Olatunde
154-1
BaYaka
Beier.
see
197
861
la.
Ashiru
134
//>
58,
n.
BaWoyo
60,
153,208
212
Apollo lOCavt
Annan, Put
124
BaSongye
II
37
P.
Barth, Heinrich 18
f_-
Ambrose. Captain
icnt
198
I.
Algeria 53
Am
17,54,
IBS,
BaPunu
k i
Ja<
15,
189
Akwete 27 I
Allen.
1,
39
lb,
BaPende
Altamira 89,
277
no
Bantu-speaking peoples
.'.7,
Akure Palace
168
Iloffa
lb, 107,
Bantaji
Akpan. Sunday
10
la.
225-29
20
la,
Bamgboye of
61
>/,
'
>
94, 210
Bambara (Bamana)
Bambaraland 88
125
lb, 21,
It
la,
17i:, la,
BaMbala
192-203
Afikpo
z.
BaLumbo
Adugbologe 171
aesthetics
eni^
jLuba
70
lb,
220
19,
alfbu
Buiaima
94, 95,
22
la,
1,
160
123
-\Miyi,
8, 9,
262
I
85
93
BaBembe
172, la,
BaFumu
la,
Bafut
108
Baga
lb,
165
161,
BaKete
la,
LaKongo
64
152
60, 61,
214
Bahn, Paul 55
BaJokwe
100, 88, 91
156-58
Bisiri,
85
Yemi241, 267
Bobo
la,
Bobo Diulasso
19,
25
269
Am
Ghana
18,
la,
19,
95,
Girard, Jean
',.
Duala
cu
lb,
T<
Governor John H.
199
brats
'>/
Ghana, ancient 23
18,
91
33
jlius
Gola
Bl,
67
ui
10,
198, lu
Goodwin, John 99
89, lb
lb
Efon A lave
la
7,
Griaule. Marcel
Bushn
10, la, ?
paint-
//.
Egypt
(iris.
Ekoi
2,
:htkhI
Cameroun
'//.
976
/.'
10, 52,
29,
Cattle Period
//o
16,
209-1
231
26,
32
16
Chad. I-ake
heul
hi -j.ara 12,
complex
18
j.5,
25
5
.
i58,
Miss
Ahaiwah
25,
ioo
Haddon, A.
83
30
Ham
Engaruka
Harare 238, 25
129,
25
Haselberger. Herta
Hassi Meniet 50
Eshure48,
Henrique,
lb,
Hausa
29
10
Don
61.
37
Esie 68, lb
Herodotus
Ethiopia 17,224
Hoggar
Fagg, William
Holmes.
W H. 29
Horn of Africa
5,
Fang
see
5,
Horseman Sub-Period 47
Horton, Robin 150, 158, 161, 162, 165
Hottentot 97. la
Hottot. Robert 150. 157. 158, 156-58
n.
220, 25
Horse Period 47
236, 243
Lamidi
rivtf H
10,
243
25
Holy, Ladislav 17
11.
176
Fakeye, Ganiyu 2
Fakeye, Lamidi
io
182-85,205,247.
144, 171,
102
.69,
193, 760
Fagg, Catherine 53
225, 231,
mmander Hugh
Congo
C.
Elisofon, Eliot 38
261
-ociety 81
Conakr
i
Himmelheber. Hai>
Chun
1,
El
Guro
140
lb.
Chariot Sub-Period vt
-
Gulotne 193
Cabind.i
Chamba
256
71
lb, 68,
176
Guinea Bissau 76
990
101, 919,
U4
growth curves
Guinea
Einstein, Carl 33
MS,
Huns Mountains 53
148
Fon
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273
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900, 202,
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175
236
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217
216,
lb, 173,
211,
203
.men 50
Inyanga Mountains 128, 25
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240
18
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220. 224,
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55
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Mines 127
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25
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258
Amedeo
lb,
Lamidi 211,212,214,215,217,229,
Mopti
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lb,
245
Laudt, Jean 34
Lawal, Babatunde 170
leather
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35, 37
252
121,
256
207
130
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Taiwo 240, 264
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OldObo lb,2(
OldOyo 102 S, lb, 96, 97
Old Somonka lb, 125
Olow ol [se 214, 215, 237, 238, 240
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136
Onitsha
179
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Mozambique
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42, 129
la,
140
Kenneth
149
191
Mugabe 129
Mukomberanwa, Nicholas 263
lb,
169, 253,
river
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Mumuye
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127
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Mpongwe
954, 256
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Olaniyi,
246
Monomotapa
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37
Lajoux, '-D. 28
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McEwen, Frank 238, n,
Meko lb, 45
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Mauss, Marcel to
35,85, 113
Matisse. Henri
la
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160,
91
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96
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179
Mbafu
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Kolb, Pete. 91
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Khami Hums
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Kawara
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131
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Masai
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State 64
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19, 38,
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lb, 39,
114
lb, 25,
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106
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Lugard, Lord
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193
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Loyer, Godefroy 95
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Leonardo da Vinci 26
Los, Isles of 94
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77
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Zimbabwe
Salisbury,
42,
Wolfe, Alvin
223, 253,
Titerast-n'-Elias
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50
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Ryder, Alai
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55,
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Vatter, K.
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Elliot
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