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BOS: 28218087
Effect
Test (Presence)
Chloride
Gravimetric Analysis:
HSC CHEM
Sulfate
BOS: 28218087
Soils and underground rocks
Brought to surface by ground
water + rising water table
Phosphate
Qualitative:
Household Detergents
Magnesium
+
Calcium
Heavy Metals: Lead - Discarded car batteries Lead - Damages nervous system Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS):
- Leaded contamination
+
Cadmium
Aluminium
Mobilised in soil by
increasing acidity
Same as above
HSC CHEM
BOS: 28218087
HSC CHEM
BOS: 28218087
Hardness:
Hard Water: water containing significant concentrations of Ca2+, Mg2+, and Al3+ (together with HCO3-, SO42-, Cl-)
- Temporary Hard Water: Ca2+ and HCO3- ions can be softened by boiling
CaCO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l) Ca2+ (aq) + 2HCO3- (aq)
- Permanent Hard Water: Mg2+ rather than calcium ions cannot be softened by boiling
Note: Hence water hardness measured by determining total concentration of calcium and magnesium ions in water
Expressed as milligrams of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) per litre
Hardness in domestic water is undesirable
- Soaps do not lather in hard water (soap is sodium stearate, a salt of the carboxylic acid, stearic acid)
Calcium and magnesium salts of stearic acid insoluble in water
Precipitates as grey scum on water surfaces + produces scale deposits in baths and sinks reduces efficiency
HSC CHEM
BOS: 28218087
Turbidity:
Define: A measure of the cloudiness or lack of transparency of water
Caused by suspended solids present
High concentrations of suspended solids increases turbidity:
- Scatters and reduces light penetration into water, lowering rate of photosynthesis and dissolved oxygen
- Small particles in upper layer of water absorb infra-red radiation (sunlight) raising water temperature
Factors contributing to turbidity:
- Physical forces (naturally heavy floods + rains)
Rain running across grasslands picks up suspended matter
Rapid flows agitates water stirs up sediment
- Industrial run-off
- Land clearing and Farming
Loose earth exposed to rain
Testing Procedures:
Quantitative Tests:
Total Suspended Solids (TTS):
Determined gravimetrically by filtering the water sample (provided the filter has small pores)
Filter 1L of sample + measure dry mass (milligrams) of suspended solids in filter
Useful for dirty water but not practical on drinking water (small amounts of dissolved substances)
Secchi Disk:
Disk painted black and white with string attached is lowered into body of
water until cross/mark can no longer be seen when viewed through
underwater viewer at surface
Water depth measured is inversely proportional to turbidity; calibration
graph used whilst string gives relative measure of NTU
NTU: Nephelometric Turbidity Units
Provides
logarithmic value
Nephelometer:
Measurement: Extent to which light is scattered by suspended particles in liquid
- 90 o of original path (sample, if clear should not scatter any light at this angle)
- More scattering more turbid
More exact
HSC CHEM
BOS: 28218087
Acidity:
Define: The tendency of a medium to hydronate a specific reference base
- Measurement of concentration of hydrogen ions
- pH of water good indicator of its health
Clean, potable water should have pH in the range of 6.5 - 8.5
- Anything above/below indicates source of pollution (e.g. fertiliser run-off, industrial waste, acid drainage)
- Acidic water: Sour taste
- Basic water: Bitter taste
Changes in pH greatly affect usability of water + ability to harbour life:
- Decreased pH <6 enhances solubility of toxic metals disrupts enzyme function
- Increased pH >9 causes ammonia poisoning in aquatic organisms (Ammonium ions in water Ammonia)
Aquatic life tolerate only certain pH range
- Water tanks & pipes corroded by low/high pH
Factors contributing to acidity:
- Acidic water:
Acid rain
Urban and mining residue e.g. sulfide ore exposure
Organic decomposition (peat areas with high rates slightly acidic)
- Alkaline water:
Dissolved limestone soils slightly alkaline (pH > 7)
CO32-(aq) + H2O(l)
HCO3-(aq ) + OH-(aq)
Provides an estimate (lowered accuracy), though narrow range charts give better accuracy
pH meter/probe (Non-destructive Test):
Sample of water assessed using data logger + pH meter
pH Meter: Contains glass electrodes which are ion-sensitive; must be properly maintained + calibrated with
buffers otherwise invalid results
Most common + simplest way to measure pH
HSC CHEM
BOS: 28218087
Dissolved Oxygen:
Abbr. (D.O): Levels of molecular oxygen dissolved in water
- Measure of mg (O2) dissolved in 1L of water at fixed temperature (usually 20 - 25 C)
Two sources of Dissolved Oxygen in water:
Cl-
(aq)
2H2O (l)
HSC CHEM
BOS: 28218087
Testing Procedures
5 Day B.O.D Test (BOD5)
Measures change in D.O over 5 day period when sample left in the dark + filled closed incubation bottle at 20oC
- Usually 1L of sample
- More commonly done on unpolluted water
- Oxygen consumed quality of water
HSC CHEM
BOS: 28218087
Identify factors that affect the concentrations of a range of ions in solution in natural bodies of water such
as rivers and oceans
Factors affecting concentration of ions:
Pathway (Rain Water Body):
Rain contains very few ions:
Rain-water occasionally soaks into ground + flows through underground aquifers into a stream:
- Much higher levels of Ca2+, Mg2+, SO42-, Cl- and CO32- May contain other ions: Fe3+, Mn2+, Cu2+ and Zn2+
Water Temperature:
Minerals dissolve faster at high temperatures
pH of Rain:
Water from acid rain better able to leach certain ions from soils it passes over/through
- Increase: NO3- and PO43 Uncontrolled monitoring can discharge heavy metal ions into water bodies:
- Termed: Leaching
- Dangerous Cations: Cd2+, Hg2+, Pb2+
Aquatic Organisms:
Marine organisms e.g. shelled invertebrates use ions to make exoskeletons
HSC CHEM
BOS: 28218087
Describe and assess the effectiveness of methods used to purify and sanitise mass water supplies
Water is used for many purposes:
- Drinking and cooking
- Washing and irrigating
- Industrial Applications
Methods to purify + sanitise:
Process
Explanation
Screening
Coagulation (Flocculation)
OR
Alum (Al2(SO4)3) added, often with lime (Ca(OH)2):
Sedimentation (Clarification)
Settled water passed through granular filters (often sand, gravel + anthracite coal)
HSC CHEM
Disinfection (Sanitising)
BOS: 28218087
Gaseous chlorine gas added to filtered water disinfection
Term: Chlorination
NaOCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Alternative: Ammonia
- Reacts with chlorine Monochloramine (NH2Cl)
- Weaker oxidising agent
- More chemically stable (lasts longer through transport)
Alternative: Ozone
- Electric spark passed through clean dry air or O2
- Strong oxidising agent effective + positive impact (colour, odour, taste)
- Highly sensitive to turbidity Not used extensively in Australia
Fluoridation
- Lime: Ca(OH)2 added with CO2 to form sodium hydrogen carbonate buffer
Alternative: Soda Ash
Suitable pH range: 7 - 8.5
Assessment of Effectiveness:
Flocculation:
Very effective at removing fine suspended particles attracting bacteria + viruses to surface
Removes some of organic matter washed up as soils + vegetation (water travels from rain to catchment area)
Responsible for brown discolouration and odour
Cost effective and relatively fast
Sand Filtration:
Removes high proportion of particulate matter in water after flocculation
Sufficiently fast: Produces volume of treated water required for big cities
Does not remove extremely small particles (suspended solids too fine after flocculation)
Leaves some taste + odour
HSC CHEM
BOS: 28218087
Chlorination:
Cost-effective way of removing most pathogens (disease-causing agents)
Does not remove all organisms
Overall:
There are flaws in methods used to purify and sanitise water (contamination can still occur)
1998 Sydney contamination scare (Giarda and Cryptosporidium)
Methods are still highly effective in sanitising mass water supplies to produce high quality potable water
Recommendations: Membrane filters and Ozone sterilisation
Cost a lot; development further increase in water quality
Describe the design and composition of microscopic membrane filters and explain how they purify
contaminated water
Membrane Filter: A thin film of synthetic polymer through which there are pores (small holes) of fairly uniform size
- Polymer: Polypropylene
Pore size of ~ 0.2 m diameter allow water molecules but not bigger molecules + harmful microorganisms through
Depth Membrane:
- Simplest type
- Sheet of porous polymer pleated (folded) around a central rigid core + held with surrounding mesh
Cartridge placed in suitable housing; filters water as it flows through
Hollow-fibre Membrane:
- Porous material made into hollow capillaries (thin, hollow tubes)
Outside diameter: 500 m
Inside diameter: 200 m
Pore size: 0.2 - 0.5 m
- Cleaning: Air blown from clean side (dislodge trapped particles washed away by dirty water on outside)
-
HSC CHEM
BOS: 28218087
Gather, process and present information on the range and chemistry of the tests used to:
- Lead:
Petrol contamination of soil (washed with rain water)
Discarded car batteries
- Cadmium:
Zinc smelting
Paints
Sewage treatment
Testing Procedures:
Qualitative - precipitation reaction
Heavy metals generally have low solubility (esp. in presence of halide or sulfate ions)
- Precipitation will reveal presence but not necessarily the type of ion
HSC CHEM
BOS: 28218087
Eutrophication
Define: Process whereby lakes, rivers + slow-moving water bodies effectively become lifeless due to excess nutrients
- Water is enriched with nutrients (e.g. Nitrate: NO - and Phosphate: PO 3- ions), leading* to algal blooms
3
- Algae decay anaerobically: Putrid mess which results in death of remaining life forms
Sources contributing to nutrient level:
- Sewage
- Plant and animal waste (farms)
- Fertiliser run-off + phosphate-based detergents
- Industrial waste
Testing Procedures:
Quantitative Test: - colorimetric method for phosphate
Phosphorous generally the growth-limiting nutrient in algal blooms phosphate has greatest control on growth rate
Water treated with strong oxidant (e.g. Nitric Acid) to ensure phosphorous present as PO43-)
Ammonium molybdate (NH4)2MoO4 solution added with catalyst
Forms pale-yellow phosphomolybdate complex (NH4)2PO412MoO3
Measured amount of solid ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) added to solution blue colour produced from complex
Absorbance of blue colour compared to absorbance of standard phosphate solution treated identically (colorimeter)
colorimetric method for nitrate
Nitrate is reduced to nitrite (sample flowed through tube of granulated cadmium)
NO3
-+
2H+
Solutions of two organic compounds added successively to nitrite solution reddish-purple colour
Absorbance of solution compared to standard nitrate solution treated identically (colorimeter)
HSC CHEM
1Gather,
BOS: 28218087
process and present information on the features of the local town water supply in terms of:
Catchment area
Possible sources of contamination in this catchment
Chemical tests available to determine levels and types of contaminants
Physical and chemical processes used to purify water
Chemical additives in the water and the reasons for the presence of these additives
Catchment Area:
Define: Geographic area from which all streams and rainfall drain into a citys water storage dam
Warragamba Dam is Sydneys main storage dam, Catchment area: 9000+ km2, accounts for 80% of Sydneys water
- Contains:
Small rural settlements
Residential development areas
Major cities
- Characteristics of Area:
- Crop growth and livestock (e.g. cattle grazing + poultry) leads to run off of animal manure directly entering water system
Nitrate (NO3- ) and Phosphate (PO43-) nutrients lead to eutrophication
- Animal waste (faeces) promotes bacterial growth e.g. E. Coli, Giarda and Cryptosporidium
High B.O.D and increased acidity
Effluent:
- 9 sewage plants in area may release poorly treated waste into water supply during rainfall
Nitrate (NO3- ) and Phosphate (PO43-) nutrients lead to eutrophication
Bacterial growth and faecal coliform e.g. E. Coli, Giarda and Cryptosporidium
Stormwater Runoff:
- Sediment and toxic material on roads can flow into water supply
- Soil leaches out minerals e.g. Fe3+ and Mn2+ ions
Coloured tinge + metallic taste in water
Human Activity
- Active or abandoned mines e.g. copper and zinc can leach out heavy metal pollutants
Increase acidity of water
HSC CHEM
BOS: 28218087
HSC CHEM
BOS: 28218087
- Oldest known paintings: - Australian Aboriginal rock art (17 000 years ago)
- French Lascaux cave paintings (15 000 years ago)
Colour
Chemical Formula
gypsum
white, grey
CaSO4 2H2O
cerussite
white, grey
PbCO3
stibnite
lead-grey, blackish
Sb2S3
galena
lead-grey
PbS
graphite
black
cinnabar
HgS
haematite
Fe2O3
malachite
bright green
Cu2(CO3)(OH)2
azurite
Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2
orpiment
As2S3
turquiose
bluish green
CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)8 4H2O
HSC CHEM
BOS: 28218087
- Cave drawings
- Self-decoration including cosmetics
- Preparation of the dead for burial
Cave Drawings:
Primary use of pigments in early history were for cave painting:
Australian Aboriginal Rock Art (17 000 BC):
- Lime
- Pipe clay
- Ashes and Emu dung
Pigments ground to powder and mixed with fixatives/binders
HSC CHEM
BOS: 28218087
- e.g. pharaoh Tutankhamen had paint box containing powdered gypsum, orpiment, haematite and malachite gifts
- Internal organs replaced with mixture of resins, oils + beeswax; treated with natron (salt) to dry and preserve
Ancient Mayans:
Colour red was associated with blood represented death and rebirth
- Bodies soaked in red ochre to preserve and ensure safe passage to afterlife
HSC CHEM
BOS: 28218087
Explain that colour can be obtained through pigments spread on a surface layer (e.g. paints) or mixed with
the bulk of material (e.g. glass colours)
Wood panels and canvas are unsuitable for direct painting:
- Too rough and adsorbent
Adsorbent: Substance which attracts other particles to its surface
Paints are used so that colour is obtained by spreading pigments over surface layer:
- Flashing: Coating clear glass with thin layer of coloured glass during molten stage lighter colour e.g. ruby
- Staining: Alters tone of colour
Glass painted with silver nitrate (AgNO3) then fired in oven.
Process repeated different shades e.g. yellow (pale lemon to deep orange)
HSC CHEM
BOS: 28218087
Describe an historical example to illustrate the relationship between the discovery of new mineral deposits
and the increasing range of pigments
Availability of pigments increase due to:
- Discovery of new mineral deposits
- Improved extraction methods (useful minerals)
- Increased trading (distant communities)
Generally,
Greater number of minerals = more pigments
E.g. Sienna (Yellow-brown coloured pigment): Fe2O3 H2O (Hydrated iron (III) oxide)
- One of the first used in Italy
- Named after Siena, city located in Tuscany
- Mined from Renaissance WWII
HSC CHEM
BOS: 28218087
Analyse the relationship between the chemical composition of selected pigments and the position of the
metallic component(s) of each pigment in the Periodic Table
Many chemical compositions of pigments used in the 21st century have within them a metallic element:
- Metallic components mainly found in transition metal section (d- block)
Often related to certain colour/colour range
- Colour produced when electron absorbs proton of quantised energy moves up and back down
- Elements e.g. zinc are colourless (d-orbital full no available electron transitions)
HSC CHEM
BOS: 28218087
Process information from secondary sources to identify the chemical composition of identified cosmetics
used in an ancient culture such as early Egyptian or Roman and use available evidence to assess the
potential health risk associated with their use
Various health risks associated with use of pigments as cosmetics:
Cosmetics: Enhanced features of people who wore them [Greek/Roman]
- No concern with ill effects resulting from long term use + ingestion (in particular when saliva medium)
E.g. White lead, vermillion
Cosmetic
Element
Health Risk
Face Powder
Lead
White Lead:
(PbCO3)2 Pb(OH)2
Eye Shadow
Arsenic
Orpiment:
As2S2
- Carcinogenic
- Effects: Reproductive disorders
Realgar:
As4S4
Body Paint
Copper
Green Malachite:
Cu2(CO3)(OH)2
- Eye irritant
- Effects: Gastrointestinal discomfort,
Blue Azurite:
respiratory damage
Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2
Eyeliner
Sulfur
Ultramarine
Antimony
Kohl (Stibnite):
Sb2S2
Pyrolusite:
MnO2
Mercury:
HgS
Mascara
Manganese
Lipstick
Cinnabar
Vermillion
- Overexposure death
HSC CHEM
BOS: 28218087
Identify data, gather and process information from secondary sources to identify and analyse the chemical
composition of an identified range of pigments
Australian Aboriginals:
Pigment/Mineral
Colour
Chemical Composition
Formula
Red
Fe2O3
Yellow
Fe2O3 H2O
Brown
FeO(OH)
Black
Mn2O
Charcoal
Black
Mainly graphite
Kaolinite
White
Chalk (Calcite)
White
Calcium Carbonate
CaCO3
Gypsum
White
CaSO4 2H2O
(Pyrolusite)
Colour
Chemical Composition
Formula
Vermillion/Cinnabar
Red
HgS
Minium/Red Lead
Red
Lead Tetroxide
PbO2 2PbO
Realgar
Orange-scarlet
Tetra-arsenic Tetrasulfide
As4S4
Orpiment
Yellow
Arsenic Trisulfide
As2S3
Massicot
Yellow
PbO
Malachite
Green
CuCO3 Cu(OH)2
Verdigris
Blue-Green
Cu(CH3COO)2 2Cu(OH)2
Azurite
Blue
2CuCO3 Cu(OH)2
Blue
White Lead
White
(PbCO3)2 Pb(OH)2
Pigment/Mineral
Colour
Chemical Composition
Formula
Natural Ultramarine
Blue
Complex Sodium
Aluminosilicate + sulfur
Na8-10Al6Si6O24S2-4
Naples Yellow
Yellow
Pb3(SbO4)2
Tin Yellow
Pb2SnO4
Italian Ochres
Italian:
HSC CHEM
BOS: 28218087
Colour
Chemical Composition
Formulae
Chrome Yellow
Yellow
PbCrO4
Chrome Red
Red
PbCrO4 Pb(OH)2
Cadmium Yellow
Yellow-Orange
Cadmium Sulfide
CdS
Cadmium Red
Red
CdS CdSe
Titanium White
White
Titanium Oxide
TiO2
Zinc White
White
Zinc Oxide
ZnO
Bibliography
Chemical Monitoring and Management:
Textbooks:
Irwin, D et al. (2005) Chemistry Contexts 2. Second Edition. Pearson Place, Sydney. Pages Used: (262-281). Date
Accessed: 1/11/2015
- Chemistry Contexts 2 contained a lot of valuable information and was used as a guide to address each dot point with
supporting diagrams, equations and formulae. It was the reference point for initial study
Smith, Roland. (2005) Conquering Chemistry HSC. Fourth Edition. Sydney, McGraw-Hill. Pages Used: (262-294)
Date Accessed: 1/11/2015
- This book contained detailed information regarding water quality, treatment and environment factors affecting water quality.
It helped a lot with the first dot point and included in-depth chemical equations, formulae, diagrams and explanations. The
diagrams were clear, labelled and annotated, and it also helped the filtering + monitoring section of my notes.
- The textbook had very detailed information that addressed each dot point. There was a great deal of information on
pigments, and hence, for chemistry of art in particular, it was the most used source of information for researched. I found
however that the provision of information was sometimes very jumbled in order, not following the order of the syllabus,
thought it was not a great hindrance as one could simply cross reference and reassemble the pages to maintain validity.
Internet sites:
NSW HSC Online. Chemistry -9.8 The chemistry of Art. Charles Stuart University. Date Accessed: 1/11/2015
- This particular website had summaries of all the relevant information followed under each specific syllabus dot point, and
also led to further trusted websites describing the colour with graphical interpretation of each pigment and its uses. As a
result, I colour coded my pigment notes based upon these results.