Use of Pfa To Bs en 450

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Technology Digest 1
Use of fly ash to BS EN 450 in structural concrete

Concrete Society Technology Digest 1
Ref CS 133
ISBN 0 946691 82 7
0 Concrete Technology Unit, University of Dundee, 2002
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Technology Digest 1
USE OF FLY ASH

TO BS EN 450 IN
STRUCTURAL CONCRETE
Ravindra K. Dhir
Michael J. McCarthy
Kevin A. Paine
Concrete Technology Unit, University of Dundee
ENVIRONMENT
TRANSPORT
Use ofjly ash to BS EN 450 in structural concrete
FOREWORD
This Technology Digest has been prepared as part of a technology transfer programme
undertaken at the Concrete Technology Unit (CTU) of the University of Dundee under
the Partners in Technology Programme of the Department of the Environment,
Transport and the Regions. It has been written by the staff of the CTU.
The project was guided by a steering committee representing the University and all
contributing partners.
STEERING COMMITTEE
University of Dundee
Professor R K Dhir, OBE (Chairman)
Dr M J McCarthy
Dr K A Paine
Department of The Environment, Transport and the Regions

Dr S B Desai, OBE
Industrial Partners
Mr W Armstrong
Mr C Bennett
Mr P Brennan
Mr R Coombs
Professor T A Harrison
Mr P Livesey
Mr F McCarthy
ScotAsh Ltd
ScotAsh Ltd
TXU Europe Power Ltd (formerly Eastern Generation Ltd)
National Power plc
Quarry Products Association
Castle Cement Ltd
Electricity Supply Board, Republic of Ireland
The Steering Committee is gratehl to Dr L K A Sear and Dr G R Woolley for their

comments and contributions.
CONTENTS
1
Introduction
BSEN450
Properties of concrete with BS EN 450 fly ash
3.1 Fresh concrete properties
3.2 Strength development and achieving equal strength
3.3 Engineering properties
3.4 Durability
Methods for using BS EN 450 fly ash
4.1 Equivalent cement method
4.2 K-value method
page 5
4.3 Equivalent concrete performance method
10
4.4 Treatment with respect to ASR
11
Concrete production
11
5.1 Storage, handling and use
11
5.2 Effect of *10% fineness variation on strength
12
5.3 Loss-on-ignition
12
Case studies
13
6.1 Ratcliffe cooling tower strengthening
13
6.2 High Marnham substation
14
Availability
15
References
17
Appendix: Taking account of fly ash characteristics in mix design
19
INTRODUCTION
The European standard BS EN 450 Fly ashfor concrete - definitions, requirements and
quality control ['I covers a broader range of fly ashes as a cementitious component for
use in concrete than previous UK standards. This Technology Digest brings together
current knowledge of the properties on fly ash to BS EN 450, and offers technical
guidance on how the material should be used in concrete. Factors relating to concrete
production are also covered, and two case studies show how fly ash to BS EN 450 has
been used successfully.
BSEN450
The scope of BS EN 450 is fly ash produced by the combustion of hard coal, i.e. what
is known as pulverized-fuel ash (PFA) in the UK. Fly ashes produced from burning
other materials are not, at present, within its scope.
The requirements for fly ash to conform to BS EN 450 are shown in Table 1.
It should be noted that fly ashes conforming to BS 3892: Part 1 ['I fall within the scope
of BS EN 450. The main difference between these standards is in the allowed range of
fineness (measured as percentage retained on a 45 pm sieve). BS 3892: Part 1 allows fly
ashes of fineness up to only 12.0%, but this has been extended in BS EN 450 to 40%.
To control variability BS EN 450 does not allow the fineness to vary by more than
f 10% from the declared mean.
The permitted loss-on-ignition (LOI) for fly ash also differs. BS 3892: Part 1 has an
upper limit of 7.0%while BS EN 450 is based on an auto-controlled value. The standard
specifies 5.0% as the norm but permits values up to 7.0% on a national basis. The British
Standards Institution have proposed the use of the higher value in the UK. Due to
Table 1. Requirementsforjly ash given in BS EN 450 ['I and BS 3892: Part I
BS EN 450
Fineness, maximum (% retained on 45pm)
40
f 10.0% on mean value
Fineness variation
5.0 (7.0 on national basis)
Loss-on-ignition ('30)
auto-controlled
Particle density (kg/m3)
f 150 on mean value
Chemical composition:
Property
SO,, maximum (%)
Free CaO, maximum (Yo)

Total CaO, maximum (%)
Chloride, maximum (%)
Moisture content, maximum (%)
Water requirement, maximum (%)
Activity index, minimum (%) (ii')
Soundness (mm)
BS 3892: Part 1
12.0
7.0 maximum
5
2000
1.0 or 2.5"'
10 (sub-bituminous ashes)
10
0.1
0.1
(ii)
0.5
75 (28 days), 85 (90 days)

10 0)
95
80 (28 days)
10
Notes: (i) Soundness test required only if free CaO exceeds I%.
(ii) Fly ash to be stored and transported dry.
(iii) BS EN 450 uses 25% fly ash content by mass,test camed out on equal water content basis,
whereas BS 3892 uses 30% fly ash content by mass,test carried out on equal flow basis.
Use ofjly ash to BS EN 4.50 in structural concrete
seasonal variations in LOI, the auto-control value in BS EN 450 will be more difficult
to achieve than the absolute value in BS 3892: Part 1.
Other differences from BS 3892: Part 1 are that BS EN 450 requires soundness to be
measured only where the free calcium oxide limit is not satisfied, and the activity index
(referred to in BS 3892 as the strength factor) should be determined on an equal water
content basis. Additionally, BS EN 450 has no water requirement. It should be noted that
with some coarser fly ashes, water reductions for equal workability might not occur.
BS EN 450 is being revised into a harmonised form. This means it can be used as the
basis for CE marking. During this process, the activity index is being reviewed, and
considerationgiven to including fly ashes produced by co-combustion of coal with other
fuels.
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE WITH

BS EN 450 FLY -ASH
3.1
Fresh concrete properties
There are many reports on the physical and chemical influences of fly ash on the
properties of fresh and hydrating concrete. In general, fly ash inclusion in concrete
reduces water demand, improves workability and reduces bleeding and segregation.The
benefits associated with these effects enable water contents to be lower and concrete to
be designed with reduced water/(cement + fly ash) ratios for equal workability [31.
Since BS EN 450 allows a wide range of fineness to be used, there is a possibility that
the beneficial effects of improved workability with finer fly ashes will reduce as the
coarseness of the fly ash component increases. Investigations into the relationship
between slump and fly ash properties at equal water contents have indicated a strong
correlation with fly ash fineness [41. However, it has been shown that coarse fly ash
(fineness > 30%) can be used effectivelyin conjunction with water-reducingadmixtures
to achieve equivalent workability and strength to that of finer fly ash concrete[]. This
need to include water-reducing admixtures may influence the economics of concrete
production.
3.2
Strength development and achieving equal strength
Test results have shown that use of coarser fly ashes leads to a reduction in compressive strength for equal watedcement ratio. This effect (shown in Figure 1) increases
with decreasing water/(cement + fly ash) ratio. Generally, a 5% increase in 45 pm sieve
retention will lead to a strength reduction of between 0.4 and 1.5 N / m 2 for typical
cement + fly ash contents.
It has been shown that concretes of equal strength can be produced from fly ashes with
finenesses over the full range permitted in BS EN 450. Strength may be controlled by
adjusting the water/(cement + fly ash) ratio, changing the relative proportions of
constituent materials or combinations of these.
Use of fly ashes with LOI up to 8.0% has been shown to have only a minor influence on
strength16]and use of fly ash conforming to the LOI requirements in BS EN 450 should
present no problems with regard to strength.
3.3
Engineering properties
The effect of using fly ashes of differing fineness on the elastic modulus, creep
coefficient and ultimate shrinkage of concrete are compared in Table 2. In general, these
follow the expected behaviour in terms of the effect of the design strength on each
property. However, there are no significant effects of fly ash fineness on any of these
Use offly ash to BS EN 450 in structural concrete
80
Water content = 185 I/m3
70 -
.
z
50
(3
5tK 40
30
y 20
a
10
*Water-reducing admixture used to maintain equal slump
I
10
30
20
40
50
FLY ASH FINENESS, % (45 pm sieve retention)
Figure 1. Relationship betweenfly ashfineness and 28 day strength

fly ash content = 30% by mass of cement +fly ash)[".
Table 2. Comparison of engineering propertiesfor concrete containingfly ashes
of dfleringfinene~s~~'.
Fly ash content = 30% by mass of cement +fly ash.
Engineering property
Elastic modulus
at 28 days as BS 1881: Part l2lC7l
Creep coefficient
at 28 days loading (0.4f,,)
~~
Ultimate shrinkage ( x 10")

at 2OoC, 55% RH
Design strength
(N/mm2)
20
40
60
20
40
60
20
40
60
Fly ash fineness

3.3%
29:7%
16
17
23
23
28
27
1.26
1.27
1.13
1.1 1
1.1 1
1.12
393
320
408
492
660
602
properties when the concretes have the same 28-day strength. The lower ultimate shrinkage for the coarser fly ashes reflects the lower watedcement ratio needed to achieve
equal 28-day strength.
3.4
Durability
Aspects of durability for concrete containing fly ashes with fineness of 3.5% and 35.0%
are compared in Table 3, and described in the following sections.
3.4.1 Chloride ingress
The use of fly ash in concrete gives good performance in chloride environments, and
resistance improves with compressive strength ['I. For equal strength fly ash concrete,
there is no significant effect of fineness or LOI on the resistance to chloride ingress[".
All fly ashes conforming to BS EN 450 are therefore suitableafor exposure in chloride
environments.
Use offly ash to BS EN 450 in structural concrete
3.4.2 Carbonation
The effect of different fineness and LOI of fly ash on carbonation rates appears to have
little influence for equal strength concrete. In studies [9-111the maximum difference in
depth of carbonation between concrete specimens containing different qualities of fly
ash has been found to be well within experimental variability. For practical purposes it
can be assumed that fly ash fineness and LOI have no influence on carbonation rates.
All fly ashes conforming to BS EN 450 are therefore suitable for exposure to
environments in which carbonation may occur.
Table 3. Comparison of aspects of durabililyfor concrete containingfly ashes of digering
finenessLn1.
Fly ash content = 30% by mass of cement +fly ash.
Design strength
Durability property
(N/mm2)
35
50
60
25
Chloride diffusion (cm*/sx 10-9)(i)

Carbonation depth (mm) (ii)
Sulfate resistance, expansion (% x
io-)) (iii)
Freeze-thaw durability factor (%) (iv)

Abrasion (mm) ('*
vi)
35
25
35
50
35
50
35 ( v i 0
35
50
_ .
Fly ash fineness

3.5%
-.35.0%
9.4
10.2
4.9
4.3
1.2
1.5
31.0
32.0
17.0
17.5
41
45
28
28
0
0
51
48
72
65
98
97
1.10
0.92
0.79
0.8
Notes: (i) Two compartment cell. (ii) 4.0% enriched CO,, 20C, 55% RH (30 weeks). (iii) 6.0g/I MgSO,
(1 84 days exposure). (iv) ASTM C666, Procedure A [Iz1, (v) Modified BCA method [ I 3 ] . (vi) Cured for
seven days wrapped in polythene, then air at 20"C, 55% RH to 28 days. (vii) Air-entrained concrete.
3.4.3 Sulfate resistance
The use of fly ash in concrete gives adequate resistance to the ettringite form of sulfate
attack, which is generally considered to reflect the reduction in quantity of reactive
material present and the enhancement in the concrete microstructure [I4]. Although
different levels of sulfate resistance may be obtained by using fly ash from different
so~rces[''~,
this is believed to be related to compositional rather than physical effects of
fly ash['61.
Short-term tests have shown that fly ash concretes of similar strength have comparable
resistance to sulfate attack, with concretes of strength greater than 50 N/mmz showing
little expansion[']. Note that, where using fly ash as a component of cement or in combination with a CEM I cement for sulfate resistance, BS 8500 [I7], the complementary
UK standard to BS EN 206-1 [IR1, recommends a minimum fly ash content of 25% by mass.
At present no guidance can be given on the use of BS EN 450 fly ashes to resist the
thaumasite form of sulfate attack.
3.4.4 Freeze-thaw resistance
The rate of deterioration of concrete under freeze-thaw conditions decreases with an

increase in concrete strength. For equal concrete grade there appears to be no influence
of fly ash fineness or LOI on the ability of concrete specimens to resist freeze-thaw
attack [6*'o,'91.Although adequateperformance in freeze-thawconditions can be achieved
by increasing the compressive strength, the 'most 'efficient means of enhancing

performance is through the use of air-entraining admixtures (AEA).
Irrespective of the fly ash fineness, the dosage of AEA required to obtain the necessary
air content is approximately the same. However, for fly ash with high LOI, greater
dosages of AEA may be required than for fly ashes with low LOI. Users of fly ash
should therefore pay particular attention to any variability in LOI and the subsequent air
content and concrete strength to ensure that concrete freeze-thaw resistance is maintained (see Section 5.3).
3.4.5 Abrasion resistance
There is evidence [91 to suggest that, when concrete is properly cured there is a minor
improvement in the abrasion resistance when using fine ash (3.5% and 13.5% retained
on a 45 pm sieve) over that obtained using coarser ash (35% retained).
USING BS EN 458 FLY ASH
METHOD
4.1
Equivalent cement met
The introduction of the equivalent cement method in BS 3892: Part 1 in 1993 has
resulted in it becoming the most widely used method in the UK for controlling the
incorporation of fly ash into concrete, and it is used by suppliers to demonstrate that a
Portland cemendfly ash combination from a defined source has the properties and
proportions required by a cement conforming to the equivalent cement standard. The
basis of the method is that any cemenvfly ash combination that conforms to the equivalent cement standard will give adequate performance.
The procedure given in BS 3892: Part 1 : 199712]is included in BS 8500 [I7], the complementary British Standard to BS EN 206- 1 [Ix1. It should be noted that testing is carried
out at equal water contents so the rheological improvements brought about by the
inclusion of fly ash are not recognised. The procedure is applicable to fly ashes conforming to BS 3892: Part 1 and BS EN 450 with an LOI not greater than 7%. Work has
demonstrated [*I' that the method is applicable to fly ashes conforming to BS EN 450, and
its use is recommended.
The equivalence procedure determines the range of proportions over which the requirements of the cement standard are satisfied. The producer is able to use any proportion
within this range, thus giving flexibility to optimise the mix design, but proportions of
fly ash shall not exceed 55% of the combination. However, the applicable range varies
with the properties of the fly ash and cement.
4.2
K-value method
The k-value approach to using fly ash in concrete was proposed by Smith [211, and
assumes that fly ash is 'k' times as effective as an equal mass of cement in the
development of strength, engineering properties and durability resistance. The 'effective
cement content' to be used in the calculation of minimum 'cement' content and maximum water/'cement' ratio is therefore calculated as (c + kf), where c is the actual
cement content andfis the fly ash content.
Any type of cement can be used, but the k-value concept is not applied when fly ash is
part of the cement. In this case, the fly ash is, in effect, taken as having a k-value of 1.O
(equivalent cement method - Section 4.1)
k-values can be calculated for many aspects of performance but it is usual to use them
for strength. Values of k for strength between 0.1 and 0.8 [ ' I . 20-231 have been reported,
depending on fly ash fineness, LOI and content in the mix. Users of the k-value
approach usually limit the maximum quantity of fly ash that can be counted as
cementitious and restrict the amount by which the cement content can be reduced. A
Use ofjly ash to BS EN 450 in structura1)concrete
I0
value of k = 0.4 is given in BS EN 206-1 ["I for use with BS EN 450 fly ash up to a
maximum fly ash content of 25%, when used in combination with CEM 1-42.5 N
cement. (It is assumed that fly ash above this level acts as filler.) A value of 0.2 is
permitted for use with CEM 1-32.5 N cement.
The k-value method is simple to use, but it is questionable whether a single k-value of
0.4 is applicable to the full range of fly ashes permitted by BS EN 450. The achievement
of sufficient strength to give adequate performance is therefore uncertain. A hrther
problem is that k-values based on strength are not necessarily appropriate to many
aspects of durability performance, where the relative effectiveness of fly ash compared
with cement may be considerably different.
It has also been shown that where the minimum cement content controls the mix design,
the k-value method leads to a significantly higher cement + fly ash content[241
than that
obtained using other methods. This has significant implications for the cost of concrete
designed using the k-value approach.
Guidance on the methods for measuring the k-value and the problems associated with
this method will be given in a CEN report[251.
4.3
ance metho
The equivalent concrete performance method, as originally conceived, was intended to

permit mix designs that incorporate non-standard materials, with the aim of producing
optimum performance from locally available materials, such as fly ash. The concrete is
specified by performance, usually in terms of durability, and all concretes that meet
these requirements, irrespective of constituents, are considered equivalent. There is no
requirement to match the performance of a reference concrete. The shortcoming in this
approach is the lack of standardised durability tests on concrete. Therefore, any
performance tests have to be agreed on a project-by-project basis.
As a way forward, an alternative method of applying the equivalent concrete perfor-
mance concept for fly ash concrete is given in BS EN 206-1 ["I. This method permits
amendments to the requirements for minimum cement content and maximum
waterkement ratio, if it can be proven that a concrete made with a particular fly ash and
cement has equivalentperformance to a reference concrete meeting the requirements for
the relevant exposure condition. The equivalent performance should be judged with
respect to the particular specification for which the concrete is intended, especially
environmental actions and durability.
The reference concrete against which the fly ash concrete is assessed should contain
cement to BS EN 197-11261 and have constituents corresponding to the combination of
fly ash and cement.
BS EN 206-1 recommends the following limits on the range of fly ashlcement compositions:
(i)
the total amount of fly ash should be within the limits in BS EN 197-1 for
permitted types of cement
(ii)
the sum of cement and fly ash should be at least equal to the minimum cement
content in BS EN 206-1
(iii)
the water/(cement + fly ash) ratio should be no greater than the maximum
waterkement ratio in BS EN 206-1.
Tests have shown that equal performance for chloride ingress, abrasion resistance,.
freeze-thaw resistance and carbonation can be achieved when the above restrictions are
applied and the fly ash concrete has equal 28-day compressive strength to the reference
concrete. Therefore, for BS EN 206- 1 exposure classes XO, XC, XD and XF, no further
durability testing is necessary provided the concrete durability requirements contain a
requirement for compressive strength. This makes the equivalent concrete performance
11
iJ
method easy to apply, as long as the effect of fly ash on strength is known, and reliable,
because the strength is checked.
The fineness of fly ash can affect the performance of concrete and BS EN 450 permits
a greater range than BS 3892: Part 1. Because of this, there is a need for a concrete mix
design method that can take into account the variations in fineness. Such a mix design
method has been developed[61in which equal strength is achieved for different fly ash
concretes by simple adjustment to the free water/(cement + fly ash) ratio. This may be
attained by:
(i)
maintaining the existing cement + fly ash content and adjusting the free water
content
(ii)
maintaining the existing free water content and adjusting the cement + fly ash
content or
(iii)
adjusting both the free water and cement + fly ash contents.
4.4
Treatment with respect to ASR
BRE Digest 330 [271 offers guidance on minimising the risk of damaging alkali-silica
reaction (ASR) in new construction using different cementitious materials. This requires
fly ash to conform to BS 3892: Part 1,and so does not cover the wider range of fly ash
fineness allowed by BS EN 450. However, there is nothing in current European
standards or published data to support this restriction. Where the fly ashkement
combination is manufactured by inter-grinding the constituents, the fineness limit is not
required - as long as all other properties satisfy BS 3892: Part 1.
Digest 330 states that definitive guidance on fly ash to BS EN 450 cannot be given
because of lack of technical data. Where fly ash is used for purposes other than to
modify the risk of ASR, Digest 330 states that it should be treated in a manner similar
to a BS 3892: Part 1 fly ash as if it were a component of a combination, for the purpose
of its contributions to the recommended maximum combination content, and to mix
alkali contents. Thus the use of BS EN 450 fly ash should be restricted to concrete not
at risk from deterioration due to ASR, either from its intended use or the use of nonreactive aggregates, until data are available to confirm performance levels. However,
when checking a concrete for its resistance to ASR, all BS EN 450 fly ashes should be
treated as being equally effective as those conforming to BS 3892: Part 1. A research
programme is in progress at the University of Dundee to confirm this aspect of
performance.
5.1
Storage, handUing and M
S ~
Fly ash can be supplied in four forms:

Dry
This is how fly ash is supplied for most cement, concrete and specialist grout
applications. Dry ash is handled in a similar manner to Portland cement and other fine
powders. Storage is in sealed silos with the associated filtration and desiccation
equipment, or in bags.
Conditioned
Water can be added to fly ash to facilitate compaction and handling. The amount of
water added is determined by the end use. Conditioned fly ash is widely used in aerated
concrete blocks, grout and specialist fill applications.
12
Use ofjly ash to BS.EN 450 in structura1,concrete
Stockpiled
Conditioned fly ash not sold immediately can be stockpiled for future use. The moisture
content of stockpiled ash is typically 10 to 15%. It is used mainly in large fill and bulk
grouting applications.
Lagooln
Some power stations pump fly ash as a slurry to large lagoons. These are drained and
when the moisture content of the deposited fly ash has reached a safe level it may be
recovered. Because of the nature of the disposal technique, the moisture content can vary
from around 5% to over 30%. Lagoon fly ash can be used in similar applications to
stockpiled and conditioned fly ash.
ation on strength
BS EN 450 designates fly ash with a fineness no more than 10% above or below the
suppliers declared mean value as conforming to the standard. Fly ash may therefore
conform to the standard, but have a maximum difference of 20% in fineness, which may
result in a strength difference of between 1.6 and 6.0 Nlmm2 over a range of cement +
fly ash contents from 250 to 550 kg/m3.This is illustrated in Table 4.
~,
Clearly, fly ash varying within this pekitted fineness range in BS EN 450 will add to
variability in concrete strength. This will be in addition to variations caused by changes
in the Portland cement and loose bulk density of the aggregates. While the variation in
fineness is not sufficient to cause a non-conformity of strength, it will be reflected in the
strength standard deviation and may result in the need for a larger design margin. Given
this added variability, concrete producers may wish to impose tighter limits on the
variability of fly ash fineness as a commercial condition of supply[].
Table 4. Effect of a S%fineness variation on 28-day concrete cube strength!
Cement + fly ash
content
(kdm)
Strength change per 5% fly

ash fineness variation
(N/mm2)
250
0.4
350
0.6
450
1.o
f 2.0
550
1.5
f 3.0
Strength range for f 10%

fineness BS EN 450 allowance
(N/mm*)
f 0.8
1.2
The limit on loss-on-ignition (LOI) of 7.0% is to be used in BS EN 450 on a national

basis. This limit is not known to cause problems in the quality of fly ash and should
provide no difficulties with regard to engineering and durability properties.
Unlike fineness, no limits on the maximum variability of LOI within the overall limit
of 7.0% are specified. However, LOI has particular relevance to freeze-thaw resistance
of concrete, and to the colour of concrete.
It is known that as the LOI of fly ash increases, the dosage of air-entraining admixture
required to achieve a specified air content in the concrete increases. Therefore, if using
set mix proportions, any variation in the LOI of fly ash will lead to erratic air
entrainment. Users of fly ash are therefore advised to pay particular attention to ensuring
that fly ash of consistent LOI is used.
Fly ashes with high LOI are darker than those with low LOI. This is often reflected in
the colour of the manufacturedconcrete. Where the appearance of concrete is important,
users should ensure that fly ash of consistent LOI is used to avoid fluctuations in colour
or shade.
13
CASE STUDIES
Fly ash conforming to BS EN 450 has had little use in the UK and most work has
involved fly ash to BS 3892: Part 1, with a tightly controlled fineness. Projects that have
used coarser fly ash were mostly completed before the introduction of BS 3892: Part 1
in 1982 or carried out within the electricity generating industry using run of station fly
ash.
Ratcliffe cooling tower strengthening
6.1
Because of structural problems occurring in some cooling towers at power stations

belonging to the Central Electricity Generating Board in the late 1980s, a strengthening
programme was initiated. This involved adding a mantle of concrete to the outside of
the existing shells. Woolley and Cabrera reported this work in 199 1 12]. Data is available
for the work at Ratcliffe power station, Nottingham, between August 1989 and February
1990.
The concrete had a 28-day characteristic strength of 30 N/mm2 but to enable early
stripping of the formwork, strength of at least 7 N/mm2 at 24 hours was required. The
mix design was developed from a plain concrete mix with the fly ash added as a direct
substitution of the cement and representing 35% of the cement + fly ash content. The
amount of sand was slightly reduced to achieve constant yield.
The mean fineness of the fly ash was 3 1.0%,varying between 14.4% and 42.9%. This
is outside the variability permitted by BS EN 450 (*to%) but is tending towards the
finer end of the range.
The mean 28-day cube strength was 49.5 N/mm2 with a standard deviation of
3.6 N/mm2. This standard deviation is low despite the fly ash being more variable than
permitted by BS EN 450.
The plot of strength against fly ash fineness in Figure 2 shows the scatter of results. A
trend can be seen towards lower strength concrete with increasing coarseness of the fly
ash. From the diagram it is estimated that the concrete strength at 28 days varies by
about 4 N/mm2 over a 20% fineness range for the fly ash.
Major defect limit
Maior.defect limit
56
10
20
30
40
50
60
FINENESS (% retained On.45 pm sieve)
Figure 2. Scatter of strength results withjly ash fineness for Ratcliffe cooling tower strengthening project. The major defect limits relate to the conformity criteria o f f 5% in BS EN 450.
14
The mean LOI recorded over the same seven-month period was 4.4%, which gives an
upper limit of 6.1% based on the statistical factors in BS EN 450. Two results were
above 7.0%, but below 9.0%. This means that the fly ash supplied to the contract would
not meet the requirements of BS EN 450 unless, as proposed for the UK, the 7.0%limit
was adopted.
6mz
MiqDh ~~Ormnh~oO
SMbSaSl~iOGU
n
High Marnham power station, near Newark in Nottinghamshire, was constructed

between 1956 and 1962; the 275 kV substation associated with the power station was
constructed in 1957-58. The substation bases were cast in PC concrete, except for a
limited number of control areas which contained fly ash. Unusually for the time, the
work was well-documented [291 and the concrete was examined 25 years later and the
results published [301.
The materials used were ordinary Portland cement and Trent Valley aggregates with a
maximum size of 38 mm. The fly ash was 'run of station' ash from North Wilford power
station in Nottingham. The properties of the cement and fly ash are shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Mean valuesfor OPC andfly ash properties used in High
Marnham project.
~~~~
Property
SiO, (%)
A1,0, (%)
Fe203
CaO (%)
MgO (%)
Na,O (%)
K,O (%)
so, (%)
Loss-on-ignition(%)
Specificsurfacearea [Blaine](cm2/g)
Fineness (% retained on 90 pm sieve)
Soundness (mm)
Particle densitv (g/cm31
QPC
20.8
7.2
3.3
61.7
2.3
0.9
0.5
1.7
1.6
2250
4.6
3.1
-
Fly ash
46.7
27.8
9.5
.,
7.1
3.8
0.9
0.6
1.24
2.5
3260
12.3
'
'
2.03
The cement was relatively coarse and had a high alkali content. The specific surface at
2250 cm2/g was at the lower limit for Portland cement of the time, and would now be
considered as a controlled fineness cement. The alkali content was 1.22% sodium
equivalent (Na,O), which would be considered a high-alkali cement according to BRE
Digest 330[*']. .
The fly ash was unusual in its chemistry: the calcium, magnesium and sulfate levels
were higher than are typically found, although they were within the limits set in BS EN
450; the alkalis were low (1.26% sodium equivalent).
The specific surface value indicates that the fly ash was finer than the cement, the
opposite to what was suggested by the 90 pm sieve retention. The fineness of fly ash is
currently expressed as the percentage retained on a 45 pm sieve, but a mean retention
on a 90 pm sieve of 12.3%is equivalent to a retention of around 25% on a 45 pm sieve.
This is above the limit in BS 3892: Part 1 , but within the limits of BS EN 450. There are
no data for the variability in fineness of the fly ash, nor any indication of its control.
Details of the mixes are shown in Table 6. The mix design was based on Road Note 4 [3'1,
with a minimum 28-day compressive strength of 2 1 N/mm2. Road Note 4 requires the
15
minimum strength to be 60% of the mean, so the target mean strength was 35 Nlmm2.
The fly ash was added as a direct replacement of cement to represent 20% of the cement
+ fly ash content by mass. Because the density of fly ash is lower than that of cement,
the volume of fines increases. However, no correction was applied, nor was any adjustment made to the water content, and hence a more workable mix was accepted.
Table 6. Concrete mix design used at High Marnham.
Control mix
Flv ash mix
Cement (kg/m3)
Fly ash (kg/m3)
280
220
55
Coarse aggregate (kg/m3)

Fine aggregate (kg/m3)
Water (kg/m3)
1390
1375
600
595
145
145
Waterlcement ratio
Nominal slump (mm)
0.52
0.52
25
40
Material DroDertv
The strengths are summarised in Table 7. The compressive strength, expressed as

equivalent cube strength, used a factor of 1.15 for all cores, whether they were obtained
from horizontal or vertical drilling. This would give conservative results overall.
The strengths of the plain and fly ash concrete are similar after 25 years, although the
fly ash concrete had a marginally greater strength gain from one year to 25 years.
The plain concrete was slightly more porous than the fly ash concrete, and had more
pores of 5 pm and above in diameter.
There was no evidence of carbonation of the fly ash concrete, even close to the surface,
whereas carbonation was observed up to 15 mm depth in the plain concrete. All bases
were set in the ground with upper surfaces exposed to the atmosphere.
Although the alkali content of the concrete was high, no evidence of alkali-silica
reaction (ASR) was found[291.
This case study indicates that even with a simplistic mix design, durable concrete could
be made using a relatively coarse fly ash.
Table 7. Summary of 2.5-year strengths at High Marnham[3n1.
Mean equivalent cube
compressive strength
(N/mm2)
Indirect tensile
strength
Control mix
66.5
4.10
Fly ash mix
69.0
4.20
(N/mm2)
AVAllABlLlTY
The annual UK production of coal fly ash is around 7 million tonnes, which is produced
by 18 coal-fired power stations. The geographical distribution of stations enables fly ash
to be supplied to all major cities and industrial centres.
Fly ash is produced 24 hours each day, throughout the year, with production varying
only with electricity demand. Most stations have the capability to offer stockpiled
conditioned fly ash or lagoon ash to the market alongside dry ash, ensuring adequate
supply throughout the year.
16
For a number of reasons there has been a move away from coal-fired generation of
electricity since privatisation of the industry. However, it is now accepted that there is
a role for coal as a fuel in electricity generation for the foreseeable future, due to the
need to maintain a balanced approach to energy supplies.
There is an increasing emphasis placed by Government and the market on sustainable
developments and waste minimisation. These objectives are met by the utilisation of
industrial by-products, like fly ash and reclaimedrecycled materials, which are of
particular benefit where there is a proven track record of use in the construction
industry.
Further information about availability of fly ash can be obtained from:
United Kingdom Quality Ash Association (UKQAA)
Regent House, Bath Avenue,
Wolverhampton, West Midlands WV1 4EG
Tel: +44 (0)1902 576586, Fax: +44 (0)1902 576596
enquiries@ukqaa.org.uk;www.ukqaa.org.uk
17
REFERENCES
1.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 450: 1995, Fly ash for concrete. Definitions, requirements and quality control. 20pp.
2.
BRITISH STANDARDSINSTITUTION, BS 3892: Part 1: 1997, Pulverized-jiuel

ash. Specijicationfor pulverized-fuel ashfor use with Portland cement. 22pp.
3.
ELLIS, M.S., Compositional characterisation of UK PFA for use in concrete,

University of Dundee Internal Report, 1984.
4.
DHIR, R.K., HUBBARD, F.H., MUNDAY, J.G.L. and JONES, M.R. Characteristics of low-lime fly ashes significant to their use in concrete, Fly ash, silica
firme, and naturalpozzolans in concrete. V.M. Malhotra (Ed.) American Concrete
Institute SP 91-33, 1986, pp.693-721.
5.
CRIPWELL, B. Research and development: a review of PFA in the literature,

Concrete, Vol. 26, No. 3, MayIJune 1992, pp.21-26.
6.
DHIR, R.K., McCARTHY, M.J. and MAGEE, B.J. Impact of BS EN 450 PFA
on concrete construction in the UK, Construction and Building Materials, Vol.
12, NO. 1, 1998, pp.59-74.
7.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 1881: Part 121: 1983. Testing

concrete. Method for determination of static modulus in compression. 8pp.
8.
THOMAS, M.D.A. Marine performance of PFA concrete, Magazine of Concrete

Research, Vol. 43, No. 156, 1991, pp.171-185.
9.
DHIR, R.K., McCARTHY, M.J. and MAGEE, B.J. Use of PFA to EN 450 in
structural concrete, Report CTUI 196, Concrete Technology Unit, University of
Dundee, 1996.
10.
LEWANDOWSKI, R. Effect of different fly ash quantities and qualities on the

properties of concrete, Betonwerk und Fertigteil-Technik Vol. 49, 1983. Part 1:
No 1, January, pp.11-15; Part 2: No. 2, February, pp.105-111; Part 3: No. 3,
March, pp.152-158.
11.
SCHIESSL, P. and HARDTL, R. Eflciency offry ash in concrete: Evaluation of

ibac test results, Document N42, Institut E r Bauforschung, RWTH, Aachen.
1991.
12.
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS. ASTM C666-97.

Standard test method for resistance of concrete to rapidfieezing and thawing.
Philadelphia. 6pp.
13.
LAWRENCE, C.D., Sulphate attack on concrete, Magazine of Concrete

Research, Vol. 42, No. 153, 1990, pp.249-264.
14.
DHIR, R.K., HEWLETT, P.C. and CHAN, Y.N. Near surface characteristics of
concrete: abrasion resistance. Materials and Structures. Vol. 24, No, 140, 1991.
pp. 121-128.
15.
MEHTA, P.K., Effect of fly ash composition on sulfate resistance of cement,

Journal of the American Concrete Institute, Proceedings, Vol. 83, No. 6, 1986,
pp.994-1000.
16.
TIKALSKY, P.J. and CARRASQUILLO, R.L. Influence of fly ash on the sulfate
resistance of concrete, ACZMaterials Journal, Vol. 89, No. 1, 1992, pp.69-75.
17.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS 8500, Concrete. Complementary

British Standard to BS EN 206-1. Part 1: 2001. Method of specihing and
guidance for the specijier. 50pp. Part 2: 2002. Specification for constituent
materials and concrete. 38pp.
18
Use offly ash to BS EN 450 in structura1,concrete
18.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 206- 1:2000, Concrete. Specification, performance, production and conformity. 74pp.
19.
DHIR, R.K., McCARTHY, M.J. and PAINE, K.A. Technology transfer programme for the use of PFA to EN 450 in structural concrete: Freezehhaw
resistance using CEN/TC 51 test method, Document No. EN 450/22, Concrete
Technology Unit, University of Dundee. 1999.
20.
DHIR, R.K., McCARTHY, M.J. and PAINE, K.A. Technology transfer

programme for the use of PFA to EN 450 in structural concrete, Report No.
CTU/ 1400, Concrete Technology Unit, University of Dundee. 2000.
21.
SMITH, I.A. The design of fly ash concrete, Proceedings of the Institution of
Civil Engineers, Vol. 36, 1967, pp.769-790.
22.
WESCHE, K., SCHUBERT, P. and WEBER, J.W. Strength and durability of

concrete with coal fly-ash as an additive, Betonwerk und Fertigteil-Technik,
Vol. 50, NO. 6, 1984. pp.367-374.
23.
INTRON, Institute for Material and Environmental Research BV, Fly ash as
addition to concrete, CUR Report 144, AA Balkema Publishers, 1992,99pp.
24.
HARRISON, T.A. The effect of the k-value for fly ash on concrete mix proportions, Proceedings of XIth European Ready Mixed Concrete Congress, June
1995, Istanbul. Turkey Ready Mixed . Concrete Association, Istanbul.
pp.409-4 18.
25.
CEN, K-valueforpowder coalfly ash, CEN Draft Committee Document, 1998.
26.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 197- 1:2000, Cement. Composition, speci3cations and conformity criteriafor common cements. 5Opp.
27.
BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT, BRE Digest 330: Part 2, Alkalisilica reaction in concrete: Detailed guidancefor new construction, 1999.
28.
WOOLLEY, G.R. and CABRERA, J.G. Early-age in-situ strength development

of fly ash concrete in thin shells, Blended cements in construction, ed. Swamy,
R.N., Elsevier Applied Science, Barking, 1991. pp. 166-1 78.
29.
HOWELL, L.H. Report of pulverised fuel ash as a partial replacementfor

cement in normal works concrete, Central Electricity Generating Board, East
Midlands Division, 1958, I, 36 and 11, 37.
30.
CABRERA, J.G. and WOOLLEY, G.R. A study of twenty-five year old

pulverised fuel ash concrete used in foundation structures, Proceedings of
Institution of Civil Engineers, Part 2, Vol. 79, March 1985, pp.149-165.
31.
ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY, Design of concrete mixes, HMSO,

London, 1950, Road Note 4,2nd edition.
32.
BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT. Design of normal concrete mixes.

BRE Report 33 1. Garston, 1997.
19
APPENDIX
Taking account of fly ash characteristics in mix design
Tests [see Section 4.31 have shown that a simple approach to applying the equivalent
concrete performance method with respect to chloride ingress, abrasion, freeze-thaw
resistance and carbonation is the achievement of equal 28-day compressive strength to
a suitable reference concrete. Thus, for EN 206- 1 exposureclasses XO, XC, XD and XF,
no hrther durability testing is necessary provided the concrete durability requirements
include a minimum cube strength.
Research on the effects of fly ash fineness [see Section 3.23 has demonstrated that fly
ash with properties across the range of BS EN 450 requirements may influence concrete
cube strength. A method developed at the University of Dundeehakes into account the
effects of fly ash characteristics on cube strength by simple adjustment to the free
water/(cement + fly ash) ratio. This a straightforward approach which is easy to apply
in practice; the method is described below.
The adjustment in the water/(cement + fly ash) ratio to account for variations in fly ash
fineness over a range of typical concrete strengths is shown in Figure A- 1 for a fly ash
content of 30% by mass. The required adjustment in the water/(cement + fly ash) ratio
increases with cube strength, because of the increasingly significant effect of fly ash
fineness on cube strength as the cement + fly ash content increases[".
The following two examples show the selection of water/(cement + fly ash) ratio for two
fly ashes, fly ash A with fineness 5% (retained on 45pm sieve) and fly ash B with
fineness 35%.
70
10 I
60
50
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
28-day cube strength, Nlrnrn'
40
30 -
20 -
w/(c+9 ratio cu
with fineness of 5% (45 pm sieve retention)
10
0
0.30 0.35
0.40 0.45
0.50 0.55
0.60 0.65
0.70 0.75
w/(c+f) ratio
Figure A-1. Relationship between watedcement +fly ash ratio (w/(c+fl)
and 28-day cube strengthforjly ash conforming with BS EN 450.
FIy ash content: 30% by mass.
20
Examples
Requirement to meet the exposure XC 1 for carbonation using 30% fly ash as cement
component by mass (i.e. minimum strength 25 N/mm2,maximum w/c = 0.65, minimum
cement = 260 kg/m3), where a reference C25 PC concrete with a target strength of
35 N/mm2 has been shown to perform adequately.
Fly ash A
Fly ash fineness (hretained on 45pm sieve)
Target cube strength of reference concrete
Figure A-l(a). Water/(cement
5
35 N/mm2
+ fly ash) ratio
Variation of fineness from 5%

[(1) - 5 ] / 5
Figure A-l(b). Correction to water/(cement + fly ash)
ratio per 5% fineness variation
Water/(cement + fly ash) ratio (2) - [(3)
(1)
(4)]
0.49
(2)
(3)
5.2 x 1 0 - ~
(4)
0.49
Therefore, assuming water content = 165 l/m3with a plasticizer in the mix, possible mix
proportions are given in Table A-1. The aggregate proportions are calculated using
normal mix design methods, e.g. BRE Design of normal concrete mixes [321, in which
aggregate proportions are calculated by estimating)the wet density of concrete, and
proportioning the percentage of fine aggregate to the required slump.
Table A-1
Design
strength
(N/mmz)
w/(c+f)
35.0
0.49
Free
water
165
Concrete mix proportions (kg/m3)

PC Fly ash
Aggregate
Fine
lOmm
235
100
680
405
20mm
810
Fly ash B
35
35 N/mm2
(1)
Figure A-l(a). Water/(cement + fly ash) ratio
0.49
(2)
Variation of fineness from 5%

[(1)-5115
Figure A- 1(b). Correction to water/(cement + fly ash)
(3)
5.2 x 10-3
(4)
Fly ash fineness (% retained on 45pm sieve)

Target cube strength of reference concrete
ratio per 5% fineness variation

Water/(cement + fly ash) ratio (2) - [(3) x (4)]
0.46
Corresponding mix proportions for fly ash B would be as given in Table A-2. Aggregate
proportions have minor adjustments to maintain yield.
Note that the use of the coarser fly ash B requires a w/(c+f) ratio 0.03 lower than that
for the finer fly ash A. For the same free water content, this means an increase of 25
kg/m3 in the total cement + fly\ash content. Alternatively, the lower w/(c+f) ratio could
have been achieved by reducing the water content, or altering both the water content and
cement + fly ash content.
Table A-2
Design
strength
(N/mm2)
35.0
w/(c+f)
Free
water
0.46
165
Concrete mix proportions (kgjm)

PC
Fly ash
Aggregate
Fine
lOmm
250
110
680
395
20mm
790
\\
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Ravindra K. Dhir, Michael J. McCarthy, Kevin A. Paine

Concrete Technology Unit, University of Dundee
The European standard BS EN 450 Fly ash for concrete - definitions, requirements
and quality control covers a broader range of fly ashes as a cementitious component
for use in concrete than previous UK standards. This Technology Digest brings
together current knowledge of the properties on fly ash to BS EN 450, and offers
technical guidance on how the material should be used in concrete. Factors relating
to concrete production are also covered, and two case studies show how fly ash to
BS EN 450 has been used successfully.
This Technology Digest has been prepared as part of a technology transfer
programme undertaken at the Concrete Technology Unit of the University of Dundee
under the Partners in Technology Programme of the Department of the Environment,
Transport and the Regions.
The project was guided by a steering committee representing the University and all
contributing partners.
Order Ref: CS 133

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Use of fly ash to BS EN 450 in structural concrete

USE OF FLY ASH

Use ofjly ash to BS EN 450 in structural concrete

Department of The Environment, Transport and the Regions

The Steering Committee is gratehl to Dr L K A Sear and Dr G R Woolley for their

Use ofjly ash to BS EN 450 in structural concrete

Properties of concrete with BS EN 450 fly ash

3.1 Fresh concrete properties

3.2 Strength development and achieving equal strength

3.3 Engineering properties

Methods for using BS EN 450 fly ash

4.1 Equivalent cement method

4.2 K-value method

4.3 Equivalent concrete performance method

4.4 Treatment with respect to ASR

5.1 Storage, handling and use

5.2 Effect of *10% fineness variation on strength

6.1 Ratcliffe cooling tower strengthening

6.2 High Marnham substation

Appendix: Taking account of fly ash characteristics in mix design

Use ofjly ash to BS EN 450 in structural concrete

Table 1. Requirementsforjly ash given in BS EN 450 ['I and BS 3892: Part I

SO,, maximum (%)

Free CaO, maximum (Yo)

75 (28 days), 85 (90 days)

Use ofjly ash to BS EN 4.50 in structural concrete

PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE WITH

Fresh concrete properties

Strength development and achieving equal strength

Use offly ash to BS EN 450 in structural concrete

Water content = 185 I/m3

FLY ASH FINENESS, % (45 pm sieve retention)

Figure 1. Relationship betweenfly ashfineness and 28 day strength

Ultimate shrinkage ( x 10")

Fly ash fineness

Use offly ash to BS EN 450 in structural concrete

Chloride diffusion (cm*/sx 10-9)(i)

Freeze-thaw durability factor (%) (iv)

Fly ash fineness

3.4.3 Sulfate resistance

The rate of deterioration of concrete under freeze-thaw conditions decreases with an

Use ofjly ash to BS EN 450 in structural concrete

by increasing the compressive strength, the 'most 'efficient means of enhancing

USING BS EN 458 FLY ASH

Equivalent cement met

Use ofjly ash to BS EN 450 in structura1)concrete

The equivalent concrete performance method, as originally conceived, was intended to

Use ofjly ash to BS EN 450 in structural concrete

Treatment with respect to ASR

Storage, handUing and M

Fly ash can be supplied in four forms:

Use ofjly ash to BS.EN 450 in structura1,concrete

Strength change per 5% fly

Strength range for f 10%

The limit on loss-on-ignition (LOI) of 7.0% is to be used in BS EN 450 on a national

Use ofjly ash to BS EN 450 in structural concrete

Because of structural problems occurring in some cooling towers at power stations

Major defect limit

FINENESS (% retained On.45 pm sieve)