Microwave and RF Engineering

Microwave Electronics
GIOVANNI GHIONE, MARCO PIROLA

March 15, 2013
ii
Contents
A system introduction to microwave electronics
Passive elements and circuit layout

2.1 Transmission lines
2.1.1 Transmission line theory
2.1.1.1 More on series losses
2.1.1.2 More on parallel losses
2.1.2 Parameters of quasi-TEM lines
2.1.3 Working with transmission lines: the Smith chart
2.2 Planar transmission lines in microwave integrated circuits
2.2.1 The coaxial cable
2.2.2 The microstrip
2.2.2.1 Analysis formulae
2.2.2.2 Design formulae
2.2.3 The coplanar waveguide
2.2.3.1 Analysis formulae
2.2.3.2 Coupling and radiation losses in planar lines
2.3 Lumped parameter components
2.3.1 Inductors
2.3.1.1 Strip and loop inductors
2.3.1.2 Spiral inductors
2.3.1.3 Inductance of bonding wires
2.3.2 Capacitors
2.3.3 Resistors
2.3.4 Chip inductors, resistors and capacitors
2.4 Layout of planar hybrid and integrated circuits
2.4.1 Some layout-connected issues
2.4.1.1 Connecting series and parallel elements
2.4.1.2 The stub
2.4.1.3 Active element mounting
2.4.1.4 Planar line discontinuities
2.4.2 Hybrid layout
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Contents
2.4.3 Integrated layout

2.5 Microwave circuit packaging
2.6 Questions and problems
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Power gain and stability of a loaded two-port

3.1 Representations of linear two-ports
3.2 The scattering parameters
3.2.1 Power waves
3.2.2 Power wave n-port model
3.2.3 Power wave equivalent circuit - definition and evaluation
3.2.4 Solving a network in terms of power waves
3.2.5 Properties of the S-matrix: power, reciprocity, reactivity
3.3 Generator-load power transfer
3.4 Power transfer in loaded two-ports
3.5 Gains of loaded two-ports
3.5.1 Maximum gain and maximum power transfer
3.5.2 Operational gain
3.5.3 Available power gain
3.5.4 Transducer gain
3.5.5 Is power matching always possible?
3.6 Stability
3.6.1 Analysis of stability conditions
3.6.2 Unconditional stability necessary and sufficient conditions
3.6.3 Proof of stability criteria
3.6.3.1 Output stability criterion
3.6.3.2 Input stability criterion
3.6.3.3 Input and output stability
3.7 One-parameter stability criteria
3.7.1 Proof of the single parameter criterium
3.8 Two-port stability and power matching
3.8.1 Power matching and maximum gain: can it be always realized?
3.8.2 Managing conditional stability
3.8.3 Stability circles and constant gain contours
3.8.4 Unilateral two-port
3.9 Examples
3.9.1 Stability and gains at constant frequency
3.9.2 Stability and gains as a function of frequency
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Directional couplers and power dividers

4.1 Coupled quasi-TEM lines
4.1.1 Analysis of symmetrical coupled lines
4.1.2 Coupled planar lines
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Contents
4.1.2.1 Coupled microstrips

4.2 The directional coupler
4.3 The two-conductor coupled line coupler
4.3.1 Frequency behaviour of the synchronous coupler
4.3.2 Effect of velocity mismatch and compensation techniques
4.4 Multiconductor line couplers
4.4.1 The Lange coupler
4.5 Interference couplers
4.5.1 Branch-line coupler
4.5.2 Lumped-parameter directional couplers
4.5.3 The hybrid ring
4.6 Power combiners and dividers
4.6.1 Wilkinson distributed dividers
4.6.2 Wilkinson lumped dividers
4.7 Conclusions
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Active microwave devices and device models
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Noise and noise models
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LLinear amplifiers
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Power amplifiers
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A system introduction to
microwave electronics
2.1
Transmission lines
Transmission lines (TLXs) are the key distributed element model in microwave
circuits, acting as signal transducers between circuit components but also being
the basis for a number of passive distributed elements, such as couplers, filters and matching sections. In hybrid and monolithic microwave circuits typical
guiding structures are the so-called TEM or quasi-TEM lines, characterized by
broadband behaviour (almost constant propagation parameters from DC up)
and by the absence of cutoff frequency (as it is found in rectangular or circular
waveguides).
From a theoretical standpoint, a set of N metal conductors plus a ground plane
supports N TEM or quasi-TEM propagation modes. TEM (Transverse ElectroMagnetic) modes are characterized by and electric field and magnetic field are
transverse, i.e. orthogonal to the line axis (i.e. no longitudinal field components
exist along the line axis and the propagation direction). A purely TEM mode
exists in theory only in a lossless line with homogeneous cross-section, but in
practice a quasi-TEM mode (with small longitudinal components) is supported
by lossy lines and lines with a non homogeneous cross section, e.g. a microstrip
line where the cross section is partly filled by a dielectric and partly by air. If
N = 1 we talk about simple lines, in N > 1 we have coupled or multiconductor
lines. TEM and quasi-TEM lines may also support upper propagation modes
with a cutoff frequency; however those modes have to be avoided because they
contribute to radiation losses and cannot be exploited to useful purposes.
2.1.1
Transmission line theory

Transmission line theory is a convenient model for 1D wave propagation. Two
parallel ideal conductors (one is the active or signal conductor, the other the
return or ground conductor) surrounded by a homogeneous, lossless medium,
support a Transverse Electromagnetic (TEM) propagation mode in which both
the electric and the magnetic fields lie in the line cross section and are orthogonal
to the line axis and wave propagation direction, see Fig. 2.1, (a). In such a
TEM TXL the electric field can be rigorously derived from a potential function
satisfy, in the line cross-section, the Laplace equation. The transverse electric
S ig n a l c o n d u c to r
I(z )
V
V (z )
-
I(z )
V (z )
L d z
C d z
(a )
V
r
G ro u n d
z + d z
I(z + d z )
I(z )
V (z + d z )
V (z )
z
L d z
R d z
C d z
I(z + d z )
G d z V (z + d z )
d z
(c )
d z
(b )
Figure 2.1 Example of TEM transmission line (a) and equivalent circuit of a line cell
of length dz in the lossless (b) and lossy (c) cases.
potential is uniquely determined by the conductor potentials, or, assuming one

as the reference, by the signal line potential v(z, t) with z parallel to the line
axis and propagation direction. In the same conditions, the transverse magnetic
field is related to the total current i(z, t) flowing in the signal conductor. From
the Maxwell equation, v and i can be rigorously shown to satisfy the partial
differential equation system (called the telegraphers equations):
i(z, t) = C v(z, t)
(2.1)
z
t
v(z, t) = L i(z, t)
(2.2)
z
t
where L is the per-unit-length (p.u.l.) line inductance, C the p.u.l. line capacitance. The telegraphers equations are compatible with the voltage and current
Kirchhoff equations applied to the lumped equivalent circuit of a (lossless) line
cell of infinitesimal length, see Fig.2.1 (b). The p.u.l. parameters have a straightforward meaning, i.e. they correspond to the total series inductance of unit length
cell and to the total capacitance between the two conductors in a unit length cell.
In real lines some series conduction losses are associated to the line conductor
and some parallel or shunt losses are associated to the dissipation mechanisms in
the dielectric substrate; an additional series resistance and parallel conductance
can be incorporated in the model as discussed further on to account for losses.
The telegraphers equations admit, in the lossless cases, a general solution in
terms of forward (V + , I + ) or backward (V , I ) propagating waves:
v(z, t) = V (z vf t)
i(z, t) = I (z vf t)
substitution into system (2.1), (2.2):
I (z vf t) = C V (z vf t) I0 = Cvf V0
z
t
V (z vf t) = L I (z vf t) V0 = Lvf I0 ,
z
t
and elimination of the current or voltage unknown (I0 = Cvf V0 = LCvf2 I0 )
allows to conclude that the (phase) velocity propagation is given by:
1
vf = ,
LC
while the voltage and current waveforms are related by the characteristic
impedance Z0 (also denoted as Z or Zc ):
r
r
L 0
L
0
V =
I V = Z0 I , Z0 =
.
C
C
A lossless TXL therefore supports undistorted wave propagation. Time harmonic
voltages or currents of frequency f and angular frequency = 2f yield propagating waves of the form:
v(z, t) = V (z vf t) = 2Re V exp jt j z

=
vf
2 Re V exp (jt jz)
i(z, t) = I (z vf t) = 2Re I exp (jt jz) =
1
2Re V exp (jt jz) ,
Z0
where V is a complex proportionality constant to be determined through the
initial and boundary conditions,1 while:
=
= LC
vf
is the propagation constant of the line. The time periodic waveform with period
T = 1/f is also periodic in space with spatial periodicity corresponding to the
guided wavelength g such as:
=
2
vf
0
g =
=
,
g
f
neff
where neff = eff is the line effective refractive index, eff is the line effective
(relative) permittivity.
The circuit model can be extended to account for losses by introducing a series
p.u.l. resistance R (associated to ohmic losses in the conductors) and a parallel p.u.l. conductance G (associated to the dielectric losses in the surrounding
medium), see Fig. 2.1, (c). In fact, series losses cause small longitudinal field components, thus making the field distributions slightly different from the ideal TEM
1
The
2 factor is introduce to normalize V to the voltage effective rather than peak value.
pattern; however, the TXL model can be heuristically extended also to cases in
which the cross section is inhomogeneous and therefore the structure supports
a so-called quasi-TEM mode. Quasi-TEM propagation can be approximately
modeled as TXL with frequency-dependent propagation parameters. Both in
the TEM and quasi-TEM cases the operating bandwidth is wide, ranging from
DC to an upper frequency limit associated to the onset of high-order modes or
sometimes to limitations related to line losses, and the frequency dispersion of
the propagation parameters (due to modal dispersion in the quasi-TEM case but
also to ohmic losses) is low, at least in the high-frequency range.
Undistorted propagation is typical of lossless TXLs where the signal phase
velocity is frequency independent. For lossy lines the telegraphers equations can
be modified, by inspection of the related equivalent circuit, as:
i(z, t) = C v(z, t) Gv(z, t)

(2.3)
z
t
v(z, t) = L i(z, t) Ri(z, t).

(2.4)
z
t
In this case propagation is not undistorted any longer and the simple propagation
solution outlined so far is not generally valid. The lossy case can be conveniently
addressed in the frequency domain, i.e. for time-harmonic v and i. We generally
assume in this case that the complex time-domain signal has the form:
v(z, t) = 2Re V (z, ) exp (jt)
i(z, t) = 2Re I (z, ) exp (jt) ,

V (z, ) and I (z, ) are the space-dependent phasors associated to v and i (in
the general case V (z, ) and I(z, )), such as:
V (z, ) = V exp (z jz) = V exp (z)
V (z, )
V
I (z, ) = I exp (z jz) =
=
exp (z) ,
Z0
Z0
(2.5)
(2.6)
where is the line attenuation, = + j is the complex propagation constant,

Z0 is the (now possibly complex) characteristic impedance, and V a constant to
be determined from initial and boundary conditions. For time-harmonic signals,
system (2.3), (2.4) become:
V (z, ) = (jL + R)I(z, )

(2.7)
z
I(z, ) = (jC + G)V (z, ).

(2.8)
z
Substituting from (2.5) and (2.6) we obtain, for the complex propagation constant and for the complex characteristic impedance Z0 :
p
+ j = = (jL + R)(jC + G)
s
V (z, )
jL + R
=
Z0 .
I (z, )
jC + G
The dispersive behaviour of the line is thus apparent; as a matter of fact, the
very p.u.l. parameters are frequency-dependent because of the presence of losses.
The real part of the complex propagation constant = + j, , can be further
splitted (in the so-called high-frequency regime, see further on) into a conductor
attenuation c and a dielectric attenuation d ; the imaginary part is the real
propagation constant, = /vf , vf phase velocity. The propagation constant
is measured in rad/m, while the attenuation is expressed in Np/m (neper
per meter), or. more commonly, in dB/m or dB/cm (decibel per meter or per
centimeter); the units are related as:
|dB/m = 8.6859
|dB/cm = 0.086859
(2.9)
(2.10)
where is in natural units, i.e. in Np/m. In fact, given a forward propagating

voltage V + (z), we have, in the presence of attenuation:
|V + (z + L)| = |V + (z)| exp(L)
where is in Np/m and L in m. In dB we obtain:
+
V + (z)
= 20 log10 V (z) = 20 log10 exp(L) =

V + (z + L)
V + (z + L)
dB
= L 20 log10 e = 8.6859L = |dB/m L.
Electromagnetic theory shows that at high frequency the current density is
not uniform over the conductor cross section (as in DC) but, rather, electric and
magnetic fields only penetrate the line conductors down to an average thickness
called the skin penetration depth :
r
r
2
1
=
,
(2.11)
=
f
where 0 = 4 107 H/m is the metal permittivity (we assume conductors
to be non-magnetic). If is much smaller than the conductor thickness the
current flow is limited to a thin surface sheet having sheet impedance:2
r
1+j
Zs () = Rs + jXs =
= (1 + j)
.
(2.12)
2
Thus, the high-frequency p.u.l. resistance follows the law:
s
f
R(f ) R(f0 )
,
f0
while the high-frequency p.u.l. inductance can be split into two contributions,
the external inductance Lex (related to the magnetic energy stored in the dielectric surrounding the line), and the frequency-dependent) internal inductance Lin
2
The sheet impedance is the impedance of a square piece of conductor; it is often expressed
in Ohm/square.
L o w fre q u e n c y
( R G ) r e g im e
R
S k in e ffe c t r e g im e
(f)
R
D C
L (f)
L
in t
e x
lo g f
Figure 2.2 Frequency behaviour of the line resistance and inductance from the DC to
the high-frequency (skin effect) regime.
(related to the magnetic energy stored

pwithin the conductors); since the corresponding reactance Xin (f ) Xin (f0 ) f /f0 one has:
s
f0
L(f ) = Lex + Lin (f ) Lex + Lin (f0 )
Lex .
f f
At high frequency, therefore, the total inductance can be approximated by the
external contribution. The behaviour of the p.u.l. resistance and inductance of
a lossy line as a function of frequency are shown in Fig. 2.2; the high-frequency
regime it typically the one in which microwave circuits operate.
A short discussion follows on the relationship between the surface impedance
Zs and the per-unit-length parameters. From the definition, Zs is the impedance
of a metal patch of width w and of length l = w. For a conductor of periphery p
and length l = p the total input impedance will be:
Z = Zl = Zp = (Rl + jX l) Zs ;
it follows that the per unit length impedance of the conductor Z is:
Z=
Zs
.
p
For example, for a circular wire of radius r and for a strip of width w and
thickness t we have, respectively:
Zwire =
Zs
,
2r
Zstrip =
Zs
.
2 (w + t)
(2.13)
For different reasons, also the p.u.l. conductance will be frequency dependent; in fact, this is associated to the complex permittivity of the surrounding
dielectrics = 0 j = 0 (1 j tan ), where tan is the (typically small,

102 104 ) dielectric loss tangent. Suppose in fact to consider a parallel-plate
capacitor of area A and electrode spacing h; the capacitor impedance will be:
A
A
A
= j0 + = jC + G().
h
h
h
The result can be generalized to a transmission line with transversally homogeneous (or also inhomogeneous) lossy dielectrics, where in general:
Y = j
G(f )
f
G(f0 ),
f0
i.e. the line conductance linearly increases with frequency. Materials characterized by heavy conductor losses (like doped semiconductors) have, on the other
hand, frequency-independent conductivity, leading to a frequency-independent
line conductance.
In a lossy line the propagation parameters and Z0 are real at DC and very
low frequency:
+ j RG
r
R
Z0
,
G
since in this case the line works as a resistive distributed attenuator. In an
intermediate frequency range jC + G jC while jL + R R in most lines,
since typically series losses prevail over parallel losses. The line performances are
therefore dominated by the p.u.l. resistance and capacitance (RC regime), with
parameters:
1 + j
+ j
CR
2
r
1j R
Z0
.
C
2
In the RC regime the line is strongly dispersive and the characteristic impedance
complex. The RC model is adequate e.g. for digital interconnects in Si integrated
circuits. Finally, in the high-frequency regime jC G and jL R; the imaginary part of Z0 can be neglected and the complex propagation constant can be
approximated as:
r
L
Z0 Z0l =
C
R (f ) G (f ) Z0
+
+ j LC = c (f ) + d (f ) + jl ,
= + j
2Z0
2
where Z0l is the impedance of the lossless line, c f and d f are the
conductor and dielectric attenuation, respectively (usually c d in the RF
and microwave range), and l is the propagation constant of the lossless line.
Therefore, in the high-frequency regime a wideband signal (e.g. a passband pulse)
propagates almost undistorted, apart from the signal attenuation. The onset
of the high-frequency regime depends on line parameters; integrated structures
with micron-scale dimensions can operate in the RC range for frequencies as
high as a few GHz. Moreover, the impact of losses is related to the length of the
TXL; in short structures signal distortion can be modest even though the line
operates under very broadband excitation. While the low-frequency or RG range
is of little interest for microwaves, the transition between the RG and the LC
behaviour critically depends on the line parameters and often occurs within the
microwave frequency range, particularly in monolithic microwave circuits with
small features. An example of behaviour is discussed in the Example 2.1.
Example 2.1:
A transmission line has 50 high-frequency impedance, effective permittivity
equal to 6, conductor attenuation of 0.5 dB/cm, dielectric attenuation of 0.01
dB/cm at f0 = 1 GHz. Suppose that the two attenuations do not depend on
frequency. Evaluate the line parameters in the RG, RC and LC regime, specifying
the frequency ranges of validity.
For the sake of definiteness, suppose that at f0 = 1 the line is already in the
high-frequency regime; in the LC approximation we have:
p
Z0 = L/C
vf = 1/ LC = 3 108 / eff
i.e.:

1/C = 50 3 108 / eff C = 6/ 150 108 = 1.633 1010 F/m

and thus:
L = CZ02 = 4.0825 107 H/m
The attenuations in the high-frequency approximation yield:
c
R
2Z0
GZ0
2
i.e., since c = 0.5 dB/cm = 1/0.086859 = 5.75 Np/m; d = 0.01 dB/cm = 0.115
Np/m:
R = 2Z0 c = 100 5.75 = 575 /m
G = 2d /Z0 = 2 0.115/50 = 0.0046 S/m.
Let us verify that the line actually is in the high-frequency regime at 1 GHz; for
this we require:
2f0 L R 6.28 109 4.0825 107 = 2564 575
2f0 C G 6.28 109 1.633 1010 = 1.025 0.0046
10
A tte n u a tio n a , d b /c m ; p r o p a g a tio n c o n s ta n t b , r a d /m
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
L o w
fre q u e n c y
(R G )
a
b , in te r m e d ia te
fre q u e n c y
b
b , h ig h
fre q u e n c y
a , in te r m e d ia te
fre q u e n c y
a , h ig h fr e q u e n c y
a
1 0
1 0
-1
-2
1 0
a , lo w fr e q u e n c y
In te r m e d ia te fr e q u e n c y
(R C )
6
1 0
1 0
F re q u e n c y , H z
H ig h fr e q u e n c y
(L C )
1 0
1 0
1 0
Figure 2.3 Frequency behaviour of attenuation and propagation constant from

Example 2.1.
and both conditions are verified; the line parameters therefore are:
L = 4.0825 107 H/m
C = 1.633 1010 F/m
R = 575 /m
G = 0.0046 S/m.
The frequency behaviour of the propagation constant and attenuation are shown
in Fig. 2.3. The low- intermediate- and high-frequency regimes are clearly visible
both on the attenuation and on the characteristic impedance, shown in Fig. 2.4;
in particular, in the intermediate frequency range the real and imaginary parts
of the impedance are approximately the same. The high-frequency attenuation
is constant because we have neglected the frequency dependence typical of skin
losses and parallel dielectric losses.
2.1.1.1
More on series losses

To justify the skin-effect analysis of losses, consider a metal slab of conductivity and thickness t, carrying, on a width w, a total current I at frequency
f . Supposing that the system is transversally homogeneous (see Fig. 2.5), the
input impedance of the metal slab can be evaluated as follows. In DC conditions
the current density is uniform in the slab cross section and Jz = I/(wt) = Ez
(independent of x). At frequency f , the electric field phasor Ez satisfies the wave
11
6 0 0
C h a r a c te r is tic im p e d a n c e , W
4 0 0
Z 0 ( 0 ) , lo w fr e q u e n c y
2 0 0
L o w
fre q u e n c y
(R G )
Z 0( ),
h ig h fr e q u e n c y
R e [Z 0]
Im [Z 0]
-2 0 0
Im [Z 0 ], in te r m e d ia te fr e q u e n c y
-4 0 0
-6 0 0
Im [Z 0]
R e [Z 0]
R e [Z 0 ], in te r m e d ia te fr e q u e n c y
In te r m e d ia te fr e q u e n c y
(R C )
1 0
1 0
1 0
H ig h fr e q u e n c y
(L C )
1 0
1 0
1 0
Figure 2.4 Frequency behavour of characteristic impedance from Example 2.1.
equation. Being the magnetic permittivity, = /(j) the complex dielectric

permittivity of the metal, dominated by the imaginary part (i.e. by the conductivity), Ez satisfies, from the Maxwell equations, the wave equation:
d2 Ez
= jEz .
dx2
As a boundary condition, we assume that on the conductor (x = t/2) the field
is known and equal to E0 . The symmetry of the problem suggests to write the
solution as:
1+j
Ez (x) = A cosh
x
where A is a constant to be determined and is the skin penetration depth, see

(2.11). Imposing the surface field we have:
1+j
cosh
x
.
Ez (x) = E0
1+j
cosh
t
2
From the Maxwell equations we obtain that the magnetic field is directed along
y and has the value:
1+j
r
x
sinh
1
2
1 dEz
=
E0
Hy =
1+j
j dx
1 + j
t
cosh
2
12
Thus, the contour integral of the magnetic field along in Fig. 2.5 equals the
total current flowing in a strip of width w, I:
I
I=
H dl = wHy (t/2) wHy (t/2) =
1
= 2wHy (t/2) = 2w
1+j
2
E0 tanh
1+j
t .
2
The potential drop at the strip surface over a length L is V = E0 L; it follows

that the impedance of a slab of width w and length L is:
r
V
L
1+j
Z=
= (1 + j)
coth
t .
(2.14)
I
2w 2
2
Notice that for 0, and, since:
r
1+j
2 1
2 1
2
t
=
coth
2
1+j t
1 + j t
we obtain:
L
lim Z = (1 + j)
0
2w
2 1
2
1+j t
2
L
=
wt
i.e. the DC resistance. For , 0 leading to the approximation:

r
L
L 1
Z() (1 + j)
= (1 + j)
.
2w 2
2w
At high frequency (see Fig. 2.6) the current is concentrated on the upper and
lower surface of the strip and the penetration of the current occurs on a depth
of the order of t; this justifies the name skin effect. The total impedance is
in that case the parallel of the upper and lower surface impedance; for L = w we
recover the definition the metal surface impedance, given by:
r
1+j
2f
Zs (f ) = Rs (f ) + jXs (f ) =
= (1 + j)
,
see (2.12). The surface resistance and reactance have the same magnitude and
they are proportional to f .

An example of the frequency behaviour of the impedance of a metal strip
conductor is shown Fig. 2.7. The internal reactance (inductive) linearly grows
at low frequency and becomes, in the skin effect region, equal to the resistance.
The resistance equals the DC resistance up to a frequency at which the strip
thickness becomes comparable with . In the skin-effect region the conductor
resistance becomes, from (2.13):
R=
1
Rs
=
.
2 (w + t)
2 (w + t)
For a good conductor is of the order of a few m at frequencies of the order of

a few GHz. The frequency behaviour of Rs and is shown in Fig. 2.8 for several
x
z
w
y
L
H
s , m
13
H
z
Figure 2.5 Evaluating the impedance of a metal layer of thickness t, infinitely thick in
the y direction; we only consider a section of width w. All fields are invariant vs. y
and z.
f= 1 0 M H z
1 .0
f= 1 0 0 M H z
0 .8
a b s (J )
0 .6
0 .4
f= 1 G H z
0 .2
0 .0
f= 1 0 G H z
-0 .4
-0 .2
0
x /d
0 .2
0 .4
Figure 2.6 Frequency behaviour of the current distribution (magnitude of Jz

normalized vs. the surface value) with a copper metal layer, thickness t = 10 m,
conductivity = 4107 S/m.
values of conductivity; the maximum value = 1108 S/m is slightly larger to

the typical value of good conductors (for copper 6107 S/m).
In the planar microwave technology we exploit composite metal layers obtained
first through a thin sputtered or evaporated adhesion layer (0.1-0.2 m) followed
by sputtered gold or Al (up to 500 nm). Larger thicknesses (from a few m to 1520 m) can be obtained by gold electroplating. For such thicknesses the transition
Im p e d a n c e , W /
14
1 0
-1
1 0
-2
1 0
-3
1 0
-4
1 0
-5
(f )/2
R
R (D C )
~ S k in e ffe c t
r e g im e
~ D C r e g im e
1 0
-6
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
Figure 2.7 Frequency behaviour of the impedance of a copper layer with w = L,

= 4107 S/m, thickness t = 10 m.
between the RC range and the high-frequency regime (with fully developed skin
effect) takes place in the microwave range.
2.1.1.2
More on parallel losses

Parallel losses are accounted for by the p.u.l. conductance G and are associated
to dielectric losses. The dielectric response of a material, leading to a relative
permittivity larger than one, is caused by the interaction between the EM wave
and microscopic mechanisms occurring the material itself. The main interaction
with the EM field are with dipolar molecules (e.g. water), atoms and electrons.
Each interaction is characterized by a low-pass behaviour: for low frequencies
the interaction is active and provides a contribution to the dielectric response,
at high frequency the interacting agent is not able to follow any more the time
variations of the field and the contribution to the dielectric response vanishes.
However the interaction is also affected by losses that are maximized around the
transition frequency. The transition frequencies of many molecular interactions
fall in the microwave range and anyway atomic and electronic contributions are
active (such contributions disappear in the UV range mainly). We therefore have
losses basically proportional to the frequency (each cycle leads to a loss of energy,
so the dissipated power increases with the number of cycles per unit time). This
can be described by a complex dielectric constant:
rc = r j2 = r (1 j tan (f ))
15
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
-1
1 0
-2
1 0
1 0
a re
s q u
r
e
p
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
-1
s , S /m
1 0
-2
-3
1 0 0
1 0
-3
1 0
-4
1 0 2
1 0
-4
1 0
-5
1 0 4
1 0
-5
1 0
-6
1 0 6
1 0
-6
1 0
-7
1 0
-7
, O h m
s
m
O h
R s,
p e r s q u a re
1 0
d , m
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0 8
1 0
1 2
S k in d e p th d , m
Figure 2.8 Frequency behaviour of surface resistance and skin-effect depth for different
values of conductivity.
where (generally a weak function of frequency) is the dielectric loss angle

(nothing to do with the skin penetration depth!). The dielectric conductivity
will therefore be:
= 2 0 = r 0 tan .
In a TEM (or transversally homogeneous) line the p.u.l. parallel admittance can
be evaluated simply as:
Y = jC = jrc Ca = jr Ca + r tan Ca ;
where Ca is the capacitance p.u.l. in air (i.e. with rc = 1). the second (real) term
is a conductance, yielding:
G = r tan Ca = Ca /0 .
(2.15)
Notice that is the dielectric medium has large conduction losses (rather than
dielectric losses), like in many semiconductors like Si, the conductance simply is
proportional to the conductivity and is frequency independent.
If the line has inhomogeneous cross section (like in a quasi-TEM line) evaluating G is slightly more involved. Consider for instance a microstrip line with
a lossy substrate and an air (lossless) overlayer; we can split the total capacitance p.u.l. as C = Cair + Csub = Cair + rc Csub,a where Csub,a is the substrate
16
Material
r
tan
Allumina
9.8
103
Quartz
3.78
104
Teflon
2
104
Beryl ox.
6
103
GaAs
12.9
103
InP
12.4
103
Si
11.9
102
Table 2.1. Characteristics of some dielectric substrates fo hybrid and integrated circuits.
e r= 1
e r= 1
e
e
r
Figure 2.9 Examples of non-TEM, TEM, quasi-TEM waveguides.
capacitance in air. The p.u.l. admittance is therefore:

Y = jC = jCair + jrc Csub,a =
= jCair + jr Csub,a + r tan Csub,a ,
leading to:
G = r tan Csub,a = Csub,a /0 .
with the same frequency behaviour. The remarks made so far hold for most of the
low-loss dielectric of semiconductor substrates, see Table 2.1; for Si conduction
losses can be high, and for this reason Si circuits exploit oxide layers to screen
the top conductors from the substrate.
2.1.2
Parameters of quasi-TEM lines

In planar microwave circuits transmission lines made by one signal conductor
supported by a dielectric substrate and a ground plane are the most common
technological solution. Such lines have an inhomogeneous cross section and therefore support a quasi-TEM mode. Examples of non-TEM (rectangular waveguide),
quasi-TEM (microstrips) and TEM (striplines) guiding structure are shown in
Fig. 2.9. Non-TEM waveguides have a simply connected metal cross-section and
therefore do not support DC conduction, while both TEM and quasi-TEM lines
allow for DC conduction through two separated metal conductors. The main difference between the TEM and quasi-TEM case is the fact that in the latter the
phase velocity and characteristic impedance are a weak function of frequency.
The frequency dispersion of quasi-TEM parameters is significant for the phase
velocity (or effective permittivity) and can be properly taken into account in
the operating frequency range; above a certain frequency (that increases with
decreasing line dimensions and substrate thickness) higher-order modes can
appear leading to radiation losses.
Neglecting in the first approximation losses and confining in any case to the
high-frequency approximation we have that the quasi-TEM line characterization
17
is based on evaluating L and C. First of all, we show that in a TEM line (homogeneous cross section, relative permittivity r ), L does not depend on the dielectric
permittivity. In fact, let us denote with L the inductance with dielectrics and
La the inductance in air; the phase velocity with dielectrics coincides with the
phase velocity in the medium, i.e.:
c0
1
=
vf =
r
LC
where c0 is the velocity of light in air; on the other hand, the phase velocity of
the line in which r = 1 (line in air or in vacuo) will be:
c0 =
1
;
La C a
(2.16)
however, C = Ca r , and therefore L = La , i.e. the inductance with dielectrics is

the inductance in air. The same result holds for quasi-TEM lines; in fact, the
inductance is related to the magnetic field, that, from a quasi-static standpoint,
is not influenced by the presence of dielectrics.
In a quasi-TEM line the p.u.l. inductance is a function of the p.u.l. capacitance
in air; in fact from (2.16) we obtain:
L = La =
.
c20 Ca
(2.17)
Therefore we can express the characteristic impedance and phase velocity as

a function of the capacitances in air and with dielectric as follows:
r
L
1
Z0a
Z0 =
=
=
(2.18)
C
r
c0 CCa
r
1
Ca
c0
vf =
= c0
=
(2.19)
LC
C
r
where Z0a is the impedance in air. In the quasi-TEM case we can introduce an
effective permittivity eff such as:
C = eff Ca ;
we also define the effective refractive index neff = eff . Thus, in a quasi-TEM
line:
1
Z0a
Z0 =
=
(2.20)
c0 Ca eff
eff
c0
(2.21)
vf =
eff
and, furthermore:
0
g =
eff
= 0 eff .
(2.22)
(2.23)
18
d ie le c tr ic
a ir
d z
e
r
W
W
Figure 2.10 Parallel plate quasi-TEM line with inhomogeneous dielectric.
A simple example of evaluation of the effective permittivity of a quasi-TEM line

is discussed in Example 2.2.
Example 2.2:
Consider a quasi-TEM line made by two parallel metal conductors; the dielectric in not homogeneous as shown in Fig. 2.10. Evaluate the effective permittivity
and impedance of the line supposing that the field lines are orthogonal to the
conductors.
An elementary line section with length dz is made of two parallel capacitors

of size h, W , dz, one in air and the other with a dielectric constant r . The total
capacitance p.u.l. will be:
C
1 W dz
W dz
W
C=
=
0 +
0 r =
(1 + r )0
dz
dz
h
h
h
while:
W
20 .
h
The effective permittivity is the ratio between the capacitance with dielectrics
and the capacitance in air; we obtain:
Ca =
eff =
C
1 + r
=
.
Ca
2
For the impedance:

Z0 =
0 0
2W 0
2
= 120
1 + r
h
2
1 + r 2W
c0 Ca eff
p
where 0 /0 = 120 is the characteristic impedance of vacuum.
In general, in a planar line on a dielectric substrate, the effective dielectric

constant has values between 1 (the air constant) and the dielectric constant of
19
e ff
(f)
e
Q u a s i- T E M
e
e ff
m o d e
F ir s t u p p e r m o d e ( h y b r id )
(0 )
U s e fu l ra n g e
f in
fl
Figure 2.11 Behaviour of the effective permittivity of a quasi-TEM line as a function

of frequency.
the substrate. A non-quasi static analysis permits to find out that in a quasiTEM line the effective permittivity is frequency dependent according to the
typical behavior shown in Fig. 2.11. The effective permittivity grows slowly with
frequency from the quasi-static value eff (0); the increase becomes fast after the
inflection frequency finfl which also corresponds (approximately) to the cutoff
frequency of the first higher-order mode of the structure. Higher-order modes
are mainly guided by the dielectric substrate and therefore lead to power leakage
and radiation; for this reason the inflection frequency limits the useful operation
range of the structure. For very high frequencies the effective permittivity tends
to the substrate permittivity r . The useful frequency range of the line is below
the inflection frequency. The behaviour can be approximated through empirical
expressions, e.g.:
1/
r eff (0)
eff (f ) eff (0) +

(2.24)
1 + (finfl /f )
where and are fitting parameters, of the order of 1. The characteristic
impedance does not exactly follow the behaviour of the effective permittivity;
however, its variation with respect to the quasi-static condition is less important
and we will always use the low-frequency value for it.
2.1.3
Working with transmission lines: the Smith chart

Transmission lines can be exploited as circuit elements using the line solution
in terms of forward and backward waves. A circuit including transmission lines
can be easily shown to be amenable to a well posed solution since each line has
20
Z 0, g
Z
i
Z
L
z = z L-l
z = z
L
Figure 2.12 Input impedance of a loaded transmission line.
two unknowns (the forward and backward voltages) and two relationships are
imposed on the line input and output, depending on the loading conditions. As
a first example consider a line of length l closed on a load ZL (Fig.2.12); the
voltage and current phasors can be written as a superposition of forward and
backward waves as:
V (z) = V + exp (z) + V exp (z)
V+
V
I(z) =
exp (z)
exp (z) ,
Z0
Z0
with boundary condition (the line current is directed towards increasing z):
V (l) = ZL I(l) V + exp (l) + V exp (l) =
ZL +
V exp (l) V exp (l) ,
Z0
i.e.:
V
= L exp (2l) ,
V+
where:
L =
ZL Z0
zL 1
=
ZL + Z0
zL + 1
is the so-called load reflection coefficient with respect to Z0 and z = Z/Z0 is the
normalized impedance. The line input impedance will be:
Zi = Z(0) =
V (0)
V++V
1 + L exp (2l)
= Z0 +
= Z0
.
I(0)
V V
1 L exp (2l)
Expanding the load reflection coefficient and expressing the exponential in terms
of hyperbolic functions we obtain:
Zi = Z0
ZL cosh (l) + Z0 sinh (l)

.
ZL sinh (l) + Z0 cosh (l)
Notice that for l , Zi Z0 independent on the load. For a lossless line,

however, the input impedance is periodic vs. the line length, with periodicity
21
g /2 (due to the tan function):

Zi = Z0
ZL + jZ0 tan (l)

.
Z0 + jZL tan (l)
(2.25)
The input impedance of a lossless line of infinite length does not converge therefore to the characteristic impedance. This is of course purely theoretical, since no
lossless line exist and an infinitely long line would never get into a steady state
condition in a finite time (thus a reflected signal would appear after an infinitely
long time). We will consider now some particular and useful cases: if the load is
a short (ZL = 0) or an open (YL = 0) we have:
Zi (ZL = 0) = jZ0 tan (l)
Zi (YL = 0) = jZ0 cot (l) ;
a reactive load is therefore obtained, alternatively inductive and capacitive
according to the value of the line electrical angle = l = 2l/g . For a lossy
line we have:
Zi (ZL = 0) = Z0 tanh(l)
Zi (YL = 0) = Z0 coth(l);
It can be readily shown by inspection than the input impedance of a shorted
lossy line for l 0 is Zi jLl + Rl, while the input impedance of a short line
in open circuit is Zi (jCl + Gl)1 . For a quarter-wave line (l = g /4):
ZL sinh(l) + Z0 cosh(l)
Zi = Z0
Z0 sinh(l) + ZL cosh(l)
while for a half-wavelength line (l = g /2):
ZL cosh(l) + Z0 sinh(l)
Zi = Z0
.
Z0 cosh(l) + ZL sinh(l)
For a lossless line we have on the other hand:
ZL 0 + Z0 1
Z2
Zi = Z0
= 0
Z0 0 + ZL 1
ZL
(a quarter-wave line, yielding the so-called frequency transformer);
ZL 1 + Z0 0
Zi = Z0
= ZL
Z0 1 + ZL 0
(half-wavelength line).
In the above treatment we made use of the reflection coefficient simply as a
notational shortcut. However, this is able to yield a simpler and possibly more
significant picture of the line. As already remarked, the forward and backward
wave amplitudes uniquely determine the voltages and currents on the whole
line. We often prefer to identify the two amplitudes by assigning e.g. V + (i.e.
V0+ ) and the ratio (z) = V (z)/V + (z), the reflection coefficient at section z.
22
The variation of the reflection coefficient with position is immediately found; we

immediately have:
(z) =
V (0) exp (jz)

V (z)
= +
= (0) exp (2jz);
+
V (z)
V (0) exp (jz)
(2.26)
in other words (z) is periodic along the line with a periodicity of g /2 (voltages and currents have a periodicity g ). The reflection coefficient is known
everywhere if it is known in one section of the line. The evolution of (z) as a
complex number is simple, the corresponding phasor rotates with constant magnitude in the complex plane with periodicity g /2. In the presence of losses the
magnitude changes as well, in fact:
(z) =
V (z)
V (0) exp (z + jz)
=
= (0) exp (2z + 2jz).
V + (z)
V + (0) exp (z jz)
The impedance or admittance seen from a section of the line can be immediately identified as follows:
V (z)
V + (z) + V (z)
V + (z) + V (z)
1 + (z)
= +
=
Z
= Z
(2.27)
I(z)
I (z) + I (z)
V (z) V (z)
1 (z)
I(z)
I + (z) + I (z)
1 V + (z) V (z)
1 1 (z)
Y (z) =
= +
=
=
(2.28)
Z(z)
V (z) + V (z)
Z V (z) + V (z)
Z 1 + (z)
Z(z) =
with inverse formulae:

z(z) 1
Z(z) Z
=
Z(z) + Z
z(z) + 1
Y Y (z)
1 y(z)
(z) =
=
Y + Y (z)
1 + y(z)
(z) =
(2.29)
(2.30)
1
where Y = Z
and z(z) = Z(z)/Z and y(z) = Y (z)/Y are the normalized
impedances (admittances).
Let us review the input impedance problem in terms of the reflection coefficient. A line with length l is closed on ZL ; we want to evaluate the input
impedance in z = 0. Assume for simplicity that the line is lossless. We have:
(l) =
ZL Z
ZL + Z
from which:
(0) =
ZL Z
exp (2jl).
ZL + Z
Thus:
ZL Z
exp (2jl)
ZL + jZ tan l
ZL + Z
= Z
Z(0) = Z
ZL Z
Z + jZL tan l
1
exp (2jl)
ZL + Z
1+
as found in (2.25).
(2.31)
23
The relation (2.31) between the normalized impedance and the reflection coefficient:
z1
(2.32)
=
z+1
is an analytical mapping from the complex plane z to the complex plane , with
the following properties:
r the angle between two intersecting curves in z plane is preserved in the

plane, i.e. the mapping is conformal ;
r circles or straight lines in plane z are transformed in circles or straight lines

in plane ;
r constant resistance (z = r + jx) lines transform into circles in plane with

center on the real axis;
r constant reactance lines transform into circles in plane going through the
origin;
r the half plane Re(z) > 0 is transformed into the circle || 1; purely reactive
impedance are transformed into the unit circle || = 1.
Some important points of the plane are as follows. For z = 1 (reference
impedance) = 0 (center of the reflection coefficient complex plane). Short and
open circuits correspond to = 1, respectively. Reactive impedances yield:
=
jx 1
|| = 1;
jx + 1
in particular, inductive impedances have reflection coefficients in the upper

plane, capacitive impedances in the lower plane. The above remarks are summarized in Fig. 2.13. Notice that from its definition V , the voltage reflection
coefficient; the current reflection coefficient trivially is I = V .
Such idea have a graphical representation in the so-called Smith chart (from
his inventor, Phillip Hagar Smith, 1905-1987), see Fig. 2.14. The Smith chart
reproduces a number of circles corresponding to impedances with constant real
or imaginary parts in the plane, and can be used both to identify the reflection coefficient corresponding to a certain impedance, and to carry out graphical computations exploiting the fact that along a (lossless) transmission line
the reflection coefficient rotates with constant magnitude. The Smith chart as
a design tool has been superseded by CAD tools but its use in the graphical
representation of parameters amenable to reflection coefficients (including the
scattering parameters corresponding to reflectances) is widespread both in the
instrumentation and in the CAD tools themselves.
2.2
Planar transmission lines in microwave integrated circuits

Fig. 2.15 shows some TEM, quasi-TEM and non-TEM microwave waveguides.
Apart from the slot line, that may be exploited in antenna transitions, hybrid and
1
1 /3
-1 /3
-1
|G |< 1
z = 0
0
r
|G |= 1
x = 3
1 /3
1 /3
r
Im (G )
1
r= 0
x = 3
z = 1
|G |= 0
z = in f.
R e (G )
-3
-1 /3
-3
1
r= 0 1 /3
-1
3
z p la n e
G p la n e
Figure 2.13 Features of the z transformation.
6
0 .
0
4
7 0
0 .
4
45
1 .2
1 .0
5 0
0 .9
1 .4
0 .7
1 .6
1 .8
5 0
0 .
3
0 .
1
2
2 5
0 .4
/ Z
o
jX
0 .4
5
2 0
(+
0
3 .
0 .6
0 .3
3 0
9
0 .2
1
0 .2
G E N
E R A
T O
R
>
0 .4 7
0 .0
1 6 0
4
0 .4
8 5
6
1 5
0
IN D
8 0
U C T
IV E
R E
A C
T A
7 5
N C
E C
O M
P O
N
E N
0 .3
0 .8
4 .0
0
1 .
1 5
0 .2 2
1 .0
5 .0
0 .2 8
1 0
0 .2
0.
8
9 0
0 .6
1 0
0 .1
0 .4
2 0
5 0
5 0
2 0
1 0
5 .0
4 .0
3 .0
2 .0
1 .8
1 .6
1 .4
1 .2
1 .0
0 .9
0 .8
0 .7
0 .6
0 .5
0 .4
0 .3
0 .2
)
/ Y o
( - jB
C E
A N
P T
C E
U S
E S
IV
1 .0
C T
D U
-7 5
2 .0
1 .8
1 .6
1 .2
1 .0
0 .9
5
0 .1 3
0 .3 7
-9 0
0 .1 2
0 .3 8
0 .1 1
-1 0 0
0 .3 9
0 .1
-1 1 0
0 .0
9
-7 0
4 0
-1
5
0 .4
(-
-1
3 0
0 .
0
7
0 .
4
0 .4
2
1 .4
0 .3 6
0 .1 4
-8 0
-4
0
-4
0 .1 5
0 .3 5
-5
-7 0
0 .8
6
0 .1
4
0 .3
-3 5
-5
3
0 .3
0 .5
0 .2
0 .7
7
0 .1
-6 0
-3 0
0 .6
-6 0
1
0 .
2
E N
-6 5
3
0 .
5
0 .0
,
o )
/ Z
jX
0 .
3
0 .0
-1 2
8
0
C A P
A C
IT I
V E
R
E
A C
T A
N C
E C
O M
P O
0
0.
0 .4
0 .
1
4
0.
0
-5
-2 5
IN
0 .6
0 .0
0
-1 5
0 .8
-2 0
3 .0
0 .0
0 .0
1 8 0
-8 0
1 .0
-1 5
4 .0
6
0 .4
5 .0
0 .2
9
0 .3
-4
0 .4
1
0 .4
Figure 2.14 The Smith chart.
0 .2
1
0 .2
4
0.
0 .2 8
-3 0
0 .3
-1 0
0 .4 9
L O A D
8
0.
0 .2 2
<
1 0
0 .2 7
0 .6
0 .2
-2 0
0 .4 8
A R D
T O W
T H S
-1 7 0
E N G
V E L
W A
-9 0
-1 6 0
-8 5
0 .2 3
D E G R
E E S
D E G R
E E S
0 .4
0 .2 6
2 0
<
0 .2
0 .1
7
0 .4
5 0
0 .1
> W
0 .2
(G /Y o )
C O M P O N E N T
5
0 .2 4
O E F F IC IE N T IN
(R /Z o ), O R C O N D U C T A N C E
C O E F F IC IE N T
IN
C O M P O N E N T
0 .2
0 .2 4
0 .2 3
0 .2
0 .2 6
C
0 .2 7
R E F L E C T IO N
L E O F
A N G
IS S IO N
T R A N S M
L E O F
A N G
R E S IS TA N C E
2 0
A V E L E N
G T H S
T O W
A R D
0 .4 9
0 .4 8
1 7 0
0 .2
1 4
0
3 0
4 0
0 .0
5
0 .1
7
0 .3
3
6 0
0 .2
R
O
0 .3
4
3 5
3
0.
),
0 .1
6
7 0
T
C I
P A
C A
0 .3 5
4 0
2 .0
0
1 3
0 .1 5
0 .3 6
1
0.
)
/ Y o
( + jB
C E
A N
P T
C E
U S
E S
IV
0 .6
0 .5
4
0 .
6 5
0
0 .
0
1 2
8 0
6 0
2
0 .4
5 5
8
0 .0
1 10
0 .1 4
0 .3 7
9 0
0 .8
1
0 .4
0 .3 8
0 .3 9
1 0 0
0 .4
0 .1 3
0 .1 2
0 .1 1
0 .1
9
0 .0
0.
4
24
25
monolithic microwave integrated circuits are based on quasi-TEM or TEM lines.

Closed TEM structures like the stripline are exploited in particular applications
where radiation losses are important or to obtain high-directivity directional
couplers; other shielded lines like the finline are important at millimeter waves
where low metal losses are difficult to obtain. However, most of the integrated
microwave circuits are based on the microstrip or the coplanar waveguide (CPW).
CPWs have propagation characteristics almost independent on the substrate
thickness and are popular at millimeter wave frequencies, although their layout
is less compact than for the microstrip. Suspended microstrips are sometimes
exploited in hybrid circuits at millimeter waves. However the vast majority of
planar microwave circuits is based on the microstrip.
The design of monolithic microwave integrated circuits (MMICs) has quite
naturally followed the guidelines derived from hybrid integrated circuits. Also in
the choice of transmissive media, the solutions commonly adopted in MMICs are
those already successfully implemented in hybrid circuits, such as using quasiTEM transmission lines rather than non-TEM waveguides. Among the advantages of quasi-TEM transmission lines are their intrinsic wideband behaviour, as
opposed to the more dispersive nature of non-TEM media, and the easy ground
definition they allow. A disadvantage of the quasi-TEM lines, which limits their
use in the millimeter wave range, are their heavy ohmic losses due to the use of
strip conductors.
Since the semiconductor layer which makes the substrate of a MMIC has two
sides, a quasi-TEM transmission line (i.e. a line made of two separate conductors,
a ground plane and a hot strip) can either use both sides of the substrate, or lie
entirely on the top side. The first case corresponds to the microstrip approach;
the second case to the coplanar or uniplanar approach (coplanar waveguide,
CPW). It should be pointed out that the microstrip and coplanar approach are
not simply a different choice of transmission media, but also entail a markedly
different circuit design philosophy. Moreover, those two approaches to MMICs
are by no means the only conceivable ones. Indeed, the monolithic approach
allows multilayer circuits to be made, in which transmission lines and discrete
components are located on the top and bottom sides of the substrate, but also
stacked structures separated by dielectric passivation layers are implemented.
As an example, an microstrip patch array can be printed on the top surface
of the substrate, while feed lines coupled to patches are located either on the
bottom side or under a passivating dielectric layer. A multilayer design strategy
is today rather challenging since it requires a strict control of coupling between
different lines and components, which can be achieved in turn only by accurate
3D electromagnetic modeling.
Today, the microstrip approach is by far the most popular in MMICs. Actually, the microstrip on GaAs integrated circuits substrates of thickness ranging
from 50 m to 400 m is up to approximately 40-50 GHz a transmission line
with reasonably low losses and dispersion. The practical impedance range is wide
enough as to cover most practical applications; series element connection is very
26
easy, whereas parallel connection is more troublesome, owing to the absence of

a topmost ground plane. Suitable techniques exist to circumvent this problem,
such as the use of topmost wrap-around ground planes or via holes making the
bottom plane accessible from the top of the substrate; however, the first solution imposes constraints on circuit layout, while the second one increases the IC
process complexity.
Although the use of coplanar or uniplanar circuits is limited, the main advantages offered by coplanar lines can be listed as follows:
r The performances of CPWs are comparable, and sometimes even better, than
r
r
r
r
r
those of the microstrip in terms of guided wavelength, losses, dispersion, and

impedance range.
The CPW allows easy series and shunt element connection.
The CPW impedance is almost insensitive to substrate thickness.
Active elements can be easily connected since they are intrinsically coplanar.
The coupling between neighbouring lines is reduced owing to the presence of
grounded surfaces lying in between.
On-wafer measurements through coplanar probes are easier and more direct
than in microstrip circuits.
Moreover, the coplanar approach allows greater flexibility in the use of mixed
structures and transitions to slot lines, coupled slot lines etc. which can be profitably exploited in some applications (e.g. mixers, balancing units). However,
coplanar lines also have disadvantages that more or less confine their use to
low-power applications:
r The power handling capabilities of uniplanar circuits are unsatisfactory, due

to the absence of a lower heat sink and to the need of making the substrate
rather thick. Introducing a lower ground planes partly overcomes the problem,
but also creates troubles due to spurious coupling with parasitic modes.
r To suppress a parasitic slot-like mode, the ground planes have to be connected together by means air bridges, thereby making circuit realization more
complex.
2.2.1
The coaxial cable

The coaxial cable has a particular role in microwave systems and in the instrumentation, although it is obviously not amenable to integration. In can be realized either in rigid or flexible form. It has comparatively low attenuation and
high immunity to electromagnetic disturbances (it is a shielded structure). Let
us call a and b the inner and outer conductor radii; the p.u.l. capacitance can be
expressed as:
C=
55.556r
pF/m,
log (b/a)
C ir c u la r
w a v e g u id e
(n o n -T E M )
R e c ta n g u la r
w a v e g u id e
(n o n -T E M )
C o a x ia l c a b le
(T E M )
S tr ip lin e
(T E M )
M ic r o s tr ip
(q u a s i T E M )
C o p la n a r
w a v e g u id e
(q u a s i T E M )
In v e rte d
m ic r o s tr ip
( q u a s i- T E M )
S u s p e n d e d
m ic r o s tr ip
( q u a s i- T E M )
S lo t lin e
(n o n -T E M )
27
F in lin e
(n o n -T E M )
Figure 2.15 Waveguides and transmission lines in microwave circuits.
and the p.u.l. inductance:

L = 200 log
b
nH/m.
a
The characteristic impedance is:

60
Z0 = log
r

b
,
a
while the effective permittivity is the dielectric permittivity. The dielectric and
conductor (we assume a copper conductor, for a different one the attenuation
scales according to the square root of resistivity; in many cases however the
inner and outer conductors are different, e.g. and inner copper wire and an outer
aluminium jacket) attenuations are, respectively:
tan
d = 27.3 r
dB/m
0
9.5 105 (a + b) r p
c =
fGHz dB/m.
ab log (b/a)
The useful frequency range of a coaxial cable is limited by the cutoff frequency of
the first higher-order propagation mode, corresponding to the cutoff wavelength:
c = r (a + b)
28
where the cutoff frequency is f = c0 /c .
Example 2.3:
Consider a copper coaxial cable with a Teflon (r = 2) dielectric. Find the ratio
b/a corresponding to the minimum conductor losses and evaluate the resulting
impedance. Dimension the cable so that the maximum operating frequency is 50
GHz.
We have:
1+b/a
1+x
=
= f (x), x > 1
log (b/a)
log x
1
1+x 1
x log x (1+x)
df (x)
=
=
=0
dx
log x (log x)2 x
x (log x)2
c
corresponding to x = 3.5911. Thus:

60
b
60
Z0 = log
= log 3.5911 = 54.24 .
r
a
2
We then have:
c0
c0
c0
fmax =
=
=
c
r (a + b)
a r (1+b/a)
c0
3 108
= 0.294 mm
=
fmax r (1+b/a)
50 109 2 (1+3.5911)
b = 3.5911 a = 3.5911 0.294 = 1.06 mm.
a=
Thus the coax outer diameter is 2.12 mm while the inner diameter is 0.6 mm.
The conductor attenuation at 50 GHz is:
9.5 105 (a + b) r p
c =
f=
ab log (b/a)
9.5 105 (1.06+0.294) 103 2

50 = 3.223 dB/m.
1.06 103 0.294 103 log (3.5911)
2.2.2
The microstrip
The microstrip (see Fig. 2.16 for the cross section) is a quasi-TEM transmission
line due to the inhomogeneous cross section. Analysis and design formulae are
presented in the following sections for the line parameters; take into account
that most CAD tools for microwave circuit design have embedded microstrip
line calculators.
2.2.2.1
Analysis formulae
Today all CAD tools have built-in analysis formulae for the microstrip parameters; approximate expressions are given here:
t, s
e r, t a n d
h
Figure 2.16 Microstrip cross section.
r Impedance:
60
8h
W0
log
+
,
eff
W0
4h
0
0
1
Z0 =
120 W
W
+ 1.393 + 0.667 log

+ 1.444
,
eff h
h
W0
1
h
W0
>1
h
where the effective strip width W 0 accounts for the strip thickness t:
1.25t
4W
W
1
W
+
1
+
log
,
W0
h
h
t
h
2
=
W
1.25t
2h
W
1
+
1 + log
,
>
h
h
t
h
2
r Effective permittivity:
eff
where:
1 + r
r 1
=
+
F
2
2
W
h
r 1 t
4.6 h
1/2
W
1 + 12h

+ 0.04 1
,
W
W
h
F
=
1/2
h
12h
1+
r Dielectric attenuation:
r
d = 27.3
eff
eff 1
r 1
h
W
W
1
h
W
>1
h
tan
dB/m
0
r Conductor attenuation in dB/m:
Rs 32 (W 02
,
02
hZ
0 32 + (W
c =
0
W
0.667W 0 /h
5 Rs Z0 eff
+ 0
,
6.1 10
h
h
W /h + 1.444
where:
1.38
1.25t 1.25
4W
h
+
log
,
1 + 0 1 +
W
W
t
=
1.25t 1.25
2h
h
+
log
,
1+ 0 1
W
h
W0
1
h
0
W
1
h
W0
1
h
2
W0
1
h
2
29
2 5 0
2 0 0
e r= 2 . 5
1 5 0
Z , O h m
0
30
e r= 1 0
1 0 0
e r= 1 3
5 0
0 .0 5
0 .1
0 .2
0 .3
0 .5
W /h
1 .0
2 .0
3 .0
5 .0
Figure 2.17 The microstrip characteristic impedance vs. W/h for different substrate
permittivities.
p
Rs = /2 = ()1 is the surface resistance.
r Dispersion of effective permittivity:
r eff
eff (f )
+
eff
1 + 4F 1.5
where 4F 1.5 implicitly defines the inflection frequency. In fact:
(
2 )
W
4h r 1
0.5 + 1 + 2 log 1 +
F =
0
h
where f = c0 /0 ; thus F = kf where:
(
2 )
4h r 1
W
k=
0.5 + 1 + 2 log 1 +
c0
h
and f = finfl when 4F 1.5 = 1 i.e. when F = 24/3 = kfinfl ; thus finfl = 24/3 /k.
Fig. 2.17 and 2.18 show examples of the microstrip parameters (impedance and
refractive index) as a function of the W/h ratio for different substrate permittivities (GaAs, r = 13; allumina, 10; Teflon, 2.5). The minimum W/h is suggested
by technological constraints (strips cannot be narrower than 10-20 m) while
the maximum is related to the onset of transversal resonances.
Fig. 2.19 shows an example of the metal and substrate losses for a microstrip
on allumina, substrate thickness 0.5 mm. At 1 GHz the metal losses prevail,
but, due to the different frequency behaviour, dielectric losses can be important
31
3 .5
3
e r= 2 . 5
2 .5
e r= 1 0
e ff
2
1 .5
e r= 1 3
1
0 .5
0
0 .0 5
0 .1
0 .2
0 .3
0 .5
W /h
1 .0
2 .0
3 .0
5 .0
Figure 2.18 The microstrip effective refractive index vs. W/h for different substrate
permittivities.
at millimeter waves. The metal losses decrease with the strip width, i.e. are
important for high impedance (narrow) lines.
2.2.2.2
Design formulae
The design formulae yield the needed W/h ratio to obtain, with a substrate
with given permittivity, a certain characteristic impedance Z0 . A classical set of
approximate design formulae was developed by Wheeler:
r For Z0 44 2r :
1
exp(B)
1
8
4 exp(B)
r
Z0 r + 1 1 r 1
0.2416
B=
+
0.4516 +
60
2
2 r + 1
r
W
=
h
(2.33)
(2.34)
r For Z0 < 44 2r :
W
2
2
r 1
0.517
= (d 1) log(2d 1) +
log(d 1) + 0.293
h
r
r
(2.35)
d=
60 2
Z0 r
(2.36)
The effective permittivity can be derived by a set of simplified expressions:
1 0
f = 1 G H z
a
A tte n u a tio n , d B /c m
32
1 0
-1
1 0
-2
e r = 1 0
ta n d = 1 0
-3
1 0
-2
S /m
h = 5 0 0 m m
c
1 0
t = 5 m m ,
s = 4 .1 1 0
W
-3
1 0
-1
1 0
W /h
1 0
Figure 2.19 Behaviour of the dielectric and conductor attenuation for a microstrip as a
function of W/h.
r for W/h 1:
eff
r + 1 r 1
=
+
2
2
"
12h
1+
W
1/2
2 #
W
+ 0.04 1
h
r for W/h 1:
eff
r + 1 r 1
+
=
2
2
12h
1+
W
1/2
.
A finite strip correction (that cannot be obviously included directly in the

synthesis) is as follows:
r for W/h 1/2:

W
t
W0
=
+
h
h
h
r for W/h 1/2:

We
W
t
=
+
h
h
h
2h
1 + log
t
4W
1 + log
.
t
Finally, the synthesis formulae are the approximate inverse of the following
analysis formulae:
r for W 0 /h 1:
60
Z0 =
log
eff
8h
W0
+
0
W
4h
33
r for W 0 /h 1:
1
120
W0
W0
Z0 =
1.393 +
+ 0.667 log 1.444 +
.
eff
h
h
Example 2.4:
Design a 50 microstrip using the substrates (a) CER-10- 0250 and (b) TLY5-0620, data in Table 2.2. Assume gold metallizations, conductivity = 4.1
107 S/m and thickness t = 7 m.. Plot the frequency behaviour of the effective
permittivity and conductor and dielectric attenuation in the two cases.
Using
the Wheeler formulae we have in case (a) r = 9.5 from which Z0 =

50 > 44 2 9.5; thus we use:
r
Z0 r + 1 1 r 1
0.2416
B=
+
0.4516 +
= 2.1025
60
2
2 r + 1
r
i.e.:
W
=
h
exp(B)
1
8
4 exp(B)
1
= 1.0073
yielding W = 1.0073 0.63 = 0.63 mm. In case (b) r = 2.2 and Z0 > 44 2r ;
we obtain B = 1.16 from which W = 3.12h = 3.12 1.57 = 4.9 mm. The lowfrequency effective permittivities result, respectively, (a) eff = 6.41, (b) eff =
1.87. Let us evaluate now dispersion; in case (a) the k coefficient appearing in
F = kf is:
2 !
4h r 1
W
k=
0.5 + 1 + 2 log 1 +
= 1.517 1010
c0
h
while in case (b) k = 3.4823 1010 . The inflection frequencies finf =
24/3 /k are in case (a) 24/3 / 1.517 1010 = 16.6 GHz, in case (b)
24/3 / 3.4823 1010 = 7.23 GHz. The second substrate, being thicker, is more
dispersive. In fact the frequency behaviour given by:

2
r eff
eff (f )
+
eff
1 + 4(kf )1.5
shown in Fig. 2.20, confirm that case (b) has a lower inflection frequency, but
case (a) exhibits a larger absolute variation of the effective permittivity.
Concerning attenuation, we have (a) tan = 0.0035 and (b) tan = 0.0009; thus
at 1 GHz the attenuations are (a) d = 0.0076 dB/cm, c = 0.0166 dB/cm;
for case (b) d = 9.57 104 dB/cm, c =0.0027 dB/cm. Line (b) has lower
conductor losses because it is wider. The behaviour of losses vs. frequency is
1 0
9
8
7
E ffe c tiv e p e r m ittiv ity
(a )
6
5
4
3
(b )
2
1
1 0
f in
1 0
fl
1 0
1 0
f in
1 0
fl
1 1
Figure 2.20 Frequency behaviour of effective pernittivity, lines in Example 2.4.

1 0
34
1 0
-1
1 0
-2
1 0
-3
1 0
-4
to t
a
c
a
d
(a )
(b )
1 0
1 0
f in fl
1 0
1 0
f in
fl
1 0
1 1
Figure 2.21 Frequency behaviour of attenuation, lines in Example 2.4.
reported in Fig. 2.21; metal losses prevail at low frequency but dielectric losses
become important at high frequency
r
9.5
10.0
9.8
2.20
2.20
2.20
2.33
2.33
2.50
2.50
2.55
2.55
2.55
2.55
2.55
2.95
2.95
3.20
3.20
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.50
3.50
3.50
3.50
h, mm
0.63
1.57
1.27
1.57
0.78
0.51
1.57
0.51
1.52
0.76
1.52
0.76
0.51
1.52
0.76
0.38
0.25
1.57
0.78
1.57
0.78
0.51
1.52
0.76
0.51
0.25
t, m
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
/Au
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
0.7118
tan
.0035
.0035
.0035
.0009
.0009
.0009
.0009
.0009
.0019
.0019
.0019
.0019
.0019
.0006
.0006
.0028
.0028
.0030
.0030
.0030
.0030
.0030
.0025
.0025
.0025
.0025
35
Name
CER-10-0250
CER-10-0620
CER-10-0500
TLY-5-0620
TLY-5-0310
TLY-5-0200
TLY-3-0620
TLY-3-0200
TLX-9-0600
TLX-9-0300
TLX-8-0600
TLX-8-0300
TLX-8-0200
TLT-8-0600
TLT-8-0300
TLE-95-0150
TLE-95-0100
TLC-32-0620
TLC-32-0310
TLC-30-0620
TLC-30-0310
TLC-30-0200
RF-35-0600
RF-35-0300
RF-35-0200
RF-35-0100
Table 2.2. Characteristics of Taconic commercial substrates, h is the substrate thickness,

t the thickness of the lower ground (and of the upper ground if present), the metal
resistivity, tan the substrate loss angle.
In conclusion, a 50 microstrip line on a heavy substrate (allumina) with

r = 10 requires W = h while on GaAs the same impedance level can be achieved
for W/h 0.7. The microstrip ohmic losses decrease for increasing strip width
and are large for high-impedance, narrow-strip lines. The impedance ranges
achievable in practice on allumina substrates are from 20 to 120 approximately.
2.2.3
The coplanar waveguide

Ideal coplanar waveguides (Fig. 2.22) on an infinitely thick substrate are characterized by eff = (r + 1)/2, independent of geometry and line impedance; more-
36
2 b
2 a
g ro u n d
S
g ro u n d
S
h
e
r
C o p la n a r w a v e g u id e ( C P W )
2 b
2 a
g ro u n d
S
g ro u n d
S
h
e
r
C o p la n a r w a v e g u id e w ith lo w e r g r o u n d p la n e
2 c
2 b
2 a
g ro u n d
S
g ro u n d
S
h
e
r
C o p la n a r w a v e g u id e w ith fin ite la te r a l g r o u n d

Figure 2.22 Coplanar waveguide (CPW): simple, with lower ground plane, with
finite-extent lateral grounds.
over, the line impedance only depends on the ratio between the slot width and the
strip width, or, equivalently, on the ratio a/b, where a = w/2, b = s + a. Notice
that 2b is the overall lateral extent of the line. The property eff = (r + 1)/2
is partly lost in practical lines on non-ideal (finite-thickness, Fig. 2.22) substrates; moreover, in this case the line impedance also becomes sensitive to the
substrate thickness. As a rule of thumb, the substrate should be at least as thick
as the overall lateral extent of the line, i.e. h > 2b to make the influence of h
on Z0 almost negligible. For a given h, this conversely imposes a limitation on
the maximum line dimensions: e.g. for h = 300 m one must have b < 150 m.
Although no limitation occurs to the impedance range, which only depends on
the shape ratio a/b, thin substrates require small lines which in turn are affected
by heavy ohmic losses. A further cause of non-ideal behaviour is the finite extent
wgp = c b of the lateral ground planes. As a consequence, the line impedance
increases and eff slightly decreases. In practical circuits, the overall lateral line
extent should be kept as small as possible, provided that no spurious coupling
arises between neighbouring lines and that the impedance level of the line is
37
not seriously affected. A reasonable compromise, which can be actually observed

in most practical coplanar circuits, is to have c 3b at least. A last variety of
coplanar waveguide is the so-called conductor-backed CPW. There seemingly are
many reasons to advocate the use of conductor backing in uniplanar circuits made
on semiconductor substrates: GaAs substrates have poor mechanical properties;
in particular, thin substrates (e.g. h < 100 m) are very brittle. Thus, coplanar
circuits should be made on rather thick substrates, which, however, have poor
thermal properties (high thermal resistance seen by active devices). Conductor
backing allows thinner substrates to be used, and permits to connect the back
of the circuit to a suitable heat sink. Unfortunately, conductor backing also has
some disadvantages. Apart from problems connected to spurious coupling with
parasitic modes, conductor backing lowers the impedance level of the line and
makes it again dependent on h. In other words, conductor backing leads to a
mixed coplanar-microstrip structure. If the aim is to obtain a coplanar rather
than a microstrip behaviour, the substrate should be approximately as thick as
in the case where no backing is present, i.e. one should have h > 2b. Now, if we
come to the actual substrate thickness needed to allow reasonable power dissipation even to medium-power devices, one finds that very low h are needed, e.g.
h 30 60 m. If such a low thickness can be locally obtained through substrate thinning and connection to a heat sink, making a whole conductor-backed
coplanar circuit on such a thin substrate does not seem a good policy, since
the requirement h > 2b leads to extremely small lines with unacceptable ohmic
losses.
2.2.3.1
Analysis formulae
Quasi-static expressions for the line parameters have been derived through
approximate conformal mapping techniques, and are accurate if the substrate
thickness is not small with respect to the line width 2b. Although the exact
asymptotic limit is obtained for h 0, it is advisable to confine the use of
these expressions to h > b/2. In all following formulae, K(k)
is the complete
elliptic integral of the first kind, of argument k, while k 0 = 1 k 2 . The ratio
K(k)/K(k 0 ) can be accurately approximated as follows:
!
K(k)
1
1+ k
, 0.5 k 2 < 1
(2.37)
log 2
K(k 0 )
1 k
!
K(k 0 )
1
1 + k0
log 2
, 0 < k 2 0.5
(2.38)
K(k)
1 k0
One has for the characteristic impedance (Z0 ) and effective permittivity (eff ):
38
r Coplanar waveguide (CPW) on infinitely thick substrate:

30 K(k 0 )
Z0 =
eff K(k)
r + 1
eff =
2
k = a/b
(2.39)
(2.40)
(2.41)
r Coplanar waveguide with finite-thickness substrate:

30 K(k 0 )
Z0 =
eff K(k)
r 1 K(k 0 ) K(k1 )
eff = 1 +
2 K(k) K(k10 )
(2.42)
(2.43)
where:
k = a/b
sinh(a/2h)
k1 =
sinh(b/2h)
(2.44)
(2.45)
r Conductor-backed coplanar waveguide:

60
1
Z0 =
K(k2 )
eff K(k)
+
K(k 0 ) K(k20 )
K(k)
K(k2 )
+ r
K(k 0 )
K(k20 )
eff =
K(k)
K(k2 )
+
0
K(k ) K(k20 )
(2.46)
(2.47)
where:
k = a/b
tanh(a/2h)
k2 =
tanh(b/2h)
(2.48)
(2.49)
r Coplanar waveguide with finite-thickness substrate and finite-extent ground

planes:
30 K(k30 )
Z0 =
eff K(k3 )
r 1 K(k30 ) K(k4 )
eff = 1 +
2 K(k3 ) K(k40 )
where:
(2.50)
(2.51)
s
1 (b/c)2
1 (a/c)2
s
sinh(a/2h) 1 (sinh(b/2h)/ sinh(c/2h))2
k4 =
sinh(b/2h) 1 (sinh(a/2h)/ sinh(c/2h))2
a
k3 =
b
(2.52)
(2.53)
39
Concerning the frequency dispersion of the effective permittivity, an analytical

expression of the frequency-dependent behaviour of the effective permittivity for
a coplanar waveguide with finite substrate is:
p
p
p
r eff (0)
eff (f ) = eff (0) +
(2.54)
1 + A(f /fT E )1.8
where:
0.54 0.64 log(2a/h) + 0.015[log(2a/h)]2 log(2a/(b a))+
0.43 0.86 log(2a/h) + 0.540[log(2a/h)]2

(2.55)
(2.56)
= c0 /(4h r 1)
A = exp
fT E
The conductor and dielectric attenuation can be expressed in dB per unit length
as:
8.68Rs (f ) eff
c =
480K(k)K(k 02 )

1
8a(1 k)
1
8b(1 k)
+ log
+
+ log
(2.57)
a
t(1 + k)
b
t(1 + k)
tan r K(k1 ) K(k 0 )
d = 27.83
(2.58)
0 2 eff K(k10 ) K(k)

Fig. 2.23 and Fig. 2.24 show the behaviour of the characteristic impedance
and attenuation of a CPW on allumina substrate as a function of the shape
ratio 0 < a/b < 1. Since increasing a the capacitance increases, the impedance
decreases; on the other hand losses are maximum for a 0 (large strip resistance
due to the narrow strip) and for a b (the impedance vanishes in the limit and
therefore c 1/Z0 diverges). The minimum loss occurs around a/b 0.5, that
also corresponds to a 50 impedance on allumina.
2.2.3.2
Coupling and radiation losses in planar lines

Parasitic coupling on uniform lines can occur either because the quasi-TEM field
of the line couples with other quasi-TEM fields (line-to-line coupling) or because
coupling occurs with surface waves or free-space radiation. Coupling between
quasi-TEM modes and other guided or radiated waves is significant only in the
presence of phase velocity synchronism; if this condition occurs, circuit operation
is severely deteriorated owing to power conversion to spurious modes or radiation.
A different sort of coupling can occur in the presence of line discontinuities.
In such cases, higher-order line modes are excited and the related power can
easily convert into surface waves or free-space radiation. Such effects modify the
circuit behaviour of line discontinuities such as impedance steps, open circuits
etc. and can be approximately modelled by means of concentrated radiation
conductances. In what follows, we shall try to collect some ideas on spurious
coupling mechanisms so as to give design criteria on this fairly complex matter.
1 1 0
1 0 0
C h a r a c te r is tic im p e d a n c e , O h m
9 0
8 0
7 0
6 0
5 0
4 0
3 0
2 0
0
0 .1
0 .2
0 .3
0 .4
0 .5
0 .6
0 .7
0 .8
0 .9
a /b
Figure 2.23 Characteristic impedance of a CPW on allumina vs. the aspect ratio a/b.
We have 2b = 600 m and the substrate is infinitely thick.

0 .7
0 .6
0 .5
40
0 .4
0 .3
a
c
0 .2
0 .1
a
0
0
0 .1
0 .2
0 .3
0 .4
0 .5
0 .6
0 .7
0 .8
0 .9
a /b
Figure 2.24 Characteristic impedance of a CPW on allumina vs. the aspect ratio a/b.
We have 2b = 600 m and the substrate is infinitely thick. The metal strips are gold
with thickness t = 5 m; the dielectric loss angle is tan = 0.001; frequency is 10 GHz.
41
Coupling with spurious modes is an important issue in coplanar design. Actually, coplanar waveguides also support a variety of quasi-TEM or non-TEM (slotlike) modes which have to be suppressed as much as possible. Namely:
r All coplanar lines support a parasitic slot-like mode which is odd with respect
to the central conductor. Such a coupled-slot wave is a true quasi-TEM mode
when the lateral ground planes have finite extent and can be excited both by
discontinuities and by synchronous coupling. In order to suppress this mode,
the lateral ground planes have to be connected together at short intervals (less
than g /4) by means of airbridges.
r Conductor-backed coplanar lines with finite-extent lateral ground planes also
support a microstrip-like mode in which all strips have the same potential.
Although synchronous coupling with this mode is impossible due to the large
difference of effective permittivities, the microstrip-like mode can be excited
at discontinuities (typically, at short circuits). Although mode conversion at
short circuits is not dramatic from a quantitative point of view, suppressing
this spurious mode is practically impossible one should have to connect the
upper and lower ground planes through via-holes and wrap-arounds, which is
precisely what one wants to avoid doing by the use of coplanar waveguides.
Both the microstrip and the coplanar waveguide show the possibility of spurious couplings with surface waves supported by the (grounded) dielectric substrate. As shown in Fig. 2.25 to every guiding structure a possible parasitic
waveguide is associated, with upper or lower ground planes, or both as in the
CPW with lower ground plane. The spurious coupling can assume two forms:
r synchronous coupling, when the spurious and the original mode travel with
the same phase velocity;
r asynchronous coupling, that may arise only in the presence of discontinuities.

A grounded dielectric slab carries TE or TM waves vs. the propagation
direction. In the TE case the electric field is parallel to the ground plane, in
the TM case orthogonal. This second field topology is more compatible with
the microstrip field topology, while the CPW has both horizontal and vertical field components. There are an infinite set of surface waves TEn and TMn ,
n = 0, 1, 2...,with cutoff frequencies:
c0 n
fcTMn =
= 2n fcTE0
(2.59)
2h r 1
c0 (2n + 1)
= (2n + 1) fcTE0
(2.60)
fcTEn =
4h r 1
i.e. the fundamental TM0 mode has zero cutoff frequency. The same remark
holds for the fundamental mode in a metallized dielectric layers shielded, at a
distance H, by a second metal plane (Fig. 2.25). The dispersion relationship of
42
M ic r o s tr ip
h
r
h
r
h
r
e
r
G r o u n d e d d ie le c tr ic w a v e g u id e
C o p la n a r
e
S h ie ld e d d ie le c tr ic w a v e g u id e
S h ie ld e d m ic r o s tr ip
e
G r o u n d e d d ie le c tr ic w a v e g u id e
H
e
G r o u n d e d c o p la n a r
e
r
P a r a lle l p la te w a v e g u id e
Figure 2.25 Waveguiding quasi-TEM structures and associated surface wave dielectric
waveguides.
the TM0 mode for this structure can be shown to be:

r
1 r eff
tanh(2c0 f (H h) eff 1)
=
r eff 1
tan(2c0 f h r eff )
(2.61)
where c0 is the velocity of light in vacuo.

A dielectric slab metallized both side carries a TEM mode (requiring however
a potential difference between the two planes) and TE and TM modes similar to
the single-side metallized slab.
Fig. 2.26 shows the dispersion curves for several waveguiding structure on a
GaAs substrate (r = 13) with h = 300 m. We report a 50 microstrip effective
permittivity, a microstrip permittivity in the limit of large impedance, and of two
coplanar waveguides with 50 and different transverse dimensions. For surface
waves, we show the dispersion curve of the fundamental mode of a metallized
dielectric slab with a cover H = 1.5 mm above the latter; we also show the TM1
mode of a dielectric slab with lower and upper metal planes. Concerning coupling
with microstrip or coplanar lines, the following remarks hold:
r Synchronous coupling with the TM0 mode in a microstrip is possible only for
very high impedance lines; on the other hand synchronous coupling is possible
in coplanar lines, with a synchronous frequency fs given by:
fs =
c0 tan1 (r )
p
h 2(r 1)
43
1 2
M ic r o s tr ip ,
5 0 O h m
1 0
C o p la n a r ,
5 0 O h m , b = 3 1 4 m m
C o p la n a r , 5 0 O h m , b = 5 0 m m
H ig h im p e d a n c e m ic r o s tr ip
E ffe c tiv e p e r m ittiv ity
8
6
T M 1 , p a r a lle l p la te
w a v e g u id e
h = 3 0 0 m m
4
T M 0 , s h ie ld e d d ie le c tr ic
w a v e g u id e , H = 1 .5 m m
h = 3 0 0 m m
2
0
0
1 0
2 0
T M 0 , d ie le c tr ic w a v e g u id e
h = 3 0 0 m m
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
F re q u e n c y , G H z
7 0
8 0
9 0
1 0 0
Figure 2.26 Dispersion curves for quasi-TEM modes and surface waves..
that, for heavy substrates like allumina, simplifies to:

fs
106
GHz.
h[mm] r 1
r Synchronous coupling with the TE0 mode is possible but takes place at a
higher frequency fs0 > fs :
fs0 =
4h
3c0
2(r 1)
r Finally, coplanar lines with a lower ground plane ha synchronous coupling

with the TM1 mode of the dielectric waveguide with upper and lower ground
planes; such a coupling occurs at the frequency:
c0
fss =
h (r 1)
Spurious surface waves can be controlled by inserting dissipative materials in
critical points of the circuit.
2.3
Lumped parameter components

Lumped parameter components (resistors, capacitors and also, at RF and
beyond, inductors) are exploited in planar circuits to implement several functions: bias and stabilization resistances, DC blocks (capacitors) or RF blocks
)inductors), feedback resistances, lumped parameter couplers, power dividers,
44
matching sections. Although lumped components can be monolithically integrated, components with large values often have to be inserted in hybrid form
exploiting discrete elements (often called chip capacitors, resistors and inductors
since they are realized on a dielectric chip). Integrated resistors and capacitors
have a compact layout, while integrated inductors are large and with a poor
quality factor.
In principle, lumped elements can be obtained from short transmission lines.
In fact, the input impedance of a short line closed on ZL can be written, taking
into account that tanh x x for small argument, in the form:
Zin = Z0
ZL + Z0 l
.
Z0 + ZL l
Taking into account the expression of the characteristic impedance and complex
propagation constant:
s
p
R + jL
Z0 =
, = (R + jL)(G + jC)
G + jC
we have:
Zin =
ZL + (R + jL)l
;
1 + ZL (G + jC)l
therefore, for a shorted line:

Zin = Rl + jLl = R + jL
which synthesizes, for a low-loss line, and inductor. For a short line in open we
have:
Yin = Gl + jCl = G + jC
typically corresponding to a capacitor. The value obtained this way are however
small.
A summary of the parameters of several classes of lumped elements is shown
in Table 2.3. For a reactive element the quality factor is defined as the ratio
between the resistive and reactive component as follows:
Q=
R
C
=
L
G
Taking into account that RF inductors are in air (no magnetic losses) and that
the high frequency resistance is proportional to f we have that the inductor Q

decreases at high frequency like f 1/2 . On the other hand, since for a capacitor
the main loss mechanism are dielectric losses for which G = C tan we have
that for a capacitor Q 1/. High Q resonators cannon typically obtained with
lumped elements but require external components (quartz resonators, surface
wave acoustic components).
45
R
L
l
W
C
C
(a )
W
R
L
a
C
W '
s '
(b )
D
i
W
R
S
C
D
o
C
2
(c )
Figure 2.27 (a) strip inductor, (b) loop inductor (horsehoe) (c) spiral inductor and
related equivalent circuits.
2.3.1
Inductors
Microwave inductors are in air, due to the fact that alla magnetic materials (also
ferroelectric like ferrites) are restricted to operation below 1 GHz. Microwave
integrated inductors are limited by ohmic losses, by an upper operating frequency
connected to the resonance from the parasitic capacitance, and by a range of
values limited to 10-50 nH, due to the large size. Large inductors have a large
parasitic capacitance and therefore a limited operating frequency range.
2.3.1.1
Strip and loop inductors

Small values of inductance (up to 2 nH approx.) can be obtained through high
impedance lines (Fig. 2.27 (a)) or through loop inductors (Fig. 2.27 (b)). For the
strip inductor we have the following model (lengths are in mm):

2l
W
1
Lstrip = 2 10 l log
1+
nH
(2.62)
W
2l

W
Rs l
Rstrip = 1.4 + 0.217 log
(2.63)
5t
2(W + t)
46
Type
INDUCTORS
High Z0 lines
Spiral inductors
CAPACITORS
Microstrip gap
Interdigitated
MIM (parallel plate)
RESISTORS
This film
Monolithic
Valuse
Q (10 GHz)
Material
0.01-0.5 nH
0.5-10 nH
30-60
20-40
Gold
50
50
25
Si3 N4 ,SiO2 , Polymide

Ta2 O5
0.001-0.005 pF
0.01-0.5 pF
0.1-100 pF
5 - 1 k
5 - 1 k
NiCr, TaN
GaAs implanted
Table 2.3. Parameters of lumped elements.
where Rs is the surface resistance of the metallization, t the metal thickness. For
the loop inductor we have the so-called Grover formula (dimensions are in mm):

8a
Lloop = 1.257a log
2 nH
(2.64)
W

Rs
W
a .
(2.65)
Rloop = 1.4 + 0.217 log
5t
W +t
The behaviour of the strip and loop inductance (with l = 2a) is shown in
Fig. 2.28 for different values of W . Notice that, for the same length, the loop
inductance is lower than the strip inductance.
Example 2.5:
Evaluate the inductance of a strip inductor of length l = 0.5 mm, W = 50
m and t = 5 m, on a 300 m GaAs substrate (r = 13). Compare the input
impedance with the input impedance of a microstrip line having the same dimensions as a function of frequency, neglecting the effect of losses; find the resonant
frequency of the inductor.
For the strip inductor we use the model (all lengths in mm):
2l
W
L = 2 101 l log
1+
= 0.32 nH;
W
l
the input impedance is Zi = jL.

We can model the same inductor with a microstrip model, using the highfrequency expression of the characteristic parameters. Since h/W = 300/50 =
6 < 2, we exploit the width correction:
W
1.25t
2h
W0
=
+
1 + log
= 0.205
h
h
h
t
47
2 .5
S tr ip in d u c to r
L o o p in d u c to r
In d u c ta n c e , n H
W = 2 0
4 0
6 0
8 0
1 .5
W = 2 0
4 0
6 0
8 0
m m
m m
m m
m m
m m
m m
m m
m m
0 .5
0 .5
L e n g th , m m
1 .5
Figure 2.28 Inductance of a strip and loop inductor vs. the total length, for different
values of the strip width W .
i.e. W 0 = 0.205h = 0.0615 mm; then we exploit the narrow strip formula for the
effective permittivity:
1/2
2
12h
W
F = 1+
+ 0.04 1
= 0.144
W
h
i.e.:
eff
1 + r
r 1
r 1 t
=
+
F
2
2
4.6 h
h
= 7.76.
W
The impedance and impedance in air are:
60
8h
W0
Z0 =
log
+ 0.25
= 78.9
eff
W0
4h
8h
W0
Z00 = 60 log
+
0.25
= 220
W0
4h
yielding the total inductance lZ00 /c0 = 0.36 nH, in fair agreement with the value
obtained through the concentrated model. The propagation constant is:
=
2f
ef f = j5.83 108 f
3 108
leading to an input impedance of the shorted line:

Zi = jZ0 tan(l).
48
|X |, W
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
M ic r o s tr ip lin e m o d e l
L u m p e d p a ra m e te r m o d e l
1 0
1 0 0
Figure 2.29 Behaviour vs. frequency of an inductor reactance according to the lumped
and microstrip model (Example 2.5).
The magnitude of the reactance evaluated from the lumped and the microstrip
model is shown in Fig. 2.29; the microstrip model yields a resonance around 55
GHz. The limit l < g /20 would confine the frequency range of the inductor to
frequencies belwo 11 GHz.
2.3.1.2
Spiral inductors
Larger inductances can be obtained through spiral inductors, see Fig. 2.27 (c),
where the spiral shape can be square, circular, octagonal. Integrated spiral inductors require air bridges, see Fig. 2.30. Approximate formulae exist for the circular
spiral inductor inductance, parasitic resistance and parasitic capacitance:
a2 n2
Do + Di
Lsp = 39.37
Kg nH, a =
,
8a + 11c
4
1.7
S
anRs
Rsp = 1 + 0.333 1 +
W
W
C3 = 3.5 102 Do + 0.06 pF
c=
Do Di
2
(2.66)
(2.67)
(2.68)
where Do and Di are in mm. The parameters are defined in Fig. 2.27, (c); n is
the number of turns. We approximately have:
Do Di
nW + (n 1)S
2
49
A ir b r id g e s
Figure 2.30 Rectangular spiral inductor with air bridges.
from which:
n
1
W +S
Do Di
+S .
2
A factor Kg takes into account the effect of the lower ground plane; thus we
have:
L = Kg L0
where L0 = Lsp is the inductance without the ground plane. An approximation
holding for W/h > 0.05 where W is the strip width is:

W
(2.69)
Kg 0.57 0.145 log
h
where h is the substrate thickness. For W/h < 0.05 the effect of the ground plane
and negligible and Kg = 1.
For the rectangular spiral inductor we have the approximate model:
Lrsp 0.85 An5/3 Kg nH

(2.70)
where A is the inductor total area, n the number of turns.
Example 2.6:
We want to implement a family of spiral inductor withe external diameter
Do = 1 mm, W = 50 m, S = W, varying the number of turns n, with t = 5 m.
Evaluate the inductance that can be obtained on a 300 m substrate varying the
number of turns, with a constant external diameter Do , the quality factor, and
the resonant frequency. Metal conductors are made of gold.
50
We have, with constant Do :

Do Di
nW + (n 1)S = (2n 1) W
2
i.e. for the internal diameter:
Di = Do 2 (2n 1) W.
The maximum turn number corresponds to Di = 0, i.e.:
n=
1
Do
+
= 5.5 5
2 4W
We then have:
Do + Di
1
= [Do (2n 1) W ] = 0.525 0.05n mm
4
2
Do Di
c=
= (2n 1) W = 0.1n 0.05 mm.
2
The substrate correction factor is:

50
W
= 0.57 0.145 log
= 0.83
Kg = 0.57 0.145 log
h
300
a=
while the gold surface resistance is:

r
p
2f
= 0.098 fGHz
Rs =
2
we then obtain for the inductor parameters, with W = 0.05 mm:
a2 n2
(0.525 0.05n)2 n2
Kg = 32.7
nH
8a + 11c
3.65 + 0.7n
p
R = 6. 46 102 (21 2.0n) n fGHz
L = 39.37
C3 = 0.095 pF
For the quality factor:
QL =
2f L
(10.5 n) n p
fGHz
= 79.5
R
3.65 + 0.7n
while the inductor resonant frequency is:
1
25.5 73.0 + 14n
f0 =
=
(21 2n) n
2 LC3
GHz.
The inductance, quality factor and resonance frequency that can be obtained
for n = 1...5 are reported in Table 2.4. Notice that the resonant frequencies are
optimistic since the feedback capacitance is evaluated only in an approximate
way.
n
L (nH)
f0 (GHz)
QL @ 1 GHz
1
1.70
12.55
173.6
2
4.68
7.55
267.6
3
7.20
6.09
311.1
4
8.57
5.58
320.4
51
5
8.65
5.56
305.8
Table 2.4. Inductance, quality factor and resonance frequency from Example 2.6.
2.3.1.3
Inductance of bonding wires

Bonding wires are exploited in hybrid circuits within the circuit and to connect
integrated circuits to external ports. Instead of circular wires, ribbons can be
exploited with the advantage of a lower inductance. The resistance and inductance of a wire of diameter d and length l (in mm) are:

l
L0,wire = 0.20 log
+ 0.386 l nH
(2.71)
d
Rs l
R=
.
(2.72)
d
A ground plane correction is:
!
p

l + l2 + d2 /4
4h
+
Lfilo = 0.2l log
+ log
d
l + l2 + 4h
#
r
r
4h2
d2
h
d
+ l+ 2 l+ 2 2 +
nH
(2.73)
l
4l
l
2l
where h is the distance between the wire and the ground plane. such an inductance is not negligible; e.g. a 100 m wire has an inductance of 500 pH/mm,
while the inductance grows to around 800 pH/mm for a diameter of 25 m.
2.3.2
Capacitors
Capacitors can be realized through passive structures or through junctions
(Schottky or pn). Passive capacitors can be microstrip patches, interdigitated
capacitors, MIM capacitors. Microstrip patches or gaps have a low capacitance,
while interdigitated capacitors have a capacitance of the order of 0.5 pF/mm2 .
Larger values can be obtained (up to around 30 pF) with MIM (Metal Insulator
Metal) capacitors, see Fig. 2.31 (b), for which the parallel plate formula holds:
Wl
d
where W l is tha capacitor area, the absolute dielectric constant of the dielectric, d the dielectric thickness. The parallel conductance is related to dielectric
losses. For example a MIM capacitor with a 1 m silicon oxide layer (relative
permittivity 4) has a specific capacitance around 35 pF/mm2 .
C=
52
C
L
R
W
S
C
l
h
e
C
1
(a )
D ie le c tr ic film
L
R
w
C
h
e
G
2
C
2
(b )
Figure 2.31 MIM and interdigitated capacitors.
Dielectric
SiO
SiO2
Si3 N4
Ta2 O5
Al2 O3
Polymide
Ca , d = .2m
275-325
175-230
300-400
1000-1200
350-400
30-40
Q
+
++
++
=
=
100-500
50-100
20-40
10-150
400-600
400-500
Fcv
=
+
=
+
+
Fcq
=
=
+
+
+
=
Deposition technology
Evaporation
Evaporation, sputtering
Sputtering, CVD
Sputtering, anodization
Sputtering, CVD
Spinning
Table 2.5. Dielectrics for MIM capacitors. is the temperature coefficient in ppm/o C. The
polymide figure refers to a thickness of 1 m.
Two common figure of merits for dielectrics exploited in realizing capacitors

are the product between the capacitance and the breakdown voltage:
Fcv = Ca Vb = 0 r Eb F V/m2
(2.74)
typically in the range (8 30) 103 pF-V/mm2 , and the product specific capacitance - capacitor Q:
Fcq = Ca / tan d F/m2
(2.75)
where Ca is the capacitance per unit surface, Vb the breakdown voltage, Eb the
breakdown electric field, d the loss angle. Typical values are Eb = 1 2 MV/cm ,
r = 4 20 per la costante dielettrica, tan d = 101 103 . A summary of some
relevant dielectrics is reported in Table 2.5. The tolerance of MIM capacitors is
limited by the ability to control the dielectric thickness accurately.
53
R e s is tiv e film
M e ta l
S e m i- in s u la tin g
s u b s tra te
M e ta l
F ilm
r e s is to r
M e ta l
Im p la n te d
r e s is to r
s u b s tra te
s u b s tra te
M e s a
r e s is to r
l
Figure 2.32 Integrated microwave resistors.
Material
Cr
Ta
Ti
TaN
NiCr
GaAs
Rs , /
10-20
30-200
10-100
250-300
40-100
100-1200
3000
100-500
2500
150-300
200
3000
Accuracy
=
=
=
++
++
Stability
=
++
=
=
++
++
Deposition
Sputtering
Sputtering
Implantation, epitaxy
Table 2.6. Resistive materials for resistors. is the temperature coefficient in ppm/o C.
2.3.3
Resistors
Planar integrated resistors can be obtained either deposing a thin film on a
dielectric substrate (thin film resistors) or through semiconductor resistive films
(mesa resistors) or doping a semi-insulating substrate (implanted resistors), see
Fig. 2.32; a summary of the relevant materials is shown in Table 2.6.
54
R e s is tiv e film
S M
c o n ta c ts
M e ta l p a d s
S iO
S M
c o n ta c ts
C e r a m ic s u b s tr a te
S i (d o p e d )
C e r a m ic s u b s tr a te
C o il
C h ip r e s is to r
S M
C h ip c a p a c ito r
c o n ta c ts
C h ip in d u c to r
C o n ic a l
c o il
O u tp u t p a d
W id e b a n d c o n ic a l
in d u c to r
In p u t p a d
Figure 2.33 Examples of discrete RF lumped components: thin film chip resistor for
surface mount; chip capacitor; chip inductor; ultrabroadband conical inductor.
The input impedance can be evaluate through a short (shorted) RC line model:
s
R
1
R
1
Zin =
tanh
jCRl R 1 jCR
=
1
C
jC
3
1 + 13 jCR
+ j
R
3
where R = Rl, C = Cl is the parasitic capacitance. The series resistance can be
evaluated in the DC or skin effect range according to the operating frequency,
the resistor thickness and material.
2.3.4
Chip inductors, resistors and capacitors

Discrete lumped components can be externally inserted in hybrid integrated circuits (i.e. circuits where the substrate is dielectric, and the active semiconductor
devices are not monolithically integrated), usually as surface-mount chip resistors, inductors or capacitors.
Chip resistors are obtained by deposing a resistive thin film over a dielectric
(e.g. ceramic) chip. Wrap-around or flip-chip contacts are then added, allowing
for surface mounting (SM) on a microstrip or coplanar circuit. An example of
such structures (shown bottom up) can be found in Fig. 2.33; the side size of the
component often is well below 1 mm. The resistance of chip resistors typically
ranges from a few to 10 k. Chip capacitors can be obtained by deposit-
55
ing a dielectric layer (e.g. SiO2 ) on a conductor or semiconductor (e.g. Si); the
dielectric layer is then coated with metal so as to define the external contacts,
which can be surface mounted through flip-chip (i.e. by connecting the component upside down), see Fig. 2.33. The capacitance of chip capacitors typically
ranges from a few pF to 1 F.
While chip resistors can be properly manufactured so as to achieve spectacular bandwidths (e.g. from DC to millimeter waves), thus making it possible
to provide ultrabroadband matched terminations, broadband inductors are difficult to obtain, due to the increase of losses with frequency and to the upper
limitation related to the LC resonant frequency. The quality factor of RF and
microwave inductors typically peaks in a very narrow band, with maximum values well below 102 . An example of RF and microwave chip inductor is shown in
Fig. 2.33; achievable inductance values typically decrease with increasing operating frequency and are limited to 500 nF approximately, with maximum operating
frequencies below 10 GHz.
However, ultrabroadband bias Ts typically for instrumentation require broadband inductors as RF blocks. Conical inductors (Fig. 2.33) are a particular technology allowing for very broadband behaviour, due to a strong reduction of the
parasitic capacitance and to the scaling invariance of the design.
2.4
Layout of planar hybrid and integrated circuits

High-speed electronic integrated circuits (ICs) can be implemented through two
complementary approaches, the hybrid IC and the monolithic IC. Integrated
circuits operating in the microwave range (i.e. up to 30-40 GHz or 40 Gbps)
are often denoted as (Monolithic) Microwave Integrated Circuits, (M)MICs. In
the hybrid approach, the circuit is realized on a dielectric substrate, integrating
all distributed components and, possibly, some lumped components (which may,
however, also be inserted as discrete lumped elements through wire bonding or
surface mount techniques). In the hybrid approach, the semiconductor active
elements are inserted as lumped components and connected again through wirebonding or surface mount. On the other hand, monolithic circuits integrate, on
a semiconductor substrate, all active and passive elements. While hybrid circuits
often exploit, at least for narrowband applications, distributed components based
on transmission line approaches, in monolithic circuits the lumped approach is
preferred, owing to the possibility of reducing the circuit size (lumped components are much smaller than the guided wavelength, while distributed elements
have, as already recalled, characteristic sizes of the order of g /4 at centerband).
Monolithic integrated circuits can be based on GaAs, InP or Si substrates and
may exploit, as active elements, FETs or bipolars (typically HBTs).
According to the transmission medium used, we may have microstrip or coplanar integrated circuits. Microstrip circuits are more compact in size due to the
lower ground plane, but require a precise control of the dielectric thickness, while
56
Figure 2.34 Coplanar probes for on-wafer measurement of a three-port (mixer) with
coplanar finite-ground layout.
coplanar circuits can be preferred at very high frequency (mm waves). Microstrip
circuits in fact only allow for straightforward connection of series elements (parallel elements require to reach the lower ground plane, often by etching a hole
in the substrate, the so-called via hole) while coplanar circuit allow for the connection of both series and parallel elements. Finally, the on-wafer high-frequency
characterization requires to connect the integrated circuit to the measurement
setup through coplanar probes; to this purpose, coplanar ground planes must
be made available (e.g. through via holes) at the circuit input and output. An
example of coplanar probing of a three-port component, a passive mixer implemented in finite-ground coplanar technology, is shown in Fig. 2.34; the probes
are coaxial cables with a coplanar tip transferring by pressure contact the ground
planes (lateral) on the lateral ground plane coplanar pads of the circuit, while
the center conductor is the signal conductor. The finite-ground coplanar waveguides allow for reducing the lateral size of the lines leading to the device input
to the active element (a planar diode).
A qualitative example of a hybrid or monolithic integrated circuit in the
microstrip or coplanar technology can be introduced as a simple, single-stage
open-loop amplifier with two lumped bias Ts and input and output matching
section. Fig. 2.35 shows a simplified schematic of the single-stage amplifier, with
an input matching section, two bias circuits connected to the active element, and
an output matching section. The purpose of the matching sections is to transform
57
C o a x ia l
in p u t
S o u rc e
( e x te r n a l)
D C
C o a x ia l
o u tp u t
T r a n s is to r
+
E
D C
B ia s T
B ia s T
In p u t m a tc h in g
A d.
O u tp u t m a tc h in g
Z
L
L o a d
( e x te r n a l)
Figure 2.35 Open-loop single-stage amplifier schematic.
the load impedance (typically 50 Ohm) in the optimum impedance that must be
seen at the amplifier input and output port according to a maximum gain, maximum power or minimum noise criterion. The bias circuits, also called bias Ts,
are a combination of a DC block (the capacitor) and an RF block (the inductor)
whose aim is to separate the paths of the RF and DC currents in such a way
that the RF circuit is not loaded by the DC supply and the RF load is isolated
from the DC bias. Active devices require in principle two bias sources, although
with proper bias schemes these can be reduced to one. Fig. 2.36 presents two
possible circuit implementations, with distributed matching sections (a), typically (but not necessarily) hybrid, or with lumped matching sections (b), usually
monolithic. Fig. 2.36 (a) also shows the equivalent circuit of two microstrip to
coaxial connectors, modeled through a low-pass filter. The generator and load
are external and connected though coaxial connector and coaxial to microstrip
transitions.
2.4.1
Some layout-connected issues

Before discussing details on the hybrid and monolithic layout, let us discuss some
layout-connected problems.
2.4.1.1
Connecting series and parallel elements

Series and parallel connections can be made, see Fig. 2.37. In microstrip circuits
the series connection is easy while the parallel one requires via holes (particularly
critical in integrated circuits) or wrap-arounds, see Fig. 2.38; the use of bonding
wires is inconvenient due to the parasitic inductance. In coplanar lines (Fig. 2.39)
both the series and parallel insertion is possible; symmetric parallel elements are
preferred at high frequency.
2.4.1.2
The stub
Stubs are short lines exploited to synthesize reactive elements; open and shorted
stubs are easy in coplanar circuits, in microstrip circuits the stub in short is a
problem due to the need to connect to the ground plane, see Fig. 2.40. Open
58
V
C o a x ia l
c o n n e c to r
V
G
D C b ia s
D is tr ib u te d
m a tc h in g
s e c tio n
D is tr ib u te d
m a tc h in g
s e c tio n
F E T
C o u p lin g
c a p a c ito r
C o u p lin g
c a p a c ito r
R F IN
C o a x ia l
c o n n e c to r
R F O U T
(a )
V
L u m p e d
m a tc h in g
s e c tio n
D C b ia s
L u m p e d
m a tc h in g
s e c tio n
F E T
C o u p lin g
c a p a c ito r
C o u p lin g
c a p a c ito r
R F IN
R F O U T
(b )
Figure 2.36 Simplified circuit of oper-loop amplifier with distributed (a) or lumped (b)
matching sections.
Z
Y
P a r a lle l c o n n e c tio n
S e r ie s c o n n e c tio n
Figure 2.37 Series and parallel insertion of concentrated elements.
circuit stubs can be trimmed through the use of small metal patches that can be
connected at the end of the stub.
2.4.1.3
Active element mounting

Active elements can be mounted in chip or in package. In the first case bonding
wires or ribbons are needed, in the second case high-frequency packages are often
of the flatpack kind, see Fig. 2.41; for symmetry the package has two source
or emitter contacts besides the input (gate or base) and the output (drain or
collector) terminals.
2.4.1.4
Planar line discontinuities

In the design of microstrip and coplanar circuits layout features are introduced
that introduce additional parasitics with respect to the ideal optimized schematic
made of transmission lines and ideal lumped parameter circuits. For instance, a
P a r a lle l c o n n e c tio n s
S e r ie s c o n n e c tio n
D ir e c t
g ro u n d
c o n n e c tio n
V ia h o le
W ra p
a ro u n d
Figure 2.38 Series and parallel insertion of microstrip elements.

S y m m e tr ic p a r a lle l c o n n e c tio n
2 Z
2 Z
S e r ie s
c o n n e c tio n
A s y m m e tr ic
p a r a lle l c o n n e c tio n
Z
Figure 2.39 Series and parallel insertion of coplanar elements.
T
ju n c tio n
C o a x ia l
c o n n e c to r
S tu b
O p e n
e n d
T
ju n c tio n
S h o r t- c ir c u it s tu b
th r o u g h v ia h o le
S te p
B e n d
G a p
T
ju n c tio n
O p e n c ir c u it
s tu b w ith tr im m in g
p a tc h e s
C o a x ia l
c o n n e c to r
B e n d
P a c k a g e
Figure 2.40 Example of microstrip layout with stubs and discontinuities.

B
E
C
B
E
E
C
Figure 2.41 Flatpack package active element.
59
60
microstrip stub connected to a line introduces in the layout a T-junction that

is the source of capacitive and inductive parasitics; the same happens when a
microstrip bend causes an additional parasitic capacitance to be introduced in
correspondence to the bend (minimizing the capacitance is possible by chamfering the bend). As a further example, an open circuit stub has an additional
fringing capacitance towards ground that be compensated for by adjusting the
length of the stub. Finally, the microstrip gap cannot be strictly speaking considered a discontinuity since it is exploited to implement a small series capacitance;
microstrip gaps are e.g. common in the implementation of microstrip filters.
Such layout-induced parasitics are collectively called microstrip (or coplanar)
discontinuities. Examples of microstrip discontinuities are shown in Fig. 2.40
while a set of discontinuities and related models is shown in Fig. 2.42. In general, the circuit optimization is carried out by working with ideal elements, the
layout is extracted and then, from the layout, an augmented netlist including
discontinuity models is generated than can be exploited in order to verify the
design and further trim the circuit.
2.4.2
Hybrid layout
Fig. 2.43 shows a simplified hybrid microstrip implementation of the single-stage
amplifier, in which the input and output matching sections have been separately
realized on two different ceramic substrates. The active device is introduced in
packaged form and exploits as the ground plane (and also as the heat sink) a
ridge in the metal package. Bias Ts are implemented using as series inductors
the parasitic wire bonding inductance; chip capacitors connected to the package
as the ground are also part of the bias T. The microstrip lines are connected to
the exterior of the circuit through coaxial connectors, see Fig. 2.44.
In the coplanar layout ground planes are located on the same (upper) airdielectric interface as the signal conductors. The area occupation of the ground
planes can be often reduced by using finite-width grounds. However, since the
ground planes are connected to a potential reference only on the periphery of the
circuit, in each section of the coplanar line the left and right ground planes may
actually have (locally) a different potential. Such a potential difference may imply
the excitation of a parasitic slot mode that may be suppressed by using bonding
wire in the cross section with a spacing small with respect to the wavelength (e.g.
g /8), as shown in Fig. 2.45. Coplanar hybrid circuits are however uncommon,
the coplanar solution being usually implemented in MMICs. In Fig. 2.44 we also
show a coplanar-coaxial connector.
2.4.3
Integrated layout
In the monolithic layout no external elements can be integrated within the circuit
(although lumped element may be connected externally); as a qualitative example, the monolithic implementation of the single-stage amplifier already described
D is c o n tin u ity
E q u iv a le n t c ir c u it
[1 ]
O p e n e n d
[1 ]
[1 ]
G a p
[2 ]
[1 ]
[2 ]
[1 ]
C h a m fe re d
b e n d
[2 ]
[1 ]
[2 ]
[1 ]
S te p
[2 ]
[1 ]
[2 ]
[1 ]
[2 ]
[1 ]
T - ju n c tio n
[2 ]
[3 ]
[3 ]
Figure 2.42 Microstrip discontinuities and equivalent circuits.

D C
D C
L o w - p a s s b ia s
filte r
R F - in
R F -o u t
P a c k a g e d
tr a n s is to r
D C
b lo c k s
M e ta l r id g e
c o n n e c te d to p a c k a g e
a n d g ro u n d
Figure 2.43 Example of microstrip hybrid layout.
61
62
C o a x ia l
C o a x ia l
C o p la n a r
M ic r o s tr ip
Figure 2.44 Coax-microstrip and coax-coplanar connector.

D C
D C
L o w - p a s s b ia s
filte r
R F - in
G r o u n d w ir e s
R F -o u t
P a c k a g e d
tr a n s is to r
O p e n s tu b
D C
b lo c k s
S tu b in s h o r t
Figure 2.45 Example of coplanar hybrid layout.
in shown (microstrip form) in Fig. 2.46; lumped input and output matching sections are exploited. Via holes are used quite liberally to provide local grounding,
besides the ground pads needed for the input and output coplanar connectors;
the circuit is shown as unpackaged. Finally, Fig. 2.47 is a coplanar waveguide
monolithic implementation exploiting distributed matching sections. Due to the
typically small size of MMICs, such a solution is realistic only if the frequency
is high enough to make distributed elements compact, e.g. for millimeter wave
operation. While coplanar waveguides easily allow for open- and short-circuit
line stubs (i.e. short pieces of transmission lines for the implementation of the
distributed matching sections), the layout is globally less compact, and ground
planes have to be connected together by airbridges (rather than bonding wires,
as in the hybrid implementation) to suppress spurious modes where the two
ground planes are at different potential. Both in the microstrip and in the coplanar layout a source air bridge is used in the active component. The active device
layout has been kept the same in the microstrip and coplanar version, although
the difference in operation frequency (microwave vs. millimeter wave) also has
an impact on the FET layout (e.g. on the length of the gate fingers, which is
decreasing with increasing frequency).
D C b ia s p a d
63
D C b ia s p a d
G r o u n d e d c a p a c ito r s
V ia h o le
C o p la n a r
R F o u tp u t
C o p la n a r R F in p u t
V ia h o le
V ia h o le
V ia h o le
Figure 2.46 Qualitative example of microstrip integrated implementation of

single-stage amplifier with DC bias.
D C b ia s p a d
G r o u n d e d c a p a c ito r s
D C b ia s p a d
C o p la n a r
R F o u tp u t
C o p la n a r R F in p u t
G r o u n d p la n e b r id g e s
D e c o u p lin g c a p a c ito r s
Figure 2.47 Qualitative example of coplanar integrated implementation of single-stage

amplifier with DC bias.
An example of vintage coplanar MMIC (a front-end single-stage low-noise

amplifier for TV satellite using a MESFET as the active element) developed by
CISE (Milan) in 1982 is shown in Fig. 2.48; this is the first example of coplanar
MMIC designed in Italy.
An overview of active and passive elements for a microstrip MMIC is shown in
Fig. 2.49; the circuit shown does not implement any useful function but is meant
to be just a catalog of components. The ion-implanted MESFET active element
has been replaced during the last 15 years by the HEMT as a FET(Field Effect
Transistor) of choice.
The computer aided design of MMIC is today a well developed technology,
although analog circuit CAD has a degree of automatic design that is far less
developed than the digital circuit CAD. Microwave CAD tools make use of a
database including libraries of element models (passive and active), a circuit
64
M E S F E T
R F in
R F o u t
Figure 2.48 Example of early coplanar MMIC: a TV satellite front-end amplifier in

coplanar MESFET technology, CISE, Milan, 1982.
a ir b r id g e
M IM
s e c o n d le v e l
m e ta l
fir s t le v e l
m e ta l
c a p a c ito r
5 0 O h m
lin e
in d u c to r
T h in film
r e s is to r
v ia h o le
a ir b r id g e
n +
M E S F E T
Im p la n te d
r e s is to r
G r o u n d p la n e
G a A s s u b s tra te
Figure 2.49 Layout elements of a monolithic integrated circuit sectioned in

correspondence of a via hole.
simulator (small signal, large signal steady state, large signal time-domain, often
noise), optimization tools, often a layout generator. The circuit is described by a
low-level ASCII format (like a netlist) specifying in the minimal case the network
connectivity and the element characteristics (value, library, associated layout
files etc.). The designer assembles, typically with a graphical interface, a circuit
interconnecting elements and making use of element libraries. Optimization with
respect to some prescribed design goal is then made, using however in the first
phase of design ideal element with a minimal parasitic set. In fact, the use of full
models with complex topologies makes optimization critical, not only because
65
Figure 2.50 Multistage MMIC amplifier: schematic with ideal elements.
Figure 2.51 Multistage MMIC amplifier: layout.
the element count is too large, but also because the element parasitics are correlated with each other. An example of low-noise three-stage MMIC schematic
in shown in Fig. 2.50; the first stage with inductive source feedback is a typical
low-noise solution; the second and third stage are resistive feedback amplifiers
needed to achieved a reasonable overall gain. From the netlist the layout can
be obtained, see Fig. 2.51; from the layout many CAD tools can derive an augmented schematic with parasitic elements that may be used in order to check the
circuit performances and perform a further (limited) optimization and tuning,
see Fig. 2.52.
2.5
Microwave circuit packaging

Both hybrid and monolithic integrated circuits are typically packaged (in a metal
or dielectric enclosure) and connected to other subsystems through electrical connectors. The circuit package is an important part of the microwave circuit, also
66
Figure 2.52 Multistage MMIC amplifier: extended schematic with real elements.
in terms of cost; it should protect the circuit mechanically, offer electromagnetic

(EM) shielding, protect the circuit from chemicals and allow for heat dissipation.
Packages can be hermetic (sealed, sometimes filled with inert gases to avoid oxigen contamination through leakage), or open. The two most common approaches
are the metal package (often alluminium or brass) and the dielectric pacakge. The
metal package is a high-Q solution that often exhibits internal resonances that
may be suppressed by locating dissipative media (e.g. layers of carbon loaded
foam) in critical positions. Dielectri pacakges are low-Q and therefore resonances
are less dangerous; often they have a MIM multilayered structure to improve
EM shielding. Metal packages can be tailored (i.e. fabricated in the lab) while
ceramic packages typically are standard, off-the-shelf products. MMICs can also
be mounted package-free within a hybrid circuit, see Fig. 2.53; the package shown
is metal, while a ceramic package with a kind of flatpack compensated connector
is shown in Fig. 2.54.
Package connectors make use of microstrip or flatpack transitions that are compatible with interconnecting planar lines; an example of compensated microstrip
transition for a ceramic package is shown in Fig. 2.55. Metallic packages and
system-level modules typically exploit coaxial transitions, see Fig. 2.56 and
Fig. 2.57). A few coaxial to microstrip transitions ordered by increasing frequency operating range are shown in Fig. 2.56. Soldered connectors can be used
up to a few GHz, while at higher frequency wire bonding or ribbon bonding (having lower parasitic p.u.l. inductance) are exploited. High-frequency connectors
operating, e.g. at 40 GHz and beyond are not based on wire or ribbon bonding,
but rather on contact connectors.3
3
High-frequency coaxial connectors are denotes by conventional names, some of them referring
to the frequency band they were initially meant to cover. Thus we have the K connectors
(up to 40 GHz), the V connectors (up to 60 GHz) and the so-called W1 connectors (Anritsu
name, 1 mm radius) up to 110 GHz, which currently is the highest frequency exploited in
standard instrumentation. The connector size decreases with increasing frequency.
67
M M IC
H y b r id
s y b s tra te
P a c k a g e
B ia s c o n n e c to r
R F c o a x ia l
c o n n e c to r
Figure 2.53 Hybrid MMIC mounting in a metal package with coaxial connectors.
C e r a m ic p a c k a g e
P a c k a g e c o v e r
In te g ra te d
c ir c u it
M e ta l
b a s e
R F
c o n n e c to rs
B ia s c o n n e c to r s
D ie le c tr ic s u b s tr a te
Figure 2.54 Ceramic package with flatpack connectors
Thermal and thermo-mechanical problems are a last area that heavily influences the packaging issue. The thermal performance of a package can be defined
by its thermal resistance, defined as the ratio between the temperature rise of the
circuit and the dissipated power. Complex cooling techniques are often needed
68
C e r a m ic c o v e r
C e r a m ic p a c k a g e
w ith c o m p e n s a te d
tr a n s itio n
M ic r o s tr ip
o n a llu m in a
Figure 2.55 A flatpack compensated microstrip transition for ceramic packages.

In te rn a l
c o a x .
c o n d u c to r
S u b s tra te
S tr ip
B o n d in g w ir e c o n n e c to r
P a c k a g e
s e c tio n
S o ld e r e d c o n n e c to r
R ib b o n c o n n e c to r
P re s s u re (c o n ta c t) c o n n e c to r
Figure 2.56 Coaxial-microstrip transitions.
in power modules to keep the circuit temperature to an acceptable level. Heating

during circuit operation also may cause mechanical problems due to the different
expansion coefficients of the materials involved in the package, the circuit and
the soldering materials. Synthetic materials made by dispersion of metal (e.g.
copper or tungsten) powders in an epoxy matrix can be manufactured with the
aim to equalize the expansion coefficient of semiconductors like GaAs.4
2.6
Questions and problems

1. Q Explain the difference between a TEM and a quasi-TEM transmission line.
4
The expansion coefficients of allumina and GaAs are of the order of 6-710 6/Co at ambient
temperature, the copper expansion coefficient is about 3 times larger, the one of tungsten
lower (510 6/Co ). Copper-tungsten alloys can be obtained that are able to have the same
expansion coefficient as the substrates.
A ir tr a n s itio n
T a p e r e d c o a x tr a n s itio n
S te p tr a n s itio n
M u ltip le s te p tr a n s itio n
69
H e r m e tic s te p tr a n s itio n
T a p e r e d c o a x tr a n s itio n
Figure 2.57 Transitions between 3/7 coax or SMA connector and microstrip on
allumina substrate.
2. Q A lossy transmission line has per-unit-length parameters L, C, R, G. Express

the characteristic impedance and complex propagation constant of the line
in terms of the parameters for the general case and in the high-frequency
approximation. Identify, in the high-frequency approximation, the propagation constant and the attenuation.
3. P A lossless quasi-TEM line has a 50 impedance and an effective permittivity ef f = 2. Evaluate the per-unit-length parameters L, C. Compute the
guided wavelength at 10 GHz.
4. P A lossy quasi-TEM line has a 50 impedance.The dielectric attenuation
is 0.1 dB/cm while the conductor attenuation is 1 dB/cm at 1 GHz. Evaluate
the per-unit-length parameters R, G. Estimate their values and the resulting dielectric and conductor attenuation at 10 GHz. Assuming an effective
permittivity eff = 7, evaluate the total loss over 1 guided wavelength at 10
GHz.
5. P The conductivity of a 2 m thick conductor is = 1 105 S/m. Evaluate the frequency at which the skin-effect penetration depth is equal to the
conductor thickness.
6. P A lossless transmission line with 50 characteristic impedance and 5
mm guided wavelength is closed on ZL = 50 + j50 . Compute the input
impedance for a 2.5 and 1.25 mm long line.
7. Q A lossless line is infinitely long. Is the input impedance always equal to the
characteristic impedance? Explain.
8. Q A quasi-TEM line has a per-unit-length capacitance of 5 pF/mm and an
in-vacuo capacitance of 2 pF/mm. What is the effective permittivity?
9. Q Sketch the cross section of a microstrip and of a coplanar waveguide.
10. Q A microstrip on 0.5 mm thick allumina substrate has a strip width of 0.5
mm. What is (approximately) the characteristic impedance?
11. Q Sketch the attenuation of a microstrip and of a coplanar waveguide as a
function of the strip width.
70
12. Q Sketch the behaviour of the attenuation of a transmission line as a function

of frequency.
13. Q Sketch a strip, a loop and a spiral inductor. What usually limits the frequency range on which integrated RF and microwave inductors can operate?
14. Q List some possible uses of inductors in integrated RF circuits.
15. Q Sketch an interdigitated and a MIM capacitor.
16. P In a MIM capacitor the dielectric is 100 nm thick, width permittivity equal
to 2. What is the capacitance per mm2 area?
17. Q What are chip inductors, capacitors and resistors? are they used in hybrid
or integrated implementations?
18. Q What is a coaxial-to-microstrip transition?
19. Q What are the main differences between a coplanar and a microstrip circuit
layout?
Power gain and stability of a loaded

two-port
3.1
Representations of linear two-ports

Consider an electronic subsystem (including or not active elements such as transistors) interacting with the rest of the circuit with two electrical ports whose
instantaneous electrical state is given by the current entering the port (ik (t))
and by the voltage between the pole were the current enters and the second
pole of the port (vk (t)), see Fig. 3.1. Such an element is denoted as a two-port;
if the two-port includes only linear elements we define it as a linear two port.
The two-port may or may not include indepenent voltage or current sources;
in the first case we call it autonomous, in the second case non autonomous. A
non-autonomous two-port can include dependent sources, in that case the twoport has zero open-circuit voltages or short-circuit currents, but is able anyway
to provide voltage or current amplification or power gain. A two-port able to
provide gain to the input signal is often called active; it typically includes active
elements such as transistors. On the other hand, a passive two-port is made of
passive elements, lumped (as resistors, capacitors, inductors, transformers etc.)
or distributed (as simple or coupled transmission lines).
Active device (e.g. transistors) operating in small-signal conditions can be
modelled as linear two-ports. In fact, in this case the transistor characteristics
have been linearized around a DC bias point and the signal generators have
an amplitude compatible with the linear approximation of the transistor characteristics. An active device small-signal model is the basis for the design of
linear amplifiers, including maximum gain and low-noise amplifiers; throughout
this chapter, we will consider linear, active two-ports that can be interpreted as
transistors operating in small-signal conditions.
In a linear circuit superposition applies and therefore the analysis can be
carried out considering a steady-state, single frequency sinusoidal excitation.
Such a frequency-domain analysis is also consistent with the fact that many RF
electronic systems actually are narrowband.
Given a linear two-port with current phasors I1 and I2 and voltage phasors
V1 and V2 the constitutive equation set of the two port is made by two equations expressing a linear relationship between two independent variables and two
dependent variables. In a set of four variables we have six possible way to select
a pair of dependent and a pair of independent variables, thus obtaining six differ-
71
72
i1 ( t)
v 1(t)
i2 ( t)
T w o -p o rt
p o rt 1
v 2(t)
p o rt 2
Figure 3.1 Two-port and its relevant electrical parameters.
ent ways to write the constitutive relationship set or in other words six possible
representations of the two port, namely:
r The current-driven or series representation where I1 and I2 are the independent variables and V1 and V2 the dependent variables, the model reads:
V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2 + V01
V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2 + V02
where Zij are the elements of the impedance matrix () and V0i are the
open-circuit voltages at port i, zero for a non-autonomous two-port;
r The voltage-driven or parallel representation where V1 and V2 are the
independent variables and I1 and I2 the dependent variables; the model reads:
I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2 + I01
I2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2 + I02
where Yij are the elements of the admittance matrix and I0i are the shortcircuit currents at port i, zero for a non-autonomous two-port; the model is
particularly suited to represent field-effect transistors in small-signal commonsource operation since it describes through the transimpedance Y21 the effect
of the gate voltage on the drain current;
r The hybrid-I representation where I1 and V2 are the independent variables
and V1 and I2 the dependent variables; the model reads:
H1
V1 = H11 I1 + H12 V2 + V01
H1
I2 = H21 I1 + H22 V2 + I02
where Hij are the elements of the hybrid-I matrix (the diagonal elements are
impedances and admittances, respectively, the non-diagonal elements pure
H1
numbers), V01
is the open-circuit voltage at port 1 when port 2 is shorted
H1
and I02
is the short-circuit current at port 2 in the same loading conditions;
again, both are zero for a non-autonomous two-port; this representation is well
suited to model bipolar transistors in small-signal common-emitter operation
since the parameter H21 is the current gain between the base and the collector
currents;
3.1 Representations of linear two-ports
73
r The hybrid-II representation where V1 and I2 are the independent variables

and I1 and V2 the dependent variables, the model is the inverse of the hybrid-I,
we omit the relevant equations since this model is not particularly important;
r The so-called transmission-I and transmission-II models that exploit as
independent variables the variables at port 2 (I2 and V2 ) or 1 (I1 and V1 ) and
the other set as dependent variables; it is sometimes exploited in evaluating
the representation of two-ports in cascade but we will omit details.
There are many reasons why the above representations, whose describing variables are voltages or current, are not particularly popular in RF or microwave
circuits:
r At RF and microwaves, total voltages and currents are difficult to measure

through conventional instruments, and even the definition of these quantities
may be questionable in some cases; for instance, in a non-TEM waveguide
circuit currents and voltages in the conventional sense do not exist at all;
r In the measurement of conventional (impedance, admittance, hybrid) twoport parameters, short and open circuits are required as loads. However, they
are difficult to implement at RF over a broad band of frequencies, so that a
wideband characterization of a component becomes difficult.
r Most RF transistors cannot be measured in short or open-circuit conditions
because they are unstable with such reactive loads.
In fact, the evaluation of the impedance parameters does not necessarily
require open-circuit conditions to be imposed at the two ports; any loading conditions can be in fact exploited to derive any set of paramers, see Example 3.1;
however, of course the problem remains of measuring current or voltages.
Example 3.1:
Suppose that a non-autonomous two-port is loaded with an input and output
generators with open circuit voltages E1 and E2 and internal impedances Z1 and
Z2 ; show that the impedance parameters can be derived by measuring I1 and
I2 in two conditions: first we set E2 = 0 and measure I11 and I21 ; then we set
E1 = 0 and measure I12 and I22 .
We have four relationships:

V11 = E1 Z1 I11 = Z11 I11 + Z12 I21
V21 = Z2 I21 = Z21 I11 + Z22 I21
V12 = Z1 I12 = Z11 I12 + Z12 I22
V22 = E2 Z2 I22 = Z21 I12 + Z22 I22
74
therefore we obtain two linear systems:

I11 Z11 + I21 Z12 = E1 Z1 I11
I12 Z11 + I22 Z12 = Z1 I12
and:
I11 Z21 + I21 Z22 = Z2 I21
I12 Z21 + I22 Z22 = E2 Z2 I22
from which the four impedance parameters can be evaluated.
To finally overcome the problems associated with the definition of the conventional parameters a different representation technique was devised, that exploits
the measurement of progressive and regressive waves (called power waves) in
the presence of a matched (resistive) load conditions. The approach is derived,
from a physical standpoint, from transmission line theory, but equally applies
to lumped-parameter two-ports. The representative small-signal parameters are
denoted as scattering parameters or S-parameters. For the sake of generality we
will introduce the subject by assuming that the structure is an n-port.
3.2
The scattering parameters
3.2.1
Power waves
Consider a linear n-port (i.e. a component with n pairs of poles), see Fig. 3.2.
Notice that for n > 2 the impedance and admittance representations still exist
while all other representatons introduced for a two-port have to be extended and
re-defined. In the general case we will confine ourselves, therefore, to the series
or parallel representations. The state of the n-port is determined by the set of
current and voltage phasors at port k, Vk and Ik . Let us associate to port k the
so-called normalization impedance R0k that in principle is arbitrary (provided it
has positive real part); however, we will for the sake of simplicity assume it to be
real in what follows (and call it normalization resistance). Then, let us introduce
for port k the power waves ak and bk as a linear combination of Vk and Ik :
Vk + R0k Ik
ak =
2 R0k
(3.1)
V R I
bk = k 0k k .
2 R0k
Inverting system (3.1) we have:
(R0k ak + R0k bk )
Vk =
R0k
1
Ik =
(ak bk ) .
R0k
(3.2)
75
From a physical standpoint power waves ak and bk can be traced back to the
theory of transmission lines; in fact, in a line with characteristic impedance
Z two (forward and backward) waves propagate with voltages (V + , V ) and
currents (I + , I ), related as:
+
V = Z I +
(3.3)
V =Z I .
while the total voltage and current are obtained by superposition as:
V = V++V
I = I+ + I .
(3.4)
The power flowing on the line finally is:

P = <(V I ) = |V + |2 /Z |V |2 /Z
By comparing (3.4) and (3.2) we can readily associate (assuming that R0k Z ),
power waves to the normalized forward and backward voltages:
p
p
ak = Vk+ / R0k , bk = Vk / R0k ;
while the power entering port k (or, in the analogy, flowing on the line) is:
Pk = <(Vk Ik ) = |Vk+ |2 /Z |Vk |2 /Z = |ak |2 |bk |2 ;
(3.5)
thus ak is related tothe incident power, bk to the reflected power, both having
the dimension of a W, from which the name power waves. Notice that the
definition of power waves is independent from whether propagation actually takes
place - they can be defined also for a lumped-parameter circuits.
Ik+
I1
p o rt (k + 1 )
p o rt 1
V
1
k + 1
n -p o rt
Ik
V
k
p o rt k
In
p o rt n
V
n
Figure 3.2 Linear n-port.
From (3.1), if Vk = R0k Ik , then ak = 0. This happens if port k is loaded

by the normalization resistance (resistance matching or matching, that does not
imply power matching, i.e. maximum power transfer between the port and the
load). In such conditions we also have:
p
(3.6)
bk = Vk / R0k .
76
3.2.2
Power wave n-port model

For the sake of generality let us consider an autonomous n-port, where V0k 6= 0
and I0k 6= 0. Define the vector of port voltages and currents:

V1
I1
V2
I2

V =
. , I = . .
.
.
Vn
In
For a linear n-port we have the impedance or series representation:
V = ZI + V 0
(3.7)
where Z is the impedance matrix and V 0 the open-circuit voltage vector; similarly we have the parallel representation:
I = YV + I 0
(3.8)
where Y is the admittance matrix and I 0 is the short-circuit current vector. The
two representations are not necessarily defined since one of the two matrices may
be singular.
Let a and b be the power wave vectors and let R0 the diagonal matrix of
normalization resistances

a1
b1
R01 0 . . . 0
a
b
0 R 0 . . 0
02
2
2
. . . . .
.
.
.
a = , b = , R0 =
.
ak
bk
.
. 0 R0k 0 .

.
.
.
. . . . .
an
bn
0 0 . . 0 R0n
The power waves a and b are related by a linear relationship that can be identified
as follows. Eqs.(3.2) can be written in matrix form as:
(
1/2
V = R0 (a + b)
(3.9)
1/2
(a b) .
I = R0
1/2
1/2
are diagonal (the function of a

Since R0 is diagonal, also R0
and R0
diagonal matrix is the diagonal matrix of the functions of the diagonal elements).
Substituting (3.9) in (3.7) we obtain:
1/2
1/2
R0
(a + b) = ZR0
1/2
ZR0
(3.10)
(a b) + V 0
that is:
b = (R0
1/2
+(R0
1/2
1/2
+ I )1 (R0
1/2
ZR0
+ I)
1/2
ZR0
1/2
R0
V 0.
I )a
77
I1
I1
a
I ja
1 a
Ika
V
In
V
V
I ( j+
V
a
ja
n -p o rt
(a )
k a
I ib
I ( i+
l) a
1 b
Ikb
ib
m -p o rt
(b )
l) b
( j+ l) a
k b
Im
( i+ l) b
n a
m b
Figure 3.3 Connecting two n-ports.
The power wave consistutive relatioship of the n-port therefore is: onde di
potenza:
b = Sa + b0 .
(3.11)
where the scattering matrix S is defined as:

1/2
S (R0
=
=
=
1/2
ZR0
1/2
+ I )1 (R0
1/2
ZR0
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
(R0
ZR0
I )(R0
ZR0
1/2
1/2
R0 (Z + R0 )1 (Z R0 )R0
=
1/2
1 1/2
(Z R0 )(Z + R0 ) R0 .
R0
I) =
+ I )1 =
(3.12)
The above equations in (3.12) are all equivalent since functions of the same
matrix commute. The vector of forward wave generators b0 is then obtained as:
1/2
b0 (R0
1/2
ZR0
1/2
+ I )1 R0
1/2
V 0 = R0
(Z + R0 )1 V 0 .
(3.13)
If n = 1 the n-port reduces to a bipole or one-port; we thus obtain:

S=
and:
Z R0
Z + R0
(3.14)
b0 =
R0
V0
Z + R0
(3.15)
in other words, S is the reflection coefficien of the impedance Z with respect to

the normalization resistance.
The normalization resistance matrix R0 is arbitrary (provided it is not singular); however, in many cases all normalization resistances are chosen as equal
(R0 = R0 I ) and often R0 = 50 as a default. If the normalization resistance
R0 = 1/G0 is uniform for all ports we obtain the following simpler relation:
S = (Z R0 I)(Z + R0 I)1 = (G0 I Y)(G0 I + Y)1 .
(3.16)
78
1 a
1 a
b
a
k a
k a
n -p o rt
(a )
ja
( j+ 1 ) a
( j+ 1 ) a
1 b
ib
ja
a
n a
ib
m -p o rt
(b )
b
k b
1 b
k b
( i+ 1 ) b
( i+ 1 ) b
n a
m b
m b
Figure 3.4 Connecting two n-ports in terms of scattering parameters.
S11 =
(z11 1) (z22 + 1) z12 z21

(z11 + 1) (z22 + 1) z12 z21
S12 =
2z12
(z11 + 1) (z22 + 1) z12 z21
S21 =
2z21
(z11 + 1) (z22 + 1) z12 z21
S22 =
(z11 + 1) (z22 1) z12 z21

(z11 + 1) (z22 + 1) z12 z21
S11 =
(1 y11 ) (1 + y22 ) + y12 y21

(1 + y11 ) (1 + y22 ) y12 y21
S12 =
2y12
(1 + y11 ) (1 + y22 ) y12 y21
S21 =
2y21
(1 + y11 ) (1 + y22 ) y12 y21
S22 =
(1 + y11 ) (1 y22 ) + y12 y21

(1 + y11 ) (1 + y22 ) y12 y21
S11 =
(h11 1) (h22 + 1) h12 h21

(h11 + 1) (h22 + 1) h12 h21
S12 =
2h12
(h11 + 1) (h22 + 1) h12 h21
S21 =
2h21
(h11 + 1) (h22 + 1) h12 h21
S22 =
(1 + h11 ) (1 h22 ) + h12 h21

(h11 + 1) (h22 + 1) h12 h21
Table 3.1. Conversion between the Z, Y and H and the scattering parameters for a twoport with normalization resistance R0 at both ports. We have zij = Zij /R0 , yij = Yij R0 ,
h11 = H11 /R0 , h22 = H22 R0 , h12 = H12, h21 = H21 .
Tables 3.1 and 3.2 report the conversion formulae between scattering, admittance and impedance parameters for a two-port having normalization resistance
R0 at both ports. We denote with lowercase symbols the admittance impedance
or hybrid parameters normalized vs. the normalization resistance or conductance.
z11 =
(1 + S11 ) (1 S22 ) + S12 S21

(1 S11 ) (1 S22 ) S12 S21
z12 =
2S12
(1 S11 ) (1 S22 ) S12 S21
z21 =
2S21
(1 S11 ) (1 S22 ) S12 S21
z22 =
(1 S11 ) (1 + S22 ) + S12 S21

(1 S11 ) (1 S22 ) S12 S21
y11 =
(1 S11 ) (1 + S22 ) + S12 S21

(1 + S11 ) (1 + S22 ) S12 S21
y12 =
2S12
(1 + S11 ) (1 + S22 ) S12 S21
y21 =
2S21
(1 + S11 ) (1 + S22 ) S12 S21
y22 =
(1 + S11 ) (1 S22 ) + S12 S21

(1 + S11 ) (1 + S22 ) S12 S21
h11 =
(1 + S11 ) (1 + S22 ) S12 S21

(1 S11 ) (1 + S22 ) + S12 S21
h12 =
2S12
(1 S11 ) (1 + S22 ) + S12 S21
h21 =
2S21
(1 S11 ) (1 + S22 ) + S12 S21
h22 =
(1 S11 ) (1 S22 ) S12 S21

(1 S11 ) (1 + S22 ) + S12 S21
79
Table 3.2. Conversion between the Z, Y and H and the scattering parameters for a twoport with normalization resistance R0 at both ports. We have zij = Zij /R0 , yij = Yij R0 ,
h11 = H11 /R0 , h22 = H22 R0 , h12 = H12, h21 = H21 .
3.2.3
Power wave equivalent circuit - definition and evaluation

From the series and parallel representations (3.7) and (3.8) we can derive the
equivalent circuit (Fig. 3.5). We can do similarly with the analytical power wave
representation (3.11). In order to do this we need to introduce two new components, the forward wave generator and the backward wave generator) shown
together with its constitutive relationships: in Fig. 3.6.
Fig. 3.7 shows the equivalent power wave representation that can be derived
directly by inspection.
Eq. (3.12) and (3.13) enable to evaluate S and the forward wave generators
b0 from Z and the open-circuit voltage vector V 0 . Similar relations exist for the
admittance matrix and the short-circuit currents.
S and b0 can be, however, directly evaluated from their definition (this also
suggests a measurement technique for these parameters). From (3.11) we obtain
b = b0 when a = 0, i.e. when all ports are closed on their normalization resistances. The elements of b0 derive from the total port voltages; from (3.6) we
80
I1
V
+
0 1
Ik+
0 k + 1
V
1
Ik
+
0 k
Z
V
0 n
In
V
I0
I0
1
Ik+
k + 1
V
1
Ik
I0
k + 1
I1
=
k
I0
k + 1
In
n
V
k
Figure 3.5 Series and parallel equivalent circuit of an n-port.
a
a
b
0
a
1
RS b
T
1
2
= a
= a
2
0
+ a
a
2
2
a
1
RS b
1
= a
= a
+ b
Figure 3.6 Forward (left) and backward (right) wave generators.
obtain:
Vi
b0i =
.
R0i
(3.17)
Suppose now to set b0 = 0 by turning off all independent internal sources (thus
making the n-port non-autonomous). From (3.11) we have b = Sa. For the elements of S we have:
bi
Sij =
(3.18)
aj
ak =0k6=j
Condition ak = 0 k 6= j is achieved by closing all ports apart from the j-the

one on the corresponding normalization resistance, and feeding with a real gen-
81
b
a
0 k + 1
a
1
k + 1
b
1
0 1
0 k
S
b
k + 1
0 n
a
k
Figure 3.7 Power wave equivalent circuit.
erator (with an internal impedance that can be conveniently chosen as the port
normalization resistance) the j-th port, see Fig. 3.8. The diagonal element Sii is
immediately derived from (3.18) as the reflection coefficient at port i when all
other ports are closed on their normalization resistance, i.e.:
Sii i =
bi
Zi R0i
G0i Yi
=
=
ai
Zi + R0i
G0i + Yi
(3.19)
where G0i = 1/R0i is the normalization conductance of port i and Yi is the input
admittance of the one-port obtained by closing all ports but the i-th one on the
normalization resistances.
The out-of-diagonal elements of the scattering matrix are transmission coefficients. To identify them consider the circuit in Fig. 3.8; the power wave bG
coming out of the generator connected to port j is derived from (3.15) setting
Z = R0 :
p
bG = V0j /2 R0j ;
but the same wave enters port j, thus:
p
aj = bG = V0j /2
R0j .
(3.20)
We also have from (3.6):

Vi
bi |ak =0k6=j =
R0i
finally then:
Sij |i6=j =
bi
Vi
R0j
.
=
2
aj ak =0k6=j
V0j R0i
(3.21)
(3.22)
82
a i= 0
V
R
a 1= 0
0 1
0 j
0 j
0 i
0 n
S=
+
a
j
j
a n= 0
b
Figure 3.8 Evaluating the out-of-diagonal elements of the scattering matrix.
To evaluate the out-of-diagonal terms of S we simply need to compute or measure

voltage ratios according to circuit theory.
3.2.4
Solving a network in terms of power waves

Consider a network deriving from interconnecting an arbitrary number of mports. To each m-port we can associate m sides with 2m unknowns, the port
voltages and the current entering (and exiting) each port. Suppose the total
number of ports is k (interconnected together) with a total number of unknowns
2k (voltages and currents). We can reformulate the problem by stating that the
total number of unknowns is 2k, each port hosting a forward and backward power
waves. The question is of course whether the Kirchoff voltage and current laws
plus the consistitutive relationships translate into a well-posed set in terms of
power waves. Consider first what happens when connecting two ports belonging
to two different n-ports, see Fig. 3.3. From the Kirchhoff voltage and current
laws we obtain:
Vja = Vib
(3.23)
Ija = Iib .
Since for any pair of connected ports we can generate two such equations, the
total number of topological equations is 2k/2 = k. Since for each port we obtain
one constitutive equation, the problem is well posed, since we have k topological
plus k constitutive equations in terms of port voltages and currents.
Coming to power wawes, any couple of connected ports implies four unknowns,
two forward and two backward waves, see Fig. 3.4. The total number of unknowns
is again 2k. The constitutive relations based on scattering parameters (3.11) yield
k relations, but k topological relationships can be obtained by expressing (3.23)
in terms of power waves; from the definition of the power waves at ports i and
83
j connected together we immediately have:
p
R0ja (aja + bja ) = R0ib (aib + bib )
(aja bja )/
R0ja = (aib bib )/ R0ib
(3.24)
that is, solving:
R0ja R0ib
p
aja
2 R0ja R0ib
R0ja + R0ib
bja
p
2 R0ja R0ib
R0ja + R0ib
p
2 R0ja R0ib
aib
R0ja R0ib bib

p
2 R0ja R0ib
(3.25)
If the normalization resistances are the same for ports i and j, (3.25) reduces to:
aja = bib
(3.26)
bja = aib
i.e. power waves are continuous across the interconnecting port. Generally speaking therefore each couple of connected ports yields two topological relationships,
yielding in total k relations that added to the constitutive ones finally yield 2k
relations, equal to the number of unknowns. Therefore the problem is well posed.
3.2.5
Properties of the S-matrix: power, reciprocity, reactivity

From (3.5) the net power entering port k can be expressed in terms of power
waves; the total power Ptot entering the n-port will therefore be:
Ptot =
n
X
k=1
Pk =
n
X
(|ak |2 |bk |2 ) = aT a bT b ,
(3.27)
k=1
where T denotes the transpose. If the circuit is non-autonomous (no internal

independent sources) b = Sa; substituting in (3.27) we obtain:
Ptot = aT (I ST S )a .
(3.28)
For a reactive n-port Ptot = 0 independent on the excitation, this can only be
obtained by imposing ST S I = 0; thus for a reactive n-port:
S1 = ST
(3.29)
i.e. the scattering matrix is hermitian (the inverse equals the complex conjugate
of the transposed).
Reciprocity characterizes most networks made of passive components
(although some microwave passive components including magnetic materials,
such as circulators, are non-reciprocal); in terms of the impedance matrix the
reciprocity condition reads:
Z = ZT
(3.30)
84
but, from (3.12), we obtain:

Z = R1/2 (I S)1 (I + S)R1/2
(3.31)
and therefore, taking into account that R1/2 is diagonal and R1/2 = (R1/2 )T ,
we obtain:
ZT = R1/2 (I + ST )(I ST )1 R1/2 .
(3.32)
Substituting (3.31) and (3.32) into (3.30) we obtain:

(I S)1 (I + S) = (I + ST )(I ST )1
i.e.:
(I + ST )1 (I S)1 (I + S)(I ST ) = I
in other words:
(I + S)(I ST ) = (I S)(I + ST )
and finally:
S = ST .
(3.33)
Formally therefore the reciprocity condition for the scattering matrix coincides
with the conditions for Z and Y, i.e. S is symmetric. Additionally, for a reciprocal
and reactive n-port we finally have:
S1 = S .
(3.34)
Example 3.2:
In a reactive and reciprocal two-port, make the relations between the scattering
parameters from (3.34) explicit.
From (3.34) we obtain:

SS = I
i.e., developing the product:
|S11 |2 + |S12 |2 = 1
S11 S12
+ S12 S22
=0
S12 S11
+ S22 S12
=0
|S22 |2 + |S12 |2 = 1
thus S11 and S22 have the same magnitude (note that the second and third
equation are equivalent). This lead to a relationship between phases:
11 12 = 22 + 12 + n,
3.3 Generator-load power transfer
85
IL
G
+
V
Z
L
Figure 3.9 Evaluating the power transfer on a load.
with n odd, i.e.:

11 + 22 = 212 + n.
3.3
Generator-load power transfer

Consider the real generator connected to a load in Fig. 3.9; the power absorbed
by the load impedance (ZL = RL + jXL ), PL , is:
PL = <(VL IL ) = |V0 |2
RL
.
|ZG + ZL |2
(3.35)
The maximum power trasfer (maximum power on the load) occurs in power
matching conditions, i.e. when:
ZL = ZG
.
(3.36)
(see Example 3.3); the maximum load power, also called generator available
power, is:
Pav =
|V0 |2
.
4RG
(3.37)
Example 3.3:
Obtain (3.36) and (3.37).
The
maximum of PL vs. RL and XL corresponds to a zero of the partial

derivatives of PL vs. the two variables, i.e. to conditions:
2
PL
2 |ZG + ZL | 2RL (RL + RG )
=
|V
|
=0
RL
|ZG + ZL |4
PL
2RL (XL + XG )
= |V0 |2
=0
XL
|ZG + ZL |4
86
G
G
a
G
b
G
b
L
a
P
G
L
Figure 3.10 Evaluating the power on a load through power waves.
from the second equation we find XL = XG ; substituting in the first we obtain

RL = RG and therefore the load corresponding to the maximum power transfer
from a generator with internal impedance ZG is:
ZL = ZG
.
(3.38)
Substituting we find the generator maximum or available power:

Pav =
|V0 |2
.
4RG
(3.39)
The same result can be obtained by describing the circuit in terms of power
waves. The circuit in Fig. 3.9 results from the connection of two one-ports, the
real generator and the load with impedance ZL . Suppose for simplicity that
the normalization resistance is the same for both one-ports; the circuit can be
represented as in Fig. 3.10. The scattering matrices of the generator and load
are the reflection coefficients G and L , respectively, and the forward wave
generator b0 are expressed from (3.19) and (3.13) by:
ZG R0
G =
ZG + R0
ZL R0
L =
(3.40)
ZL + R0
R0
b 0 = V0
.
ZG + R0
The power on the load can be evaluated by taking into account that the circuit in
Fig. 3.10 implies two topological relationships in terms of power wave continuity
and two consistutive relations (generator and load):
aL = bG
aG = bL
b = b0 + G aG
G
bL = L aL
solving, the power wave on the load are:
b0
aL =
1 G L
bL =
87
b0 L
1 G L
Thus, from (3.5) the power on the load is:

PL = |aL |2 |bL |2 = |aL |2 (1 |L |2 ) = |b0 |2
1 |L |2
.
|1 G L |2
(3.41)
PL is maximum for G = L (i.e. for ZL = ZG

); the maximum power (or generator available power) is:
Pav = |b0 |2
1
R0
1
= |V0 |2
1 |G |2
|ZG + R0 |2 1 |G |2
(3.42)
that is equivalent to (3.37). From (3.41) and (3.42) we obtain:

PL = Pav
(1 |G |2 )(1 |L |2 )
.
|1 G L |2
(3.43)
Notice that for L = 0 we do not have maximum power transfer; in fact in that
case we obtain from (3.43):
PL = Pav (1 |G |2 ) Pav
and PL = Pav only if G = 0, implying that both the load and the source
impedances coincide with the normalization resistance.
3.4
Power transfer in loaded two-ports

In the circuit in Fig. 3.11 we want to evaluate the load power PL as a function
of the S-parameters of the rwo-port and of the load and generator reflection
coefficients L and G . We assume the same normalization resistance at all
ports. The power wave continuity and constitutive relationships read:
a1 = bG
1 = aG
topological relations :
b
= aL
a2 = bL
constitutive relations :
bG
b1
b2
bL
= b0 + G aG
= S11 a1 + S12 a2
= S21 a1 + S22 a2
= L aL .
88
b
0
b
G
a
G
a
G
G
S
1
b
L
2
2
in
G
L
Figure 3.11 Power transfer between generator and load through a two-port.
Eliminating aG , bG , aL and bL from the power wave continuity equations we

obtain the reduced system:

1 G 0
0
a1
1
S11 1 S12 0 b1
0

(3.44)
S21 0 S22 1 a2 = b0 0
0
0
1 L
b2
0
with solution:
1 S22 L
(1 S11 G )(1 S22 L ) S12 S21 G L
S12 S21 L + S11 (1 S22 L )
b1 = aG = b0
=
(1 S11 G )(1 S22 L ) S12 S21 G L
S11 S L
= b0
(1 S11 G )(1 S22 L ) S12 S21 G L
L S21
a2 = bL = b0
(1 S11 G )(1 S22 L ) S12 S21 G L
S21
b2 = aL = b0
(1 S11 G )(1 S22 L ) S12 S21 G L
a1 = bG = b0
(3.45a)
(3.45b)
(3.45c)
(3.45d)
where S is the determinant of the S-matrix. From (3.45) we can derive a number
of parameters:
r The input reflection coefficient of the loaded two-port:

in =
b1
S12 S21 L
S11 S L
= S11 +
=
.
a1
1 S22 L
1 S22 L
(3.46)
r Two-port input power, can be expressed in a direct way:

Pin = |a1 |2 |b1 |2 = |b0 |2
|1 S22 L |2 |S11 S L |2
,
|(1 S11 G )(1 S22 L ) S12 S21 G L |2
(3.47)
89
or by exploiting the input reflection coefficient; in that case the analysis

reduces to a one-port (the generator) loaded by in and therefore:
a1 = b0
1
1 G in
from which:
Pin = |a1 |2 (1 |in |2 ) = |b0 |2
1 |in |2
.
|1 G in |2
(3.48)
Expressions (3.47) and (3.48) are of course equivalent but they will be conveniently used in what follows.
r Two-port output equivalent circuit. Since the two-port is closed at the
input by a generator, its equivalent circuit at the output port will be the one of
a non-autonomous structure, whose power wave equivalent circuit corresponds
to the following constitutive equation:
b2 = b0 + out a2 .
We have that b2 = b0 when port 2 is loaded by the normalization resistance,
i.e. when L = 0. In this case we have:
b0 = b0
S21
.
1 S11 G
(3.49)
The output reflection coefficient is derived by symmetry exchanging ports 1

and 2 and L with G :
out = S22 +
S12 S21 G
S22 S G
=
.
1 S11 G
1 S11 G
(3.50)
r Power on the load. Can be expressed in several equivalent ways, either

directly:
|S21 |2 (1 |L |2 )
|(1 S11 G )(1 S22 L ) S12 S21 G L |2
(3.51)
or by means of the equivalent circuit at port 2, cfr. Fig. 3.12:
PL = |aL |2 |bL |2 = |b0 |2
PL = |b0 |2
|S21 |2 (1 |L |2 )
1 |L |2
2
=
|b
|
.
0
|1 out L |2
|1 L out |2 |1 S11 G |2
(3.52)
or, finally, with reference to the input reflection coefficient (see Example 3.4):
PL = |b0 |2
Example 3.4:
Demonstrate (3.53).
|S21 |2 (1 |L |2 )
.
|1 G in |2 |1 S22 L |2
(3.53)
90
b
0
b
G
a
G
a
G
b
G
P
b
G
1
in
in
b
G
G
G
o u t
a
L
2
2
G
L
Figure 3.12 Loaded two-port: equivalent circuit at port 1 (above), equivalent circuit at
port 2 (below).
From the expression of aL :

aL = b0
S21
(1 S11 G )(1 S22 L ) S12 S21 G L
we have, collecting (1 S22 L ) and taking into account the expression of in

(3.46):
aL = b0
S21
(1 S22 L )(1 G in )
from which, finally:

PL = |aL |2 (1 |L |2 ) = |b0 |2
|S21 |2 (1 |L |2 )
|1 G in |2 |1 S22 L |2
which corresponds to (3.53).
Example 3.5:
Derive the inverses of (3.46) and (3.50).
From (3.46) we obtain:

(in S11 )(1 S22 L ) = S12 S21 L ,
91
that is, developing:

in in S22 L S11 + S11 S22 L = S12 S21 L ,
from which, collecting L :
(S11 S22 S12 S21 in S22 )L = (S in S22 )L = S11 in .
Therefore, deriving L :
L =
S11 in
S S22 in
(3.54)
and, exchanging port 1 and 2 and the generator with the load:
G =
3.5
S22 out
.
S S11 out
(3.55)
Gains of loaded two-ports

Inserting a two-port between a generator and a load changes the power exchange
between them. We can quantify this effect by a set of power gains expressing by
ratios of power- and generator-referred powers:
1. Operational gain Gop : the ratio between the power on the load PL and the
power Pin entering the input port of the two-port, Pin . As will be explicitly shown, the operational gain depends on L but does not depend from
G ; changing G in fact we change the input available power and the input
matching condition, thus the input power, but, in the same way, also the
output power;
2. Available power gain Gav : the ratio between the input (generator) available
power Pav,in and the available power at the output port of the two-port Pav,L .
It depends on G but does not depend on L ; in fact, the output available
power is the power on the load when the load is power matched to the output
port of the two-port, independent of the actual value of L ;
3. Transducer gain Gt : the ratio between the power on the load PL and the input
available power Pav,in ; it depends both on G and on L .
3.5.1
Maximum gain and maximum power transfer

The maximum power transfer between a generator and a load connected through
a two-port occurs when two conditions are met, i.e. the input power is the generator (input) available power and the power on the load is the output available
power. This condition of maximum power transfer implies simultaneous power
(or conjugate) impedance matching at the two ports. While the maximum power
transfer implies maximum gain, the opposite is true only for the transducer gain.
92
P
G
a v ,in
in
in p u t
m a tc h
2 -p o rt
a v ,L
O p e r a tio n a l g a in G
G
a v ,in
in p u t
m a tc h
in
2 -p o rt
A v a ila b le p o w e r g a in G
a v ,in
in p u t
m a tc h
in
a v
(G L)= P
2 -p o rt
T r a n s d u c e r g a i n G t( G
G
o p
(G
a v ,L
/P
a v ,L
P
L
o u tp u t
m a tc h
G
)= P L/P
in
o u tp u t
m a tc h
a v ,in
a v ,L
,G L)= P L/P
o u tp u t
m a tc h
P
L
a v ,in
Figure 3.13 Block diagram describing the flow from the generator available power to
the load power and the definitions of operational gain (above), available power gain
(center), transducer gain (below).
A maximum in the operational gain and in the available power gain imply maximum power transfer only if a second condition is met, corresponding to the input
or output matching, respectively. However, it is quite clear that the maxima of
all gains coincide. In fact we can write:
PL
PM
Gt,M =
ML
Pav,in M
Pav,in
M
the power on the load and the input available
where we denote as PLM and Pav,in
power in maximum power transfer conditions and Gt,M is the maximum transducer gain, obtained by properly selecting the generator and load reflectances.
M
However when maximum power trasfer is achieved PLM = Pav,L
because if the
output is power matched (see Fig.3.13, middle) then the load power coincides
with the output available power. Therefore we have:
Gt,M =
M
Pav,L
PLM
= M Gav,M
M
Pav,in
Pav,in
i.e. the maximum avalaible power gain coincides with the maximum transducer
M
gain; notice that Pav,in
derives from an optimization with respect to the source
M
impedance while the condition PLM = Pav,L
is obtained through an additional
constraint on the load impedance. Similarly, in maximum power transfer conditions, the input power coincides with the source available power, implying
conjugate matching at the input by properly selecting the source reflectance. We
93
thus have:
Gt,M =
PLM
PLM
=
Gop,M
M
M
Pav,in
Pin
M
where Pin
is the input power in maximum power transfer conditions. Thus, also
the maximum of the operational gain (obtained by properly selecting the load
reflectance) coincides with the maximum transducer gain, but the maximum
power transfer condition additionally requires the conjugate input matching to
be achieved (see Fig.3.13, top). In conclusion, while we have:
Gt,M = Gop,M = Gav,M

optimization of the whole chain leading to Pav,in to PL (Fig.3.13, bottom) by
properly selecting the input and output reflectances lead to maximum power
transfer, while optimization of the chain leading from Pin to PL by properly
selecting the load reflectance (maximum operational gain) or optimization of the
chain leading from Pav,in to Pav,L by selecting the source reflectance (maximum
available gain) do lead to maximum gain but not to maximum power transfer
unless a second condition is met on the output or input power matching, respectively. For historical reasons however the maximum gain is often referred to as
MAG, i.e. the maximum available gain.
Achieving simultaneous power matching at the input and output ports is not,
however, always possible. Such a condition may be implemented only if the twoport is unconditionally stable, i.e. stable for any load and generator impedances
having positive real part. If this is not the case the two-port is potentially unstable and the maximum gain is infinity. The potentially unstable condition was
regarded in the early stages of the development of electronics as a useful tool to
boost the amplifier gain, and was even artificially caused through positive feedback; however, in current design the stable gain of transistors is large enough to
suggest a design strategy based on the stabilization of active devices within the
design bandwidth. Out-of-band stabilization is mandatory anyway to suppress
(typically low-frequency) spurious oscillations.
3.5.2
Operational gain
The expression for the operational gain is obtained from (3.47) and (3.51):
Gop =
PL
1 |L |2
= |S21 |2
Pin
|1 S22 L |2 |S11 S L |2
(3.56a)
i.e., developing:
Gop = |S21 |2
1 |L |2
S )) .
1 |S11 |2 + |L |2 (|S22 |2 |S |2 ) + 2<(L (S11
S
22
(3.56b)
94
Note from (3.56) that the operational gain is a real function of the complex
variable L ; as shown in Example 3.6 the constant gain curves are circles in the
L plane. Moreover, the operational gain vanishes on the unit circle of the L
Smith chart, i.e. for |L | = 1; in such a case the load is reactive and the average
(or active) power dissipated by it must vanish.
Example 3.6:
Show that the constant operational gain curves are circles in the L plane and
find their center and radius.
Reworking (3.56) we obtain:

|L |2 (Gop (|S22 |2 |S |2 ) + |S21 |2 )+
Gop 2<(L (S11

S S22 )) = |S21 |2 Gop (1 |S11 |2 )
from which:
2
|L | 2< L
S )
Gop (S22 S11
2
Gop (|S22 | |S |2 ) + |S21 |2
|S21 |2 Gop (1 |S11 |2 )

.
Gop (|S22 |2 |S |2 ) + |S21 |2
(3.57)
Summing the last relation to both terms:
S )
Gop (S22 S11
=
Gop (|S22 |2 |S |2 ) + |S21 |2
(3.58)
Eq. (3.57) can be rewritten as:

|L C|2 =
where:
C=
|S21 |2 Gop (1 |S11 |2 )

+
Gop (|S22 |2 |S |2 ) + |S21 |2
S )
Gop (S22 S11
Gop (|S22 |2 |S |2 ) + |S21 |2
(3.59)
S11 S )
Gop (S22
. (3.60)
Gop (|S22 |2 |S |2 ) + |S21 |2
Comparing the last expression with the equation of a circle in the Z plane, with
center ZC and radius R,
|Z ZC |2 = R2 .
we derive that if:
R2 =
|S21 |2 Gop (1 |S11 |2 )

+0
Gop (|S22 |2 |S |2 ) + |S21 |2
(3.61)
then the constant operational gain curves are circles with center C and radius
R. Developing and taking into account the relation:
|S22 S11
S |2 = |S22 |2 + |S11 |2 |S |2 2<(S22 S11 S )
= |S22 |2 + |S11 |2 |S |2 |S11 |2 |S22 |2 |S |2 + |S21 |2 |S12 |2
= (|S22 |2 |S |2 )(1 |S11 |2 ) + |S21 |2 |S12 |2
95
1 0
L o p t
2 0
1 0
1 0
2 0
2 0
1 0
Figure 3.14 Constant operational gain circles in plane L .
we obtain for the radius the expression:

q
|S21 |2 2K|S21 ||S12 |Gop + |S12 |2 G2op
R = |S21 |
|Gop (|S22 |2 |S |2 ) + |S21 |2 |
(3.62)
where we have introduced the real parameter K:

K=
1 |S11 |2 |S22 |2 + |S |2
2|S21 ||S12 |
(3.63)
called the Linville coefficient. From (3.60) we also find that varying Gop the
centers of the circles lie on a straight line with slope given by:
arg(S22
S11 S ) =
S S11 )
=(S22
.
<(S22 S S11 )
(3.64)
In conclusion, if (3.61) is verified, the constant gain curves in the plane L are
circles whose centers lie on a straight line.
Starting from the expression of the radius (3.62), whose denominator is positive
anyway, we can understand under which conditions constant gain circles exist
in the above form. The term under square root in the numerator should also
be positive if the radius is real; taking into account that this term is a second
order polynomial in Gop with positive coefficient of the second-order term, we
96
find that the polynomial is positive for values of Gop larger or smaller than the
two roots of the polynomial, i.e. for:
p
S21
(K + K 2 1)
(3.65)
Gop >
S12
p
S21
(K K 2 1).
Gop <
(3.66)
S12
Since the operational gain is real we also obtain the condition |K| 1. Notice
that if we had K 1 the operational gain range in which the radius exists would
correspond to negative gain, a condition that will be shown to be inacceptable
for reasons connected to stability; therefore the condition:
K1
should hold. We usually draw the constant (operational) gain circles in the L
Smith chart, as shown in Fig. 3.14. As discussed further on, if the two port is
unconditionally stable (cfr. Sec. 3.6) Gop has a maximum within the L Smith
chart, corresponding to (3.66), while the minimum corresponding to (3.65) falls
outside the Smith chart and has no interest.
The maximum operational gain derived by setting R = 0 is given by:
p
S21
(K K 2 1) .
GopM AX =
(3.67)
S12
Substituting in (3.60) we derive the corresponding optimum value of the load
reflectance Lopt :
p
B2 B22 4|C2 |2
Lopt =
(3.68)
2C2
where:
B2 = 1 + |S22 |2 |S11 |2 |S |2
C2 = S22
S S11
(3.69)
(3.70)
If the two port is unconditionally stable Lopt is within the Smith chart and
ensures power matching at the output port. Notice finally that for K = 1 the
maximum gain becomes |S21 /S12 |, also called (for reasons to be explained later)
Maximum Stable Gain or MSG.
3.5.3
Available power gain

The available power gain is the ratio between the load available power (Pav,L )
and the input available power (3.42):
Pav,in = |b0 |2
1
1 |G |2
(3.71)
97
while the output available power is equal to the load power when L = out . In
such conditions (3.52) becomes:
Pav,L = |b0 |2 |S21 |2
1
(1 |out |2 )|1 S11 G |2
(3.72)
from which, substituting (3.50), we obtain:

Gav =
Pav,L
1 |G |2
= |S21 |2
Pav,in
|1 S11 G |2 |S22 S G |2
(3.73a)
i.e.:
1 |G |2
S )) .
1 |S22 |2 + |G |2 (|S11 |2 |S |2 ) + 2<(G (S22
S
11
(3.73b)
2
2
Gav only depends on G . If we compare Gav /|S21 | to Gop /|S21 | we immediately
notice that the two terms correspond each other by replacing the generator with
the load and exchanging port 1 with port 2. It follows immediately that the
constant level curves of Gav in the plane G will be again circles with centers
lying on a straight line; if again the Linville coefficients satisfies K > 1 the radius
and centers of the circles can be derived from (3.60) and (3.62) by exchanging the
indices 1 and 2. Moreover, for an unconditionally stable two-port the available
power gain shows a maximum GavM AX that coincides with the operational gain
maximum in (3.67). In fact we obtain Gav /|S21 |2 from Gop /|S21 |2 by exchanging
ports 1 and 2, but the maximum of Gop /|S21 |2 , GopM AX /|S21 |2 , is invariant with
respect to such exchange; thus GavM AX /|S21 |2 = GopM AX /|S21 |2 and therefore
GavM AX = GopM AX , i.e.:
p
S21
(K K 2 1) Gop
GavM AX =
.
(3.74)
M AX
S12
Gav = |S21 |2
The optimum G leading to maximum available gain is:

p
B1 B12 4|C1 |2
Gopt =
2C1
(3.75)
where:
B1 = 1 + |S11 |2 |S22 |2 |S |2
C1 = S11
S S22
(3.76)
(3.77)
B1 , C1 and Gopt can be derived from B2 , C2 and Lopt by exchanging ports.
98
3.5.4
Transducer gain
The transducer gain Gt is the ratio between the power on the load and the input
available power. From (3.71) and (3.51) we immediately obtain:
Gt =
PL
Pav,in
= |S21 |2
(1 |L |2 )(1 |G |2 )
.
|(1 L S22 )(1 G S11 ) S12 S21 G L |2
(3.78)
As already noticed, the transducer gain depends both on G and on L .

Let us define now a new parameter, the unilateral transducer gain Gu . This is
the transducer gain of a two-port having S12 = 0; we call this a unilateral two
port since is only shows forward action from port 1 to port 2 and no reverse internal feedback from port 2 to port 1. As we will show later, a unilateral two-port is
(apart from some fancy cases) unconditionally stable. Real high-frequency transistors are often almost unilateral. Finally, the unilateral approximation makes
the treatment of power matching very easy. We will therefore start the discussion
with the unilateral assumption. If S12 = 0 we obtain from (3.78):
Gu = Gt |S12 =0 = |S21 |2
(1 |L |2 )(1 |G |2 )
.
|1 L S22 |2 |1 G S11 |2
(3.79)
In this case Gu is clearly maximum when conjugate matching is simultaneously

achieved at both ports:
G = S11
(3.80)
L = S22
with maximum unilateral gain (MUG):
Gumax =
|S21 |2
.
(1 |S11 |2 )(1 |S22 |2 )
(3.81)
In the general case of a non-unilateral two-port the maximum transducer gain

corresponds to the simultaneous conjugate matching at both ports (assuming
this is feasible), i.e. to the coupled equations:
G = in (L )
.
(3.82)
L = out (G )
3.5.5
Is power matching always possible?

As discussed in Sec. 3.6, simultaneous power matching is possible when the twoport is unconditionally stable. In fact:
r If the two-port is unconditionally stable simultaneous power matching at the

two ports is possible, the input power is the source available power, the power
on the load is the output available power, and all gains (operational, available,
transducer) a maximum with the same value given by (3.67).
r If the two-port is potentially unstable simultaneous power matching at the
two ports is not possibile and there is a set of general and load impedances
3.6 Stability
Gop =
PL
1 |L |2
= |S21 |2
2
2
2
Pin
1 |S11 | + |L | (|S22 | |S |2 ) + 2<(L (S11
S S22 ))
Gav =
Pav,L
1 |G |2
= |S21 |2
2
2
2
Pav,in
1 |S22 | + |G | (|S11 | |S |2 ) + 2<(G (S22
S S11 ))
Gt =
99
PL
(1 |L |2 )(1 |G |2 )
= |S21 |2
Pav,in
|(1 L S22 )(1 G S11 ) S12 S21 G L |2
S21
MSG =
S12
MUG =
|S21 |2
(1 |S11 |2 )(1 |S22 |2 )
Table 3.3. Summary of gain definitions for a loaded two-port.
(with positive real part) for which the gain tends to infinity, thus leading to
the onset of oscillations. In practice, since the transistor gain decreases with
frequency, active devices are more prone to be potentially unstable at low
frequency. While out-of-band stabilization is mandatory to avoid spurious lowfrequency oscillations, a design with an in-band potentially unstable device is
possible, provided that the terminating impedances are chosen so as to be far
enough away from the potentially unstable termination set. However, while
this is easier in hybrid design, integrated design must allow for technological
fluctuations, and therefore in-band stabilization is the preferred choice.
A summary of the definitions of gains of a loaded two-port is provided in Table
3.3.
3.6
Stability
The stability issue is important in the design of amplifiers, mixers and oscillators
(a mixer can be seen like an amplifier also providing frequency conversion). Typically we want stable, non self-oscillating behaviour from amplifiers and mixers.
On the other hand, instability is sought in the design of oscillators: in the linear
approximations an unstable circuit generates oscillations with infinite amplitude,
but of course in practice the amplitude is limited by nonlinear saturation effects
that are present in all active devices.
100
A two-port loaded with generator and load impedances with positive real part
(we call those passive or physically realizable) is unconditionally stable if the
input impedance has positive real part for any value of the load impedance
and the output impedance has positive real part for any value of the generator impedance. The same condition can be expressed through reflectances: for
any value of L (with |L | < 1) we have |in | < 1, and for any value of G
(with |G | < 1) we have |out | < 1. Since the two-port parameters are frequency
dependent, stability depends on the operating frequency. Moreover stability is a
global property of a circuit, unless this is made of subcircuits that are isolated
with respect to each other.
On the other hand, we say that a two-port is conditionally stable or potentially
unstable if there is a set of passive impedances at port 1 or 2 such as the output
or input reflection coefficient of the two-port has magnitude larger than one.
Notice that the fact that e.g. |in | > 1 does not automatically imply that the
circuit will oscillate, since the oscillation condition is in fact in G = 1 and we
can conveniently select G such as |in G | < 1; however such a circuit does
not properly behave as an amplifier, as discussed in Example 3.7. The only
proper choice is therefore to select, in a potentially unstable two-port, a set of
termination such as the input and output reflectances have magnitude less than
one.
As already stressed, for an unconditionally stable two-port a well defined maximum power transfer condition exists corresponding to conjugate matching at
both ports. For a potentially unstable devices in the operating bandwidth, on
the other hand, the linear gain is theoretically unbounded, and the choice of terminations should be made so as to ensure stability, a large enough gain, but also
a termination not too close to the instability boundary, to avoid self-oscillations
induced by process variations.
An important result is that unconditional stability can be detected by a set of
simple equivalent tests to be made on the two-port scattering parameters. If the
two-port is potentially unstable graphical tools like the stability circles can be
exploited in order to make sure that the terminations ensure stable behaviour
with a good enough margin.
Example 3.7:
Suppose a two-port is loaded at port 2 with a reflectance L such as |in | > 1
(or Zin and Yin have negative real part). Can we stabilize the circuit with a
proper choice of G ? In that case is the circuit working as an amplifier from the
generator to the load?
Consider a sinusoidal voltage generator with open circuit voltage EG and passive internal impedance ZG , loaded with an impedance Zin . The instability condition corresponds to an infinite current in the load at an angular frequency
3.6 Stability
101
0 :
IL =
EG
ZL + Zin
i.e. to RL (0 ) + Rin (0 ) = 0, XL (0 ) + Xin (0 ) = 0. In other words the total

loop impedance is zero and the input resistance (negative) compensates for
the generator resistance. A dynamic analysis of the system (that can be carried out postulating around 0 an equivalent circuit including reactive elements,
e.g. lumped capacitors and inductors) shows that the system is stable (i.e. the
pulse response decays for t ) if RL (0 ) + Rin (0 ) > 0, unstable (the pulse
response diverges) for RL (0 ) + Rin (0 ) < 0. Similarly we can show that the
stability conditions implies (in a parallel representation) GL (0 ) + Gin (0 ) > 0.
Therefore we can make a circuit stable by properly selecting the generator resistance or conductance so as to enforce the stability of the series or parallel circuit.
Even in this case, however, the circuit does not operate like e conventional amplifier. Since we have assumed that |in | > 1, from (3.41) we obtain for the input
power in the two-port:
Pin = |b0G |2
1 |in |2
<0
|1 G in |2
where b0G is associated to the forward wave generator at port 1. This means
that the generator power is reflected back by the two-port (with a possibile
amplification) and dissipated in the generator resistance. This circuit therefore
does not operate like a conventional amplifier in which power is amplified from
port 1 to port 2, but rather as a reflection amplifier where power is reflected
back by an active element with amplification and dissipated on the generator
resistance, acting in this case as a load.
3.6.1
Analysis of stability conditions

Let us consider again (3.44); the system admits a nonzero solution when b0 = 0
only if the system matrix determinant is zero, i.e.:
1 G 0
0
S11 1 S12 0
S21 0 S22 1 = (1 S11 G )(1 S22 L ) S12 S21 G L = 0 .
0
0
1 L
Taking into account (3.46) and (3.50) the condition can be written in one of the
two following ways:
(1 S11 G )(1 L out ) = 0
(1 S22 L )(1 G in ) = 0 .
(3.83a)
(3.83b)
102
Therefore, at least one of the following conditions should be met:

S11 G = 1
(3.84a)
S22 L = 1
(3.84b)
L out = 1
(3.84c)
G in = 1 .
(3.84d)
We immediately remark that a two-port having |S11 | 1 or |S22 | 1 has little

practical interest, since they could not be safely measured when terminated on
the normalization impedances (however this condition could occur in real devices,
thus requiring e.g. a change of the normalization impedance from e.g. 50 to
a lower value, as it happens in large periphery power transistors). Unless stated
differently, we will therefore assume that |S11 | < 1 and |S22 | < 1; therefore, if
we take into account that L and G refer to passive terminations and have
magnitude lower than 1, the first two equations of (3.84) are never satisfied.
We therefore reduce to the analysis of the behaviour of G in or L out as a
function of L and G . Note that the product G in is the amplification of a
wave experiencing a double reflection at port 1 (generator and input reflectance);
similarly for the product L out at port 2. Now, if L out = 1 or L out =
1 this implies linear instability, since in the presence of an independent wave
generator an incident wave, after a loop, will superimpose in phase and with
the same amplitude to itself, thus building up a response tending to infinity.
This condition is never met if |in G | < 1 or |out L | < 1, since in such cases
multiple reflections lead to a response converging for t . However, G and
L are passive, therefore the two-port is unconditionally stable if:
r for any passive L , |in | < 1; or

r for any passive G , |out | < 1.
Using the Smith chart and taking into account that the transformation
between L (G ) and in (out ) is a conformal mapping between complex planes
(also called linear fractional transformation or Mobius transformation) transforming circles into circles, we have the following interpretation:
1. The circles |L | < 1 (|G | < 1) are transformed into an image in the plane
in (out ) consisting in a circle plus its interior or exterior, see Fig. 3.15;
if the image falls within the Smith chart, we have unconditional stability
(Fig. 3.15, above); if it partially falls outside the Smith chart, we have potential
instability (Fig. 3.15, below).
2. Alternatively, the circle |in | < 1 (|out | < 1) has as a counterimage a circle of
the L (G ) plane and its interior or exterior. If the counterimage includes the
whole L (G ) Smith chart, we have unconditional stability because certainly
all L (G ) within the unit circle will yield a in (out ) within the unit circle,
see Fig. 3.17. If on the other hand the counterimage does not include the whole
L (G ) Smith chart, we hve potential instability, see Fig. 3.16.
103
3.6 Stability
in
, G
in
, G
G L, G
o u t
G L, G
o u t
Figure 3.15 Example of unconditional stability (above) and conditional stability

(below) in the input (output) reflection coefficient plane.
The counterimage of |out | = 1 in the plane G is denoted as the input stability

circle, whereas with output stability circle we denote the counterimage of |in | =
1 in plane L .1
As shown in Example 3.8, the center and the radius of the output and input
stability circles (plane L and G , respectively) are given by:
S11 S S22
|S |2 |S22 |2
|S12 S21 |
=
2
2
|S | |S22 |
LC =
(3.85a)
RLC
(3.85b)
Notice that a stability circle should perhaps called more properly a stability circumference the image of the stable region is not necessarily a circumference and its interior, i.e. a circle,
but may be a circumference and its exterior.
104
in
Figure 3.16 Output stability circle: example of unconditional stability.
o u t
Figure 3.17 Input stability circle: example of conditional stability.
and by:
S22 S S11
2
|S | |S11 |2
|S12 S21 |
.
=
2
2
|S | |S11 |
GC =
(3.86a)
RGC
(3.86b)
Supposing that |S11 | < 1 and |S22 | < 1, we can immediately understand whether
the stable region identified by the stability circle corresponds to the region internal or external to the circle. In fact, the origin of the G (L ) plane corresponds
in the in (out ) plane to the point S11 (S22 ), that we have assumed to lie
within the unit circle (the ratio is that the two-port closed on the normalization
resistances should be stable, otherwise the measurement itself of the scattering
parameters would be impossible) Therefore the output (input) stability circle is
the region of the plane L (G ) delimited by the circumferences described by
(3.85) and (3.86) including the origin. According to whether the stability circle
is internal or external to the Smith chart we can have the six cases shown in
Fig. 3.18.
3.6 Stability
105
Example 3.8:
Demonstrate Eq. (3.85) and (3.86).
The relation (3.46) yielding in as a function of L is a linear fractional transformation between complex variables of the kind:
w=
az + b
cz + d
(3.87)
that transforms che circles of z plane into circles of w plane. The unit circle in
w plane will therefore correspond to the condition:
az + b 2
= (az + b)(a z + b ) = 1
(3.88)
cz + d
(cz + d)(c z + d )
and thus:
|z|2 + z
(ab cd )
(a b c d)
|d|2 |b|2
+ z
= 2
.
2
2
2
2
|a| |c|
|a| |c|
|a| |c|2
(3.89)
Eq. (3.89) is the equation of a circle in the z plane, as it is clear if we sum and
substract the factor
|c d a b|2
,
(|a|2 |c|2 )2
to the left-hand side of (3.89), that becomes:
z c d a b = |a|2 |c|2 + |c d a b| .
|a|2 |c|2
(|a|2 |c|2 )2
(3.90)
From (3.90) we immediately obtain that the center C and radius R of the afore
mentioned circle are given by:
c d a b
C
=
|a|2 |c|2
(3.91)
ad cb
.
R = 2
|a| |c|2
From (3.46), comparing with (3.87) we obtain:
a = S
b = S11
c = S22
d = 1
that, after substitution into (3.91), yield the first two equations (3.85). If we
exchange L with G and in with out we similarly obtain Eqs. (3.86).
106
U n s ta b le
U n s ta b le
S ta b le
S ta b le
(b )
(a )
U n s ta b le
S ta b le
S ta b le
U n s ta b le
(c )
(d )
S ta b ile
In s ta b ile
S ta b ile
(e )
(f)
In s ta b ile
Figure 3.18 Stability cases (a) e (b): unconditional stability; (c) (d) (e) (f): conditional
stability. The Smith chart refers to G (output stability circles) or L (input stability
circles).
3.6.2
Unconditional stability necessary and sufficient conditions

Suppose a two-port is stable when closed by its normalization resistances (i.e.
|S11 | < 1 and |S22 | < 1). A set of necessary and sufficient conditions for unconditional stability is given by the necessary (but not sufficient) condition on the
107
3.6 Stability
Linville or stability coefficent K:

K=
1 |S22 |2 |S11 |2 + |S |2
>1
2 |S21 S12 |
(3.92)
together with one of the following conditions:

|S12 S21 | < 1 |S11 |2
(3.93)
(3.94)
|S12 S21 | < 1 |S22 |

|S | < 1
(3.95)
The most popular set probably is K > 1, S < 1. Most CAD tools show the
frequency behaviour of K; if K < 1 the two port is potentially unstable, but also
in regions where K > 1 potential instability can arise if the determinant of the
scattering matrix is larger than one, see Example 3.9.
Example 3.9:
Show and example where a two-port with K > 1 is potentially unstable.
Consider a two-port with the scattering matrix:
S=
0.5292 j0.6643 0.1375 j0.1346

5.3756 + j2.9848 0.5918 j0.5800
The Linville coefficient is K = 1.2787 > 1; however, the two-port is not unconditionally stable. For example, close port 2 with the passive load L = 0.3762 +
j0.5264; we have in = 1.0464 j0.4481 with magnitude larger than one. This
is confirmed by the fact that |S | = 1.8528 > 1, contrarily to what requested by
condition (3.95).
The stability criteria are demonstrated in Sec. 3.6.3.
3.6.3
3.6.3.1
Proof of stability criteria

Output stability criterion
The output stability circle is the region of plane L delimited by the circumference with center LC and radius RLC , see (3.85), including the origin. Two
cases are possible:
1. L = 0 lies outside the circumference, and the stable region is external to it
(Fig. 3.19). We have unconditional stability if the circumference defined by
(3.85) lies completely outside the Smith chart, i.e. when |LC | > 1 + RLC ,
implying a fortiori |LC |2 > |RLC |2 . Substituting the relevant expressions
108
S ta b le
r e g io n
R
L C
L C
U n s ta b le
r e g io n
Figure 3.19 Case (1): the stable region in the load reflection coefficient is external to
the output stability circle.
(3.85) the previous inequality becomes:
2
|S11 S S22
| = |S12 S21 |2 + 1 |S11 |2 |S22 |2 |S |2 > |S12 S21 |2
(3.96)
implying in turn:
1 |S11 |2
|S22 |2 |S |2 > 0
that is satisfied only if |S22 | > |S |. This result allows to correctly choose the
sign of the denominator of RLC , eliminating the absolute value, see (3.85).
We start again from |LC | > 1 + RLC , taking the square of both members
and substituting the value of RLC we obtain:
2
2
|S11 S S22
| > |S22 |2 |S |2 + |S12 S21 |
and, exploiting Eq. (3.96):

2
|S12 S21 |2 + 1 |S 11 |2 |S22 |2 |S |2 > |S22 |2 |S |2 + |S12 S21 | .
(3.97)
This relation can be rewritten by using the Linville coefficient K defined in
(3.63):
K=
1 |S22 |2 |S11 |2 + |S |2
>1.
2 |S21 S12 |
(3.98)
We have therefore shown that the output unconditional stability implies K >
1; thus, this condition is necessary.
3.6 Stability
109
2. L = 0 is internal to the circle, and therefore the stable region lies within
the circumference (Fig. 3.20). Thus, we have unconditional stability if the
circumference defined in (3.86) is completely internal to the Smith chart, i.e.
2
if |LC | < RLC 1. This implies a fortiori |LC |2 < RLC
. With analogy to
case (1), e desume that this time the following condition should be verified:
|S22 | < |S | ;
therefore condition |LC | < RLC 1 is equivalent to the pair:
|LC |2 < (RLC 1)2

.
RLC > 1
(3.99)
Developing the first of the (3.99) we have:

h
i2
2
2
2
2
|S22 |2 |S |2
|S | |S22 | |S12 S21 | > |S12 S21 | + 1 |S11 |
from which we get back condition K > 1. To impose the second of the (3.99)
we start from the expression of RLC ; since |S | > |S22 |, we have:
|S12 S21 | > |S |2 |S22 |2 .
Substituing this expression in the one imposing K > 1 with the explicit expression of K we obtain:
1 |S11 |2 |S22 |2 |S |2 > 2 |S12 S21 |

that is:
1 |S11 |2 > 2 |S12 S21 | |S |2 |S22 |2 > |S12 S21 |
and finally:
1 |S11 |2 > |S12 S21 | .
(3.100)
Thus Eq. (3.100) must be verified together with condition K > 1. In case (1)
the condition is implicitly satisfied if K > 1.
Conditions K > 1 and 1 |S11 |2 > |S12 S21 | can be easily shown to be not only
necessary, but also sufficient, we only have to run backwards the above demonstration line.
3.6.3.2
Input stability criterion

By exchanging port 1 and port 2 and the input and output reflection coefficients
we immediately obtain:
K>1
1 |S22 |2 > |S12 S21 | .
110
S ta b le
r e g io n
R
L C
L C
U n s ta b le
r e g io n
Figure 3.20 Case (2): the stable region of the load reflection coefficient is internal to
the input stability circle.
3.6.3.3
Input and output stability

Since stability is global, the input and output stability criteria should be equivalent. Assembling the stability conditions obtained in the previous sections we
obtain that a necessary and sufficient set for the unconditional stability of a
two-port (with |S11 | < 1 and |S22 | < 1) turns out to be:
K>1
|S12 S21 | < 1 |S11 |
(3.101)
2
(3.102)
(3.103)
|S12 S21 | < 1 |S22 | .
If K > 1 we can show that (3.102) implies (3.103) and viceversa (see Example
3.10).
Example 3.10:
Show that set (3.101), (3.102) implies set (3.101), (3.103) and viceversa.
Suppose that (3.102) is verified and that K > 1. In this case, we have inconditional output stability, i.e. for every L with magnitude < 1 whe have that
in has magnitude < 1. Since |S11 | < 1, L = 0 (in correspondence of which
in = S11 ) certainly falls within the unit circle. This implies that the image circumference |L | = 1 in plane in must have radius < 1 (if it were not so there
would be loads that make potentially unstable the two-port at the input). Proceeding as discussed in Example 3.6, with application to (3.54), we obtain that
111
3.6 Stability
the image circle in (|L | = 1) has radius:

Rin =
|S12 S21 |
.
|1 |S22 |2 |
(3.104)
This radius is < 1 if the following condition holds:

|S12 S21 | < |1 |S22 |2 |
but we also have |S22 | < 1; therefore it follows:
|S12 S21 | < 1 |S22 |2
i.e. (3.103) holds. Similarly, we show that if (3.101) holds, Eq. (3.103) implies
(3.102).
A further condition, alternative to (3.103) or to (3.102) is obtained by summing

these two last relationships:
|S12 S21 | < 1
1
1
|S11 |2 |S22 |2 .
2
2
Taking into account that:

S = |S11 S22 S21 S12 | < |S11 S22 | + |S21 S12 |
and exploiting the previous equation we find:
1
1
|S | < |S11 S22 | + 1 |S11 |2 |S22 |2 =
2
2
1
= 1 (|S11 | |S22 |)2 < 1 .
2
If Eq. (3.102) and (3.103) hold, then |S | < 1; it follows that if a two-port is
unconditionally stable we also have:
K >1
(3.105)
|S | < 1.
Inversely, if |S | < 1 and K > 1, we should have:
2 |S21 S12 | < 1 |S22 |2 + 1 |S11 |2

from which we obtain that at least one of the two expressions must be true:
|S21 S12 | < 1 |S11 |2
|S21 S12 | < 1 |S22 |2
but, since if K > 1 they imply each other, both must be true. The set (3.105)
can be therefore used to test the unconditional stability of the two-port.
112
3.7
One-parameter stability criteria

The classical stability criterion, as summarized above, was, and still is, widely
exploited in CAD tools; it is, however, somewhat inconvenient, since the simple condition K > 1 is necessary but not sufficient to ensure stability. In 1992
Edwards and Sinksky [4] proved that a condition on a single parameter is sufficient to assess unconditional stability; namely, they showed that the two port
unconditional stability conditions can be put into biunique correspondence with
one of the following:
1 |S11 |2
| + |S S | > 1
|S22 S11
12 21
1 |S22 |2
2 =
| + |S S | > 1
|S11 S22
12 21
1 =
3.7.1
(3.106)
(3.107)
Proof of the single parameter criterium

In this section we will establish a relationship between 1 and the classical stability parameters K and B1 . We start from the definition of 1 , which can be
written as:
|S22 S11
| =
1 |S11 |2
|S12 S21 |
1
(3.108)
Since:
|2 = (|S22 |2 ||2 )(1 |S11 |2 ) + |S12 |2 |S21 |2

|S22 S11
(3.109)
squaring both terms of (3.108), subtracting on both sides the factor |S12 S21 |2 ,
and using (3.109) we have:
|S22 |2 ||2 1 |S11 |2 =
2
1 |S11 |2
1 |S11 |2
2|S
||S
|
=
21
12
21
1
and therefore:
|S22 |2 ||2 =
1 |S11 |2
|S21 ||S12 |
2
21
1
(3.110)
Since:
|S22 |2 ||2 = |S21 ||S12 |(2K B1 )
after some rearrangement, (3.110) gives:
B1
2
+ 2K B1 = 0
2
1
1
(3.111)
113
3.7 One-parameter stability criteria
This equation has always real solutions since its discriminant is positive:
1 B1 (2K B1 ) =
|S22 S11
|2
>0
2
|S12 | |S21 |2
moreover, rearranging (3.108) one obtains:

b1
|s22 s11 |
+1>1
=
1
|s12 s21 |
thus implying that only the solution of (3.111) with the plus sign is valid:
B1
1 =
1+
(3.112)
1 2KB1 + B12
A direct contour plot of 1 as a function of K and B1 from (3.112) shows that

the region with K > 1 and B1 > 1 where 1 is real, corresponds to 1 > 1, and
viceversa (i.e. 1 < 1 anywhere else) [4]. (The same conclusions can obviously
shown to hold for the set 2 , K and b2 .) A straightforward algebraic proof of the
above equivalence is now provided.
We will now give a simple demonstration of the equivalence, which has been
shown to hold through graphical inspection, of the two conditions K > 1 and
B1 > 1 with (3.106).
We first notice that, from (3.106), it is trivial to see that 1 < 1 implies |S11 | >
1 and viceversa so that, when the two-port cannot be unconditionally stable
because |S11 | > 1, the parameter 1 correctly predicts conditional stability. We
can therefore focus on the case |S11 | < 1 or 1 > 0.
We now prove that 1 implies K > 1 and B1 > 1. In fact, condition 1 > 1
can be expressed as:
|S22 S11
| < 1 |S11 |2 |S12 S21 | = |S21 ||S12 |(B1 1)
(3.113)
from which we immediately find that B1 > 1. Then, squaring (3.113), and using
(3.109), we find that:
|S22 |2 ||2 1 |S11 |2 + |S12 S21 |2 <
< 1 |S11 |2 2 |S12 S21 | 1 |S11 |2 + |S12 S21 |2

(3.114)
Since |S11 | < 1 and therefore 1 |S11 |2 > 0, it follows that:
|S22 |2 ||2 < 1 |S11 |2 2 |S12 S21 |
(3.115)
1 |S11 |2 |S22 |2 + ||2 > 2 |S12 S21 |
(3.116)
and therefore:
i.e., from the definition of the Rollet parameter, K > 1.

By reversing the above proof, we show now that B1 > 1 and K > 1 implies
1 > 1. Starting from (3.116), we obtain (3.115) and then (3.114) by multiplying
(3.115) by the factor 1 |S11 |2 (positive because B1 > 1), and adding |S12 S21 |2
114
to both sides. Taking the square root of the two terms, and using (3.109), we
have:
|S22 S11
| 1 |S11 |2 |S12 S21 |
but, since B1 > 1, we have 1 |S11 |2 |S12 S21 | > 0 and finally obtain (3.113),
which is equivalent to condition 1 > 1.
By means of the same procedure, we obtain that 2 > 1 implies K > 1, b2 > 1
and viceversa. The reciprocal implication of the conditions 1 > 1 and 2 > 1
can be stated equivalently by showing that the condition K > 1, B1 > 1 implies
b2 > 1. This demonstration has already been carried out in [4], but a simpler
proof will be given here, which also has the advantage of immediately showing
that if K > 1 conditions B1 > 1 and b2 > 1 mutually imply each other.
We start by evaluating the product (B1 1)(b2 1); a direct computation
shows that:
(B1 1)(b2 1) =
1 |S11 |2 |S22 |2 + |S11 |2 |S22 |2 + |S21 |2 |S12 |2
+
|S12 |2 |S21 |2
2|S21 ||S12 | |S21 ||S12 | |S11 |2 + |S22 |2
=
|S12 |2 |S21 |2
1 |S11 |2 |S22 |2 + ||2 2|S21 ||S12 |
=
+
|S12 |2 |S21 |2
)
S12
|S21 ||S12 | |S11 |2 + |S22 |2 + 2< (S11 S22 S21
+
=
|S12 |2 |S21 |2
p
S11 S S + S22
S21 S12
K 1
21 12
=2
+
|S21 ||S12 |
|S12 |2 |S21 |2
=
This implies that, if K > 1, (B1 1)(b2 1) > 0, i.e. B1 and b2 are both either
larger or smaller than unity. Therefore condition K > 1, B1 > 1 implies b2 > 1,
and thus 1 > 1 implies 2 > 1.
3.8
Two-port stability and power matching
3.8.1
Power matching and maximum gain: can it be always realized?

To maximize the power transfer between port 1 and 2 we must impose simultaneous matching at the two ports:
in = L
.
(3.117)
out = G
115
Replacing the expressions of in (3.46) and out (3.50) we obtain the following
nonlinear system:
S11 S L
G = in = 1 S
22 L
.
L = out = 22 S S
1 S11 G
Substituting the second equation into the first one we obtain a second order
equation in G yielding its optimum value; similarly we can obtain a secondorder equation for the optimum L . Solving we obtain:
q
1
Gopt =
B1 B12 4|C1 |2
2C1
q
1
Lopt =
B2 B22 4|C2 |2
(3.118)
2C2
where the coefficients B1 C1 B2 e C2 aleady defined in (3.76), (3.77), (3.69) and
(3.70) are conveniently reported again here:
B1 = 1 |S22 |2 + |S11 |2 |S |2
2
(3.119)
B2 = 1 + |S22 | |S11 | |S |
(3.120)
S S22
S S11
(3.121)
C1 = S11
C2 = S22
(3.122)
The choice between signs + and should grant that the optimum reflection
coefficients have magnitude less than one. As shown in the Example 3.11, this
is possible if and only if the two-port is unconditionally stable. In that case the
optimum reflection coefficient are expressed by:
q
1
2
2
Gopt =
B1 B1 4|C1 |
(3.123)
2C1
q
1
(3.124)
Lopt =
B2 B22 4|C2 |2 .
2C2
and the maximum gain (Example 3.12) is given by the expression, already introduced:
p
|S21 |
GM AX =
(K K 2 1) .
(3.125)
|S12 |
This corresponds to the maxima of the transducer, available, and operating gain,
as already stated for simultaneous power matching the three conditions coincide.
Example 3.11:
Show that the two-port simultaneous matching is possible only if the two-port
is unconditionally stable.
116
In an unconditionally stable two-port K > 1, implying:
1 |S22 |2 |S11 |2 + |S |2
> 4 |S21 S12 |2
i.e. summing and subtracting the term:
4 1 |S22 |2 |S11 |2 |S |2
we obtain:
2
1 |S22 |2 + |S11 |2 |S |2 > 4 |S21 S12 |2 + 4 1 |S22 |2 |S11 |2 |S |2 .
(3.126)
Taking into account (3.96) rewritten exchanging port 1 and 2:
2
|S22 S S11
| = |S12 S21 |2 + 1 |S22 |2 |S11 |2 |S |2
we obtain that(3.126) is equivalent to:
2
2
1 |S22 |2 + |S11 |2 |S |2 > 4 |S22 S S11
| .
The tow members of the above equation clearly are always positive. Taking the
square root we obtain:
2
2
2
1
|S
|
+
|S
|
|
|
22
11
S
|B1 |
>1.
(3.127)
=
2 |C1 |
2|S22 S S11 |
Exchanging again ports we obtain that if K > 1 then:
|B2 |
>1.
2 |C2 |
(3.128)
We will now show that if the two-port is unconditionally stable then B1 > 0;
notice that if this occurs the stability circle lies completely outside the Smith
chart, or covers it completely (see cases (a) and
(b) of Fig. 3.18).
In the first case
2
2
we certainly have |S11| > |S | and therefore 2 |S11 | |S | > 0; summing this
equation to (3.92) we immediately obtain B1 > 0. In the second case |S11 | < |S |
and the stability circle has radius larger than one; thus, from the second equation
in (3.86), we obtain|S |2 |S11 |2 < |S12 S21 |. Since in the case of unconditional
stability ((3.94) holds, 1 |S22 |2 > |S12 S21 |, and we obtain:
|S |2 |S11 |2 < 1 |S22 |2
and therefore:
B1 = 1 |S22 |2 |S |2 + |S11 |2 > 0 .
117
Similarly we can show that unconditional stability implies B2 > 0. Taking into
account of the results obtained so far we can write:
s
4|C1 |2
G = B1
1 1
opt
2 |C1 |
B12
s
!
4|C2 |2
L = B2
.
1 1
opt
2 |C2 |
B22
From those formulae, taking into account (3.127) and (3.128), we have that if
the two reflectances have magnitude less than one we need to select the solutions
with minus sign in the formulae; also the choice of the sign in (3.118) is forced
and the optimum reflectances maximizing gain are:
q
1
Gopt =
B1 B12 4|C1 |2
(3.129)
2C1
q
1
(3.130)
Lopt =
B2 B22 4|C2 |2 .
2C2
Therefore if the two-port is unconditionally stable the optimum terminations
exist and are uniquely defined.
As a byproduct of the previous example, we can identify a last set of necessary

and sufficient stability conditions as the set K > 1 together with one of the
conditions B1 > 0, B2 > 0.
Example 3.12:
Derive the expression of the maximum gain when simultaneous power matching at the two ports is achieved.
We substitute in Gt the reflectances L = L
and G = Gopt , thus obtainopt

ing the maximum transducer gain GtM AX (see (3.53), (3.71) and (3.117)):
GtM AX = |S21 |2
1 |Lopt |2
(1 |Gopt |2 )|1 S22 Lopt |2
Exploiting (3.46) we have:
Gopt =
S11 S Lopt
1 S22 Lopt
and therefore:
1 |Gopt |2 =
|1 S22 Lopt |2 |S11 S Lopt |2

.
|1 S22 Lopt |2
(3.131)
118
Using this last expression (3.131) becomes:

GtM AX = |S21 |2
1 |Lopt |2
=
|1 S22 Lopt |2 |S11 S Lopt |2
1 |Lopt |2
N
= |S21 |2
2 | |2 ) 2<(
1 |S11 + |Lopt
|
C
)
D
22
S
Lopt 2
(3.132)
where C2 was defined in (3.70). We will now express the different terms of (3.132)
as a function of K. From (3.96) and (3.70) we have:
|C2 |2 = |S12 S21 |2 + 1 |S11 |2 |S22 |2 |S |2

(3.133)
= |S21 |2
|2
|2 (|S
while from the first of (3.69) and from (3.63) we easily obtain the following
relationships:
1 |S11 |2 = 2K|S21 S12 | + |S22 |2 |S |2
1 |S11 |2 = B2 (|S22 |2 |S |2 ) .
Summing and subtracting we obtain:
B2
2
(3.134)
B2
K|S21 S12 |
2
(3.135)
1 |S11 |2 = K|S21 S12 | +

|S22 |2 |S |2 =
that, substituted into (3.133), yield:
B2
B2
|C2 |2 = |S12 S21 |2 + K|S21 S12 | +
K|S21 S12 |
2
2
B22
2
2
=
|S12 S21 | (K 1) .
4
(3.136)
From (3.124), noticing that from (3.136) we obtain:

B22
|C2 |2 = |S12 S21 |2 (K 2 1)
4
we get:
Lopt =
B2 2|S12 S21 | K 2 1
2C2
(3.137)
from which, since the numerator of the right-hand side is real, we also have that
also Lopt C2 is real and in particular:
p
2<(Lopt C2 ) = 2Lopt C2 = B2 2|S12 S21 | K 2 1 .
(3.138)
119
Moreover, using (3.136) and (3.137) we have:

1 |Lopt |2 =
|C2 |2
p
B22
+ B2 |S12 S21 | K 2 1 |S12 S21 |2 (K 2 1)
4
=
|C2 |2
p
= 2|S12 S21 | K 2 1
p
B2
|S12 S21 | K 2 1
2
B22
|S12 S21 |2 (K 2 1)
4
2|S12 S21 | K 2 1
.
p
B2
+ |S12 S21 | K 2 1
2
(3.139)
Using (3.134), (3.135), (3.138) and (3.139) the denominator D of (3.132) can be
rewritten as:
B2
B2
D = K|S12 S21 | +
+ |Lopt |2 (
K|S12 S21 |)+
2
2
B2 + 2|S12 S21 | K 2 1 =
= (1 |Lopt |2 )(K|S12 S21 |
p
B2
) + 2|S12 S21 | K 2 1 =
2
p
B2
B2
+
+ |S12 S21 | K 2 1) =
2
2
= |S12 S21 |(1 |Lopt |2 )(K + K 2 1) .

= (1 |Lopt |2 )(K|S12 S21 |
After substituting this expression into (3.132) we finally obtain an explicit expression for the maximum transducer gain, identical to (3.67) and (3.74):
p
|S21 |
|S21 |
1
GtM AX =
=
(3.140)
(K K 2 1) .
|S12 | K + K 2 1
|S12 |
3.8.2
Managing conditional stability

If the two-port is not unconditionally stable we should identify the regions of
plane G and L granting values of out and in within the Smith chart, i.e. the
stability of the two-port with a given set of loads. Tee region sought for clearly
are given by the intersection of the stability circles with the Smith chart. With
reference e.g. to G we should:
r identify the circumference limiting the input stability circle;

r decide if the stability circle is the external or internal region to the circumference; remember that the stable region includes the origin of the G plane;
r identify the intersection of the above region with the Smith chart.
120
We similarly proceed to find the region of the L plane corresponding to stable

behaviour.
In the case of conditional stability, the conditions corresponding to conjugate
matching at both ports and maximum gain do not exist any more; in certain
conditions, in fact the gain has a minimum within the stable region, and tends to
infinity on the boundary between the stable and the unstable region. A parameter
called MSG (Maximum Stable Gain) is often introduced, this corresponds to the
maximum gain for a two-port where K = 1
S21
.
GM SG =
(3.141)
S12
Since K depends on frequency and is typically (in transistors) smaller than one
at low frequency and larger than one (but asymptotically tending to one) at high
frequency, there is one (or in some cases more than one) frequency in wich K = 1
exactly. When plotting the MAG as a function of frequency the MSG is usually
shown in the regions where the device is not unconditionally stable (and, as a
consequence, the MAG is not defined).
3.8.3
Stability circles and constant gain contours

There is a close relationship between the stability circles and the constant gain
contours of a loaded two-port. In particular:
r the constant operational gain contours in plane L are related to the output
stability circle ( |in | = 1 circles in plane L );
r the constant available power gain contours in plane G are related to the
input stability circle ( |out | = 1 circles in plane G );
For the sake of definiteness, let us refer to the level curves of the available power
gain in plane G . For an unconditionally stable two-port (Figure 3.21) the gain
has a maximum within the Smith chart and is singular outside it (i.e. for active
terminations) on the boundary stability circle, that is completely outside the
unit circle.
In the previous case K > 1; if K = 1 we are in a limiting condition, the stability
circle is tangent to the unit circle of the Smith chart and the constant gain level
curves are tangent to the same tangent point (Fig. 3.22). In this situation the
maximum gain occurs in the limit on the tangent point and corresponds to the
MSG.
Finally, if the two-port is conditionally stable the gain goes to infinity in the
part of the stability circumference internal to the Smith chart (Fig. 3.23). In theory, this gain amplification could be exploited in circuit design but the choice of
a load too close to the unstable region is dangerous due to possible technological
fluctuations that may lead the circuit to oscillate. The load and generator should
be therefore chosen by allowing enough stability margin. The choice of terminations could be in practice always influenced by other specifications different
121
C o n s ta n t
g a in c u r v e s
( c ir c le s )
U n s ta b le r e g io n
M a x im u m
a v a ila b le
g a in c o n d itio n
G
G
S ta b le
r e g io n
Figure 3.21 Constant gain level curves and input stability circle for an unconditionally
stable two-port.
C o n s ta n t
g a in c u r v e s
( c ir c le s )
G
G
S ta b le
r e g io n
Figure 3.22 Constant gain level curves and input stability circle for a two-port in the
limit of stability.
from the maximum small-signal gain, i.e. specifications on noise or (as in power
amplifier) on the maximum power; such cases will be discussed in the relevant
chapters.
122
C o n s ta n t
g a in c u r v e s
( c ir c le s )
S ta b le
r e g io n
Figure 3.23 Constant gain level curves and input stability circle for a two-port that is
conditionally stable.
3.8.4
Unilateral two-port
In a unilateral device the internal feedback between port 2 and port 1 is zero,
i.e. S12 = 0. In many semiconductor trasistors this condition is almost verified,
and some devices can be (as a first approximation) considered as unilateral. This
can be quantified by the unilaterality index U defined as:
U=
|S11 S12 S21 S22 |

.
(1 |S11 |2 )(1 |S22 |2 )
For an exactly unilateral device U = 0. We can show that the ratio between
the MAG and the maximum unilateral gain (MUG, see (3.142)) satisfies the
inequality:
(1 + U )2 < MAG/MUG < (1 U )2
i.e., for small U , the error introduced by assuming the device unilateral is of the
order of 4U .
We should however stress that the unilateral approximation neglects stability problems; in fact, for a device with |S11 | < 1 and |S22 | < 1 the unilateral
approximation is always unconditionally stable (the Linville parameter K tends
to infinity in this case).Therefore the unilateral approximation is meaningful only
if the original device is unconditionally stable.
For unilateral device the conjugate matching at both ports simplifies since
in = S11 , out = S22 ; therefore we can simply impose the two separate condi-
3.9 Examples
|S11 |
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0.2
0.75
1.05
0.5
0.95
0.69
0.1
1.2
0.1
ph(S11 ),
degrees
20
-60
20
0
-22
-123
0
0
0
|S12 |
0.05
0.3
0.05
0.025
0.04
0.11
0
0
0
ph(S12 ),
degrees
120
70
120
180
80
48
0
0
0
|S21 |
3
6
3
2
3.5
1.29
0
0
0
ph(S21 ),
degrees
30
90
40
0
165
78
0
0
0
|S22 |
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.1
0.61
0.52
0.3
0.3
1.3
123
ph(S22 ),
degrees
-50
60
-50
0
-13
-77
0
0
0
Table 3.4. Scattering parameters of the analiyzed two-ports.
tions:
G = S11
at the input, and
L = S22
at the output. Similar simplifications occur in the gain expression; as already

seen the maximum available gain of a unilateral device reads:
Gumax =
|S21 |2
.
(1 |S11 |2 )(1 |S22 |2 )
(3.142)
called MUG (Maximum Unilateral Gain).
3.9
Examples
3.9.1
Stability and gains at constant frequency

In this section we analyze some two-ports whose scattering parameters are
known, see Table 3.4. Out of the nine cases considered, the last three are unidirectional devices. Examples include cases deliberately not common in practice
or anomalous.
Consider to begin with the first six examples of non-unidirectional two-ports.
Table 3.5 shows the values of the center (modulus and phase) and the radius of
the input and output stability circles. Note that in case 4, |S | = |S22 | and the
radius of the output stability circle is infinity. Table 3.6 shows the values of K
and |S | for the cases in which there is unconditional stability (denoted by ST,
the remaining UNST). We also report the optimal value of the source and load
terminations and the value of maximum gain. The following comments apply:
124
|GC |
1
2
3
4
5
6
3.33
0.10
1.10
2.04
1.07
1.37
ph(GC ),
degrees
160
107
-19
0
30
127
RSC
|LC |
6.70
0.44
0.23
0.21
0.24
0.34
2.40
0.26
1.02
undef.
3.45
1.74
ph(LC ),
degrees
50
-36
42
undef.
71
86
RLC
0.80
0.41
0.74
inf
3.12
0.69
Table 3.5. Values of the center and radius of the stability circles for the non-unidirectional
two-ports in Table 3.4.
1
2
3
4
5
6
|S |
Tipo
|Gopt |
2.57
1.34
0.34
7.50
0.19
1.12
0.249
2.156
0.673
0.1
0.572
0.254
ST
UNST
UNST
ST
UNST
ST
0.10
undef.
undef.
0.50
undef.
0.88
ph(Gopt ),
degrees
-20
undef.
undef.
0
undef.
127
|Lopt |
0.48
undef.
undef.
0.07
undef.
0.82
ph(Lopt ),
degrees
50
undef.
undef.
0
undef.
86
GM AX ,
dB
10.8
undef.
undef.
7.3
undef.
8.6
Table 3.6. Coefficients for the calculation of the stability for the bi-directional two-ports;
Examples 1, 4, 6 are unconditionally stable; examples 2, 3, 5 conditionally stable.
r If (case 1) K > 1 and |S | < 1, the device is unconditionally stable.

r In cases 2 and 3 we have potential instability because at least one of the
stability conditions is violated. In case 3 in particular we also have |S11 | > 1.
The parameters of the maximum gain and simultaneous power matching are
therefore not defined.
r In case 4 we have unconditional stability, since K > 1 and |S | < 1.
r In case 5 we have potential instability because K < 1, the gain and power
matching parameters are not defined.
r Finally, in case 6 K > 1 and |S | < 1, thus the two-port is unconditionally
stable.
Examples 79 refer to unidirectional two-ports, always unconditionally stable
if |S22 | < 1 and |S11 | < 1. Therefore, the example 7 is unconditionally stable,
examples 8 and 9 potentially unstable. Note that in the latter two cases we have
K < 1, and obviously we always have |S | = |S11 S22 | < 1 since |S11 | < 1 and
|S22 | < 1. Note that in Example 7, the device has no gain, ie its MAG is, in dB,
equal to inf ty and 0 in natural units (shown in the table).
125
3.9 Examples
7
8
9
|S |
Type
|Gopt |
0.03
0.36
0.13
ST
UNST
UNST
0.1
indef.
indef.
ph(Gopt ),
degrees
0
indef.
indef.
|Lopt |
0.3
indef.
indef.
ph(Lopt ),
degrees
0
indef.
indef.
GM AX
0
indef.
indef.
Table 3.7. Coefficients for the stability evaluation of unidirectional two-ports in Table 3.4.
f , GHz
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
6.000
7.000
8.000
9.000
10.000
|S11 |
0.949
0.821
0.648
0.512
0.472
0.464
0.441
0.411
0.454
0.551
11
-29.8
-59.8
-94.2
-133.0
-165.2
176.0
158.2
127.5
91.4
66.6
|S21 |
4.825
4.531
4.092
3.516
3.025
2.714
2.505
2.321
2.093
1.836
21
151.1
123.8
97.6
73.9
54.7
38.4
22.1
4.0
-15.1
-34.5
|S12 |
0.038
0.070
0.092
0.102
0.108
0.118
0.134
0.151
0.168
0.181
12
72.1
56.0
41.4
30.5
25.3
23.7
20.2
15.0
7.0
-2.8
|S22 |
0.781
0.696
0.600
0.518
0.444
0.367
0.302
0.281
0.300
0.328
22
-14.4
-28.9
-42.4
-51.8
-57.8
-65.4
-80.8
-105.9
-134.2
-169.8
Table 3.8. Scattering parameters from 1 to 10 GHz of an active microwave device; the
phase is in degrees.
3.9.2
Stability and gains as a function of frequency

Table 3.8 shows the frequency behaviour of a real device (MESFET NEC) measured at intervals of 1 GHz. Although the device is almost unilateral (i.e. S12 is
small), the stability parameters (K and S ) evaluated as a function of frequency
(Fig. 3.24 ) clearly shows that the device is potentially unstable for frequencies
below 5 GHz. Such potential instability at low frequency is typical of devices
operating in the microwave field, and is related to the decrease of |S21 | with
frequency.
In Figure 3.25 we show (in semi-logarithmic scale) the maximum, unilateral
and maximum stable gains (MAG, MUG, MSG), and the squared modulus of S21 ,
which represents the operational gain when the device is closed on its reference
impedances. Notice that the MAG coincides with the MSG at the limit frequency
corresponding to the transition between unconditional and conditional stability;
beyond that frequency the MAG is undefined and the MSG is shown instead. Also
note that, in the frequency range in which the device is stable, the MSG is greater
than the MAG; this was expected since the MSG refers to a device brought to
the edge of instability. The unilateral gain MUG is always quite different from
the MAG, showing that the device is not, actually, unilateral. Finally, the gain
on the reference impedances, which do not correspond, in the stable frequency
126
1 .4
K
|D S |
1 .2
1
0 .8
0 .6
0 .4
0 .2
0
0
6
1 0
1 2
Figure 3.24 Frequency behaviour of K and S for the device in Table 3.8. The
potentially unstable region is shown in gray.
range, to the optimum condition, is always lower than the MAG, as expected. In
the unstable region the maximum gain is obviously infinite, so the MSG should
be understood as a figure of merit of the device, not the maximum gain that
may be actually achieved.
Suppose now that we modify the device so as to make it more unilateral, for
example by dividing S12 by 10. The new device thus obtained, while retaining
all other parameters unchanged, presents different characteristics. The region
of instability moves to lower frequency, see Fig. 3.26, while the unilateral gain
comes very close to the MAG, see Fig. 3.27. Although in this case the device is,
at high frequency, virtually unilateral, we cannot neglect its potential instability
at low frequency, which can give rise to spurious oscillations at frequencies much
lower than the operating band. Therefore, it is seldom convenient to assume that
an active device is unilateral; on the other hand, it is often necessary to stabilize
devices at low-frequency, as discussed in the chapter devoted to linear amplifiers.
3.10

1. P The open-circuit voltage of a real generator is V0 = 10 V and the internal
impedance is ZG = 50 + j50 . What is the generator available power? What
is the load impedance yielding power match to the generator?
127
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
M A G
M S G
M U G
|S 21|2
6
1 0
1 2
Figure 3.25 Frequency behaviour of the gain of the devices in Table 3.8. The unstable
region is in gray. Notice that in that region the MAG is not defined.
1 2
|D
1 0
K
S
2
1
0
0
6
1 0
1 2
Figure 3.26 Frequency behaviour of K and S for the device in Table 3.8, but with
S12 made 10 times smaller. The potentially unstable region is in grey.
128
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
M A G
M S G
M U G
|S 21|2
1 0
1 2
Figure 3.27 Frequency behaviour of the gain of the devices in Table 3.8, with S12
modified. The unstable region is in gray. Notice that in that region the MAG is not
defined.
2. P Suppose the normalization impedance is 50 . Locate on a Smith chart

(approximately) the following impedances: ZL1 = 50 ; ZL2 = 50 + j50 ;
ZL3 = 50 j50 ; ZL4 = 100 ; ZL5 = 25 ; ZL6 = 0 ; ZL7 = .
3. P A transmission line with length equal to g /4 is loaded with a 100
impedance. The characteristic impedance is 50 . Locate on the Smith chart
the load impedance and input impedance. What is Zi ? This structure is called
a quarter-wavelength transformer.
4. P A resistive two-port has the following impedance matrix:
21
Z=R
12
Sketch a possible structure (implementing the above impedance matrix and
evaluate the scattering matrix (assume the normalization impedance R0 = R)
.
5. P A reactive two-port has the following impedance matrix:
21
Z = jX
12
Evaluate the scattering matrix assuming R0 = X and check that the properties of the S-matrix of a lossless two-port are verified.
129
6. P A real generator has internal impedance ZG = 50 j50 and open circuit

voltage V0 = 10 V. Assuming R0 = 50 derive the power wave equivalent
circuit (G and b0 ).
7. P A load exhibits a reflection coefficient equal in magnitude to -10 dB.
What part (in %) of the incident power is reflected?
8. P A real generator with G = 0.2 and b0 = 1 W1/2 is connected to a load
with L = 0.5. Evaluate the power delivered to the load and the maximum
available power of the generator.
9. P A loaded two-port has the following characteristics: Pin = 10 mW; Pav,in =
20 mW; PL = 100 mW; Pav,out = 300 mW. Evaluate the two-port gains Gop ,
Gav , Gt .
10. P A two-port has the following scattering matrix (R0 = 50 ):
0 0
S=
10 0
Evaluate the two-port MAG. Is the two-port unilateral?
11. P A two-port has the following scattering matrix (R0 = 50 ):
0.1 0.01
S=
10 0.1
12.
13.
14.
15.
Compute the input and output reflection coefficients when the two-port is
loaded on 100 .
Q Maximum power transfer between generator and load through a two-port
implies simultaneous power matching at both ports. Is this condition always
possible?
P A two-port has K = 2, S21 = 15(1 + j) and S12 = 0.1. Evaluate the twoport MAG and MSG. Assume the two-port is unconditionally stable.
Q A two-port has K = 2.5, |S | = 1.5. Is the two-port unconditionally stable?
P Discuss the stability (according to the one- and two-parameter criteria) of
the two-port with scattering matrix:
j0.1 10
S=
.
0.1 0.1
Suppose now to exchange ports 1 and 2, the new scattering matrix becomes:
0.1 0.1
S0 =
.
10 j0.1
Does the 2-port stability change?

16. Q Discuss the stability (according to the one- and two-parameter criteria) of
the unilateral two-port with scattering matrix:
j1.1 0
S=
5 0.1
17. Q Is a unilateral device always unconditionally stable?
130
18. Q Suppose a device in unconditionally stable above f0 and potentially unstable below f0 . Qualitatively sketch the behaviour of the device MAG and MSG
as a function of frequency.
19. Q Consider two passive two-ports, one reactive (lossless), the other resistive
(lossy). What kind of property do we expect from their stability factors?
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
W. H. Ku, Unilateral Gain and Stability Criterion of Active Two-Ports in Terms of

Scattering Parameters, Proceedings of IEEE, vol. 54, pp. 1966-1967, November 1996.
D. Woods, Reappraisal of the Unconditional Stability Criteria for Active 2-Port Networks in Terms of S Parameter, IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems, vol. 23,
No. 2, pp. 73-81, February 1976.
E. F. Bolinder, Survey of Some Properties of Linear Network, IRE Transactions on
Circuit Theory, pp. 70-78, September 1957.
M. Lee Edwards and J. H. Sinksky, A New Criterion for Linear 2-Port Stability Using
a Single Geometrically Derived Parameter, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory
and Techniques, vol. 40, No. 12, pp. 2303-2311, December 1992.
G. Lombardi, B. Neri, Criteria for the Evaluation of Unconditional Stability of
Microwave Linear Two-Ports: a Critical Review and New Proof, IEEE Transactions
on Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol. 47, No. 6, pp. 746-751, June 1999.
R. P. Meys, Review and Discussion of Stability Criteria for Linear 2-Ports, IEEE
Transactions on Circuits and Systems, vol. 37, No. 11, pp. 1450-1452, November 1990.
K. Kurokawa, Power Waves and the Scattering Matrix, IEEE Transactions on
Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol. 13, No. 3, pp. 194-202, March 1965.
T. T. Ha, Solid State Microwave Amplifier Design, New York Wiley, Appendix 1-4,
pp.285-296, 1981.
G. Gonzales, Microwave Amplifier Design, New Englewood Cliff, 1984.
J. M. Rollett, Stability and Power-Gain Invariants of Linear Twoports, IRE Transactions on Circuit Theory, vol. 9, pp. 29-32, March 1962.
J. M. Mason, Power Gain in Feedback Amplifiers, Transactions of the IRE, vol. 1,
pp. 20-25, June 1964.
J. M. Mason, Some Properties of Three-Terminal Devices, IRE Transactions on Circuit Theory, vol. 4, pp. 330-332, December 1957.
G. E. Bodway, Two Port Power Flow Analysis Using Generalized Scattering Parameters, The Microwave Journal, pp. 61-69, May 1967.
131
Directional couplers and power

dividers
4.1
Coupled quasi-TEM lines

We define coupled transmission lines multiconductor lines formed by N conductors plus a ground plane. Multiconductor lines have different applications in
microwave and high-speed logical circuits:
r As multiconductor buses, suitable to transmit of N parallel digital signals

(high-speed digital circuits), in which case of course the coupling between
lines is unwanted (i.e. translates into crosstalk between the lines);
r as coupled structures used in many distributed analog components, such as
directional couplers, coupled line filters, and so forth.
In analog circuit components coupled lines are usually made of two or four
conductors; common are for example two- or four-conductor coupled microstrips
(see Fig. 4.1) and the coupled coplanar lines (see Fig. 4.2).
W
W
h
e
r
h
e
Figure 4.1 Two or four-conductor coupled microstrips.
e
Figure 4.2 Coupled coplanar lines.
132
I1(z )
I1(z )
V 1(z )
L
I2(z )
V 2(z )
I1(z + d z )
0
C 0-C
V 1(z )
V 1(z + d z )
m
C
m
I2(z )
V 2(z )
133
I2(z + d z )
0
C 0-C
m
V 2(z + d z )
d z
Figure 4.3 Scheme of coupled lines and elementary equivalent circuit.
4.1.1
Analysis of symmetrical coupled lines

In general, a multiconductor line with N conductors plus ground supports N
TEM or quasi-TEM propagation modes. The analysis will be limited here to twoconductor lines (plus ground), operating in sinusoidal steady state. Therefore,
voltages and currents will be indicated by their associated phasors.
Two coupled lines have voltages V1 (z) and V2 (z) and currents I1 (z) and I2 (z),
as shown in Fig. 4.3. Voltages and currents can be combined into a vector of
tensions V and currents I such that:

V1
I1
V =
,
I=
.
V2
I2
The line is defined, per unit length, by specific parameters that describe not
only the inductive and capacitive phenomena typical of a single line (per unit
length inductance and capacitance) but also the capacitive coupling (mutual
capacitance) or the inductive coupling (mutual inductance) between neighbouring lines. From now on, we assume for simplicity (and because this is the most
significant case) that the two lines are geometrically (and electrically) symmetric,
and that losses are negligible.
Starting from the per-unit-length equivalent circuit we can describe the capacitive part (a capacitor circuit, see Fig. 4.3) with a per-unit-length capacitance
matrix:
C0 Cm
C=
(4.1)
Cm C0
similarly the inductive part is described by a per-unit-length inductance matrix:
L0 Lm
L=
.
(4.2)
Lm L0
134
The p.u.l. capacitance matrix relates the vector of the charges q (per unit lenght)
induced in the two lines to the line voltages V as:
q = CV
while the inductance matrix (p.u.l.) relates the vector of the p.u.l. magnetic
fluxes to the vector of the currents flowing in the lines, I, as:
= LI.
The voltages and currents satisfy the generalized telegraphers equation:
dV (z)
= jLI
(4.3)
dz
dI(z)
= jCV
(4.4)
dz
from which, eliminating e.g. the current from the second into the first equation,
we obtain:
d2 V (z)
= 2 LCV .
dz 2
We look for exponential solutions for the complex voltage phasors under the form
of propagating waves:
V (z) = V 0 exp(jz)
where V 0 = (V01 , V02 )T is a constant vector. Substituting we obtain the linear
homogeneous system:
2
I 2 LC V 0 = 0.
To obtain a nontrivial (zero) solution we have to set the system determinant to
zero; this allows to derive the values of the propagation constant . For simplicity
let us set:
L0 Lm
C0 Cm
L0 C0 Lm Cm L0 Cm + Lm C0
AB
LC =
=
=
.
Lm L0
Cm C0
L0 Cm + Lm C0 L0 C0 Lm Cm
BA
Substituting and setting the determinant to zero we obtain:
2 = 2 (A B).
Thus can assume four values, two with positive sign and two with negative sign,
implying forward and backward propagating waves, respectively; the absolute
value of the propagation constants is however in general different, implying that
two propagation modes can exist with different phase velocity. Developing the
previous equations and substituting we obtain the two values:
12 = 2 (L0 + Lm )(C0 Cm )
(4.5)
22
(4.6)
= (L0 Lm )(C0 + Cm ).
135
Before trying a physical interpretation of the two propagation modes, let us

eliminate the two p.u.l. inductances by introducing, as done for a single line, the
in air or in vacuo capacitances. In fact, for an in vacuo line or set of coupled
lines all propagation modes have phase velocity equal to the velocity of light in
vacuo, c0 . Thus, for a line in air we have:
2
= 2 (L0 + Lm )(C0a Cma )
c20
2
= 2 = 2 (L0 Lm )(C0a + Cma ).
c0
2
1a
=
(4.7)
2
2a
(4.8)
As for a single line, the inductances are not affected by the presence of a dielectric.
Deriving the p.u.l. inductances as a function of the in-air capacitances we finally
obtain for the propagation constants of the coupled line 1 and 2 (the double
sign refers to the forward and backward modes) where:
r
C0 C m
1 =
(4.9)
c0 C0a Cma
r
C0 + Cm
2 =
(4.10)
c0 C0a + Cma
We can finally express the propagation constants in terms of a proper effective
permittivity as follows:
1 =
eff1
(4.11)
c0
2 =
eff2 .
(4.12)
c0
where:
C0 Cm
C0a Cma
C0 + Cm
=
C0a + Cma
eff1 =
(4.13)
eff2
(4.14)
To derive a physical interpretation of the two propagation modes we can derive

from the telegraphers equation the solution eigenvectors. Since the determinant
of the system is zero the two equations are linearly dependent; substituting in
the first equation of the syste the first value of 2 we obtain for the eigenvector
V 0 the relationship:
V01 = V02
while for the second value of 2 we obtain:
V01 = V02 .
In the first propagation mode the potential of the two lines is equal section
by section; this mode is called the even mode and the electric field topology is
symmetrical, see Fig. 4.4 for a coupled microstrip line. In the second propagation
136
H
E
(a )
(b )
Figure 4.4 Field topologies for the even and odd modes in coupled microstrips.
modes the line potentials are equal but opposite section by section; we call this
an odd propagation mode, with an antisymmetrical electric field pattern as shwon
in Fig. 4.4. For the even mode we can therefore set V01 = V02 = V0 , while for the
odd mode V01 = V0 , V02 = V0 .
To simplify the notation let us introduce the concept of even and odd-mode per
unit lenght capacitances. Those are defined as the capacitances towards ground
of one line when the two lines have the same potential or opposite potentials,
respectively. With reference to Fig. 4.5, we obtain that the capacitance of a single
line towards the ground is, for the two modes:
Ce = C0 Cm
(4.15)
Co = C0 + Cm .
(4.16)
C o Ce
(4.17)
Note that we always have:
since Cm 0; the equality hold only if the strips are not coupled any more, i.e.
their distance tends to infinity implying Cm 0.
The propagation constants of the two modes can be therefore identified in
terms of the even and odd mode capacitances. We obtain:
r
Ce
(4.18)
1 = e =
c0 Cea
r
Co
2 = o =
(4.19)
c0 Coa
137
s h o r t- c ir c u ite d
+
C
0
C 0-C
2 C
m
C 0-C
m
V
0
C 0-C
E v e n m o d e
2 C
C 0-C
-V
0
O d d m o d e
Figure 4.5 Definition of the even and odd mode capacitances in a two-conductor line.
from which the even and odd mode effective permittivities result as:
Ce
Cpa
Co
=
.
Cda
effp =
(4.20)
effd
(4.21)
In a purely TEM coupled line the effective permittivities of the two modes are
equal and equal to the medium permittivity. This does not happen in general to
a quasi-TEM line with a inhomogeneous cross section, since the field patterns of
the two modes are different.
Substituting the voltage solutions in the telegraphers equations we find that
for both modes the forward wave current is proportional to the forward wave
voltage V0 . The proportionality factor can be interpreted as the even (odd) mode
characteristic admittance, i.e. the inverse of the even (odd) mode characteristic
impedance Z0e (Z0o ). These turn out to be expressed as:
1
Z0ae
=
effe
c0 Ce Cae
1
Z0ao
=
=
effo
c0 Co Cao
Z0e =
Z0o
(4.22)
(4.23)
where the index a denotes in-air quantities. The two characteristic impedances
follow the inequality:
Z0e Z0 Z0o
(4.24)
where Z0 is the impedance of an isolated line and the equality sign only holds if
the disstance bewtween the coupled lines tends to infinity.1 No general relationship exists instead for the even and odd mode effective permittivities. Increasing
the spacing between lines the even mode and the odd mode impedances asymptotically tend to the isolated line impedance from above and below, respectively,
see Fig. 4.6.
1
In fact we have Co C0 Ce but also Cao Ca0 Cae from which Co Cao C0 Ca0 Ce Cad ,
from which, taking into account the definition of impedances, we immediately have (4.24).
138
Z
Z
0 e
0 o
S /h
Figure 4.6 Behaviour of the even and odd mode characteristic impedances as a
function of the line spacing.
C o u p le d m ic r o s tr ip
S lo t- c o u p le d c o u p le d m ic r o s tr ip
C o u p le d c o p la n a r w a v e g u id e
B r o a d s id e - c o u p le d c o u p le d s tr ip lin e
E d g e - c o u p le d c o u p le d s tr ip lin e
B r o a d s id e - c o u p le d c o u p le d s tr ip lin e
Figure 4.7 Some examples of coupled microstrips, coplanar lines and striplines.
4.1.2
Coupled planar lines

Some examples of coupled planar lines are shown in Fig. 4.7. When exploited
in the realization of directional couplers such structures should allow for a large
difference between the even and odd mode characteristic impedances (deriving
from a strong coupling C, see the definition in (4.55)) while the even and odd
mode phase velocities should be (ideally) equal. In practice a two-conductor
microstrip or coplanar line do not allow for either of the two conditions, and are
therefore suited to fabricate low-coupling couplers only. Strong coupling can be
achieved by broadside-coupled striplines or by properly exploited multiconductor
139
lines (see e.g. the so-called Lange coupler); while the copled stripline is a full
TEM structure the microstrip-based couplers are not ideal from the stanpoint
of having the same even and odd mode phase velocity.
4.1.2.1
Coupled microstrips
Two-conductor coupled microstrips are a textbook example of coupled quasiTEM line, although in practice such a structure is limited to low coupling values,
for technological reasons related to the minimum separation value that can be
achieved (of the order of 50-10 m).
Let us call h the substrate thickness of dielectric constant r , W the strip
width, S the slot width, and further define the normalized strip and slot widths:
u = W/h
(4.25)
g = S/h
(4.26)
The effective permittivity of the even and odd modes can be obtined by empirical
approximations as follows:
ae (v)be (r )
r + 1 r 1
10
effe =
1+
(4.27)
2
2
v
r + 1
+ ao (u, r ) eff exp(co g do ) + eff
(4.28)
effo =
2
while for the impedances we have:
r
eff
Z0e = Z0
effe
Z0 eff Q4
1
377
r
eff
1
Z0o = Z0
.
Z0 eff Q10
effo
1
377
The previous formulae exploit the following parameters of the isolated
width W :
"
#
1/2
r + 1 r 1
12
2
eff =
+
1+
+ 0.04 (1 u)
u1
2
2
u
1/2
r + 1 r 1
12
eff =
+
1+
u1
2
2
u
moreover:
60
8 u
Z0 =
log
+
u1
eff
u 4
120
1
u 1.
Z0 =
eff 1.393 + u + 0.667 log (1.444 + u)
(4.29)
(4.30)
line of
(4.31)
(4.32)
(4.33)
(4.34)
140
The following parameters are also exploited:

20 + g 2
+ g exp(g)
10 + g 2
"
v 2 #
v 3
v 4 + 52
1
1
+
ae (v) = 1 +
log 4
log 1 +
49
v + 0.432
18.7
18.1
0.053
r 0.9
be (r ) = 0.564
r + 3
r + 1
ao (u, r ) = 0.7287 eff
[1 exp (0.179u)]
2
0.747r
bo (r ) =
0.15 + r
cd = bd (r ) [bd (r ) 0.207] exp(0.414u)
v=u
do = 0.539 + 0.694 exp(0.562u)

and the fitting function set:
Q1 = 0.8695u0.194
Q2 = 1 + 0.7519g + 0.189g 2.31
"
6 #0.387
8.4
g 10
1
Q3 = 0.1975 + 16.6 +
log
+
g
241
1 + (g/3.4)10
1
2Q1
Q2 exp(g)uQ3 + [2 exp(g)] uQ3
0.638
Q5 = 1.794 + 1.14 log 1 +
g + 0.517g 2.43
1
g 10
1
1.154
Q6 = 0.2305 +
log
10 + 5.1 log 1 + 0.598g
281.3
1 + (g/5.8)
Q4 =
10 + 190g 2
1 + 82.3g 3
g 5
Q8 = exp 6.5 0.95 log g
0.15
1
Q9 = log Q7 Q8 +
16.5
Q2 Q4 Q5 exp Q6 uQ9 log u

Q10 =
Q2
Q7 =
An example of the behaviour of even and odd mode characteristic impedances

and of the related permittivities is shown in Fig. 4.8 and Fig. 4.9.
Note that the even and odd mode impedances tend, for large values of the ratio
S/h, to the value proper of the isolated microstrip. On the global behaviour of
the even and odd mode impedances the following remarks hold:
141
1 2 0
S =
1 1 0
5 0 m m
S =
5 0
S = 1 5 0
S = 3 0 0
S = 4 5 0
1 0 0
9 0
Z
8 0
0 e
, O h m
0 o
, O h m
m m
m m
m m
m m
7 0
6 0
5 0
4 0
S =
3 0
2 0
0 .1
0 .2
5 0 m m
0 .3
Z
0 .4
0 .5
W /h
0 .6
0 .7
0 .8
0 .9
Figure 4.8 Behavior of even and oddo mode characteristic impedances as a function of
the ratio W/h for coupled microstrips on a GaAs substrate, h = 300 mu m.
r For growing W/h both impedances decrease because the capacitance towards
ground of both modes increases;
r For increasing S/h the odd mode capacitance decreases and therefore the
odd mode impedance increases. At the same time the even mod capacitance
increases and therefore the even mode impedance decreases.
The behavior of the effective permettivity is less straightforward. The even mode
impedance in coupled microstrips is higher because most field lines go through
the substrate in the even mode. The odd mode permittivity is close (for high
coupling) to (r + 1)/2 because the field lines are approximately distributed in
an equal way in the substrate and in the air. Furthermore:
r With increasing of W/h the field is increasingly confined in the substrate and
both permittivities grow;
r With decreasing by S/h the odd mode field is increasingly concentrated in

the slot between the two strips, and the odd mode permittivity decreases
approaching ( epsilonr + 1)/ 2, and is little affected by S/h.
4.2
The directional coupler

The directional coupler is four-port network, which has in general the purpose of
distributing the power delivered to a given port (for example port 1) between two
142
9 .5
e ffe
S =
S = 1
S = 3
S = 4
8 .5
S =
5 0 m m
5 0
5 0
0 0
5 0
m m
m m
m m
m m
S = 4 5 0 m m
e ffo
7 .5
S =
0 .1
0 .2
0 .3
0 .4
0 .5
W /h
0 .6
0 .7
0 .8
5 0 m m
0 .9
Figure 4.9 Behavior of even and oddo mode effective permettivities as a function of
the ratio W/h for coupled microstrips on a GaAs substrate, h = 300 mu m.
other ports (for example 2 and 3) maintaining port 4 isolated. The port where
power enters is named the incident port, the two ports where power is divided
are called coupled and transmitted port; the other port called the isolated port,
as no (or very little) power comes out of it (Fig. 4.10). From this point of view,
the directional coupler would appear similar to the so-called power divider: this
is an n-port where the power entering port 1 is divided, equally or according to
some repartition scheme, into the remining n 1 ports. While couplers can be
exploited as power dividers, this component allows for a more specific function,
i.e. imposing a specific phase relationship between the power wave at the coupled
and transmitted ports, typically either 90 or 180 degrees.
The directional coupler has several applications in the field of microwave circuits; it is used (in passive circuits) in the realization of delay lines, filters and
matching networks; in active circuits, is a major building block in balanced amplifiers, mixers, attenuators, modulators and phase shifters. It should be remembered that directional couplers have a behavior that depends on frequency: it
is ideal at centerband, and exhibits a gradual deterioration when moving away
from the design frequency. Usually, directional couplers are rather narrowband
(for example 20% of the center frequency).
The coupler is chracterized by a number of parameters. Consider port 1 as the
incident port, port 2 as the coupled port, port 3 as the transmission port and
P
1
K P
1
T r a s m is s io n
1
R P 1= 0
C o u p lin g
T P
143
IP 1= 0
Figure 4.10 Scheme of a directional coupler.
port 4 as the isolated port. We now define the power coupling coefficient:

P2
,
K|dB = 10 log10
P1
where the isolation of port 4 (ideally zero or in dB):

P4
I|dB = 10 log10
.
P1
The (power) transmision coefficient to port 3 is:

P3
T |dB = 10 log10
.
P1
Finally the power reflection coefficient R at port 1 (ideally zero or in dB)
is:
R|dB = 20 log10 (1 )
where 1 is the voltage reflection cofficient. Usually, directional couplers are
reactive elements, i.e. show low power dissipation; this implies P1 P2 + P3 , i.e.
the input power is partitioned between ports 2 and 3. A further figure of merit
of the coupler is the directivity (ideally infinite):

P2
D|dB = 10 log10
= I|dB K|dB .
P4
Fig. 4.11 shows some examples of directional couplers. The couplers can be
divided into various categories:
r Simple coupled-line couplers; can be uniform or non-uniform. In non-uniform

couplers the bandwidth can be increased, at the expense of a larger footprint
(in uniform couplers the centerband length is of the order of a quarter wavelength). The coupling achieved by these structures is low in microstrips (it is
typically impossible to obtain a 1/2:1/2 power distribution on the coupled and
transmission ports, which corresponds to the so-called 3 dB coupler), high for
stripline structures (in particular, broadside coupled striplines). The coupled
144
r
r
line couplers show a centerband phase shift of 90 degrees between the coupled
port and the port in transmission; often they are referred to as 90 degrees
hybrids.
Interdigitated couplers, such as the Lange coupler; they are similar in
behaviour and operation principle to coupled line couplers but can reach
higher coupling (in particular 3 dB);
Branch-line couplers, they are based on an interference principle and permit
to obtain 3 dB couplers but they hve a large footprint (typically square with
a centerband side of a quarter wavelength) and narrow band. They also are
90 degrees hybrids.
The hybrid ring (also called rat race coupler) is also based on interference
principles but also allows to impose a 180 degrees shift between the output
ports at centerband. They are often used to generate signals balanced with
respect to ground (or differential signals; this is particularly useful in mixers). The footprint is large (the periphery is of the order of a wavelength at
centerband).
Other types are the tandem couplers, the meander line couplers and the transformer couplers.
It should be emphasized that branch-line couplers and the hybrid ring can also
be implemented in a concentrated form (when technologically possible), thus
obtaining structures that are much more compact than the distributed ones.
4.3
The two-conductor coupled line coupler

We start from considering a symmetric two-conductor coupled line carrying an
even and an odd TEM or qusi-TEM propagation mode. In this case the coupler
can be anaylzed through a superposition of even and odd mode excitation.
Let us suppose to consider a coupled line section of length l (i.e. a four port)
closed on the reference resistance R0 on all ports, see Fig. 4.12. Port 1 is connected to a signal generator with internal resistance R0 . The excitation can be
decomposed into an even and odd excitation as shown in Fig. 4.13; each of them
only excites the corresponding mode.
Le us call Vio and Vie the odd and even mode input voltages and Voo and Voe
the output voltages; we have:
V1 = Vie + Vio
(4.35)
V2 = Vie Vio
(4.36)
V3 = Voe + Voo
(4.37)
V4 = Voe Voo .
(4.38)
The even and odd mode voltages can be evaluated from the analysis of the
loaded two-port in Fig. 4.14. For definiteness let us refer to the even mode. The
U n ifo r m
c o u p le d lin e c o u p le r
N o n - u n ifo r m
L a n g e c o u p le r
c o u p le d lin e c o u p le r
T a n d e m
B r a n c h - lin e c o u p le r
145
c o u p le r
H y b r id r in g ( r a t r a c e ) c o u p le r
M u ltis e c tio n b r a n c h - lin e c o u p le r

Figure 4.11 Examples of directional couplers.
scattering matrix of the even mode line (characteristic impedance Z0e and guided
wavelength e ) vs. the reference impedance Z0e can be trivially written as:
0
exp(je )
Se =
exp(je )
0
where e = 2l/e is the electrical line length.
146
Z
3
Z
4
Z
E
1
g
Z
g
Figure 4.12 Coupled two-line coupler.
V
R
0
+
E
V
1
io
2
+
0
o e
E v e n m o d e lin e
V
1
o o
E g/2
R
0
io
E g/2
R
V
o e
ie
E g/2
E g/2
V
ie
L in e fe d a t p o r t 1
V
0
4
R
V
2
R
4
O d d m o d e lin e
Figure 4.13 Decomposing the excitation in even and odd modes.
o o
147
0 e
a
0
ie
ie
0 i
= Z
ie
S
i
R
e
b
V
o e
0 o
= Z
o e
o e
R
0
Figure 4.14 Even-mode line as a loaded two-port.
The reflection coefficients of the load and generator with impedance R0 are:
0e =
R0 Z0e
R0 + Z0e
while the even mode forward wave generator at the input has the value:
Eg
Z0e
b0e =
.
2 Z0e + R0
From the analysis of the loaded two-port we find that:
boe = b0e
eje
1 20e e2je
(4.39)
aoe = b0e
0e eje
1 20e e2je
(4.40)
0e e2je
1 20e e2je
1
aie = b0e
2
1 0e e2je
bie = b0e
(4.41)
(4.42)
and voltages can be recovered from:

p
p
Vie = aie Z0e + bie Z0e
p
p
Voe = boe Z0e + aoe Z0e
A similar results holds for the odd mode line:
boo = b0o
ejo
1 20o e2jo
(4.43)
aoo = b0o
0e ejo
1 20e e2jo
(4.44)
0e e2jo
1 20e e2jo
1
= b0o
1 20o e2jo
bio = b0o
(4.45)
aio
(4.46)
148
where:
0o =
R0 Z0o
R0 + Z0o
and the odd mode forward wave generator is:
Eg
Z0o
b0o =
2 R0 + Z0o
while o = 2l/o . Substituting the foward wave generator value we finally
obtain:
Vie =
Eg 1 + 0e e2je
Z0e
2
2j
e
2 1 0e e
R0 + Z0e
(4.47)
Vio =
Z0o
Eg 1 + 0o e2jo
2 1 20o e2jo R0 + Z0o
(4.48)
Voe =
Eg (1 + 0e )eje
Z0e
2 1 20e e2je R0 + Z0e
(4.49)
Voo =
Z0o
Eg (1 + 0o )ejo
.
2 1 20o e2jo R0 + Z0o
(4.50)
As a first step, let us evaluate the resistance R0 allowing for matching at port
1. To this purpose suppose that the phase velocities of the even and odd modes
are equal:
e = o = .
We anticipate that the centerband frequency of the coupler corresponds to l =
g /4, i.e. ej = j, e2j = 1. In this condition vi have that the port 1 voltage
V1 = Vie + Vio is:
2
2
Z0e
Eg
Eg
Eg
Z0e
1 0e
Z0o
1 0o
Z0o
+
.
V1 =
+
=
2
2
2 R0 + Z0e 1 + 20e
2 R0 + Z0o 1 + 20o
2 R02 + Z0o
R02 + Z0e
Port 1 is matched if V1 = Eg /2, i.e.:
R02
2
Z2
Z0e
+ 2 0o 2 = 1,
2
+ Z0e
R0 + Z0o
from which the matching condition:

R0 =
Z0e Z0o .
(4.51)
Taking into account this condition the even and odd mode reflection coefficients
result as:
R0 Z0o
Z0e Z0o
=
0o =
=
R0 + Z0o
Z0e + Z0o
R0 Z0e
Z0o Z0e
0e =
=
= .
R0 + Z0e
Z0o + Z0e
If we move from the centerband frequency, taking into account that:
Z0e Z0o
2 Z0e
1+=1+
=
Z0e + Z0o
Z0e + Z0o
Z0e Z0o
2 Z0o
1=1
=
Z0e + Z0o
Z0e + Z0o
149
(4.52)
(4.53)
we obtain that the even and odd mode voltages can be expressed as:
1 e2j
Eg
(1 + )
4
1 2 e2j
Eg
1 + e2j
=
(1 )
4
1 2 e2j
Eg
(1 )ej
=
(1 + )
4
1 2 e2j
(1 + )ej
Eg
(1 )
=
.
4
1 2 e2j
Vie =
Vio
Voe
Voo
We can readily evaluate V1 , V2 , V3 , V4 summing or substracting the even and

odd mode input and output even and odd mode voltages; we obtain:
Eg
2
Eg (1 e2j )
V2 = Vie Vio =
2 1 2 e2j
Eg (1 2 )ej
V3 = Voe + Voo =
2 1 2 e2j
V4 = Voe Voo = 0
V1 = Vie + Vio =
We conclude that port 1 is always matched, independent on frequency, while port

4 is always isolated from port 1, i.e. S11 = S41 = 0 for all frequencies. Transmission from port 1 to 2 and 3 is possible and port 2 is called coupled, port 3 is
called transmitted. Taking into account the structure twofold symmetry we have:
S11 = S22 = S33 = S44 = 0
(all ports are matched):
S41 = S32 = S23 = S14 = 0
(defining isolation of ports with respect to the input), and then:
S21 = S12 = S34 = S43
(defining coupling), and finally:
S31 = S13 = S42 = S24
(defining trasmission). Some of those relationships are anyway imposed by reciprocity. Taking into account that the reference impedance is the same for all ports
and that port 1 is matched (the total voltage V1 coincides with the progressive
150
value) we simply have Sji = Vj /Vi ; the scattering parameters of the synchronous
coupler are then immediately evaluated.
4.3.1
Frequency behaviour of the synchronous coupler

In the synchronous case the scattering matrix of the coupler as a function of the
electrical length is:
(1 e2j ) (1 2 )ej
0
0
1 2 e2j 1 2 e2j
2j
2 j
(1 e
(1
)
)e
0
0
2 2j
1 2 e2j
1
e
(4.54)
S() =
(1 e2j )
(1 2 )ej
0
0
1 2 e2j
1 2 e2j
(1 2 )ej (1 e2j )
0
0
2 2j
2 2j
1 e
1 e
where:
eff l
2l
=
=
.
g
c0
At centerband (i.e. at the frequency where the line length is a quarter wavelength)
= /2 and the nonzero scattering matrix elements are:
2
Z0e Z0o
=
C
2
1+
Z0e + Z0o
p
2 Z0e Z0o
1 2
=
j
=
j
1 C 2.
= j
1 + 2
Z0e + Z0o
S21 =
(4.55)
S31
(4.56)
The parameter C is the coupling of the coupler; the power coupling is K =

C . For the 3 dB coupler (equal power
division between the coupled and the
transmission port) K = 1/2 and C = 1/ 2. The centerband scattering matrix
can be therefore written as:
0
C
j 1 C 2 0
0
0
j 1 C 2
.
C
S(/2) =
(4.57)
j 1 C 2
0
C
0
0
j 1 C 2
C
0
2
We summarize here for convenience the formulae for the design and analysis of
a coupler relating the termination resistance R0 and coupling with the even and
odd mode impedances:
r
r
p
1+C
1C
Z0e Z0o
, R0 = Z0o Z0e , Z0e = R0
, Z0o = R0
.
C=
Z0e + Z0o
1C
1+C
3 dB couplers and in general couplers with high coupling cannot be realized
with coupled microstrips. In fact, to obtain a 3 dB coupler on 50 we need
Z0e = 121 , Z0o = 21 ; such values would require an extremely close spacing
(a few microns) between the strips, that is technologically inconvenient to obtain
151
0
S
-2
2 1
5 0
(d e g re e s )
3 1
-5 0
S
, < S
3 1
-6
-8
2 1
3 1
2 1
-1 0 0
< S
|S
2 1
|, |S
3 1
| (d B )
-4
-1 0
-1 2
-1 5 0
1
4
5
6
7
9
1
4
5
6
7
Figure 4.15 Magnitude and phase of S21 and S31 for a 3 dB coupler.
-2 0
S
| (d B )
-3 0
3 1
|, |S
2 1
-4 0
-4 5
|S
|, |S
1 1
|S
-3 5
S
-2
4 1
| (d B )
-2 5
0
4 1
1 1
2 1
-4
S
3 1
-6
-8
-1 0
2
4
5
6
7
-1 2
1
4
5
6
7
Figure 4.16 Magnitude of S11 , S41 (left) and S21 , S31 (right) of a 3 dB coupler. The
ratio between the effective permittivities of the two modes is 0.9.
in hybrid or integrated implementations (besides leading to large losses), cfr.

Example 4.1. In such cases we can exploit multiconductor couplers such as the
Lange coupler.
In Fig. 4.15 we show the magnitude (in dB) of S21 and S31 for a 3 dB coupler.
The coupler exploits line with even and odd effective permettivities equal to 5;
the centerband frequency is 5 GHz. The coupler is comparatively narrowband as
far as coupling and transmission are concerned.
Example 4.1:
Try and design a 3 dB coupler on 50 in a coupled microstrip using a GaAs
substrate with thickness h = 300 m.
As already seen we have Z0e = 121 , Z0o = 21 . From Fig. 4.18, the needed
width and slot values are W/h = 0.2, S/h = 0.0018, i.e. W = 60 m, s = 0.5 m.
The slot width is far too smal to be implemented from a technological standpoint.
152
0 .8
0 .7
|S
0 .6
2 1
|S
|
3 1
0 .5
|S
0 .4
0 .3
4 1
|S
0 .2
1 1
0 .1
0
0
1 0
1 5
2 0
2 5
P e r c e n t v e lo c ity m is m a tc h , d
3 0
3 5
4 0
Figure 4.17 Magnitude of the S paramters of a 3 dB coupler in the presence of velocity
mismatch.
4.3.2
Effect of velocity mismatch and compensation techniques

In quasi-TEM couplers the even and odd mode velocities are in principle differ
ent. Supposing R0 = Z0o Z0e , if e 6= o we have:
Eg
1 e2je
(1 + )
4
1 2 e2je
Eg
1 + e2jo
=
(1 )
4
1 2 e2jo
Eg
(1 )eje
=
(1 + )
4
1 2 e2je
Eg
(1 + )ejo
=
(1 )
.
4
1 2 e2jo
Vie =
Vio
Voe
Voo
from which V1 , V2 , V3 , V4 can be recovered as usual. We then obtain:

Sj1 = 2
Vj
,
Eg
j = 2, 3, 4
taking into account that R0 is the same for all ports. The reflection coefficient
at port 1 can be evaluated considering that:
I1 =
Eg V1
;
R0
153
1 0
1 0
0 o
3 0
Z
1 0 0
0 e
5 0
7 0
9 0
/ h
1 1 0
2 0
1 0
1 3 0
1 5 0
-1
1 7 0
3 0
1 9 0
4 0
1 0
-2
1 0
-3
1 0
5 0
-2
S / h
6 0
7 0
8 0
1 0
-1
9 0
1 0
Figure 4.18 Level curves of Z0e and Z0o () as a function of S/h, W/h (log units) for
r = 13.
but the forward and backward voltages at port 1 can be written as:
V1 + R0 I1
Eg
=
2
2
Eg
V1 R0 I1
= V1
=
2
2
V1+ =
(4.58)
V1
(4.59)
from which:
S11 =
V1
2V1
1
+ =
Eg
V1
We do not carry out the computations in detail but come to the main consequences. Velocity mismatch leads to an impedance mismatche at port 1 and to a
decrease of the isolation at port 4, while coupling and transmission are affected
but not dramatically. Fig. 4.16 shows the parameters of the already analyzed 3D
dB coupler; the coupler length was assumed according to the empirical recipe:
e
o 1
l=
+
4
4 2
In the example, eff = 5 for the even and eff = 4.5 for the odd mode. Among
the unfavourable consequences of mismatch perhaps the more serious one is the
decreased isolation, that may cause trouble in systems where the coupler is the
interface between a transmitter (strong signals) and a receiver (weak signals)
and therefore a leakage from the strong signal environment and the weak one
can impair the system operation.
154
(a )
(b )
Figure 4.19 Shielded directional coupler (a) and with dielectric overlay (b).
An approximate estimate of the centerbnd directivity vs. velocity mismatch is

obtained as follows:
S41 (1 C 2 )
where:
=
|vp vd |
vp + vd
An example of the behaviour of the scattering parameters magnitude as a function of velocity mismatch is shown in Fig. 4.17.
The directivity of a non-synchronous microstrip directional coupler can be
improved through various means. The phase velocity of the even and odd mode
can be equalized through several expedients:
r Use of grounded metal screens. For symmetry, if d = h the effective permittivities of the two modes become equal to (r + 1)/2, see Fig. 4.19, (a).
r Using dielectric overlays. A dielectric layer of suitable thickness and permettivit can compensate for the phase velocity mismatch, as shown in Figure 4.19,
because it independently changes odd and even capacitances.
There are other techniques to correct the phase velocity mismatch through
distributed or concentrated techniques:
r External loading capacitances, as shown in Fig. 4.20, (a). This modifies the
odd mode capacitance only. Take into account that the odd efective permittivity is typically lower than the even one, so that the odd mode electrical length
is lower than the even mode electical length for the same physical line length.
A concentrated additional capacitance C = C1 + C2 is an increase of the oddmode line electrical length; in fact, is Co is the p.u.l. odd mode capacitance,
we have lCo = C, from which an odd mode phase shift results:
p
o = l Co Lo = CZ0o .
This makes possibile to design, at least at centerband, the compensation
capacitance.
r The use of serrated of wiggling lines, see Fig. 4.20, (b); the wiggling does not
greatly affects the even mode capacitance but has a strong impact on the odd
mode capacitance that depends on the edge coupling between lines.
C
1
155
(a )
(b )
Figure 4.20 Compensation through concentrated capacitances (a) e and wiggle (b).
4.4
Multiconductor line couplers

Multiconductor (or interdigitated) line couplers are equivalent two-conductor
couplers (by connecting a number of parallele conductors through wires or air
bridges) allowing to obtain high coupling with technologically feasible geometries.
We start from the analysis of a multiconductor line with an even number
of k parallel strips, see Fig. 4.21. As a first approximation we neglect the
mutual capacitance between non-neighbouring strips and we suppose that the
mutual capacitance between neighbouring strips (C12 ) and the strip capacitance
to ground (C20 ) is the same independent on the strip position, apart from the
two external strips, whose capacitance towards ground will be denoted as C10 .
The following approximate relationship can be shown to hold:
C20 C10
C10 C12
.
C10 + C12
In fact, the capacitance towards ground of the external strip is similar to the
capacitance towards ground of a strip at whose right there is an infinite number
of floating strips (i.e. having zero total charge), see Fig. 4.22. Such capacitance
can be estimated as the iterative capacitance of an infinite set of metal strips, as
shown Fig. 4.23. We thus obtain:
C10 = C20 +
C10 C12
.
C10 + C12
from which we obtain C20 . Notice once and for all that C12 , C10 are the capacitance
between the two strips and between each strip and the ground of two coupled
microstrips, that we suppose to be able to evaluate as a function of the line
geometry and dielectric parameters.
Suppose now that the lines of the multiconductor structure are alternatively
connected so as to give rise to two equipotential conductors. The connection
is typically not done in a continuous way but only at intervals, close enough
(e.g. less than a quart wavelength), by means of airbridges or bonding wires, see
Fig. 4.24.
156
1 0
1 2
2 0
1 2
1 2
2 0
1 0
Figure 4.21 Multiconductor line and associate capacitances.

+ V
+ V
+ V
+ V
+ V
+ V
+ V
+ V
+ V
+ V
F lo a tin g s tr ip s ( n o c h a r g e )
Figure 4.22 Evaluating the capacitance of the two extreme lines - I.

C
1 0
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
+ V
...
C
2 0
2 0
2 0
2 0
2 0
2 0
...
C
1 0
1 2
+ V
C
2 0
1 0
Figure 4.23 Evaluating the capacitance of the two extreme lines - II.
It is then possibile to define an equivalent two-conductor line, able to carry

an even and an odd mode. The even and odd mode capacitances are then the
capacitance towards ground of a set of k/2 strips when the two set have the same
157
Figure 4.24 Multiconductor line with conductors connected though wire bondings.
or opposite potential, respectively. From Fig. 4.25 we obtain:

Ce (k) = (k/2 1)C20 + C10
(4.60)
Co (k) = (k/2 1)C20 + C10 + 2(k 1)C12
(4.61)
where all capacitances are per unit lenght. Taking into account that for two strips
we have:
Ce (2) = C10
(4.62)
Co (2) = C10 + 2C12
(4.63)
we can obtain C10 and C12 as a function of Ce (2) and Co (2) and therefore express
the even and odd mode capacitances of the equivalent two-conductor line derived
from the multiconductor one by connecting strips as a function of the even and
odd mode capacitances of the two-conductor line. We obtain:
Co (2)Ce (2) + (k 1)Ce2 (2)
Co (2) + Ce (2)
Co (2)Ce (2) + (k 1)Co2 (2)
Co (k) =
.
Co (2) + Ce (2)
Ce (k) =
(4.64)
(4.65)
We can now obtain the characteristics (termination impedance and centerband

coupling) of the coupler. Taking into account that:
C(k) =
Z0e (k) Z0o (k)

Co (k) Ce (k)
=
Z0e (k) + Z0o (k)
Ce (k) + Co (k)
158
+ V
+ V
C
1 0
1 2
2 0
2 C
1 2
1 2
2 0
1 2
1 2
2 0
1 2
2 0
1 0
V = 0
+ V
2 C
2 C
1 2
1 0
1 2
2 0
2 C
2 C
1 2
2 C
1 2
2 0
V = 0
2 C
2 C
1 2
1 2
2 0
2 C
1 2
1 2
2 0
2 C
1 0
1 2
-V
Figure 4.25 Evaluating the even and odd mode capacitances.
and that, for velocity matching, Z0e /Z0o = Co /Ce , we obtain:

C(k) =
(k 1)(1 R2 )
(k 1)(1 + R2 ) + 2R
(4.66)
where R is defined as:

R=
Z0o (2)
.
Z0e (2)
(4.67)
We similarly show that the matching impedance is:

R02 = Z0e (2)Z0o (2)
(1 + R)2
[(k 1)R + 1][(k 1) + R]
(4.68)
The behaviour of the coupling (in dB) as a function of R and for different values
of the line number k is shown in Fig. 4.26. To obtain large coupling we need small
values of R (and therefore very different even and odd mode impedances) for
k = 2, while R increases with growing k. The improvement is however marginal
for k > 8. Similar remarks can be made on the closing impedance normalized
vs. the two-strip closing (or matching) impdance, see Fig. 4.27.
pNote that for a
termination impedance of 50 p
we have (for two conductors) Z0e (2)Z0o (2) =
50 , while for four conductors Z0e (2)Z0o (2) 100, i.e. the strip width needed
159
k = 8 , 1 6 , 3 2
-5
k = 4
k = 2
C o u p lin g , d B
-1 0
-1 5
-2 0
-2 5
-3 0
0
0 .1
0 .2
0 .3
0 .4
0 .5
0 .6
R = Z e(2 )/Z o(2 )
0 .7
0 .8
0 .9
Figure 4.26 Coupling as a function of R for several values of k.
decreases with increasing k. The effect is negative for large k since it implies
that very narrow strips are needed to implement the coupler with a reasonable
impedance level.
Therefore, the use of multiconductor couplers allows to design a technologically feasible 3 dB coupler; benefits are maximum with four or six wires, while
increasing the number of conductors beyond this value increases the complexity
of the structure and the losses due to the very narrow strips.
The length of the Lange coupler can be determined from the effective permittivity of the even and odd modes. Taking into account that for a two-line
structure we have:
Ce (2) = Cae (2)effe (2)
(4.69)
Co (2) = Cao (2)effo (2)
(4.70)
Cae (2)
Z0ao (2)
=
Ra
Cao (2)
Z0ae (2)
(4.71)
and that:
k = 2
0 .9
0 .8
0 .7
R 0
Z e(2 )Z o(2 )
160
0 .6
k = 4
0 .5
0 .4
k = 8
0 .3
0 .2
k = 1 6
0 .1
0
k = 3 2
0
0 .1
0 .2
0 .3
0 .4
0 .5
0 .6
R = Z o(2 )/Z e(2 )
0 .7
0 .8
0 .9
Figure 4.27 Closing impedance as a function of R for several values of k.
the ratio of in-air characteristic impedances, we can write:

effe (2)effo (2)Ra + Ra2 (k 1)2effe (2)
effo (2) + Ra effe (2)
2
Ra + Ra2 (k 1)
Cao (2)Cae (2) + (k 1)Cae
(2)
= Cao (2)
Cae (k) =
Cao (2) + Cae (2)
1 + Ra
effe (2)effo (2)Ra + (k 1)2effe (2)
Co (k) = Cao (2)
2
Ra + (k 1)
Cao (2)Cae (2) + (k 1)Cao
(2)
= Cao (2)
Cao (k) =
Cao (2) + Cae (2)
1 + Ra
Ce (k) = Cao (2)
from which:
(4.73)
(4.74)
(4.75)
1 + Ra
Ra + Ra2 (k 1)
(4.76)
2
effe (2)effo (2)Ra + (k 1)effo (2)
1 + Ra
Co (k)
=
.
effo (k) =
Cao (k)
Ra + (k 1)
(4.77)
effe (k) =
Ce (k)
=
Cae (k)
(4.72)
effe (2)effo (2)Ra + Ra2 (k 1)2effe (2)

In multiconductor lines the even and odd permittivities are rather different;
for large coupling we have Ra 0 which implies that the even and odd mode
permittivities are similar to the case of the two-conductor line. Also in this case
we can approximate the centerband length through the arithmetic media of the
even and odd mode quarter wavelengths.
-j 1 - C
161
l/2
l/2
S
W
0
C
Figure 4.28 Lange coupler, unfolded version.
4.4.1
The Lange coupler

The Lange coupler (named after Julius Lange, who proposed it in 1969) is an
interdigitated microstrip coupler consisting of four parallel lines alternately connected in pairs, as shown in Fig. 4.28 (a version called unfolded ) and in Fig. 4.29
(a version called folded, mre common in practice). Note that the unfolded version
behaves like a directional coupler with two conductors with regard to the direct
and coupled ports; it is however made by four lines connected two by two at
the ends (and therefore virtually equipotential throughout the coupler). In the
folded version the transmission and isolated ports are exchanged, so that the
coupled and the transmission port are on the same side of the coupler. There
is also a DC path between the upper and the lower side of the coupler. These
characteristics make the folded version more common and convenient than the
unfolded version.
To design a Lange coupler, we can express, as a function of the centerband
coupling C and of the closing impedance R0 , the even and odd mode impedances
of the two-conductor coupled lines having the needed design parameters w and
s. We obtain:
r
(k 1)(1 + q)
1C
Z0o (2) = R0
(4.78)
1 + C (C + q) + (k 1)(1 C)
C +q
Z0e (2) = Z0o (2)
(4.79)
(k 1)(1 C)
where:
q=
C 2 + (1 C 2 )(k 1)2 .
In the most common case, the Lange coupler has k = 4. An approximate design
technique is as follows:
162
0
1
l/2
l/2
S
W
-j 1 - C
C
Figure 4.29 Lange coupler, folded version.
1. Starting from the centerband coupling and the closing impedance we derive
the even and odd mode impedances of the two-conductor coupler having the
same dimensions w and s, Z0o (2) and Z0e (2).
2. We derive the ratio W/h needed to obtain Z0o (2)/2 and Z0e (2)/2, respectively.
To this purpose we can exploit the Wheeler appromations, yielding W/h as a
function of the characteristic impedance:
For Z 44 2r (where Z = Z0e (2)/2 or Z0o (2)/2):
1
W
exp(B)
1
=
h
8
4 exp(B)
where:
Z
B=
60
r + 1 1
+
2
2
r 1
r + 1
0.2416
0.4516 +
r
For Z < 44 2r (where Z = Z0e (2)/2 or Z0o (2)/2):
W
2
2
r 1
0.517
= (d 1) log(2d 1) +
log(d 1) + 0.293
h
r
r
where:
d=
60 2
.
Z r
3. The ratios W/h found are addressed as (W/h)e and (W/h)o . The real parameters S/h and W/h can be derived from the following equations, to be inverted
numerically:
W
= fe (W/h, S/h)
h e

W
= fo (W/h, S/h)
h o
where:
2
fe = cosh1
and:
fo =
fo =
2
cosh1
2
cosh1
163
2a g 1
g1
2a g 1
g1
2a g + 1
g+1
(4.80)
(4.81)
(4.82)
4
W/h
cosh1 1 + 2
(1 + r /2)
S/h
1
W/h
1
+ cosh
1+2
S/h
The parameters g and a are:
r 6
(4.83)
r 6.
S
g = cosh
2h
W
S
a = cosh
+
.
h
2h
(4.84)
(4.85)
(4.86)
The previous formulae allow to evaluate from the even and odd W/h the
rations W/h and S/h for the multiconductor line.
For the coupler centerband length, a common approximation is to use the average of the quarter wavelength for the even and odd modes of the two-conductor
line.
Example 4.2:
Design a four-conductor Lange coupler on allumina at 10 GHz. The reference
impedance is 50 , the substrate dielectric constant is 9, the substrate thickness
is h = 25 mils (0.635 mm); we want 3 dB centerband coupling.
We have C = 0.707, k = 4, R0 = 50 ; from the design formulae:

r
1C
3(1 + q)
1 + C (C + q) + 3(1 C)
C +q
Z0e (2) = Z0o (2)
3(1 C)
Z0o (2) = R0
where:
q=
C 2 + 9(1 C 2 ) =
0.5 + 9 0.5 =
5 = 2.24
164
0 .3
0 .2 5
W /h
0 .2
(W /h )o= 3 .0 7
0 .1 5
0 .1
(W /h )e= 0 .2 5
0 .0 5
0
0
0 .0 2
0 .0 4
0 .0 6
0 .0 8
0 .1
S /h
0 .1 2
0 .1 4
0 .1 6
0 .1 8
0 .2
Figure 4.30 Graph of fe (W/h, S/h) = (W/h)e and fo (W/h, S/h) = (W/h)o , see
Example 4.2.
we obtain Z0o (2) = 52.6 , Z0e (2) = 176.2 . The even mode W/h ratio therefore
refers to Z0e (2)/2 = 88.1 , while the odd mode W/h ratio is derived from
Z0o (2)/2 = 26.3 . Since 44 2r = 26 , we need to use the first expression;
we obtain (W/h)e = 0.25, (W/h)o = 3.07. Inverting or exploiting the chart in
Fig. 4.30, we obtain S/h = 0.076, W/h = 0.09 from which s 46 m, w 57
m.
For the even and odd mode permittivities of the four-conductor line we have
eff o 5 and eff e 5.6 from which:
e /4 = 30/ 5.6/4 = 3.17 mm, e /4 = 30/ 5/4 = 3.35 mm

i.e. a mean length l 3.26 mm. As a first approximation we note that eff
(r + 1)/2 = 5 for both modes, from which l = 3.35 mm.
4.5
Interference couplers
Coupled microstrip line couplers allow for high coupling only in multiconductor
form, as in the Lange coupler. Other coupler obtain power division and isolation
through an interference principle; typical examples are the branch line couplers
and the hybrid ring or rat-race coupler.
165
l1 = l g /4
1
Z
Z
0
l2
2
Z
0 1
0 2
Z
0
0 1
l1
0 2
l2 = l g /4
Z
0
Figure 4.31 Branch-line coupler.
4.5.1
Branch-line coupler
The analysis of the branch-line coupler, see Fig. 4.31 for the microstrip layout,
can be carried out exploiting the structure quadrantal symmetry, see Example
4.3. For symmetry the scattering matrix results:
S11 S12 S13 S14

S12 S11 S14 S13
S=
(4.87)
S13 S14 S11 S12
S14 S13 S12 S11
where, as shown in Example 4.3:
a + b + c + d
4
a + b c d
=
4
a b + c d
=
4
a b c + d
=
.
4
S11 =
(4.88a)
S21
(4.88b)
S31
S41
(4.88c)
(4.88d)
The four indices refer to even and odd excitations with respect to the vertical
and horizontal directions. Case (a) is even in bot directions, cased (d) is odd in
both directions, (b) is even horizontally and odd vertically, (c) is odd horizontally
and even vertically. At centerband, i.e. for 1 = 2 = /4 (this means that the
166
lengths of the two lines are a quarte wavelength) we obtain:

Y0 j Y01 j Y02
Y0 + j Y01 + j Y02
Y0 j Y01 + j Y02
b =
Y0 + j Y01 j Y02
Y0 + j Y01 j Y02
c =
Y0 j Y01 + j Y02
Y0 + j Y01 + j Y02
d =
Y0 j Y01 j Y02
(4.89)
a =
(4.90)
(4.91)
(4.92)
from which, substituting into (4.88) we find for S11 :

S11 =
Y04
2
2 2
Y04 (Y01
Y02
)
2
2
2
2Y0 (Y01 + Y02 ) + (Y01
Y02 )4
meaning that match is obtained with respect to the reference impedance if:
2
2
Y02 = |Y01
Y02
|
(4.93)
Taking into account of this last expression and imposing for instance Y01 > Y02 ,
2
2
, i.e.:2
Y02
(4.93) becomes Y02 = Y01
S21 = j
Y0
Y01
S31 = 0
S41
Y02
.
=
Y01
(4.94)
(4.95)
(4.96)
Expressions (4.93), (4.95) and (4.96) can be used as design equations. They also
imply that a phase relationship between port 2 (coupled) and port 4 (transmission) exist a centerband as in the coupled line coupler, i.e. a phase shift of 90
degrees. The centerband scattering matrix therefore is:
Y02
Z01
Y0
Z01
0
0 j
0 j
Y01
Y01
Z0
Z02
Z01
Y02
Z01
j Y0
0 j
0
Y
Y01
Z0
Z02
01
=
S=
Y02
Y0
Z01
Z01 .
0
0
j
0
j
Y01
Y01
Z02
Z0
Y
Y0
Z01
Z01
02
0 j
0
0 j
0
Y01
Y01
Z02
Z0
(4.97)
2
2 Y 2 we obtain by symmetry S
If we impose instead Y01 < Y02 or Y02 = Y02
11 = 0, S21 = 0,
01
S31 = jY0 /Y02 and S41 = Y01 /Y02 .
167
The coupling between port 2 and 1 isnow C = Z01 /Z0 and, for power conservation in a lossless structure, we have 1 C 2 = Z01 /Z02 from which:
Z01 = CZ0
CZ0
Z02 =
.
1 C2
For a 3 dB coupler we have C = 1/ 2, i.e.:

Z02 = Z0
Z01 = Z0 / 2.
(4.98)
(4.99)
(4.100)
(4.101)
Starting from an access line of 50 , we find Z01 = 35.35 and Z02 = 50 ,

easily implemented in microstrip. 3 dB couplers with a 90 degrees shift beween
the output ports are called 90 degrees hybrids.
Example 4.3:
Evaluate the scattering matrix of a branch-line coupler.
We start from the following remarks:

1. Due to symmetry and reciprocity, the scattering matrix is completely identified by the first row of the matrix.
2. Since the circuit is linear, we can apply the superposition principle, i.e. decompose the excitation required to evaluate the elements of the first row of the
S-matrix into more convenient even and odd excitations.
3. Even and odd excitations can be conveniently assumed under the form of
progressive voltages (or power waves) rather than of total voltages.
Let us imagine to impress (through a forward wave generato) the forward voltage
Vn+ entering port n (n =1, 2, 3, 4) and let us denote with Vn the corresponding
backward or reflected voltages. Consider now the following excitations at the
four ports:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Case
Case
Case
Case
+
+
+
+
(a): V1a
= V2a
= V3a
= V4a
=V+
+
+
+
+
+
(b): V1b = V2b = V , V3b = V4b
= V +
+
+
+
+
+
(c): V1c = V3c = V , V2c = V4c = V +
+
+
+
+
(d): V1d
= V4d
= V + , V2d
= V3d
= V + .
Notice that the four excitations have the already mentioned even and/or odd
character with respect to the vertical and horizontal plane: Superinposing we
have:
V1+ =4V +
V2+ =V3+ = V4+ = 0,
168
that are exactly the excitation conditions needed to evaluate the elements of the
first row of the scattering matrix. Owing to the structure symmetry we also have
for the reflected waves:
1.
2.
3.
4.
= V4a
V1a
= V2a
= V3a
V1b = V2b = V3b = V4b
V1c = V2c = V3c = V4c
V1d = V2d = V3d = V4d

;
it follows that:
S11 =
V1a
+ V1b
+ V1c
+ V1d
V1a
+ V1b
+ V1c
+ V1d
+
+
+
+ =
4V +
V1a + V1b + V1c + V1d
S21 =
V2a
+ V2b
+ V2c
+ V2d
V1a
+ V1b
V1c
V1d
=
+
+
+
+
4V +
V1a
+ V1b
+ V1c
+ V1d
S31 =
V3a
+ V3b
+ V3c
+ V3d
V1a
V1b
+ V1c
V1d
+
+
+
+ =
+
4V
V1a + V1b + V1c + V1d
S41 =
V4a
+ V4b
+ V4c
V1a
+ V4d
V1b
V1c
+ V1d
=
+
+
+
+
4V +
V1a
+ V1b
+ V1c
+ V1d
+
+
+
+
and taking into account that V1a
= V1b
= V1c
= V1c
= V + we can also write:

V1b
V1d
V1c
a + b + c + d
1 V1a
=
S11 =
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
4 V1a
4
V1b
V1c
V1c

V1b
V1d
V1c
1 V1a
a + b c d
S21 =
=
+ +
+
+
+
4 V1a
4
V1b
V1c
V1c

V1b
V1d
1 V1a
V1c
a b + c d
S31 =
=
+
+ +
+
+
4 V1a
4
V1b
V1c
V1c

V1b
V1d
1 V1a
V1c
a b c + d
S41 =
=
+
+
+ +
+
4 V1a
4
V1b
V1c
V1c
where a , b , c and d are the reflection coefficients at port 1 obtained for the
four excitations.
Application of the four excitations physically corresponds to introducing in the
structure magnetic planes (planes of even symmetry implying zero current) or
electric planes (planes of odd symmetry implying a short circuit) as shown in
Fig. 4.32a, 4.32b, 4.32c, 4.32d. It follows that the reflection cofficients at port
1 corresponding to the four excitations can be simply derived from the circuits
shown in Fig. 4.33a, 4.33b, 4.33c, 4.33d. To analyze the four configurations we
only need to report the expression of a short circuit and open circuit line input
admittances:
sc
Yin
=j Y0 tan ()
oc
Yin
= j Y0 cot ()
l1 /2
l1 /2
l2 /2
l2 /2
M
E
(a )
(b )
l1 /2
l1 /2
l2 /2
l2 /2
M
(d )
(c )
Figure 4.32 Even and/or odd excitation of a symmetric branch-line coupler.
Y
0
0 2
, q
0 1
, q
Y
1
Y
0
Y
2
0 2
, q
0 1
0 2
, q
(c )
(b )
, q
Y
l1 /2
Y
, q
(a )
0 1
0 2
, q
0 1
, q
1
(d )
Figure 4.33 Equivalent circuit for the four excitations reported in Fig. 4.32.
169
170
where the electrical length is = 2L/; in the four cases we have that the
input admittance can be obtained as the parallel of two open or short circuit
admittances as follows:
sc
sc
Ya = Yin1
+ Yin2
= j Y01 tan (1 ) + j Y02 tan (2 )
sc
oc
Yb = Yin1
+ Yin2
= j Y01 tan (1 ) j Y02 cot (2 )
oc
sc
+ Yin2
= j Y01 cot (1 ) + j Y02 tan (2 )
Yc = Yin1
oc
oc
Yd = Yin1
+ Yin2
= j Y01 cot (1 ) j Y02 cot (2 )
where Y01 and 1 = l1 / (Y02 and 2 = l2 /) are the characteristic admittance

and electrical length of the horizontal (vertical) lines. (The line length considered
is half of the total side, see Fig. 4.31.). Taking into account the definition of the
reflection coefficient in terms of admittances:
k =
Y0 Yk
,
Y0 + Yk
k = a,b,c,d
we immediately have:
Y0 j Y01 tan (1 ) j Y02 tan (2 )
Y0 + j Y01 tan (1 ) + j Y02 tan (2 )
Y0 j Y01 tan (1 ) + j Y02 cot (2 )
b =
Y0 + j Y01 tan (1 ) j Y02 cot (2 )
Y0 + j Y01 cot (1 ) j Y02 tan (2 )
c =
Y0 j Y01 cot (1 ) + j Y02 tan (2 )
Y0 + j Y01 cot (1 ) + j Y02 cot (2 )
d =
.
Y0 j Y01 cot (1 ) j Y02 cot (2 )
a =
(4.102)
(4.103)
(4.104)
(4.105)
with the centerband values (1 = 2 = /4):

Y0 j Y01 j Y02
Y0 + j Y01 + j Y02
Y0 j Y01 + j Y02
b (f0 ) =
Y0 + j Y01 j Y02
Y0 + j Y01 j Y02
c (f0 ) =
Y0 j Y01 + j Y02
Y0 + j Y01 + j Y02
.
d (f0 ) =
Y0 j Y01 j Y02
a (f0 ) =
4.5.2
(4.106)
(4.107)
(4.108)
(4.109)
Lumped-parameter directional couplers

The distributed coupling typical of coupled-line coupling, but also the interference effects on which branch-line couplers are based, can be implemented not
only through distributed elements, but also though lumped-parameter elements.
171
jw L
jw C
Y
jw C
Z
in
Figure 4.34 Lumped parameter section replacing a quarter-wave transformer.
We only show examples concerning branch-line couplers, that mimic in a more

straightforward way their distributed counterpart. Lumped couplers have an
important advantage in terms of size when compared to distributed ones, but
they are limited by the operation frequency and by losses; moreover, in their
implemetation designers try to avoid inductors that have a larger size, more
strict frequency limitation and larger losses.
We start from an example showing that a network made of two parallel
capacitors
C and one series inductor L shows, around a resonant frequency 0 =
1/ LC, a behaviour similar to a quarter-wave transmission line (see Fig. 4.34).

In fact, imposing the resonance at 0 , the capacitor admittance and inductor
impedance can be written as:
r
1
C
Yc = j Y, Zl = j
, Y =
.
0
0 Y
L
Suppose now that the section is loaded by an impedance ZL (admittance YL );
it is straightforward to evaluate the input admittance of the loaded section Yin
as:
"
2 #
YL
j
+
+j
1
0
Y
0
0
"
Yin = Y
2 #
YL
1
+j
0
0 Y
At the resonant frequency we have:
Yin (0 ) =
Y2
YL
i.e. the same behaviour as a quarter-wave transformer. A comparison of the

frequency behaviours of the distributed and lumped transformer is shown in
Fig. 4.35; the center frequency is 5 GHz, the load is 50 and the equivalent
characteristic impedance is Z = 1/Y = 100 . While it is clear that the frequency
behaviour of the lumped design is slightly less favourable than in the distributed
case, the centerband behaviour is exactly the same.
2 5 0
2 0 0
1 5 0
1 0 0
5 0
R in , X in , W
172
0
-5 0
R in , lin e
X in , lin e
-1 0 0
R in , lu m p e d
X in , lu m p e d
-1 5 0
-2 0 0
-2 5 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
Figure 4.35 Comparison between the frequency behaviour of a lumped and distributed
quarter-wave transformer closed on 50 and with a center frequency of 5 GHz; the
equivalent line impedance is 100 .
jw L
jw C
1
jw C
jw L
jw L
1
jw C
1
jw C
2
jw C
jw C
2
jw C
jw C
1
jw L
1
+ C
1
jw ( C
+ C
1
)
2
jw L
2
jw ( C
jw L
2
jw L
2
jw ( C
1
+ C
2
jw ( C
jw L
+ C
2
Figure 4.36 Lumped parameter branch-line coupler: left, origin from sections; right,
practical implementation.
Taking into account that a branchline coupler has (see Fig. 4.31) two horizontal quarter-wave lines of impedance Z01 and two vertical lines of impedance Z02 ,
we could suppose to mimic the centerband behaviour of the coupler by subtituting a lumped equivalent with capacitances and inductances C1 , L1 and C2 , L2
respectively, see Fig. 4.36. Defining the susceptances at centerband (the resonant
condition imposes that at centerband the inductor and capacitor susceptances
173
jw L 1 /2
jw ( C
1
G
+ C
jw L 1 /2
M
)
2
jw L 2 /2
a
jw ( C
1
E
(b )
jw L 1 /2
jw ( C
G
c
)
2
jw L 2 /2
b
(a )
+ C
1
+ C
2
jw L 1 /2
E
)
G
jw L 2 /2
M
(c )
jw ( C
1
+ C
2
E
)
jw L 2 /2
E
(d )
Figure 4.37 Equivalent circuits at port 1 resulting from odd and even excitations along
the vertical and horizontal planes.
are equal and opposite:

j0 C1 = jB1 , j0 C2 = jB2
1
1
1
1
=
= jB1 ,
=
= jB2
j0 L1
jX1
j0 L2
jX2
we can carry out the same analysis already discussed for the distributed coupler
and based on the superposition of even and odd excitations with respect to the
horizontal and vertical planes. The four cases (a)-(d) analyzed in Example 4.3
now lead, for the input admittance at port 1, to the configurations shown in
Fig. 4.37; in correspondance of a magnetic wall (even excitation) the inductive
element is splitted in a series of two and terminated by an open, while in the
presence of an electric wall (odd excitation) the element is splitted in a series
of two and terminated by a short. Finally, the input admittances at port 1 and
the related reflection coefficients with respect to the termination admittance Y0
corresponding to the four cases are:
Y0 j(B1 + B2 )
Y 2 2jY0 (B1 + B2 ) (B1 + B2 )2
= 0
Y0 + j(B1 + B2 )
Y02 + (B1 + B2 )2
Y 2 2jY0 (B1 B2 ) (B1 B2 )2
Y0 j(B1 B2 )
= 0
= j(B1 B2 ) b =
Y0 + j(B1 B2 )
Y02 + (B1 B2 )2
Y 2 + 2jY0 (B1 B2 ) (B1 B2 )2
Y0 + j(B1 B2 )
= 0
= j(B1 B2 ) c =
Y0 j(B1 B2 )
Y02 + (B1 B2 )2
Y 2 + 2jY0 (B1 + B2 ) (B1 + B2 )2
Y0 + j(B1 + B2 )
= 0
= j(B1 + B2 ) d =
Y0 j(B1 + B2 )
Y02 + (B1 + B2 )2
a
Yin
= j(B1 + B2 ) a =
b
Yin
c
Yin
d
Yin
174
Straightforward but lengthy computations lead to the centerband result:

S11 =
a + b + c + d
Y04 (B12 B22 )2
= 2
4
[Y0 + (B1 + B2 )2 ] [Y02 + (B1 B2 )2 ]
(4.110)
Matching at port 1 requires the condition:

2
B1 B22 = Y02
and, assuming for instance B1 > B2 this leads to:
B12 B22 = Y02
Applying this conditions the other elements of the first row of the scattering
matrix turn out to assume the value:
j2Y0 B1
a + b c d
Y0
=
= j
(4.111a)
S21 =
4
Y02 + B12 + B22
B1
a b + c d
=0
(4.111b)
S31 =
4
B2
a b c + d
2B1 B2
=
S41 =
= 2
(4.111c)
4
Y0 + B12 + B22
B1
Thus port 3 is isolated while the phase difference between port 2 (coupled) and
port 4 (in transmission) is again 90 degrees as in the distributed branchline
coupler. For 3 dB coupling we have again:
Y0
1
(4.112a)
|S21 | =
= B1 = 2Y0
B1
2
B2
1
1
|S41 | =
= B2 = B1 = Y0
(4.112b)
B1
2
2
Notice that this identically satisfies the condition B12 B22 = Y02 . The result
obtained is very similar to the distributed counterpart. In practice the branchline
lumped coupler is replaced by solutions requiring a lower number of inductors,
but coupled together, i.e. at least one transformer that plays the same role of
coupled lines in the lumped design.
Example 4.4:
Design a lumped coupler with center frequency 10 GHz, 3 dB coupling, closed
on 50 .
We have:
B1 =
2Y0 =
2/50 = 2. 828 4 102 S
B2 = Y0 = 1/50 = 0.02 S.
2
Z
l= l g /4
Z
1
Z
l= l g /4
0
0 1
l= l g /4
Z
0 2
0 2
Z
0
175
0 1
l= 3 l g /4
Figure 4.38 The hybrid ring.
We then have:
B1
2. 828 4 102
=
= 0.45 pF
0
2 1010
2. 102
B2
=
= 0.318 pF
C2 =
0
2 1010
1
1
L1 =
=
= 56, 27 nH
0 B1
2 1010 2. 828 4 102
1
1
L2 =
=
= 79, 5 nH
10
0 B2
2 10 2. 102
C1 =
4.5.3
The hybrid ring

The hybrid ring is a four-port coupler shown in Fig. 4.38. At centerband the
scattering matrix can be shown to be:
Z0
Z0
0
j
0 j
Z02
Z01
Z0
j Z0
0
j
0
Z
Z01
02
(4.113)
S=
Z0
Z0
0
0
j
j
Z01
Z02
Z
Z0
0
j
0 j
0
Z01
Z02
176
where Z01 and Z02 satisfy condition:

Z02
Z2
+ 20 = 1
2
Z01
Z02
related to power conservation. The coupler is matched at all ports at centerband;
port 2 is coupled to port 1, port 3 is isolated, port 4 is transmitted but with 180
phase; the 180 degrees hybrid follow.
Given Z0 , we only have one degree of freedom to establish the structure
coupling. In particular,
if we identify with port 2 the coupled port, we have
2
C = Z0 /Z02 , 1 C = Z0 /Z01 , i.e.:
Z01 =
Z0
1 C2
(4.114)
Z0
(4.115)
C
In a 3 dB coupler we only have to impose Z01 = Z02 from which we obtain:
Z01 = Z02 = 2Z0 .

Z02 =
Thus, a 3 dB coupler 50 requires 70.7 microstrip impedances, that are easily

realized. Notice that the 3 dB coupler has uniform impedances along the whole
ring.
4.6
Power combiners and dividers

In power amplifiers, there is often the problem of dividing the input power
between several active devices and then to suitably combine the outputs of such
devices. Limitations on the maximum power than can be achieved per unit gate
width (of the order of 2 W/mm on GaAs; for the sake of definiteness we concentrate on FETs but the same remarks hold for bipolars) and on the maximum
gate width per single device poses an upper limit to the maximum power that
can be extracted from a single lumped or integrated devices. Series or parallel
combinations (that combine the output voltages and currents, respectively; similar remarks hold for voltage or current input dividers) of active devices have a
basic shortcoming, they do not preserve the impedance level on which the single
device is matched. Suppose e.g. to parallel two devices with output current I and
output voltage V matched on Z; this roughly implies V = ZI; but two devices
in parallel have 2I so that the matching impedance should be changed to Z/2 to
allow each device to operate with V , meaning that if the Z matching level has
to be preserved at the output a matching section has to be added transforming
Z/2 into Z. In conclusion, power dividing and combining has better be made by
structures able to preserve the matching level, at least at centerband.
The most common case of power division and combination is the division by 2
and combination of 2 elements; powers of 2 can be obtained by properly cascading
177
l= l g /4
1
Z
Z
0
Z
0 1
R
0
0 1
l= l g /4
Figure 4.39 Wilkinson divider.
power dividers and combiners. Although division and combination can be carried
out by 3 dB directional couplers, there are other structures more specific to the
purpose, which also have the advantage of greater compactness and simplicity.
Several power divider structures have been proposed in the past; we concentrate
here on the so-called Wilkinson divider; as in interference couplers, this structure
is easily introduced as distributed, but can be also implemented in concentrated
form.
4.6.1
Wilkinson distributed dividers

The structure of a distributed Wilkinson divider is shown in Fig. 4.39. The analysis can be carried out by taking into account that the divider results from the
connection of 3 two-ports, two transmission lines with characteristic impedance
Z01 (admittance Y01 ) and electrical length , and a structure with zero parallel
conductance and series resistance R (conductance G), see Fig. 4.40. As shown in
Example 4.6 the admittance matrix of the divider is:
l
l
l
2Y11
Y12
Y12
l
R
R
Y = Y12
Y11
+ Y11
Y12
l
R
l
R
Y12
Y12
Y11 + Y11
178
where the elements of the admittance matrix of the two lines of electrical length
are (see Example 4.5):
l
l
Y11
= Y22
= jY01 cot
(4.116)
l
Y12
(4.117)
l
Y21
= jY01 / sin
while the admittance matrix of the structure is:
We therefore obtain:
R
R
Y11
= Y22
=G
(4.118)
R
Y12
(4.119)
j2Y01 cot
R
Y21
= G.
jY01 / sin
jY01 / sin
Y = jY01 / sin G j2Y01 cot

.
G
jY01 / sin
G
G j2Y01 cot
At centerband = /2, l = /4; thus, the normalized matrix on Z0 is:
0 jY01 Z0 jY01 Z0
y = YZ0 = jY01 Z0 GZ0 GZ0
jY01 Z0 GZ0 GZ0

from which the scattering matrix:
2 2
2jY01 Z0
2jY01 Z0
Z0
1 2Y01
2 Z2
2 Z2
2 Z2
1 + 2Y01
1 + 2Y01
1 + 2Y01
0
0
0
2jY Z
2
2 3
2 G Y01 Z0 Z0
1 4Y01 Z0 G
01 0
S=
.
2 Z 2 1 + 2GZ + 2Y 2 Z 2 + 4Y 2 Z 3 G 1 + 2GZ + 2Y 2 Z 2 + 4Y 2 Z 3 G
1 + 2Y01
0
0
01 0
01 0
0
01 0
01 0
2
2 3
2jY01 Z0
Z0 Z0
2 G Y01
Z0 G
1 4Y01
2 Z 2 1 + 2GZ + 2Y 2 Z 2 + 4Y 2 Z 3 G 1 + 2GZ + 2Y 2 Z 2 + 4Y 2 Z 3 G
1 + 2Y01
0
0
0
01 0
01 0
01 0
01 0
Imposing matching at port 1 we obtain:
Y01 = 1/( 2Z0 )

i.e.:
Z01 =
from which:
2Z0 ,
1
j
1
1
2GZ
0
S=
2 j
2
+
4GZ
0
1
1
Z0
j 2 G
2Z0 2 + 4GZ0
2
0
1
j
2
1
Z0
2 G
2Z0 2 + 4GZ0
1 2GZ0
2 + 4GZ0
, l1
0 1
179
Y
, l1
0 1
Figure 4.40 Scheme for the analysis of the Wilkinson divider.
Matching at ports 2 and 3 implies:

R = 1/G = 2Z0 ,
from which, finally:
1
S=
2 j
1
j
2
1
j
2
0
0
1
j
2
The structure of the scattering matrix implies matching at all ports, isolation
between ports 2 and 3, transmission from 1 to 2 and from 1 to 3 with 3 dB power
division, phase shift of /2 between input and output. Notice that, contrarily
with the Lange ocupler, the two outputs are in phase. The divider is narrowband
but the bandwidth can be increased by multisection structures.
Example 4.5:
Evaluate the admittance matrix of a line with electrical length and characteristic admittance Y0 .
A line is a symmetric and reciprocal two-port; from the definition of the admittance matrix we have;
I1
Y11 = Y22 =
V1 V2 =0
I2
Y21 = Y12 =
V1 V2 =0
Taking into account the expression of the voltages and currents in terms of
forward and backward propagating waves we have (we assume the line length to
180
be L and the guided walevelength g ):

V (z) = V + (z) + V (z)
I(z) = Y0 V + (z) V (z)
Lz
+
+
V (z) = V (L) exp ( j2
g
Lz
V (z) = V (L) exp j2

g
L
z
+
+
I (z) = Y0 V (L) exp j2
g
Lz
I (z) = Y0 V (L) exp j2

g
where section z = 0 is port 1 and z = L is port 2. If port 2 is shorted, then
V2 = V (L) = 0 or:
V + (L) = V (L)
I(L) = 2Y0 V + (L)
The port voltages and currents at port 1 and 2 can therefore expressed as:
V1 =V (0) = V + (0) + V (0) = V + (L) [exp (j) exp (j)] = 2jV + (L) sin
I1 =I(0) = Y0 V + (L) (exp (j) + exp (j)) = 2Y0 V + (L) cos
V2 =V (L) = 0
I2 = I(L) = 2Y0 V + (L)
thus:
Y11 = Y22
Y21 = Y12
I1
=
= jY0 cot
V1 V2 =0
I2
=
=jY0 / sin ()
V1
V2 =0
Example 4.6:
Consider three two-ports wih admittance matrices Ya , Yb , Yc combined in
a triangle so that at port 1 the inputs of a and b are in parallel, at port 2 the
output of a is in parallel with the input of c and at port 3 the output of c is
in parallel with the output of b. Derive the admittance matrix of the three-port
with ports 1, 2 and 3.
181
We have the following equations:

a a
a a
I1a = Y11
V1 + Y12
V2
a a
a a
I2a = Y21
V1 + Y22
V2
b
b
I1b = Y11
V1b + Y12
V2b
b
b
I2b = Y21
V1b + Y22
V2b
c
c
I1c = Y11
V1c + Y12
V2c
c
c
I2c = Y21
V1c + Y22
V2c
but V1a = V1b = V1 ; V2a = V1c = V2 ; V2c = V2b = V3 ; moreover I1 = I1a + I1b ; I2 =
I2a + I1c ; I3 = I2b + I2c . Substituting:
a
a
I1a = Y11
V1 + Y12
V2
a
a
I2a = Y21
V1 + Y22
V2
b
b
I1b = Y11
V1 + Y12
V3
b
b
I2b = Y21
V1 + Y22
V3
c
c
V2 + Y12
V3
I1c = Y11
c
c
I2c = Y21
V2 + Y22
V3
and then summing we have:

a
b
a
b
I1 = I1a + I1b = Y11
+ Y11
V1 + Y12
V2 + Y12
V3
a
a
c
c
I2 = I2a + I1c = Y21
V1 + (Y22
+ Y11
) V2 + Y12
V3
b
c
b
c
b
c
I3 = I2 + I2 = Y21 V1 + Y21 V2 + Y22 + Y22 V3
which immediately yields the admittance matrix elements. In the distributed

Wilkinson divider case we have:
a
a
b
b
l
Y11
= Y22
= Y11
= Y22
= Y11
l
b
b
a
a
= Y12
= Y21
= Y12
= Y21
Y12
c
c
R
Y11
= Y22
= Y11
R
c
c
= Y12
= Y21
Y12
leading to the parallel representation:

l
l
l
I1 = 2Y11
V1 + Y12
V2 + Y12
V3
R
R
l
l
V3
I2 = Y12 V1 + Y11 + Y11 V2 + Y11
l
R
l
R
I3 = Y12 V1 + Y12 V2 + Y11 + Y11 V3
4.6.2
Wilkinson lumped dividers

The structure of a lumped Wilkinson divider is shown in Fig. 4.41. The two
transmission lines are replaced by lumped element quarterwave equivalents. We
shall limit the analysis to centerband where:
j0 C = jB
1
1
=
= jB
j0 L
jX
182
jw L
jw C
Y
l
jw L
jw C
jw C
R
R
jw C
l
Figure 4.41 Lumped Wilkinson divider.
leading to the admittance matrix elements of the lumped quarterwave equivalent:

l
l
Y11
= Y22
=0
(4.120)
l
Y12
(4.121)
l
Y21
= jB
while the admittance matrix of the resistive structure is always:

R
R
Y11
= Y22
=G
(4.122)
R
Y12
(4.123)
R
Y21
= G.
Exploiting again the result of Example 4.6, the centerband admittance matrix
of the divider is:

l
l
l
0 jB jB
Y12
Y12
2Y11

l
R
R
l
Y = Y12
Y12
+ Y11
Y11
= jB G G

R
l
R
l
+ Y11
Y11
jB G G
Y12
Y12
with normalized matrix:
jBZ0 jBZ0
y = YZ0 = jBZ0 GZ0 GZ0
jBZ0 GZ0 GZ0

and scattering matrix:
1 2B 2 Z02
2jBZ0
2jBZ0
1 + 2B 2 Z02
1 + 2B 2 Z02
1 + 2B 2 Z02
2jBZ
2 G B 2 Z0 Z0
1 4B 2 Z03 G
0
S=
.
1 + 2B 2 Z02 1 + 2GZ0 + 2B 2 Z02 + 4B 2 Z03 G 1 + 2GZ0 + 2B 2 Z02 + 4B 2 Z03 G
2jBZ0
2 G B 2 Z0 Z0
1 4B 2 Z03 G
2
2
2
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
1 + 2B Z0 1 + 2GZ0 + 2B Z0 + 4B Z0 G 1 + 2GZ0 + 2B Z0 + 4B Z0 G
4.7 Conclusions
183
Imposing matching at port 1 we obtain:
B = 1/( 2Z0 )
while matching t ports 2 and 3 implies:
1 4B 2 Z03 G = 1 2Z0 G = 0 R = 2Z0
leading to the centerband scattering matrix of the matched coupler:
1
1
0
j j
2
2
0
0
S = j
j
0
0
2
exactly as in the distributed implementation.
4.7
Conclusions
Fig. 4.42 summarizes the design rules and the centerband behaviour of the directional couplers and power dividers examined in this chapter. Some final remarks
may be helpful:
r The coupled line and branch line couplers have a phase shift of 90 degrees
between the two coupled and transmission ports, and are therefore called 90
degrees hybrid; the hybrid loop or rat race coupler introduces a phase shift
of 180 degrees between the two outputs (180 degrees hybrid), while in the
Wilkinson divider the two outputs are in phase.
r The branch line and hybrdi ring couplers easily permit to have high coupling,
while they are critical for low coupling; on the other hand, coupled line couplers do not allow for high coupling, apart from the multicunductor version
(the Lange coupler).
r All distributed directional couplers have a rather large layout. Therefore distributed couplers are seldom used in integrated circuits, especially at relatively
low frequencies, where lumped parameter couplers and dividers are preferred.
4.8

1. Q In a coupled two-conductor microstrip the even mode permittivity is 8 while
the odd mode permittivity is 6. The odd and even mode impedances are 75
and 40 , respectively. Are the previous data physically correct?
2. P What is a directional coupler? Imagine that an ideal 3dB, 90 coupler is fed
with a 100 mW signal. What is the power on the coupled and the transmission
184
C o u p lin g C
3 d B c o u p le r
C e n te r b a n d b e h a v io u r
T w o c o u p le d lin e s
0 p
0 d
= Z
1 + C
1 - C
= Z
1 - C
1 + C
= 2 .4 1 4 2 Z
0 p
= 0 .4 1 4 2 Z
0 d
C Z
0 2
0 1
1 - C
C Z 0
Z
Z
0 1
0 2
Z
2
1 - C
0
0 2
0 1
= Z
Z
2
Z
0
0 1
0 2
= Z
Z
0
2
0
2
0
Z
0
Z
0
Z
0
1 - C
Z
Z
0 1
= 2 Z
2
0
0
Z
0
0 1
j 1 - C
0 1
W ilk in s o n d iv id e r
= Z
0 2
- jC
0 1
0 2
- jC
= Z
Z
0 d
, Z
0 p
H y b r id r in g ( r a t r a c e )
B r a n c h lin e
-j 1 - C
Z
0
- j
1
2
R
Z
0
- j
1
2
Figure 4.42 Summary of the main distributed parameter combiners and dividers.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
port, respectively? What is the power on the insulated port? What is the phase
difference between the coupled and transmission ports?
Q Sketch the layout of a Lange coupler and of a branch-line coupler and
indicate the centerband dimensions.
Q Is the hybrid ring a 90 or 180 coupler?
P A Wilkinson divider on 50 loads operates at 10 GHz. Assuming ef f = 4
evaluate the lengths and characteristic impedance of the divider arms.
Q Explain the difference between a 90 and 180 m, degrees hybrid.
Q Sketch the layout of a branch-line directional coupler.
185
8. Q Sketch the layout of a Wilkinson power divider.

9. Q Explain the difference between an unfolded and a folded Lange coupler.
10. Q Justify the fact that 3 dB couplers can be implemented through multiconductor coupled microstrips but not, in practice, through two-conductor
coupled microstrips.
11. Q Exaplain why a low-coupling coupler (e.g. a 10 dB coupler) cannot easily
be implemented through a branch-line coupler.
12. P Design a 10 dB coupler on two-conductor coupled microstrips; the substrate
is teflon (effective permittivity 3) with thickness 0.5 mm; the centerband frequency is 10 GHz and the closing impedance 50 .
13. P Design a four condcutor Lange 3 dB coupler; the substrate is teflon (effective
permittivity 3) with thickness 0.5 mm; the centerband frequency is 10 GHz
and the closing impedance 50 .
14. Q In two coupled microstrips:
a. The even and odd mode are always velocity matched
b. The even and odd mode are typically velocity mismatched
c. The even mode velocity is larger than the odd mode velocity.
15. Q Discuss the opportunity of implementing Lange couplers with a large number of conductors (say greater than 6).
16. Q Velocity mismatch in a directional coupler is particularly critical for:
a. input matching
b. coupling and transmission
c. isolation.
17. Q Discuss available compensation techniques for the coupler velocity mismatch.
18. Q Sketch a hybrid ring coupler and explain its operation.
19. Q Design (dimensions and impedances) a hybrid ring with 3 dB coupling on
50 at 5 GHz. Assume that the line effective permittivity is 5.
20. Q Design (dimensions and impedances) a branch-line coupler with 3 dB coupling on 100 at 20 GHz. Assume that the line effective permittivity is 5.
21. Q Design (dimensions and impedances) a Wilkinson divider on 70 at 30
GHz. Assume that the line effective permittivity is 2.
Active microwave devices and

device models
186
Noise and noise models
187
The linear amplifiers
188
Power amplifiers
189
190

Microwave and RF Engineering

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Microwave Electronics

GIOVANNI GHIONE, MARCO PIROLA

A system introduction to microwave electronics

Passive elements and circuit layout

2.4.3 Integrated layout

Power gain and stability of a loaded two-port

Directional couplers and power dividers

4.1.2.1 Coupled microstrips

Active microwave devices and device models

Noise and noise models

Passive elements and circuit layout

Transmission line theory

2.1 Transmission lines

of length dz in the lossless (b) and lossy (c) cases.

potential is uniquely determined by the conductor potentials, or, assuming one

Passive elements and circuit layout

substitution into system (2.1), (2.2):

v(z, t) = V (z vf t) = 2Re V exp jt j z

2 Re V exp (jt jz)

i(z, t) = I (z vf t) = 2Re I exp (jt jz) =

2.1 Transmission lines

i(z, t) = C v(z, t) Gv(z, t)

v(z, t) = L i(z, t) Ri(z, t).

v(z, t) = 2Re V (z, ) exp (jt)

i(z, t) = 2Re I (z, ) exp (jt) ,

where is the line attenuation, = + j is the complex propagation constant,

V (z, ) = (jL + R)I(z, )

I(z, ) = (jC + G)V (z, ).

Passive elements and circuit layout

where is in natural units, i.e. in Np/m. In fact, given a forward propagating

= 20 log10 V (z) = 20 log10 exp(L) =

2.1 Transmission lines

the high-frequency (skin effect) regime.

(related to the magnetic energy stored

Passive elements and circuit layout

dielectrics = 0 j = 0 (1 j tan ), where tan is the (typically small,

2.1 Transmission lines

1/C = 50 3 108 / eff C = 6/ 150 108 = 1.633 1010 F/m

Passive elements and circuit layout

A tte n u a tio n a , d b /c m ; p r o p a g a tio n c o n s ta n t b , r a d /m

Figure 2.3 Frequency behaviour of attenuation and propagation constant from

More on series losses

2.1 Transmission lines

Figure 2.4 Frequency behavour of characteristic impedance from Example 2.1.

equation. Being the magnetic permittivity, = /(j) the complex dielectric

where A is a constant to be determined and is the skin penetration depth, see

Passive elements and circuit layout

The potential drop at the strip surface over a length L is V = E0 L; it follows

i.e. the DC resistance. For , 0 leading to the approximation:

they are proportional to f .

For a good conductor is of the order of a few m at frequencies of the order of

2.1 Transmission lines

Figure 2.6 Frequency behaviour of the current distribution (magnitude of Jz

values of conductivity; the maximum value = 1108 S/m is slightly larger to

Passive elements and circuit layout

Figure 2.7 Frequency behaviour of the impedance of a copper layer with w = L,

More on parallel losses

2.1 Transmission lines

where (generally a weak function of frequency) is the dielectric loss angle

Passive elements and circuit layout

Figure 2.9 Examples of non-TEM, TEM, quasi-TEM waveguides.

capacitance in air. The p.u.l. admittance is therefore:

Parameters of quasi-TEM lines