Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Types of protection
A - Fuses
For LV Systems, Distribution Feeders and Transformers, VT’s, Auxiliary Supplies
C - DIFFERENTIAL
For feeders, Bus-bars, Transformers, Generators etc
1. High Impedance
2. Low Impedance
3. Restricted E/F
4. Biased
5. Pilot Wire
D - Distance
For transmission and sub-transmission lines and distribution feeders, also used as back-up
protection for transformers and generators without signaling with signaling to provide unit
protection e.g.:
E - Miscellaneous:
1. Under and over voltage
2. Under and over frequency
3. A special relay for generators, transformers, motors etc.
4. Control relays: auto-reclose, tap change control, etc.
5. tripping and auxiliary relays
Speed
Fast operation: minimizes damage and danger
Very fast operation: minimizes system instability discrimination and security can be costly
to achieve.
Examples:
1. differential protection
2. differential protection with digital signaling
3. distance protection with signaling
4. directional comparison with signaling
Dependability / reliability
Protection must operate when required to Failure to operate can be extremely damaging and
disruptive Faults are rare. Protection must operate even after years of inactivity Improved by
use of:
1. Back-up Protection and
2. duplicate Protection
Security / Stability
Protection must not operate when not required to e.g. due to:
1. Load Switching
2. Faults on other parts of the system
3. Recoverable Power Swings
Overlap of protections
1. No blind spots
2. Where possible use overlapping CTs
Phase discrimination / selectivity
Correct indication of phases involved in the fault Important for Single Phase Tripping and
auto-Reclosing applications
Auxiliary supplies
Required for:
1. Tripping circuit breakers
2. Closing circuit breakers
3. Protection and trip relays
• AC. auxiliary supplies are only used on LV and MV systems.
• DC. auxiliary supplies are more secure than ac supplies.
• Separately fused supplies used for each protection.
• Duplicate batteries are occasionally provided for extra security.
• Modern protection relays need a continuous auxiliary supply.
• During operation, they draw a large current which increases due to operation
of output elements.
Relays are given a rated auxiliary voltage and an operative auxiliary voltage range.
the rated value is marked on the relay. Refer to relay documentation for details of operative
range. it is important to make sure that the range of voltages which can appear at the relay
auxiliary supply terminals is within the operative range.
IEC recommended values (IEC 255-6):
Rated battery voltages:
12, 24, 48, 60, 11 0, 125, 220, 250, 440
Preferred operative range of relays:
80 to 10% of voltage rated
AC. component ripple in the dc supply:
<10% of voltage rated
COST
The cost of protection is equivalent to insurance policy against damage to plant, and loss of
supply and customer goodwill.
Acceptable cost is based on a balance of economics and technical factors. Cost of protection
should be balanced against the cost of potential hazards there is an economic limit on what
can be spent.
Minimum cost:
Must ensure that all faulty equipment is isolated by protection
Other factors:
1. Speed
2. Security/Stability
3. Sensitivity:
Degree of risk in allowing a low level fault to develop into a more severe fault
4. Reliability
Distribution systems
1. Large number of switching and distribution points, transformers and feeders.
2. Economics often overrides technical issues
3. Protection may be the minimum consistent with - statutory safety regulations
4. Speed less important than on transmission systems
5. Back-up protection can be simple and is often inherent in the main protection.
6. Although important, the consequences of maloperation or failure to operate are less
serious than for transmission systems.
Transmission systems
1. Emphasis is on technical considerations rather than economics
2. Economics cannot be ignored but is of secondary importance compared with the need
for highly reliable, fully discriminative high speed protection
3. Higher protection costs justifiable by high capital cost of power system elements
protected.
4. Risk of security of supply should be reduced to the lowest practical levels
5. High speed protection requires unit protection
6. Duplicate protections used to improve reliability
7. Single phase tripping and auto-reclose may be required to maintain system stability
The system should be designed and managed to deliver this energy to the utilization
points with both reliability and economy.
It is important to realize that the system is viable only between the cross-
over points A and B. The diagram illustrates the significance of reliability in system
design, and the necessity of achieving sufficient reliability.
On the other hand, high reliability should not be pursued as an end in itself,
regardless of cost, but should rather be balanced against economy, taking all factors
into account.
The greatest threat to a secure supply is the shunt fault or short circuit, which
imposes a sudden and sometimes violent change on system operation.
The large current which then flows, accompanied by the localized release of a
considerable quantity of energy, can cause fire at the fault location, and mechanical
damage throughout the system, particularly to machine and transformer windings.
Rapid isolation of the fault by the nearest switch-gear will minimize the damage and
disruption caused to the system.
A power system represents a very large capital investment. To maximize the return on
this outlay, the system must be loaded as much as possible. For this reason it is
necessary not only to provide a supply of energy which is attractive to prospective
users by operating the system within the range AB (Figure 1.1), but also to keep the
system in full operation as far as possible continuously, so that it may give the best
service to the consumer, and earn the most.
Revenue for the supply authority. Absolute freedom from failure of the plant
and system network cannot be guaranteed.
The risk of a fault occurring, however slight for each item, is multiplied by the
number of such items which are closely associated in an extensive system, as any
fault produces repercussions throughout the net-work. When the system is large, the
chance of a fault occurring and the disturbance that a fault would bring are both so
great that without equipment to remove faults the system will become, in practical
terms, inoperable.
The object of the system will be defeated if adequate provision for fault
clearance is not made. Nor is the installation of switchgear alone sufficient;
discriminative protective gear, designed according to the characteristics and
requirements of the power system, must be provided to control the switchgear.
In addition to relays the term includes all accessories such as current and
voltage transformers, shunts, D.C. and A.C. wiring and any other devices relating to
the protective relays.
For example, observation simply of the magnitude of the fault current suffices
in some cases but measurement of power or impedance may be necessary in others.
Relays frequently measure complex functions of the system quantities, which are
only readily expressible by mathematical or graphical means.
In many cases it is not feasible to protect against all hazards with any one relay.
Use is then made of a combination of different types of relay which individually
protect against different risks. Each individual protective arrangement is known as a
'protection system'; while the whole coordinated combination of relays is called a
'protection scheme'.
• Reliability
The need for a high degree of reliability is discussed in Section 1. Incorrect operation
can be attributed to one of the following classifications:
a. Incorrect design.
b. Incorrect installation.
c. Deterioration.
d. Protection performance
1. Design
This is of the highest importance. The nature of the power system condition which is
being guarded against must be thoroughly understood in order to make an adequate
design. Comprehensive testing is just as important, and this testing should cover all
aspects of the protection, as well as reproducing operational and environmental
conditions as closely as possible. For many protective systems, it is necessary to test
the complete assembly of relays, current transformers and other ancillary items, and
the tests must simulate fault conditions realistically.
2. Installation.
The need for correct installation of protective equipment is obvious, but the
complexity of the interconnections of many systems and their relation-ship to the
remainder of the station may make.
3. Deterioration in service.
After a piece of equipment has been installed in perfect condition, deterioration may
take place which, in time, could interfere with correct functioning. For example,
contacts may become rough or burnt owing to frequent operation, or tarnished owing
to atmospheric contamination; coils and other circuits may be open-circuited,
auxiliary components may fail, and mechanical parts may become clogged with dirt
or corroded to an extent that may interfere with movement.
One of the particular difficulties of protective relays is that the time between
operations may be measured in years, during which period defects may have
developed unnoticed until revealed by the failure of the protection to respond to a
power system fault. For this reason, relays should be given simple basic tests at
suitable intervals in order to check that their ability to operate has not deteriorated.
Testing should be carried out without disturbing permanent connections. This
can be achieved by the provision of test blocks or switches.
Draw-out relays inherently provide this facility; a test plug can be inserted
between the relay and case contacts giving access to all relay input circuits for
injection. When temporary disconnection of panel wiring is necessary, mistakes in
correct restoration of connections can be avoided by using identity tags on leads and
terminals, clip-on leads for injection supplies, and easily visible double-ended clip-on
leads where 'jumper connections' are required.
The quality of testing personnel is an essential feature when assessing
reliability and considering means for improvement. Staff must be technically
competent and adequately trained, as well as self-disciplined to proceed in a
deliberate manner, in which each step taken and quantity measured is checked before
final acceptance.
Important circuits which are especially vulnerable can be provided with
continuous electrical super-vision; such arrangements are commonly applied to
circuit breaker trip circuits and to pilot circuits.
4. Protection performance
The performance of the protection applied to large power systems is frequently
assessed numerically. For this purpose each system fault is classed as an incident and
those which are cleared by the tripping of the correct circuit breakers and only those
are classed as 'correct'.
The percentage of correct clearances can then be determined.
This principle of assessment gives an accurate evaluation of the protection of the
system as a whole, but it is severe in its judgment of relay performance, in that many
relays are called into operation for each system fault, and all must behave correctly
for a correct clearance to be recorded.
Such schemes have already been used to a limited extent and application of the
principle will undoubtedly increase. Probability theory suggests that if a power
network were protected throughout on this basis, a protection performance of 99.98
% should be attainable.
• Selectivity.
Protection is arranged in zones, which should cover the power system completely,
leaving no part unprotected. When a fault occurs the protection is required to select
and trip only the nearest circuit breakers. This property of selective tripping is also
called 'discrimination' and is achieved by two general methods:
Protective systems in successive zones are arranged to operate in times which are
graded through the sequence of equipments so that upon the occurrence of a fault,
although a number of protective equipments respond, only those relevant to the faulty
zone complete the tripping function. The others make incomplete operations and then
reset.
2. Unit systems.
It is possible to design protective systems which respond only to fault conditions
lying within a clearly defined zone. This 'unit protection' or 'restricted Protection' can
be applied throughout a power system and, since it does not involve time grading,
can be relatively fast in operation.
The feeder protection, if of the unit type, would not operate, since the fault is
outside its zone. This problem is dealt. With by some form of zone extension, to
operate when opening the circuit breaker does not fully interrupt the flow of fault
current. A time delay is incurred in fault clearance, although by restricting this
operation to occasions when the bus-bar protection is operated the time delay can be
reduced.
Figure 4 Overlapping zones of protection systems.
The point of connection of the protection with the power system usually defines the
zone and corresponds to the location of the current transformers. The protection may
be of the unit type, in which case the boundary will be a clearly defined and closed
loop. Figure 4 illustrates a typical arrangement of overlapping zones.
Alternatively, the zone may be unrestricted; the start will be defined but the extent
will depend on measurement of the system quantities and will therefore be subject to
variation, owing to changes in system conditions and measurement errors.
• Stability.
This term, applied to protection as distinct from power networks, refers to the ability
of the system to remain inert to all load conditions and faults external to the relevant
zone. It is essentially a term which is applicable to unit systems; the term
'discrimination' is the equivalent expression applicable to non-unit systems.
• Speed.
The function of automatic protection is to isolate faults from the power system in a
very much shorter time than could be achieved manually, even with a great deal of
personal supervision. The object is to safeguard continuity of supply by removing
each disturbance before it leads to widespread loss of synchronism, which would
necessitate the shutting down of plant.
It will be noted that phase faults have a more marked effect on the stability of
the system than does a simple earth fault and therefore require faster clearance.
It will be seen that protective gear must operate as quickly as possible; speed,
however, must be weighed against economy.
For this reason, distribution circuits for which the requirements for fast
operation are not very severe are usually protected by time-graded systems, but
generating plant and EHV systems require protective gear of the highest attainable
speed; the only limiting factor will be the necessity for correct operation.
• Sensitivity
Sensitivity is a term frequently used when referring to the minimum operating current
of a complete protective system. A protective system is said to be sensitive if the
primary operating current is low.
When the term is applied to an individual relay, it does not refer to a current or
voltage setting but to the volt-ampere consumption at the minimum operating current.
A given type of relay element can usually be wound for a wide range of setting
currents; the coil will have an impedance which is inversely proportional to the
square of the setting current value, so that the volt-ampere product at any setting is
constant.
This is the true measure of the input requirements of the relay, and so also of
the sensitivity. Relay power factor has some significance in the matter of transient
performance.
For D.C. relays the VA input also represents power consumption, and the burden
is therefore frequently quoted in watts.
Breaker fail protection can be obtained by checking that fault current ceases
within a brief time interval from the operation of the main protection. If this does not
occur, all other connections to the bus bar section are interrupted, the condition being
necessarily treated as a bus bar fault. This provides the required back-up protection
with the minimum of time delay, and confines the tripping operation to the one
station, as compared with the alternative of tripping the remote ends of all the
relevant circuits.
The extent and type of back-up protection which is applied will naturally be
related to the failure risks and relative economic importance of the system. For
distribution systems where fault clearance
Times are not critical, time delayed remote back-up protection is adequate but
for EHV systems, where system stability is at risk unless a fault is cleared quickly,
local back-up, as described above, should be chosen.
2. Auxiliary relay.
An all-or-nothing relay used to supplement the performance of another relay, by
modifying contact performance for example, or by introducing time delays.
3. Back-up protection.
A protective system intended to supplement the main protection in case the latter
should be in-effective, or to deal with faults in those parts of the power system that are
not readily included in the operating zones of the main protection.
4. Biased relay.
A relay in which the characteristics are modified by the introduction of some quantity
other than the actuating quantity, and which is usually in opposition to the actuating
quantity.
5. Burden.
The loading imposed by the circuits of the relay on the energizing power source or
sources, expressed as the product of voltage and current (volt-amperes, or watts if D.C)
for a given condition, which may be either at 'setting' or at rated current or voltage.
The rated output of measuring transformers, expressed in VA, is always at rated current
or voltage and it is important, in assessing the burden imposed by a relay, to ensure that
the value of burden at rated current is used.
6. Characteristic angle.
The phase angle at which the performance of the relay is declared. It is usually the
angle at which maximum sensitivity occurs.
7. Characteristic curve.
The curve showing the operating value of the characteristic quantity corresponding to
various values or combinations of the energizing quantities.
8. Characteristic quantity.
A quantity, the value of which characterizes the operation of the relay, e.g. current for
an over current relay, voltage for a voltage relay, phase angle for a directional relay,
time for an independent time delay relay, impedance for an impedance relay.
13. Discrimination.
The quality whereby a protective system distinguishes between those conditions for
which it is intended to operate and those for which it shall not operate.
14. Drop-out.
A relay drops out when it moves from the energized position to the un-energized
position.
23. Inverse time delay relay with definite minimum (I.D. M . T.)
A relay in which the time delay varies inversely with the characteristic quantity up to a
certain value, after which the time delay becomes substantially independent.
32. Pick-up.
A relay is said to 'pick-up' when it changes from the un-energized position to the
energized position.
39. Rating.
The nominal value of an energizing quantity which appears in the designation of a
relay. The nominal value usually corresponds to the CT and VT secondary ratings.
40. Resetting value.
The limiting value of the characteristic quantity at which the relay returns to its initial
position.
43. Setting.
The limiting value of a 'characteristic' or 'energizing' quantity at which the relay is
designed to operate under specified conditions.
Such values are usually marked on the relay and may be expressed as direct values,
percentages of rated values, or multiples.
44. Stability.
The quality whereby a protective system remains inoperative under all conditions other
than those for which it is specifically designed to operate.
1- Fault
An unplanned occurrence or defect in an item which may result in one or more
failures of the item itself or of other associated equipment
[IEC 604-02-011
NOTE - In electrical equipment, a fault may or may not result in damage to the
insulation and failure of the equipment.
2- Non-damage fault
A fault which does not involve repair or replacement action at the point of the fault
NOTE - Typical examples are self-extinguishing arcs in switching equipment or
general overheating without paper carbonization.
[IEC 604-02-091
3- Damage fault
A fault which involves repair or replacement action at the point of the fault
[IEC 604-02-08, modified]
4- Incident
An event related to an internal fault which temporarily or permanently disturbs the
normal operation of an equipment [IEV 604-02-03, modified]
NOTE - Typical examples are gas alarms, equipment tripping or equipment leakage.
5- Failure
The termination of the ability of an item to perform a required function [IEC 191-
04-01]
NOTE - In the electrical equipment, failure will result from a damage fault or
incident necessitating outage, repair or replacement of the equipment, such as
internal breakdown, rupture of tank, fire or explosion.
6- Electrical fault
a partial or disruptive discharge through the insulation.
7- Partial discharge
A discharge which only partially bridges the insulation between conductors. It may
occur inside the insulation or adjacent to a conductor
[IEC 212-01-34, modified]
NOTE 1 - Corona is a form of partial discharge that occurs in gaseous media around
conductors which are remote from solid or liquid insulation. This term is not to be
used as a general term for all forms of partial discharges.
NOTE 2 - X-wax is a solid material which is formed from mineral insulating oil as
a result of electrical discharges and which consists of polymerized fragments of the
molecules of the original liquid
[IEV 212-07-24, modified].
Comparable products may be formed from other liquids under similar conditions.
8- Discharge (disruptive) .
The passage of an arc following the breakdown of the insulation
[IEC 604-03-38, modified]
NOTE 1 - Typical values will differ in different types of equipment and in different
networks, depending on operating practices (load levels, climate, etc.).
NOTE 2 - Typical values, in many countries and by many users, are quoted as
"normal values", but this term has not been used here to avoid possible
misinterpretations.
LIST OF DEVICE NUMBERS
• 2 Time delay starting or closing relay.
• 3 Checking or interlocking relay
• 21 Distance relay
• 25 Synchronizing or synchronism check relay
• 27 Under voltage relay
• 30 Annunciator relay
• 32 Directional power relay
• 37 Undercurrent or under power relay
• 40 Field failure relay
• 46 Reverse phase or phase balance current relay
• 49 Machine or transformer thermal relay
• 50 Instantaneous over current or rate-of-rise relay
• 51 A.c. time over current relay
• 52 A.c. circuit breaker
• 52a Circuit breaker auxiliary switch—normally open
• 52b Circuit breaker auxiliary switch—normally closed
• 55 Power factor relay
• 56 Field_application relay
• 59 Over voltage relay
• 60 Voltage or current balance relay
• 64 Earth fault protective relay
• 67 A.c. directional over current relay
• 68 Blocking relay
• 74 Alarm relay
• 76 D.c. over current relay
• 78 Phase angle measuring or out-of-step protective relay
• 79 A.c. reclosing relay
• 81 Frequency relay
• 83 Automatic selective control or transfer relay
• 85 Carrier or pilot wire receive relay
• 86 Locking-out relay
• 87 Differential protective relay
• 94 auxiliary tripping relay
Protective relays are precise measuring devices, the contacts of which should
not be expected to perform large making and breaking duties. Attracted armature
relays, which combine many of the characteristics of measuring devices and
contactors,
Occupy an intermediate position and according to their design and consequent
closeness to one or other category, may have an appreciable contact capacity.
Most other types of relay develop an effort which is independent of the
position of the moving system.
At setting, the electromechanical effort is absorbed by the controlling force, the
margin for operating the contacts being negligibly small. Not only does this limit the
'making' capacity of the contacts, but if more than one contact pair is fitted any slight
misalignment may result in only one contact being closed at the minimum operating
value, there being insufficient force to compress the spring of the first contact to
make, by the small amount required to permit closure of the second.
For this reason, the provision of multiple contacts on such elements is
undesirable. Although two contacts can be fitted, care must be taken in their
alignment, and a small tolerance in the closing value of operating current may have
to be allowed between them. These effects can be reduced by providing a small
amount of 'run-in' to contact make in the relay behavior, by special shaping of the
active parts.
For the above reasons it is often better to use inter-posing contactor type
elements which do not have the same limitations, although some measuring relay
elements are capable of tripping the smaller types of circuit breaker directly. These
may be small attracted armature type elements fitted in the same case as the
measuring relay.
In general, static relays have discrete measuring and tripping circuits, or
modules. The functioning of the measuring modules will not react on the tripping
modules. Such a relay is equivalent to a sensitive electromechanical relay with a
tripping contactor, so that the number or rating of outputs has no more significance
than the fact that they have been provided.
For larger switchgear installations the tripping power requirement of each
circuit breaker is considerable, and, further, two or more breakers may have to be
tripped by one protective system.
There may also be remote signaling requirements, interlocking with other
functions (for example auto-reclosing arrangements), and other control functions to
be performed. These various operations are carried out by multi-contact tripping
relays, which are energized by the protection relays and provide the necessary
number of adequately rated output contacts.
• Operation indicators.
As a guide for power system operation staff, protective systems are invariably
provided with indicating devices. In British practice these are called 'flags', whereas
in America they are known as 'targets'. Not every component relay will have one, as
indicators are arranged to operate only if a trip operation is initiated. Indicators, with
very few exceptions, are bi-stable devices, and may be either mechanically or
electrically operated. A mechanical indicator consists of a small shutter which is
Released by the protective relay movement to expose the indicator pattern,
which, on GEC Measurements relays, consists of a red diagonal stripe on a white
background.
Electrical indicators may be simple attracted armature elements either with or
without contacts. Operation of the armature releases a shutter to expose an indicator
as above.
An alternative type consists of a small cylindrical permanent magnet
magnetized across a diameter, and lying between the poles of an electromagnet. The
magnet, which is free to rotate, lines up its magnetic axis with the electromagnet
poles, but can be made to reverse its orientation by the application of a field. The
edge of the magnet is colored to give the indication.
This is to stop indication occurring when the tripping operation has not been
completed.
Ta. Series sealing.
The coil of the series contactor carries the trip current initiated by the
protective relay, and the contactor closes a contact in parallel with the protective
relay contact.
This closure relieves the protective relay contact of further duty and keeps the
tripping circuit securely closed, even if chatter occurs at the main contact. Nothing is
added to the total tripping time, and the indicator does not operate until current is
actually flowing through the trip coil.
The main disadvantage of this method is that such series elements must have
their coils matched with the trip circuit with which they are associated.
The coils of these contactors must be of low impedance, with about
5 % of the trip supply voltage being dropped across them.
When used in association with high speed trip relays, which usually interrupt their
own coil current, the auxiliary elements must be fast enough to operate and release
the flag before their coil current is cut off.
This may pose a problem in design if a variable number of auxiliary elements
(for different phases and so on) may be required to operate in parallel to energize a
common tripping relay.
b. Shunt reinforcing.
Here the sensitive contacts are arranged to trip the circuit breaker and
simultaneously to energize the auxiliary unit, which then reinforces the contact which
is energizing the trip coil.
It should be noted that two contacts are required on the protective relay, since
it is not permissible to energize the trip coil and the reinforcing contactor in parallel.
If this were done, and more than one protective relay were connected to trip the same
circuit breaker, all the auxiliary relays would be energized in parallel for each relay
operation and the indication would be confused. The duplicate main contacts are
frequently provided
As a three point arrangement to reduce the number of contact fingers.
Figure 8 Examples of trip circuit supervision.
3.1.2 Construction:
• Electromagnetic.
• Solid state.
• Microprocessor.
• Computerized.
• Nonelectric (thermal, pressure ......etc.).
3. 2. 1 Attraction relays
Attraction relays can be supplied by AC or DC, and operate by the movement
of a piece of metal when it is attracted by the magnetic field produced by a coil. There
are two main types of relay in this class.
The attracted armature relay, which is shown in figure 1, consists of a bar or
plate of metal which pivots when it is attracted towards the coil.
The armature carries the moving part of the contact, which is closed or opened
according to the design when the armature is attracted to the coil. The other type is the
piston or solenoid relay, illustrated in Figure 2, in which α bar or piston is attracted axially
within the field of the solenoid. In this case, the piston also carries the operating contacts.
It can be shown that the force of attraction is equal to K1I2 - K2, where Κ1 depends upon
the number of turns on the operating solenoid, the air gap, the effective area and the
reluctance of the magnetic circuit, among other factors. K2 is the restraining force,
usually produced by a spring. When the relay is balanced, the resultant force is zero and
therefore Κ112 = K2,
So that I = K 2 / K1 =constant.
In order to control the value at which the relay starts to operate, the restraining
tension of the spring or the resistance of the solenoid circuit can be varied, thus
modifying the restricting force. Attraction relays effectively have no time delay and, for
that reason, are widely used when instantaneous operations are required.
T = B.l.a.N.i
Where:
T= torque
B = flux density
L =length of the coil
a = diameter of the coil
N = number of turns on the coil
i = current flowing through the coil
Figure 2 Solenoid-type relay
3 . 2 . 3 Induction relays
An induction relay works only with alternating current. It consists of an electromagnetic
system which operates on a moving conductor, generally in the form of a disc or cup,
and functions through the interaction of electromagnetic fluxes with the parasitic Fault
currents which are induced in the rotor by these fluxes. These two fluxes, which are
mutually displaced both in angle and in position, produce a torque that can be expressed
by
T= Κ1.Φ1.Φ2 .sin θ,
Where Φ1 and Φ2 are the interacting fluxes and θ is the phase angle between Φ1 and Φ2. It
should be noted that the torque is a maximum when the fluxes are out of phase by 90º,
and zero when they are in phase.
dΦ 1
iΦ 1 α α Φ 1 cosω t
dt
And
dΦ 1
i Φ1 α α Φ 1 cos ( ωt + θ )
dt
Figure 4 shows the interrelationship between the currents and the opposing forces.
Thus:
∴F α Φ2 Φ1 sin θ α T
Induction relays can be grouped into three classes as set out below.
• Shaded-pole relay
In this case a portion of the electromagnetic section is short-circuited by means of a
copper ring or coil. This creates a flux in the area influenced by the short circuited
section (the so-called shaded section) which lags the flux in the nonshaded section,
see Figure 5.
In its more common form, this type of relay uses an arrangement of coils above and below the
disc with the upper and lower coils fed by different values or, in some cases, with just one
supply for the top coil, which induces an out-of-phase flux in the lower coil because of the air
gap. Figure 6 illust r ates a typical arrangement.
• Cup-type relay
This type of relay has a cylinder similar to a cu which can rotate in the annular air gap
between the poles of the coils, and has a fixed central core, see Figure 7. The operation of this
relay is very similar to that
The torque is a function of the product of the two currents through the coils and the
cosine of the angle between them. The torque equation is
Where K, .Κs and Φ are design constants, Ι1 and I2 are the currents through the two
coils and θ12 is the angle between I1 and I2.
In the first two types of relay mentioned above, which are provided with a disc, the
inertia of the disc provides the time-delay characteristic. The time delay can be increased
by the addition of a permanent magnet. The cup-type relay has a small inertia and is
therefore principally used when high speed operation is required, for example in
instantaneous units.
max Sin ( ωt + α )
This is aVdifferential equation with constant coefficients, of which the solution is in
two parts: R
ia ( t ) : ih ( t ) + i p ( t )
Where:
ih(t) Is the solution of the homogeneous equation corresponding to the transient
period and ip(t) is the solution to the particular equation corresponding to the steady-
state period.
By the use of differential equation theory, which will not be discussed in detail here,
the complete solution can be determined and expressed iii the following form:
Vmax
i (t ) = ( Sin (ω t + α ) − Sin(α − Φ ).e − ( R / L ) ) 2.2
Z
Where:
Z = R 2 + ω 2 L2
α = the closing angle which defines the point on the source sinusoidal voltage when the
fault occurs and
Φ = tan −1 (ωL / R )
It can be seen that, in eqn. 2.2, the first term varies sinusoidally, while the second
term decreases exponentially with a time constant of L/R. The latter term can be
recognised as the DC component of the current, and has an initial maximum
value when α − Φ = ±π / 2 , and zero value when Φ=α, see Figure 2.
It is impossible to predict at what point the fault will be applied on the sinusoidal cycle
and therefore what magnitude the DC component will reach. If the tripping of the
circuit, owing to a fault, takes place when the sinusoidal component is at its negative
peak, the DC component reaches its theoretical maximum value half a cycle later.
Figure 2 Variation of fault current with time
a (α–Φ) =0
b (α–Φ)=π/2
An approximate formula for calculating the effective value of the total asymmetric
current,
including the AC and DC components, with acceptable accuracy can be obtained from
the following expression:
I rms .asym = 2
I rms + I DC
2
2.3
The fault current which results when an alternator is short circuited can easily be
analysed since this is similar to the case which has already been analysed, i.e. when
voltage is, applied to an RL circuit. The reduction in current from its value at the onset,
owing to the gradual decrease in the magnetic flux caused by the reduction of the e.m.f.
of the induction current, can be seen in Figure 3. This effect is known as armature
reaction.
The physical situation that is presented to a generator, and which makes the
calculations quite difficult, can be interpreted as a reactance which varies with time.
Notwithstanding this, in the majority of practical applications it is possible to take
account of the variation of reactance in only three stages without producing significant
errors. In Figure 4 it will be noted that the variation of current with time, 1(t), comes
close to the three discrete levels of current, I", 1 ' and I, the subtransient, transient and
steady-state currents, respectively. The corresponding values of direct axis reactance
" '
are denoted by X d , X d and Xd,
I peak = I D c + I AC
= (0.9 2 V / X d" ) + (0.9 2 V / X d" )
= 2.55 I rm s.sym 2 .6
When considering the specification for the switchgear-
opening cur-rent, the so-called r.m.s. value of interrupting
current is used in which, again, the AC and DC components
are taken into account, and therefore:
Replacing the DC component by its exponential expression
gives:
2
I rms . asym . int = I DC + I Ac . rms . int
2
= I rms.sym.int 2e −2 ( r / l ) t + 1 2.7
I /I
The expression ( rms .asym. int rms .sys. int ) has been drawn for
different
Values of X/R, and for different switchgear contact-
separation times, in ANSI Standard C37.5–1979. The
multiplying factor graphs are reproduced in Figure 6
Figure 6 Multiplying factors for three-phase
and line-to-earth faults (total current rating
basis) (from. IEEE Standard C37.5-1979;
reproduced by permission of the IEEE)
V b= V ao+a 2V a1+aV a2
V c= V ao+aV a1+ a 2V a2
where a is a so called operator which gives a phase shift of
120° clockwise and a multiplication of unit magnitude, i.e.
a=1 ∠120 °,
and a 2 similarly gives a phase shift
of 240°, i.e. a 2=1 ∠240° Therefore,
the following matrix relationship can be established:
Va 1 1 1 Va 0
V = 1 a a 2 × V
b a1
Vc 1 a 2 a Va 2
Va 0 1 1 1 V a
V = 1 1 a a 2 × V
a1 3 b
Va 2 1 a 2 a Vc
From the above matrix it can be deduced that:
1
Va 0 = (Va + Vb + Vc )
3
1
Va1 = (Va + aVb + a 2Vc )
3
1
Va 2 = (Va + a 2Vb + aVc )
3
The foregoing procedure can also be applied directly to
currents, and gives:
I a = I a 0 + I a1 + I a 2
I b = I a 0 + a 2 I a1 + aI a 2
I b = I a 0 + a I a1 + a 2 I a 2
Therefore:
1
I a0 = (I a + Ib + Ic )
3
1
I a1 = ( I a + aI b + a 2 I c )
3
1
I a 2 = ( I a + a 2 I b + aI c )
3
In three-phase systems, the neutral current is equal to In =
(Ia + Ib + Ic) and, therefore, l n=3I0
By way of illustration, a three-phase unbalanced system is
shown in Figure 8 together with the associated symmetrical
components.
2.1 Importance and construction of sequence networks
Type of
machine
X d" X d' Xd X2 X0
Turbine 2 pole 0.09 0.15 1.20 0.09 0.03
generator 4 pole 0.14 0.22 1.70 0.14 0.07
The subtransient reactance is the reactance applicable at the onset of the fault
occurrence. Within 0.1 sec. the fault level falls to a value determined by the transient
reactance and then decays exponentially to a steady-state value determined by the
synchronous reactance.
Typical per-unit reactance's for three phase synchronous machines are given in
Table 1.
In connecting sequence networks together, the reference busbar for the positive- and
negative-sequence networks is the generator neutral which, in these networks, is at
earth potential so that only zero-sequence currents flow through the impedances
between neutral and earth. The reference busbar for zero-sequence networks is the
earth point of the generator. The current which flows in the impedance between the
neutral and earth are three times the zero-sequence current. Figure 2.9 illustrates the
sequence networks for a generator.
The zero sequence networks carries only zero-sequence current in one phase which
has an impedance of Zo = 3Ζn + Zeo
The voltage and current components for each phase are obtained from the equations
given for the sequence networks. The equations for the components of voltage,
corresponding to the phase of the system, are obtained from the point an on phase a
relative to the reference bus bar, and can be deduced from Figure 2.9 as follows:
Va1 = E a − I a1 Z 1
Va 2 = − I a 2 Z 2
Va 0 = − I a 0 Z 0
Where
Εa = no load voltage to earth of the positive-sequence network
Z1 = positive-sequence impedance of the generator
Z2 = negative-sequence impedance of the generator
Zo= zero-sequence impedance of the generator (Zeo) plus three times the impedance
to earth
The above equations can be applied to any generator which carries unbalanced
currents and are the starting point for calculations for any type of fault. The same
approach can be used with equivalent power systems or applied to loaded
generators, Ea then being the voltage behind the reactance before the fault occurs.
2.2.2 Calculation of asymmetrical faults using symmetrical components
The positive, negative and zero-sequence network, carrying currents I1, I2 and Io
respectively, are connected together in a particular arrangement to represent a given
unbalanced fault condition. Consequently, in order to calculate fault 1 levels using
the method of symmetrical components, it is essential to determine the individual
sequence impedances and combine these to make up the correct sequence networks.
Then, for each .type of fault, the appropriate combination of sequence networks is
formed in order to obtain the relationships between fault currents and voltages.
• Phase-to-earth fault
The conditions for a solid fault from line a to earth
are represented by the equations Ib=0, Ic =0 and V a =0,
Single phase fault connected to earth
• Phase-to-Phase fault
The conditions for a solid fault between
lines h and c are represented by the equations
• Phase-to-Phase-to-earth fault
The conditions for a fault between lines b and c and earth are represented by the
equations 1a = 0 and Vb=Vc =0. From these equations it can be proved that:
Ea
I a1 =
ZoZ2
Z1 +
Zo + Z2
Where:
Z = Equivalent positive and negative-sequence impedances
V =nominal phase-to-phase voltage
P = three-phase short circuit power
The equivalent zero-sequence of a system can be derived from the expressions of
sequence components referred to for a single-phase fault, i.e.
Therefore, in the majority of cases, the relays operate on the basis of the corresponding
values of fault current and / or voltages, regardless of the values of the sequence
components. It is very important to emphasise that, given this, the advantage of using
symmetrical components is that they facilitate the calculation of fault levels even
though the relays in the majority of cases do not distinguish between the various values
of the symmetrical components.
In Figure 11a & b the positive and negative sequence values of current and
voltage for different faults are shown together with the summated values of current and
voltage.
Relays usually only operate using the summated values in the right-hand
columns. However, relays are available which can operate with specific values of
some of the sequence components.
In these cases there must be methods for obtaining these components, and this is
achieved by using filters which produce the mathematical operations of the resultant
equations to resolve the matrix for voltages and for currents.
Although these filters can be constructed for electromagnetic elements, the
growth of electronics has led to their being used increasingly in logic circuits. Among
the relays which require this type of filter in order to operate are those used ιn
negative-sequence and earth-fault protection.
1- Voltage transformers:
With voltage transformers (VTs) it is essential that the voltage from the
secondary winding should be as near as possible proportional to the primary voltage.
In order to achieve this, VTs are designed in such a way that the voltage drops in
the windings are small and the flux density in the core is well below the saturation
value so that the magnetization current is small; in this way magnetization impedance
is obtained which is practically constant over the required voltage range. The
secondary voltage of a VT is usually 110 or 120 V with corresponding line-to-neutral
values. The majority of protection relays have nominal voltages of 110 or 63.5 V,
depending on whether their connection is line-to-line or line-to-neutral.
1.2 Errors
When used for measurement instruments, for example for billing and control
purposes, the accuracy of a VT is important, especially for those values close to the
nominal system voltage.
Notwithstanding this, although the precision requirements of a VT for protection
applications are not so high at nominal voltages, owing to the problems of having
to cope with a variety of different relays, secondary wiring burdens and the
uncertainty of system parameters, errors should he contained within narrow limits
over a wide range of possible voltages under fault conditions.
This range should be between 5 and 173% of the nominal primary voltage for
VTs connected between line and earth.
Referring to the circuit in Figure 1a, errors in a VT are clue to differences in
magnitude and phase between Vp/n, and Vs. These consist of the errors under open-
circuit conditions when the load impedance Ζ B is infinite, caused by the drop in
voltage from the circulation of the magnetization current through the primary
winding, and errors due to voltage drops as a result of the load current IL flowing
through both windings. Errors in magnitude can be calculated from
Error V T = {(n Vs - Vp) / Vp} x 100%. If the error is positive, then the secondary
voltage exceeds the nominal value.
1.3 Burden
The standard burden for voltage transformer is usually expressed in volt-amperes
(VΑ) at a specified power factor.
Table 1 gives standard burdens based on ANSI Standard C57.1 3. Voltage
transformers are specified in IEC publication 186Α by the precision class, and the
value of volt-amperes (VΑ).
The allowable error limits corresponding to different class values are shown in
Table 2, where Vn is the nominal voltage. The phase error is considered positive
when the secondary voltage leads the primary voltage. The voltage error is the
percentage difference between the voltage at the secondary terminals, V2,
multiplied by the nominal transformation ratio, and the primary voltages V1.
W
12.5 0.10 115.2 3.040 1152 38.4 1.010 384
The capacitor divider differs from the inductive divider in that the equivalent
impedance of the source is capacitive and the .fact that this impedance can be
compensated for by connecting a reactance in series at the point of connection.
With an ideal reactance there are no regulation problems - however, in an
actual situation on a network, some resistance is always present. The divider can
reduce the voltage to a value which enables errors to be kept within normally
acceptable limits. For improved accuracy a high voltage capacitor is used in order to
obtain a bigger voltage at the point of connection, which can be reduced to a
standard voltage using a relatively inexpensive trans-former as shown in Figure 3.
Α simplified equivalent circuit of a capacitor VT is shown in Figure 4 in which
Vi is equal to the nominal primary voltage, C is the numerically equivalent impedance
equal to ( C1 + C2 ), L is the resonance inductance, Ri represents the resistance of the
primary winding of transformer Τ plus the losses in C and L, and Ze is the
magnetization impedance of transformer Τ. Referred to the inter-mediate voltage, the
Rs'
resistance of the secondary circuit and the load impedance are represented by and
Z B' respectively, while Vs' and I s' represent the secondary voltage and current.
2 Current transformers
Although the performance required from a current transformer (CT) varies with the type
of protection, high grade CTs must always be used. Good quality CTs are more reliable
and result in less application problems and, in general, provide better protection.
2.3 AC saturation
CΤ errors result from excitation current, so much so that, in order to check if a CT
is functioning correctly, it is essential to measure or calculate the excitation curve. The
magnetization current of a CT depends on the cross section and length of the magnetic
circuit, the number of turns in the windings, and the magnetic characteristics of the
material.
Thus, for a given CT, and referring to the equivalent circuit of Figure 4.6b, it can
be seen that the voltage across the magnetization impedance, Es, is directly proportional
to the secondary current. From this it can be concluded that, when the primary current
and therefore the secondary current is increased, these currents reach a point where the
core commences to saturate and the magnetization current becomes sufficiently high to
produce an excessive error.
2.4 Burden
The burden of a CT is the value in ohms-of the impedance on the secondary side
of the CT due to the relays and the connections between the CT and the relays. By way
of example, the standard burdens for CTs with a nominal secondary current of 5 A are
shown in Table 3, based on ANSI Standard C57.13.
IEC Standard Publication 185(1987) specifies CTs by the class of accuracy followed by
the letter Μ or P, which denotes whether the transformer is suitable for measurement or
protection purposes, respectively. The current and phase-error limits for measurement
and protection CTs are given in Tables 4a and 4.4b. The phase error is considered
positive when the secondary current leads the primary current.
The current error is the percentage deviation of the secondary current, multiplied
by the nominal transformation ratio, from the primary current, i.e. {(CTR x Ι2) – I1} ÷ I1
(%), where I1 = primary current (A), I2 = secondary current (A) and CTR = current
transformer transformation ratio. Those CT classes marked with `ext' denote wide range
(extended) current transformers with a rated continuous current of 1.2 or 2 times the
nameplate current rating.
2.5 Selection of CTs
When selecting a CT, it is important to ensure that the fault level and normal load
conditions do not result in saturation of the core and that
CT magnetization curves
The errors do not exceed acceptable limits. These factors can be assessed from:
• formulae;
• CT magnetization curves;
• CT classes of accuracy.
The first two methods provide precise facts for the selection of the CT. The third only
provides a qualitative estimation. The secondary voltage Ε in Figure 4.6U has to be
determined for all three methods. If the impedance of the magnetic circuit, Xm is high,
this can be removed from the equivalent circuit with little error' giving Es=Vs and
thus:
Where
Vs = r.m.s. voltage induced in the secondary winding
=maximum secondary current in amperes;
this can be determined by dividing the maximum
Fault current on the system by the transformer
turns ratio selected
ZB = e x t e r n a l impedance connected
ZL = impedance of the secondary winding
ZC =impedance of the connecting wiring
2.0* 1.2 1.00 0.50 0.20 0.10 2.0* 1.2 1. 0.5 0. 0.1 0.05
0.05 0 2
+/- percentage
Accuracy +/- Phase error
Current
Class (minutes)
ratio error
% Current 5 20 100 120 5 20 100 120
0.1 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 15 8 5 5
0.2 0.75 0.35 0.2 0.2 30 15 10 10
0.5 1.5 0.75 0.5 0.5 90 45 30 30
1.0 3 1.5 1.0 1.0 180 90 60 60
Total error for nominal error limit current and nominal load is five per cent for 5P and
5Ρ ext CTs and ten per cent for 10P and 10P ext CTs.
The cross-sectional area of metal and the saturation flux density are sometimes
difficult to obtain.
The latter can be taken as equal to 100 000 lines/Cm2, which is a typical value for
modern transformers. To use the formula, V is determined from eqn. 4.1 and Bmax. is
then calculated using eqn. 2. If Bmax.
Exceeds the saturation density, there could be appreciable errors in the secondary current
and the CT selected would not be appropriate.
Example 1.
Assume that a CT with a ratio of 2000/5 is available, having a steel core of high
permeability, a cross-sectional area of 3.25 In cm2 and a secondary winding with a
resistance of 0.31 Ω. The impedance of the relays, including connections, is 2 Ω.
Determine whether the CT would be saturated by a fault of 35 000 A at 50 Hz.
Solution
If the CT is not saturated, then the secondary current, IL, is
35 000x 5/2000=87.5 A. N= 2000/5 = 400 turns
And Vs=87.5x (0.31+2) =202.1 V. Using eqn. 4.2, Bmax, can now be calculated:
Bmax = 202.1X108/4.44X50X3.25X400=70 030 lines/ cm2
Since the transformer in this example has a steel core of high permeability, this relatively
low value of flux density should not result in saturation.
Using the magnetization curve
Typical CT excitation curves which are supplied by manufacturers state the r.m.s.
current obtained on applying an r.m.s. voltage to the secondary winding, with the primary
winding open-circuited.
The curves give the magnitude of the excitation current required order to obtain a
specific secondary voltage.
The method consists of producing a curve which shows the relationship between
the primary and secondary currents for one tap and specified load conditions, such as
shown in Figure 4.9.
Starting with any value of secondary current, and with the help of the
magnetisation curves, the value of the corresponding primary current can be determined.
The process is summarized in the following steps:
(a) Assume a value for I L.
(b) Calculate Vs in accordance with eqn. 4.1.
(c) Locate the value of Vs on the curve for the tap selected, and find the associated value
of the magnetization current, Ie.
(d) Calculate I H / n (=IL + Ie) and multiply this value by n to refer it to the primary side of
the CT.
(e) This provides one point on the curve of I L against IH, and the process is then
repeated to obtain other values of I L and the resultant values of IH. By joining the
points together the curve of I L against IH is obtained.
2.6 DC saturation
Up to now, the behavior of a CT has been discussed in terms of a steady state,
without considering the DC transient component of the
DC saturation is particularly significant in complex protection schemes since, in the
case of external faults, high fault currents circulate through the CTs.
If saturation occurs in different CTs associated with a particular relay
arrangement, this could result in the circulation of unbalanced secondary currents
which would cause the system to malfunction.
2.7 Precautions when working with CTs
Working with CTs associated with energized network circuits can be extremely
hazardous. In particular, opening the secondary circuit of a CT could result in
dangerous over voltages which might harm operational staff or lead to equipment
being damaged, because the current transformers are designed to be used in power
circuits which have impedance much greater than their own.
As a consequence, when secondary circuits are left open, the equivalent primary-
circuit impedance is almost unaffected but a high voltage will be developed by the
primary current passing through the magnetizing impedance Thus, secondary circuits
associated with CTs must always he kept in a closed condition or short-circuited in
order to prevent these adverse situations occurring. To illustrate this, an example is
given next using typical data for a CT and a 13.2 kV feeder.
Class P method of specification will a suffice. A secondary accuracy limit current greatly
in excess of the value t o cause relay operation serves no useful purpose and a rated
accuracy limit of 5 will usually be adequate.
When such relays are set to operate at high values of over current, say from 5 to 15 times
the rated current o f the transformer, the accuracy limit factor must be at least as high as
the value of the setting current used in order to ensure fast relay operation.
Rated outputs higher than 15VA and rated accuracy limit factors higher than 10 are not
recommended for general purposes. It is possible, however, to combine a higher rated
accuracy limit factor with a lower rated output and vice versa. But when the product of
these two exceeds 150 the resulting current transformer may be uneconomical, and/or of
unduly large dimensions.
(1) Schemes in which phase fault current stability and accurate time grading are not
required.
Class 10P current transformers are generally recommended in which the product of
rated
output and rated accuracy limit fact or approaches 150 provided that the earth fault
relay is
not set below 20% of the rated current of the associated current transformer and that
the
burden of the relay at its setting current does not exceed 4VA.
(2) Schemes in which phase fault stability and/or where time grading is critical.
Class 5P current transformers in which the product of rated output and accuracy
limit factor approaches 150 should be used.
They are in general suitable for ensuring phase fault stability up to 10 times the rated
primary current and for maintaining time grading of the earth f a u l t relays, up to
current values of the order of 10 times the earth fault setting provided t h a t the phase
burden effectively imposed on each current transformer does not exceed 50% of it s rated
burden.
The rated accuracy limit factor is not less than 10 the earth fault relay is not set below 30
% The burden of the relay at its setting does not exceed 4VA
The use of a higher relay setting the use of an earth fault relay having a burden of less
than 4VA at its setting The use of current transformers having a product of rated output
and rated accuracy factor in excess of 150.
Where
K - Is a constant found by realistic heavy current tests?
In - rated current of C.T. and relay
RCT - secondary winding resistance of the line current transformers
RL - lead burden (route length) in ohms
Ro - any other resistance (or impedance) in circuit
Protection Scheme
1 - Feeders Protection Schemes.
2 - Transformers Protection Schemes.
3 - Bus Bar Protection Schemes.
4 - Generators Protection Schemes.
11 KV O.H.T. Lines
Protection Schemes
11 KV U.G.C. Line
Protection Scheme
• Main Protection:
Differential Protection (Solkor – R)
• Back up Protection:
• I.D.M.T Non Directional O/C & E/F Relay.
• Backup Protection:
Stand-By Earth Fault relay at the neutral of LV. Winding.
I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & E/F relay on 33 KV side
Inter Trip (through pilot cable).
Buchhols Trip.
• 500, 400, 275, and 220 KV BB section & BB couplers protection scheme.
- I.D.M.T Non Directional O/C & E/F Relay.
- C.B Fail to Trip.
- SF6 Pressure Trip.
- Inter Trip (through pilot cable).
As the fault impedance is less than load impedance, the fault current is more than
load current. If a short circuit occurs the circuit impedance is reduced to a low value
and therefore a fault is accompanied by large current.
Over-current protection is that protection in which the relay picks up when the
magnitude of current exceeds the pickup level.
Over-current protection includes the protection from overloads. This is most widely
used protection. Overloading of a machine or equipment generally) means the machine
is taking more current than its rated current. Hence with overloading, there is an
associated temperature rise. The permissible temperature rise has a limit based on
insulation class and material problems.
Over-current protection of overloads is generally provided by thermal relays.
Not: Now Digital Numerical Relay you can used for all types
I0 * T = K
Where:
I = Current in relay coil
T = Relay lime
K = Constant.
In inverse characteristic, time is inversely proportional to current i.e.
I1 * T = K
In more inverse characteristic
In * T = K
The relays which are not instantaneous are called Time Delay Relay'. Such relays are
provided with delaying means such as drag magnet, dash poss. bellows, escape
mechanisms, back-stop arrangement, etc.
The operating time of a relay for a particular setting and magnitude actuating quantity
can be known from the characteristics supplied by the manufacturer. The typical
characteristics are shown in (Fig. 1)
An inverse curve is one in which the operating time; becomes less as the magnitude of
the actuating quantity is increased. However for higher magnitudes of actuating
quantity the time is constant. Definite time curve is one in which operating time is little
affected by magnitude of actuating current. However even definite time relay has a
characteristic which is slightly inverse
The characteristic with definite minimum time and of inverse type is also called Inverse
Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) characteristics (Fig.1).
(Fig.1) Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT)
characteristics
These current flows through relay coils and the relay picks-up, the relay contacts
close, thereby the trip circuit is closed and the circuit breaker-operates The over-
current protection scheme with three over-current relays (Fig. 2) responds to phase
faults and earth faults including single-phase to earth fault.
Therefore such schemes are used with solidly earthed systems where phase to phase
and phase to earth faults are likely to occur.
For proper functioning of over-current and earth fault protection, the choice of CT's and
polarity connections should be correct.
2 Two OC relays
with two CT's for
phase to phase
fault protection.
Earth-Fault Protection
When the fault current flows through earth return path, the fault is called Earth Fault.
Other faults which do not involve earth are called phase faults. Since earth faults are
relatively frequent, earth fault protection is necessary in most cases. When separate
earth fault protection is not economical, the phase relays sense the earth fault currents.
However such protection lacks sensitivity. Hence separate earth fault protection is
generally provided. Earth fault protection senses earth fault current. Following are the
method of earth fault protection.
Referring to Fig. 3 In absence of earth-fault the vector sum of three line currents is zero.
Hence the vector sum of three secondary currents is also zero.
IR+I Y +I B =0
The earth-fault relay is connected such that the residual current flows through it (Figs.3
and Fig. 4), in the absence of earth-fault,
Therefore, the residually connected earth-fault relay does not operate. However, in
presence of earth fault the conditions is disturbed and (IR+I Y +I B ) is no more
zero. Hence flows through the earth-fault relay. If the residual current is above the
pick-up value, the earth-fault relay operates.
In the scheme discussed here the earth-fault at any location near or away from the
location of CT's can cause the residual current flow. Hence the protected
zone is not definite. Such protection is called unrestricted earth-fault protection
Φ=k (Ia + Ib + I c )
(Ia + Ib + I c )= 3 I c= I n
Where, Io is zero sequence current and In, is current in
neutral to ground circuit. During normal condition, when
earth fault is absent,
(Ia + Ib + Ic) = 0
Hence Φr = 0 and relay does not operate
During earth fault the earth fault current flows through
return neutral path.
For example for single line ground fault,
If = 3Iao = In
Frame-leakage Protection
Earthing bus
Earth fault current
EF Relay
Earth
(Fig.
8) Principle of frame-leakage protection
of metal-clad-switchgear
B C
A
R R R R
(Fig.
9) Principle of directional protection
Relay `R' which will trip the breaker CB3 if fault power flow in direction C alone.
Therefore for faults in feeder AB, the circuit breaker CB3 does not trip unnecessarily.
However for faults in feeder BC the circuit-breaker CB3 trips
Because it's protective relaying is set with a directional feature to act in
direction AC
Another interesting example of directional protection is that of reverse power
protection of generator (Fig. 10). If the prime mover fails, the generator continues to run
as a motor and takes power from bus-bars.
Directional of flow
For tripping
CB
(Fig.
10) Reverse powers protection against
motoring action of a generator
Directional power protection operates in accordance with the direction of power flow.
Reverse power protection operates when the power direction is reversed in relation to
the normal working direction. Reverse power relay is different in construction than
directional over-current relay.
In directional over-current relay, the directional element does not measure the
magnitude of power. It senses only direction of power flow. However, in Reverse Power
Relays, the directional element measures magnitude and direction of power flow.
The current coils in the directional over-current relay are normally connected to a
secondary of line CT. The voltage coil of directional element is connected to a line VT,
having phase to phase output (of 110 V). There are four common methods of connecting
the relay depending upon phase angle between current in the current coil and voltage
applied to the voltage coil.
When fault current can flow in both directions through the relay location, it is
necessary to make the response of the relay directional by the introduction of
directional control elements. These are basically power measuring devices in which
the system voltage is used as a reference for establishing the relative direction or
phase of the fault current.
Although power measuring devices in principle, they are not arranged to respond to
the actual system power for a number of reasons:
1. The power system, apart from loads, is reactive so that the fault power factor
is usually low. A relay
V a , Vb and Vc. Normal system
voltages
V b 1 and V c 1 Voltages at fault
location on faulted phases
V b 2 and V c 2 Voltages remote
from fault location
Responding purely to the active component would not develop a high torque and
might be much slower and less decisive than it could be.
1. The system voltage must collapse at the point of short circuit. When the fault
is single-phase, it is the particular voltage across the short-circuited points
which are reduced. So a B—C phase fault will cause the B and C phase
voltage vectors to move together, the locus of their ends being the original
line be for a homogeneous system, as shown in (Fig.12)
At the point of fault the vectors will coincide, leaving zero voltage across the fault,
but the fault voltage to earth will be half the initial phase to neutral voltage. At other
points in the system the vector displacement will be less, but relays located at such
points will receive voltages which are unbalanced in their value and phase position.
The effect of the large unbalance in currents and voltages is to make the torques
developed by the different phase elements vary widely and even differ in sign if the
quantities applied to the relay are not chosen carefully. To this end, each phase of
the relay is polarized with a voltage which will not be reduced excessively except
by close three-phase faults, and which will remain in a satisfactory relationship to
the current under all conditions.
Relay connections
This is the arrangement whereby suitable current and voltage quantities are applied
to the relay. The various connections are dependent on the phase angle, at unity
system power factor, by which the current and voltage applied to the relay are
displaced.
The most satisfactory maximum torque angle for this connection, that ensures
correct operation when used for the protection of plain feeders, is 0°, and it can be
shown that a directional element having this connection and 0° MTA will provide
correct discrimination for all types of faults, when applied to plain feeders
If applied to transformer feeders, however, there is a danger that at least one of the
three phase relays will operate for faults in the reverse direction; for this reason a
directional element having this connection should never be used to protect
transformer feeders.
This connection has been used widely in the past, and it is satisfactory under all
conditions for plain feeders provided that three phase elements are employed.
When only two phase elements and an earth fault element are used there is a
probability of failure to operate for one condition. An inter-phase short circuit
causes two elements to be energized but for low power factors one will receive
inputs which, although correct, will produce only a poor torque. In particular a B—C
fault will strongly energize the B element with lb current and Vba voltage, but the C
element will receive Ic and the collapsed Vcb voltage, which quantities have a large
relative phase displacement, as shown in (Fig. 13b). This is satisfactory provided
that three phase elements are used, but in the case of a two phase and one earth
fault element relay, with the B phase element omitted, operation will depend upon
the C element, which may fail to operate if the fault is close to the relaying point.
A phase element connected l a Va c
B phase element connected l b Vb a
C phase element connected Ic Vcb
(a) Characteristic and inputs
for phase A element
The A phase relay is supplied with lab current and Vac voltage. In this case, the flux
due to the voltage coil lags the applied voltage to the relay by 90°, so maximum
torque is produced when the current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by
60°. This connection, which uses Vac voltage with delta current produced by adding
phase A and phase B currents at unity power factor, gives a current leading the
voltage Vac by 60°, and provides a correct directional tripping zone over a current
range of 30° leading to 150° lagging. The torque at unity power factor is 0.5 of
maximum torque and at zero power factor lagging 0.866; see (Fig.14).
It has been proved that the most suitable maximum torque angle for this relay
connection, that is, one which ensures correct directional discrimination with the
minimum risk of mal-operation when applied to either plain or transformer feeders,
is 0°.
When used for the protection of plain feeders there is a slight possibility of the
element associated with the A phase mal-operating for a reversed B—C fault.
The relay torque at unity power factor is 0.707 of the maximum torque and the same
at zero power factor lagging; see (Fig.17).
Parallel feeders
If non-directional relays are applied to parallel feeders, any faults that might occur
on any one line will, regardless of the relay settings used, isolate both lines and
completely disconnect the power supply. With this type of system configuration it
is necessary to apply directional relays at the receiving end and to grade them with
the non-directional relays at the sending end, to ensure correct discriminative
operation of the relays during line. faults. This is done by setting the directional
relays R'1 and R'2 as shown in (Fig.18) with their directional elements looking into
the protected line, and giving them lower time and current settings than relays R1
and R2. The usual practice is to set relays R'1 and R'2 to 50% of the normal full load
of the protected circuit and 0.1 TMS, but care must be taken to ensure that their
continuous thermal rating of twice rated current is not exceeded.
Ring mains
Directional relays are more commonly applied to ring mains. In the case of a ring
main fed at one point only, the relays at the supply end and at the mid-point
substation, where the setting of both relays are identical, can be made non-
directional, provided that in the latter case the relays are located on the same feeder,
that is, one at each end of the feeder.
It is interesting to note that when the number of feeders round the ring is an even
number, the two relays with the same operating time are at the same substation and
will have to be directional, whereas when the number of feeders is an odd number,
the two relays with the same operating time are at different substations and
therefore do not need to be directional.
It may also be noted that, at inter-mediate substations, whenever the operating times
of the relays at each substation are different, the difference between their operating
times is never less than the grading margin, so the relay with the longer operating
time can be non-directional.
The usual procedure for grading relays in an inter-connected system is to open the
ring at the supply point and to grade the relays first clockwise and then anti-
clockwise; that is, the relays looking in a clock-wise direction round the ring are
arranged to operate in the sequence 1—2—3—4—5—6 and the relays looking in the
anti-clockwise direction are arranged to operate in the sequence 1'—2'—3'—4'—5'—6',
as shown in (Fig.19)
Thus, at each substation in the ring, one set of relays will be made inoperative
because of the direction of current flow, and the other set operative. It will also be
found that the operating times of the relays that are inoperative are faster than
those of the operative relays, with the exception of the mid-point substation, where
the operating times of relays 3 and 3' happen to be the same.
The relays which are operative are graded downwards towards the fault and the last
to be affected by the fault operates first. This applies to both paths to the fault.
Consequently, the faulty line is the only one to be disconnected from the ring and
the power supply is maintained to all the substations.
When two or more power sources feed into a ring main, time graded over current
protection is difficult to apply and full discrimination may not be possible. With two
sources of supply, two solutions are possible. The first is to open the ring at one of
the supply points, whichever is more convenient, by means of a suitable high set
instantaneous over-current relay and then to proceed to grade the ring as in the
case of a single infeed, the second to treat the section of the ring between the two
supply points as a continuous bus separate from the ring and to protect it with a
unit system of protection, such as pilot wire relays, and then proceed to grade the
ring as in the case of a single infeed.
In directional over-current relay, the voltage coil is actuated by secondary of line VT. In
directional earth fault relay, the voltage coil is actuated by the residual voltage.
Directional earth fault relays sense the direction in which earth fault occurs with
respect to the relay location and it operates for fault in a particular direction. The
directional earth fault relay (single phase unit) has two coils. The polarizing quantity is
obtained either from residual current
I RS = (Ia + Ib + Ic)
Referring to (Fig. 11) the directional earth-fault relay has two coils. One to the coils
is connected in residual current circuits (Ref. Fig. 5). This coil gets current during earth-
faults. The other coil gets residual voltage,
V = Va + V b + Vc
RS
('Three phase five limb potential transformer or three separate single phase potential
transformers connected as shown in Fig. 20). The coil connected in potential-
transformer secondary circuit gives a polarizing field.
Summary
Over-current protection responds to increase in current above the pick-up value over-
currents are caused by overloads and short-circuits.
The over-current relays are connected the secondary of current transformer. The
characteristic of over-current relays include inverse time characteristic, definite time
characteristic.
Earth fault protection responds to single line to ground faults and double line to ground
faults. The current coil of earth-fault relay is connected either in neutral to ground circuit
or in residually connected secondary CT circuit.
Core balance CTs are used for earth-fault protection.
Frame leakage protection can be used for metal clad switchgear.
Directional over-current relay and Directional Earth fault relay responds to fault in which
power flow is in the set direction from the CT and PT locations. Such directional relays
are used when power can flow from both directions to the fault point.
Co-ordination
Correct current relay application requires knowledge of the fault current that can flow
in each part of the network. Since large scale tests are normally impracticable,
system analysis must be used. It is generally sufficient to use machine transient
reactance X'd and to work on the instantaneous symmetrical currents. The data
required for a relay setting study are:
1. A one-line diagram of the power system involved, showing the
type and rating of the protective devices and their associated current
transformers.
2. The impedances in ohms, per cent or per unit, of all power
transformers, rotating machines and feeder circuits.
3. The maximum and minimum values of short circuit currents that
are expected to flow through each protective device.
4. The starting current requirements of motors and the starting and
stalling times of induction motors.
5. The maximum peak load current through protective devices.
6. Decrement curves showing the rate of decay of the fault current
supplied by the generators.
7. Performance curves of the current transformers.
8. The relay settings are first determined so as to give the shortest
operating times at maximum fault levels and then checked to see if
operation will also be satisfactory at the minimum fault current
expected. It is always advisable to plot the curves of relays and other
protective devices, such as fuses, that are to operate in series, on a
common scale. It is usually more convenient to use a scale
corresponding to the current expected at the lowest voltage base or to
use the predominant voltage base. The alternatives are a common MVA
base or a separate current scale for each system voltage.
9. The basic rules for correct relay co-ordination can generally be
stated as follows:
10. Whenever possible, use relays with the same operating characteristic in
series with each other.
11. Make sure that the relay farthest from the source has current settings equal
to or less than the relays behind it, that is, that the primary current required
operating the relay in front is always equal to or less than the primary current
required operating the relay behind it.
Circuit breaker protection is provided at B, C, D and E, that is, at the infeed end of
each section of the power system. Each protection unit comprises a definite time
delay over current relay in which the operation of the current sensitive element
simply initiates the time delay element. Provided the setting of the current element is
below the fault current value this element plays no part in the achievement of
discrimination. For this reason, the relay is sometimes described as an 'independent
definite time delay relay' since its operating time is for practical purposes
independent of the level of over current.
It is the time delay element, therefore, which provides the means of discrimination.
The relay at B is set at the shortest time delay permissible to allow a fuse to blow for
a fault on the secondary side of trans-former A. Typically, a time delay of 0.25s is
adequate.
If a fault occurs at F, the relay at B will operate in 0.25s, and the subsequent
operation of the circuit breaker at B will clear the fault before the relays at C, D and E
have time to operate. The main disadvantage of this method of discrimination is that
the longest fault clearance time occurs for faults in the section closest to the power
source, where the fault level (MVA) is highest.
1. Discrimination by current
Discrimination by current relies on the fact that the fault current varies with the
position of the fault, because of the difference in impedance values between the
source and the fault. Hence, typically, the relays controlling the various circuit
breakers are set to operate at suitably tapered values such that only the relay
nearest to the fault trips its breaker. (Fig. 22) illustrates the method.
For a fault at F1, the system short circuit current is given by:
So a relay controlling the circuit breaker at C and set to operate at a fault current of
8800 A would in simple theory protect the whole of the cable section between C and
B. However, there are two important practical points which affect this method of
co-ordination.
Where
ZS = source impedance
=112 / 250 = 0.485 ohms
For this reason, a relay controlling the circuit breaker at B and set to operate at a
current of 2200 A plus a safety margin would not operate for a fault at F 4 and would
thus discriminate with the relay at A. Assuming a safety margin of 20% to allow for
relay errors and a further 10% for variations in the system impedance values, it is
reasonable to choose a relay setting of 1.3 x 2200, that is, 2860 A for the relay at B.
Now, assuming a fault at F3, that is, at the end of the 11 kV cable feeding the 4 MVA
transformers, the short-circuit current is given by:
I = 6350 /(Zs + ZL1 + ZL2 +ZT)
I = 6350 /(0.485 + 0.24 + 0.04)=8300 Amp.
Alternatively, assuming a source fault level of 130 MVA:
I = 6350 /(0.93 + 0.24 + 0.004)=5250 Amp.
In other words, for either value of source level, the relay at B would operate
correctly for faults anywhere on the 11 kV cable feeding the transformer.
=22.5 X 10 / 30 =7.5 %
The graph in (Fig.23) illustrates the use of 'discrimination curves', which are an
important aid to satisfactory protection co-ordination. In this example, a voltage base
of 3.3kV has been chosen and the first curve plotted is that of the 200 A fuse, which
is assumed to protect the largest outgoing 3.3kV circuit. Once the operating
characteristic of the highest rated 3.3kV fuse has been plotted, the grading of the
over current relays at the various sub-stations of the radial system is carried out as
follows:
Substation B
CT ratio 250/5A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely inverse,
as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the 200A fuse at fault
levels up to:
That is, 6260 A at 3.3kV or 1880 A at 11 kV. The operating characteristics of the CDG
14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 250 A and 4.76 MVA at 11 kV,
and at a time multiplier setting of 0.2, suitable discrimination with the 200 A fuse is
achieved.
Substation C
CT ratio 500/5A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely inverse,
as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the relay in substation
B at fault levels up to:
That is, 17,280 A at 3.3kV or 5180 A at 11 kV. The operating characteristics of the
CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 500 A and 9.52 MVA at 11
kV, and at a time multiplier setting of 0.7, suitable discrimination with the relay at
substation B is achieved.
(Fig.23) Time and current grading
Substation D
CT ratio 150/1A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely inverse,
as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the relay in substation
C at fault levels up to
Substation E
CT ratio 500/1 A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely inverse,
as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the relay
in substation D at fault levels up to:
That is, 270,000 A at 3.3kV or 6750 A at 132 kV. The operating characteristics of the
CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 500 A and 114 MVA at 132
kV, and at a time multiplier setting of 0.9, suitable discrimination with the relay at
sub-station D is achieved.
A comparison between the relay operating times shown in (Fig. 21) and the times
obtained from the discrimination curves of (Fig. 23) at the maximum fault level
reveals significant differences. These differences can be summarized as follows:
These figures show that for faults close to the relaying points the inverse time
characteristic can achieve appreciable reductions in fault clearance times.
Even for faults at the remote ends of the protected sections, reductions in fault
clearance times are still obtained, as shown by the following table:
This comparison clearly shows that when there is a large variation in fault level all
along the system network the overall performance of the inverse time over current
relay is far superior to that of the definite over current relay.
4 GRADING MARGIN
The time interval between the operations of two adjacent relays depends upon a
number of factors:
1. The fault current interrupting time of the circuit breaker.
2. The overshoot time of the relay.
3. Errors.
4. Final margin on completion of operation.
B. Overshoot
When the relay is de-energized, operation may continue for a little longer until any
stored energy has been dissipated. For example, an induction disc relay will have
stored kinetic energy in the motion of the disc; static relay circuits may have energy
stored in capacitors. Relay design is directed to minimizing and absorbing these
energies, but some allowance is usually necessary.
The overshoot time is not the actual time during which some forward operation takes
place, but the time which would have been required by the relay if still energized to
achieve the same amount of operational advance.
C. Errors
All measuring devices such as relays and current transformers are subject to some
degree of error. The operating time characteristic of either or both relays involved in
the grading may have a positive or negative error, as may the current transformers,
which can have phase and ratio errors due to the exciting current required to
magnetize their core. This does not, however, apply to independent definite time
delay over current relays.
Relay grading and setting is carried out assuming the accuracy of the calibration
curves published by manufacturers, but since some error is to be expected, some
tolerance must be allowed.
D. Final margin
After the above allowances have been made, the discriminating relay must just fail to
complete its operation. Some extra allowance, or safety margin, is required to ensure
that a satisfactory contact gap (or equivalent) remains.
E. Recommended time
The total amount to be allowed to cover the above items depends on the operating
speed of the circuit breakers and the relay performance. At one time 0.5s was a
normal grading margin. With faster modern circuit breakers and lower relay
overshoot times 0.4s is reasonable, while under the best possible conditions 0.35s
may be feasible.
In some instances, however, rather than using a fixed grading margin, it is better to
adopt a fixed time value, to allow for the operating time of the circuit breaker and
relay overshoot, and to add to it a variable time value that takes into account the
relay errors, the CT errors and the safety margin.
A value of 0.25s is chosen for the fixed time value, made up of 0.1 s for the fault
current interrupting time of the circuit breaker, 0.05s for the relay over-shoot time
and 0.1 s for the safety margin. Considering next the variable time values required, it
is first assumed that each inverse time over current relay complies with Error Class
E7.5 defined as normal British practice in BS 142:1966.
The normal limits of error for an E7.5 relay are ±7.5% but allowance should also be
made for the effects of temperature, frequency, and departure from reference setting.
A practical approximation is to assume a total effective error of 2 x 7.5, that is, 15%,
this to apply to the relay nearest to the fault, which shall be considered to be slow.
To this total effective error for the relay a further 10% should be added for the overall
current transformer error. Hence, for the time interval t' required between inverse
time over current relays it is proposed to adopt the equation:
As far as the independent definite time delay over-current relays are concerned, it is
assumed that these comply with Error Class El 0, defined as normal British practice
in BS 142:1966. The normal limits of error for an El 0 relay are ± 10%, but allowance
should also be made for the effects of temperature, voltage, frequency and departure
from reference setting. A practical approximation is to assume a total effective error
of 2 x 10, that is, 20%, this to apply to the relay, nearest to the fault, which shall be
considered to be slow. However, unlike the inverse time over current relay, it is not
necessary to add a further error for the current transformers. Hence, for the time
interval t' required between independent definite time delay over current relays, it is
proposed to adopt the equation:
t' = 0.2t + 0.25 seconds
Where t = nominal operating time of relay nearest to the fault.
STANDARD I.D.M.T. OVER CURRENT RELAY (TYPE CDG 11)
Limits of accuracy have been considered by various national committees and
(Fig.24) shows a typical example of the limits set by the British Standards Institution
specification BS 142:1966 for the standard inverse definite minimum time over
current relay.
The discriminating curves shown in (Fig.25) illustrate the application of such a relay
to a sectioned radial feeder; it will be seen that with the assumed relay settings and
the tolerances allowed in BS 142:1966 the permissible grading margin between the
over current relays at each section breaker is approximately 0.5s. With the increase in
system fault current it is desirable to shorten the clearance time for faults near the
power source, in order to minimize damage. It is therefore necessary to reduce the
time errors, which are in this situation disproportionately large when compared with
the clearance time of modern circuit breakers; this can only be achieved by improving
the limits of accuracy, pick-up and overshoot
NOTE: The allowance error in operating time should not be less than 100ms
All this must be obtained without detriment to the general performance of the relay; in
other words, there must be no reduction in the operating torque or weakening of the
damper magnets or contact pressures, and the construction must remain simple with
the minimum number of moving parts. While these requirements present considerable
difficulties in manufacture, owing to variations in materials and practical tolerances,
the progress made in the GEC Measurements relays has made it possible to
discriminate more closely by reducing the margin between both the current and the
time setting of the relays on adjacent breakers.
(Fig.25) application of an IDMT over current
relay to a sectioned
Radial feeder
These relays will thus enable the time setting of the relay nearest the power source to
be reduced, or, alternatively, make it possible to increase the number
of breakers in series without increasing the time setting of the relays
at the power source.