1993 PROCEEDINGS OF AUSTRALIAN SOCIETY OF SUGAR CANE TECHNOLOGISTS AN OVERVIEW OF MECHANICAL CONDITION MONITORING BY WEAR DEBRIS ANALYSIS By A.S. YARROW Innisfail Scientific Services Abstract Wear debris analysis can be a useful and cost effective mechanical condition monitoring technique for sugar mill machinery. However, compared with the complementary technique of vibration analysis, little information is available to the engineer that describes the technical detail of wear debris analysis. ‘This paper provides an overview of wear debris analysis, discussing the fundamental actions that control the size, shape and quantity of the wear debris, and the analysis techniques that are available. Introduction The object of condition monitoring is to detect developing faults within a machine at a stage early enough to enable a timely repair to be planned, so minimis- ing production losses and secondary damage. With the sugar milling industry pro- cessing an increasing tonnage of cane, and continuous crushing becoming the norm, the potential cost benefits from condition monitoring are also increasing. Vibration analysis, at various technology levels, has been generally accepted by the sugar milling industry as a useful, albeit expensive, condition monitoring tool. Wear debris analysis techniques are an alternative that has largely been ignored. (Wear debris analysis is a collective term used to describe a family of monitoring techniques that utilise the products of wear to detect incipient failures within a machine.) Wear debris analysis suffers from a lack of reliable information. This paper seeks to redress this situation by providing an overview of the mechanical condition monitoring information that can be obtained using wear debris analysis techniques. No single condition monitoring technique will detect all developing defects. In the aircraft industry, where much of the condition monitoring development work has been done, it is normal practice to use a range of techniques. Wear debris analysis combines well with vibration analysis as the types of machine problem to which each is sensitive are largely complementary. Wear debris analysis is often sensitive to faults that are difficult to identify using vibration analysis. Wear debris analysis is usually a ‘bought-in’ service and so has several advantages: there is no large capital investment risked in evaluating the wear debris analysis technology; there is no requirement for a trained specialist on the payroll; and access is gained to a wide range of analysis techniques and experienced staff. The primary disadvantage of wear debris analysis is the delay in getting results back from a laboratory. A same-day service should be possible — two working days should be the outside limit. Wear debris analysis can also be a useful tech- nique to aid understanding tribology and to identifying lubrication problems. Fundamentals of wear debris analysis When a machine wears, material from the contacting surfaces enters the lubri- cant. The forces, material and geometry of the wear site all influence the size, shape and quantity of the final wear product. The wear debris carried away in the lubri- cant can be considered to be the ‘signature’ of the wear process. This signature KEYWORDS: Condition Monitoring, Wear Debris Analysis, Maintenance 83PROCEEDINGS OF AUSTRALIAN SOCIETY OF SUGAR CANE TECHNOLOGISTS 1993 can be read and interpreted by wear debris analysis techniques tojassess the machine’s health and to form a prognosis. There are some fundamental features of wear and wear debris that must be considered when using wear debris analysis techniques: 84 The size distribution of wear particles, available for detection/analysis, varies with the wear mechanism (Figure 1). SECONDARY WEAR EFFECTS Number of Particles FRETTING TYPE WEAR ROLLING CONTACT FATIGUE TYPE WEAR T T T 10 100 1000 Wear Parilcle Size (microns) Fig. 1—Typical wear particle size distributions. As the wear particles are carried by the lubricant, mechanisms such as settling, grinding, filtration, influence the final quantity and size distribu- tion of the wear particle population remaining for analysis. Due to settling effects, oil usually contains only recently generated wear products. Consequently, analysis of a sample of the oil generally only pro- vides a ‘snapshot in time’ of the wear process. Little particle settling occurs with grease; it accumulates wear particles and so provides a wear history. Wear mechanisms that produce small wear particles (scuffing, micropitting, etc.), generally progress steadily, whereas the fatigue wear mechanisms, which produce larger and fewer particles, often only release particles in random bursts. Once a defect has developed, the wear particles generated can act as an abrasive or become broken up in other contacts. This secondary wear usually aids fault detection by introducing a broader range of particle sizes (Figure 1). It has also been shown by Cooper (1989) that the dynamic energy (vibration) generated by a developing fault can increase the wear rate of other wear processes elsewhere in a machine. The wear debris monitoring technique chosen will have its own detection size range limitations (Figure 2). 100. 8 sles & o8 Bs & aga stg Ey Lat ogg 3 gb8e ; | 22 gs ig 2 | 22 gz 33 Z| Be Beg = | Bg BE zo 3/2 2 2 T T T 400 1000 Wear Particle Size (microns) Fig. 2—Wear debris analysis technique detection efficiency.1993 PROCEEDINGS OF AUSTRALIAN SOCIETY OF SUGAR CANE TECHNOLOGISTS ¢ Asageneral rule, the capture efficiency of the wear debris analysis technique employed should increase with the size of wear particle it is being used to monitor (Figure 3). 100 Required % Efficiency 1S T T T 10 1000 100 Wear Particle Size (microns) Fig. 3—Estimated technique capture/detection efficiency versus wear particle size. Spectrometric oil analysis Spectrometric oil analysis (SOA) has been in use for many years. A sample of oil is analysed for the concentration of various metal elements. The concentra- tions of each metal in the oil can be compared to preset limits, or better, used to calculate the machine’s wear rate (an allowance has to be calculated for any oil additions made since the previous sample). There are three main analytical techniques for determining the concentration of wear metals in the oil. These are: atomic emission (AE), atomic absorption (AA) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometers. All three types of spectrometer use the fact that the arrangement of the electrons around the nucleus is different for each element. Moving these electrons from one energy level to the next within the atom emits or absorbs energy at a wavelength unique to that element. The wavelengths of the absorption or emission indicates the element and the intensity of the effect indicates the concentration. SOA has severe particle size limitations. To be included in the assay, wear particles have to be vaporised in a flame, arc or plasma. Unfortunately, wear par- ticles bigger than about five microns are not vaporised completely. When SOA responds to a rolling contact fatigue wear problem (Figure 1) it is usually because of the presence of small secondary wear particles and not the larger spall particles. This makes the ability of SOA to indicate bearing fatigue depend to some degree on the machine design. Wear particle collection techniques There are a variety of monitoring techniques that physically collect wear par- ticles from the lubricant so that they can be examined and quantified. Particles generated by different wear mechanisms have morphological features characteristic of that mechanism: gear fatigue, rolling contact fatigue, scuffing, cutting wear, rubbing wear, etc., all produce different types of wear particles which can be iden- tified by microscopic examination. If the wear particle collection technique has a constant and relatively good capture efficiency then the amount of wear debris collected can also be used to calculate and monitor the wear rate of a machine. Magnetic chip collectors (MCC) collect ferrous wear debris from the lubricant. The MCC can be a cost effective method of monitoring the wearing condition of a machine. The ferrous wear particles collected on an MCC provide monitor- ing information in two ways; the quantity of the debris collected per running hour 85PROCEEDINGS OF AUSTRALIAN SOCIETY OF SUGAR CANE TECHNOLOGISTS 1993 indicates the wear rate; and the size and shape of the wear particles indicates the wear mechanism. MCC come in a variety of shapes and sizes. Some simply screw in, others have complex self closing valves and bayonet fittings. The ‘capture efficiency’ of an MCC is highly dependent on where in the oil stream it is mounted and the geometry of the pocket into which it is installed. Capture efficiencies of aout 60% are typical for particles bigger than 300 microns in well designed installa- tions. Centrifugal debris separators (lubriclones) can be used to enhance the cap- ture efficiency of an MCC. Condition monitoring using an MCC involves periodic removal of the MCC from the machine. Any residual oil is rinsed off using a suitable solvent. The debris is then transferred from the MCC to the adhesive patch of a sampling card. This wear debris sample card can then either be processed on site or sent for analysis. The quantity of debris on the sampling card can be measured directly using a simple portable inductive device. From the quantity of collected debris a wear rate can be calculated and monitored. The morphology of the wear particles collected on an MCC provides an indication of the wear mechanism occurring. As previously noted, the size and shape of the particles bear witness to the mechanisms that generated them; microscopic examination of the particles indicates the wear mechanism. Filter debris can also yield important information about events occurring within a machine. Unfortunately, inspecting a filter for wear products is not as easy as inspecting an MCC or taking an oil sample, but it is useful when looking for cor- roborating evidence should a fault be suspected. The filter has the advantage of 100% capture efficiency above a certain size range and also collects non-ferrous materials. Ferrography is a technique that uses an intense magnetic field to extract ferrous wear particles in the size range 0.1 to 150 microns from a sample of oil, and to deposit them onto a thin glass microscope slide (ferrogram). The wear particles are deposited approximately in order of size, with the larger particles being deposited first, followed by progressively smaller particles, as the oil flows further down the ferrogram. Particles collected by this technique are small (about 0.5 to 150 microns), so high power optical or scanning electron microscopy is used to study the collected wear particles. Even at this size, the different wear particle shapes can be associated with specific wear modes: rolling contact fatigue, micro-pitting, scuffing, bearing spin, etc. — these can all be identified and discriminated. Ferro- graphy has been successfully used since 1975 in aircraft and marine systems to identify faults that were not otherwise detectable. (Ferrography is the trade name of one instrument used to collect and to quantify ferrous wear particles. However, the term ferrography has become the generic name for this analysis technique. This can cause some confusion, as similar equipment is available from other manufacturers.) Direct reading (DR) ferrography is similar in operation to the analytical ferro- graphy described above, but uses optical density sensors to measure the wear debris deposited in two positions on the glass slide or in a glass tube. The optical density figures give an indication of the amount of ferrous debris in the oil and the approxi- mate size distribution of the particles. From these, a severity of wear index can be calculated. Particle counting has been included for completeness, but it is very rarely suc- cessful as a wear monitoring technique. It is more commonly used to check the cleanliness of hydraulic or fuel systems. Particle counters can produce confusing results as they generally count all particles and not just wear particles. Dirt, water and air bubbles, all have a significant effect on the results obtained from a lubri- cant sample. 861993 PROCEEDINGS OF AUSTRALIAN SOCIETY OF SUGAR CANE TECHNOLOGISTS Wear particle recognition aids The importance of the relationship between wear particle morphology and wear mechanism has been discussed, but classifying wear particles from their morphology with sufficient confidence to provide useful monitoring information requires considerable experience. In the past, photographs of typical wear par- ticles have been gathered to form a ‘wear particle atlas’. However, to be reliable a wear particle atlas has to be produced for each machine. This is more to prevent unnecessary rejections than to increase failure detection, as some machines have wear problems that can be tolerated. There are several developments being pur- sued that use computerised image analysis techniques to screen wear particle shapes automatically and to classify them into wear mode groups. Lubricant samples for wear debris analysis As with all condition monitoring techniques, the major limiting criteria are the quality of the sample provided. Wear debris analysis is no exception: the site and method chosen to sample the lubricant is important. Ideally, oil samples should be taken from the line returning oil to the sump and the sampling site should be as close as possible to the operating elements of the machine. However, for most systems, sampling from an active area of the sump is acceptable. The oil sample should be taken with the machine running or within 20 minutes of shut down to avoid the wear particles settling. Special care has to be taken with grease sampling for wear debris analysis. As only the grease immediately adjacent to the working zone of a bearing is active in lubrication, then this is the area that must be sampled. No wear particle settling occurs in grease, so samples can be taken from the machine long after it has been shut down. On-line wear debris sensors An on-line wear debris detection sensor built into the machine’s lubrication system, immediately indicating the occurrence of any wear particles, has obvious advantages over having to wait for an off-line analysis. This is especially so, now that on-line vibration analysis installations are becoming more common. For wear debris analysis to live up to its complementary claim, it should have some facility to go on-line. On-line wear debris sensors that have been developed during the past ten years are now beginning to show promise. Correctly installed and set up, the current range of on-line wear debris sensors are demonstrating good reliability and fault detection. Originally developed for use in helicopter transmissions and gas turbines, they are now becoming availabile industrially. The on-line wear debris monitoring devices that are available commercially fall into the following groups: Electrical gap bridging detectors use a magnet to capture ferrous debris and to bridge an electrical contact. A sufficient build-up of fine debris, or a single large particle, can bridge the gap, completing the circuit and triggering a warning indication. This type of sensor, albeit simple, can be successful in the right cir- cumstances and is fitted to many aircraft engines and transmissions. In some installations the electrical gap type sensors can be a problem, often being triggered by normal wear products, giving rise to costly nuisance warnings. In some installa- tions the electrical gap bridging detector has been modified to reduce or to elim- nate the possibility of nuisance indications. When the sensing gap becomes bridged an electrical pulse is applied. This burns off any fine debris leaving the more critical larger debris to continue giving a warning indication. A count of the number of burn offs in a period can be used to indicate the generation rate of fine debris. 87PROCEEDINGS OF AUSTRALIAN SOCIETY OF SUGAR CANE TECHNOLOGISTS 1993 Magnetic chip detectors (MCD) use a magnet to capture ferrous wear par- ticles. The MCD is equipped with inductive coils or magnetoresistive sensors that can either indicate the mass of ferrous material accumulated or respond to the instantaneous disruption of the magnetic field as a particle arrives. These systems have an advantage over the simple gap system in that they continuously measure the accumulation of wear particles and are not limited to a single detection event. Through flow inductive debris monitors sense debris particles in a flowing stream of oil directed through the sensor. This type of sensor has the advantage of not disrupting the oil flow, but the disadvantage that the debris is not captured for later examination. Using inductive coils, the sensors measure the tiny changes in reluctance caused by the passage of debris. To provide practical sensitivity, the devices are usually built around small diameter pipes, with 20 mm being about the upper limit for reasonable performance. The through flow inductive sensor can be difficult to shield from electrical interference and can suffer from microphonic problems during high vibration. Inductive debris sensors can detect and discriminate ferrous and non-ferrous particles. Indicating filters can be divided into two groups: those that measure debris accumulation by monitoring back pressure, and those that include electrical filaments in their construction which sense electrically conducting debris. The pressure dif- ferential filter uses a carefully controlled flow of oil-by-passing the main oil line. The oil flows through the filter until a preset pressure differential is reached; the time to achieve this back pressure is used as a measure of the fluid contamination level. Once the set differential pressure is reached the flow through the filter is reversed, back flushing the filter and recommencing the cycle. The electromesh indicating filters have a special screen with the warp formed from a non-conducting material, and the weft of stainless steel filaments, electrically isolated from each other. Should metallic debris enter the filter and become trapped it will close the circuit between two filaments, giving an external warning indication. To avoid nuisance warnings caused by single benign particles, electromesh filters are available that have multiple contact zones, indicating up to eight levels of metal particle contamination. Conclusion Monitoring the products of wear being carried in the lubrication oil or embedded in the lubrication grease is a useful, cost effective method of determin- ing the internal condition of a machine. On-line wear debris sensors have been developed that can provide reliable real-time indications of developing defects. There ‘are wear debris analysis techniques available to suit most circumstances and applications. The factors influencing the performance of the individual wear debris analysis techniques are well understood and misapplication can be avoided. REFERENCES ‘Cooper, P. (1989). Debris analysis of rolling bearing failures by oil sampling. RHP Bearing Research Centre Report Al91a/1376. 88