Sex Determination: 3 Basic

Types of Sex Determination

Processes
by Puja Mondal Biology

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Read this article to learn about the important types of sex determination
by in inheritance:
Homologous Chromosomes:
Homologous chromosomes are pairs of identical chromosomes with similar
gene loci carrying similar or different alleles.

Image Courtesy : microbix.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/Sex-Determination.jpg

They occur in somatic cells of animals and vascular plants which possess
diploid number of chromosomes. Out of the two homologous chromosomes
present in an individual, one is derived from the father parent and the other

from the mother parent. The two homologous chromosomes of each type do
not occur attached to each other in the nucleus of the cell. They come
together only during prophase and metaphase of meiosis I.
Genomes (Gk. genos- offspring):
Genome is the complete but single set of chromosomes as found in gametes
or gametophyte cells where each chromosome (as well as each gene) is
represented singly. The condition of having a single genome or set of
chromosomes is called monoploid (Gk. monos- single, aplos- one fold, eidosform). It is briefly written as In. The somatic or body cells of animals and
higher plants generally possess two genomes or two sets of chromosomes.
The condition is called diploid (2n). Several modern day crop plants have
more than two sets of chromosomes in their somatic cells, viz. triploid (3n,
e.g., Banana), tetraploid (4n, e.g., Rice), hexaploid (6n, e.g., Wheat). The
condition of having more than two genomes or sets of chromosomes is known
as polyploidy. It is quite common in ferns and mosses. Polyploidy seems to be
causative agent of large number of chromosomes present in some organisms,
e.g., Amoeba proteus (250), Ophioglossum (Adders Tongue Fern, 1262),
Geometrid Moth (224).
Gametes possess half the number of chromosomes found in zygote and the
cells derived from it. The condition of having half the number of chromosomes
is called haploid (Gk. haplos- simple, eidos- form). The gametic number of
chromosomes is typically monoploid (In) but in polyploid forms, it is more than
monoploid, e.g., 2n, 3n. In order to avoid confusion in this regard the gametic
and zygotic conditions are provided with separate symbols of x and 2x.

The somatic cells of several protists, algae and fungi have haploid number of
chromosomes. Doubling of chromosomes occurs in the zygote but meiosis
occurs in it to restore haploid condition. Male Honey Bee is also haploid
because it develops parthenogenetically from an unfertilized egg. The female
bee is diploid.
Sex Chromosomes and Autosomes:
Sex chromosomes are those chromosomes which singly or in pair determine
the sex of the individual in dioecious or unisexual organisms. They are called
allosomes (Gk. alios- other, soma- body) or idiochromosomes (Gk. idiosdistinct, chroma- colour, soma- body). A sex chromosome that determines
male sex is termed androsome (Gk. ander- male, soma- body), e.g., Ychromosome in humans.
The normal chromosomes, other than the sex chromosomes if present, of an
individual are known as autosomes. Sex chromosomes may be similar in one
sex and dissimilar in the other. The two conditions are respectively called
homomorphic (= similar, e.g., XX, ZZ) and heteromorphic (= dissimilar, e.g.,
XY, ZW).
Individuals having homomorphic sex chromosomes produce only one type of
gametes. They are, therefore, called homogametic (e.g., human female).
Individuals having heteromorphic sex chromosomes produce two types of
gametes (e.g., X and Y containing). They are termed as heterogametic (e.g.,
human male).

Basis of Sex Determination:

Establishment of male and female individuals or male and female organs of

an individual is called sex determination. It is of three types environmental,
genic and chromosomal.

A. Environmental or Non-genetic Determination of Sex:

1. Marine mollusc Crepidula becomes female if reared alone. In company of a
female, it develops into male (Coe, 1943).
2. Marine worm Bonellia develops into 3 cm long female if its larva settles
down in an isolated place. It grows into small (0.3 cm long) parasitic male if it
comes closer to an already established female (Baltzer, 1935). The male
enters the body of the female and stays there as a parasite.
3. Ophryortocha is male in the young state and female later on.
4. In Crocodiles and some lizards high temperature induces maleness and low
temperature femaleness. In turtles, males are predominant below 28C,
females above 33C and equal number of the two sexes between 28-33C.

B. Nonallosomic Genic Determination of Sex:

In bacteria, fertility factor present in a plasmid determines sex.
Chlamydomonas possesses sex determining genes. Maize possesses
separate genes for development of tassel (male inflorescence) and cob
(female inflorescence).

C. Chromosomal Determination of Sex:

Henking (1891) discovered an X-body in 50% of the sperms of firefly. Y-body
was discovered by Stevens (1902). McClung (1902) observed 24
chromosomes in female Grasshopper and 23 chromosomes in male

Grasshopper. Wilson and Stevens (1905) put forward chromosome theory of

sex and named the X- and Y- bodies as sex chromosomes, X and Y.
Chromosomal or allosomic determination of sex is based on heterogamesis or
occurrence of two types of gametes in one of the two sexes. Male
heterogamety or digamety is found in allosome complements XX-XY and XXX0. Female heterogamety or digamety occurs in allosome complements ZWZZ and Z0-ZZ. Sex is determined by number of genomes in haplodiploidy.
Chromosomal determination of sex is of the following types:

1. XXXY Type:
In most insects including fruitfly Drosophila and mammals including human
beings the females possess two homomorphic (= isomorphic) sex
chromosomes, named XX. The males contain two het- eromorphic sex
chromosomes, i.e., XY. The Y-chromosome is often shorter and
heterochromatic (made of heterochromatin). It may be hooked (e.g.,
Drosophila). Despite differences in morphology, the XY chromosomes
synapse during zygotene. It is because they have two parts, homologous and
differential.
Homologous regions of the two help in pairing. They carry same genes which
may have different alleles. Such genes present on both X and Y
chromosomes are XY-linked genes. They are inherited like autosomal genes,
e.g., xeroderma pigmentosum, epidermolysis bullosa. The differential region
of Y-chromosome carries only Y-linked or holandric genes, e.g., testis
determining factor (TDF).

It is perhaps the smallest gene occupying only 14 base pairs. Other holandric
genes are of hypertrichosis (excessive hairiness) on pinna, porcupine skin,
keratoderma dissipatum (thickened skin of hands and feet) and webbed toes.
Holandric genes are directly inherited by a son from his father.
Genes present on the differential region of X-chromosome also find
expression in males whether they are dominant or recessive, e.g., red-green
colour blindness, haemophilia. It is because the males are hemizygous for
these genes.

Human beings have 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes.
All the ova formed by female are similar in their chromosome type (22 + X).
Therefore, females are homogametic. The male gametes or sperms produced
by human males are of two types, (22 + X) and (22 + Y). Human males are
therefore, heterogametic (male digamety or male heterogamety).

Sex of Offspring (Fig. 5.23):

Sex of the offspring is determined at the time of fertilization. It cannot be
changed later on. It is also not dependent on any characteristic of the female
parent because the latter is homogametic and produces only one type of eggs
(22 + X), the male gametes are of two types, androsperms (22 + Y) and
gynosperms (22 + X). They are produced in equal proportion.

Fertilization of the egg (22 + X) with a gynosperm (22 + X) will produce a

female child (44 + XX) while fertilization with an androsperm (22 + Y) gives
rise to male child (44 + XY). As the two types of sperms are produced in equal
proportions, there are equal chances of getting a male or female child in a
particular mating. As Y-chromosome determines the male sex of the
individual, it is also called androsome.
In human beings, TDF gene of Y-chromosome brings about differentiation of
embryonic gonads into testes. Testes produce testosterone that helps in
development of male reproductive tract. In the absence of TDF, gonads

differentiate into ovaries after sixth week of embryonic development. It is

followed by formation of female reproductive tract. Female sex is, therefore, a
default sex.

2. XXX0 Types:
In roundworms and some insects (true bugs, grasshoppers, cockroaches), the
females have two sex chromosomes, XX, while the males have only one sex
chromosome, X. There is no second sex chromosome. Therefore, the males
are designated as X0. The females are homogametic because they produce
only one type of eggs (A+X).
The males are heterogametic with half the male gametes (gynosperms)
carrying X-chromo- some (A+X) while the other half (androsperms) being
devoid of it (A + 0). The sex ratio produced in the progeny is 1: 1 (Fig. 5.24).

3. ZWZZ Type (= WZWW Type).

In birds and some reptiles both the sexes possess two sex chromosomes but
unlike human beings the females contain heteromorphic sex chromosomes
(AA + ZW) while the males have homomorphic sex chromosomes (AA + ZZ).
Because of having heteromorphic sex chromosomes, the females are

heterogametic (female heterogamety) and produce two types of eggs, (A + Z)

and (A + W). The male gametes or sperms are of one type (A + Z). 1: 1 sex
ratio is produced in the offspring (Fig. 5.25).

4. ZO ZZ Type:
This type of sex determination occurs in some butterflies and moths. It is
exactly opposite the condition found in cockroaches and grasshoppers. Here
the females have odd sex chromosome (AA + Z) while the males have two
homomorphic sex chromosomes (AA + ZZ). The females are heterogametic.
They produce two types of eggs, male forming with one sex chromosome (A +
Z) and female forming without the sex chromosome (A + 0). The males are
homogametic, forming similar types of sperms (A + Z). The two sexes are
obtained in the progeny in 50 : 50 ratio (Fig. 5.26) as both the types of eggs
are produced in equal ratio.

5. Haplodiploidy:
It is a type of sex determination in which the male is haploid while the female
is diploid. Haplodiploidy occurs in some insects like bees, ants and wasps.
Male insects are haploid because they develop partheno-genetically from
unfertilized eggs. The phenomenon is called arrhenotoky or arrhenotokous
parthenogenesis. Meiosis does not occur during the formation of sperms.
Females grow from fertilized eggs and are hence diploid. Queen Bee picks up
all the sperms from the drone during nuptial flight and stores the same in her
seminal vesicle. Formation of worker bees (diploid females) and drones
(haploid males) depends upon the brood cells visited by the queen. While
visiting the smaller brood cells, the queen emits sperms from its seminal
receptacle after laying the eggs.
As it visits the larger brood cells, it lays the eggs but the seminal receptacles
fail to emit the sperms due to some sort of pressure on the ducts coming out
of them. When a queen is to be formed the workers enlarge one of a small
brood cell having fertilized egg and feed the emerging larva on a rich diet.
Males are normally fertile haploids due to development from unfertilized eggs.
Occasionally diploid infertile males are also produced from heterozygous
females through fertilization.