(02/17/2005 12:51 FAX e energy of @ harmonio oscil- '), and w, the energy density € easily determined from the 18 according to whieh, loosely ilibrium conditions, is equally more rigorously stated, the tted, on the average, to every f which the Hamiltonian can ‘equipartition theorem within ohysies, it sooms appropriate ‘ine of energy equipartition. rtition theorem, though only: based on hardly defendable of media that are composed ste of motion” by J. J. Water- foundation-stone of a new icipated a great deal of the the Kinetic theory of gases, 4 the mean square molecular cific weight of the molecules” molecules”). A former student orat the East India Company: ve Royal Society in 1845. The after one of the two referees t even for reading before the the Society the manuscript archives. Only a very brief eed of the importance of his ivately. Five years later, at 1 in Tpswieh, a short extract® librium of pressure and heat: aumber of atoms in unity of equal.” But, again, nobody implications, “It is probable account of a mathematical ae ie aa Sf yraton nw etal theory Piet seiner odie 1510 643 8497 Physics Dept UC Berkeley (001/020 12 The Concept of Quanta of Energy 13 ‘hat in the long and honourable history of the Royal Society no mistake more disastrous in its actual consequences for the progress of science ‘and the reputation of British seience than the rejection of Waterston’s papers was ever made. ... There is every reason for believing that had ‘the papers been published physical chemistry and thermodynamics would hhave developed mainly in this country and slong much simpler, more correct, and more intelligible lines than those of their actual development.’ ‘More than forty years had to pass until the 1845 memoir, under ite original title, was finally published in tho Philosophical Transactions.* With refer- ence to Waterston’s enunciation of the equipartition theorem, Lord Ray- leigh, through whose efforts the paper was published, declared in tho introduction: “The omission to publish it at the time was a misfortune which probably retarded the development of the subject: by ten or fifteen years. Tt is singular that Waterston appears to have advaneed no claim Tor subsequent. publication, whether in the Transactions of the Society, for through some other channel. At any time since 1860 reference would iaturally have been made to Maxwell, and it cannot be doubted that he ‘would have at once recommended that everything possible should be done to atone for the original failure of appreciation.” Rayleigh’s reference to Maxwell alludes to his paper “Illustrations of the dynamical theory of gases,’ in which Maxwell elaborated some conclusions subraitted one year earlier at the Aberdeen meeting of the British Association. There he gave his first formulation of the equi- partition theorem as follows: “Two different, sets of particles will distribute their velocities, eo that their viree vieae will bo equal,” At first he con sidered only the case of “smooth spherical particles” but later, in a corol- lary, extended the theorem to the case of a mixture of particles of any form and ineluded rotation, In 1868 the theorem was further generalized by Boltzmann, who proved" its validity also for particles which are not necessarily rigid but have a number of internal degrecs of freedom. Finally, Maxwell removed certain restrictions on the interaction among particles and showed, using generalized Lagrangian coordinates for systems with an arbitrary number of degrees of freedom, that the equipartition of energy holds even if “the A gine nov Bn ac a fy tention “Franeactions oft Reports, Aberdeon, 2,8 (1860). Society of Landon Ta, 1-79. 802); "FL." Boltsmana, “Studien Uber das toprinted in The Collated Scientfe Papers Gleichgevicht. det iebendigen Kraft is ‘wischen bewegten inaterellen Punkten,” sacne 20, a-a7 Wigner Bence au S170 (I) (1880); reprinted in Phe Sctetife Papers" 83.” G”'Maxwelly “On Boltzmann's odamea Citck Mazel, ited by W."D. these. on the average diaribution of ven (Cambridge University Prew, 1890; snergy ina rystem of material poms,” republigied by Dover, New York), vol. 1, Transactioneof the Cambridge Phalowophizal ey 378-408. Borwiy 18, 7-510, (STB) Srentc HIE Mwxwoll, “On the dynamical Papers (th. 80), vol. 2 pp. TiS-7al02/17/2005 1: 2 FAX 1 510 643 8497 Physics Dept UC Berkeley 1002/020 14 The Formation of Quantum Conceptions hia work, he would necessar radiation, which is incompat given up further research on. called the “thermodynamie of an oscillator by the equat material points may act on each other at all distances, and according to ‘any law which is consistent with the conservation of energy... the only ‘assumption which is necessary for the direct proof is that the aystem, if loft to itself in its actual state of motion, will, sooner or later, pass through every phase whieh is consistent with the equation of energy.” Yet the very generalizations of the theorem jeopardized its validity. For, as Tait" put it in his critical examination of Boltamann’s approach and in his search for an unassailable proof of the theorem: “There can be no doubt that each individual particle of a gas has a very great number of degrees of freedom besides the six which it would have if it were rigid; the examination of its spectrum while incandescent. proves this at once. But if all these degrees of freedom are to share the whole energy (on the average) equally among them, the results of theory will no longer be consistent with our experimental knowledge of the two specific heats of a where a and 6 are constants quantity 85/90, which pre Of the increase of entropy, ¢ gas, and the relations between them.” A still more drastie description of ‘The reasoning which le the problems raised by the theorem was given by Lord Kelvin'* in a lecture tion of Sin terms of J and st the Royal Institution on April 27, 1900, when he said: “‘The beauty and remarks found at the end « cleamess of the dynamical theory, which asserts heat and light to be modes guided by the form of (Lt of motion, at pret aberured by two cowie, Th feat inveived the Whore C isa constant, Solv question, How could the earth move through an elastic solid, such as thermodynamics equals, at somal isthe inmnifrous ether? The second is the Maxwel- Boltzmann C7) oF oinnle tenner Afotrine of partition of energy.” the terveribiiy aesociate Tt should be obvious from thes remuarka that the sientie literature that the “total lectre ent atthe endothe nineleeth eentury, both in Bland anon the continent mation extends overall os contained numerous articles dealing with the doctrine of energy equi- elements dr of the radiatio partition, and there cannot be any doubt that Planck must have had of state which increases in Enowledge ofthe equiparttion theorem Planek now assumed that a. However, fovtunabely forthe futre development of physizs, Planck lator of frequency», entop: did not make use of the theorem, It is hard to say whether it was in view entropy 8’, and energy U Of these dificult oF becase of his unfamiity with the Boltzmann. that B8:~ 58 + 58" = C Gibbs methods of statistical mechanies® or his profound aversion to the lead to the equation — (ar) imoleular approach of, ally, besouto of his strong conviction in the the expression on the left ower of thonmedynanioreatoring basl of the onoept of entropy. One toeilators considered i thing s certain: had he used the equipertiton theorem at this sage of eter of forall. ettng onto t fonation only of 7—eaual GT, te oman te Dyanna he We They gh See eke ot felt Sey nth 385) ihlerean pene Web Hees: ‘ Being fully aware that the whims Me Eee ‘nals iEuaie Cane sete EO SOF Meek snl Mela RS pathy pace ty ae Pe tg floes lead oan expression Seat Cece Gn aS, WEB BAM fate we fea oe Fee iy of ais “tna, 42, ommoniation Pad Relat tine cons ra hasan yl aay S728 Sh gupnit clouds over'the Wjnamiesl sveory of bent "Afox Manele andthe beginning of the toler ta tetrogrentive Sm ‘sndhght™ Phiouoptioat Magastne 2, {3 quancum theocy," Archies for History of earopy from the on TMSON Bolum’ Lectires‘om Molecular ‘Bsort Seionss'f, A@S-479 (HOOD) {Be entropy rom the aeray dt(02/17/2005 12:53 FAX 1 510 643 8497 Physics Dept UC Berkeley 1Q003/020 : 12 The Concept of Quanta of Energy 15 oem, an bis work, he would necomsrily have arrived at the Rayleigh-Jeane law of ‘on ot opera Ne Say radiation, whieh is incompatible with experience, and would probably have proof is that the system, if ‘given up further research on this problem. Instead, adopting what he later roo! is that the eyston called the “thermodynamic approach,” Dlanek* defined the entropy S _ Romer orate, past throush Of an oscillator by the equation rem jeopardized its validity. u & ‘ion of Boltzmann's approach Sa 78, of the theorem: “‘There ean \ gas has a very great number tewould have iit were rigid; a7 where a and b are constants and ¢ is the base of natural logarithms. The ‘quantity 2°8/9U", which proved important in connection with the principle iaeeatt peeves tus ct ones of the increase of entropy, thus satisfied the equation are the whole energy (on the #5 _ const of theory will no longer be aoe as) of the two specifi heats of a 1 more drasti deseription of ‘The reasoning which led Planck to this apparently arbitrary defini- \ by Lord Kelvin’ in a lecture tion of Sin terms of U and» may be reconstructed on the bass of certain thon he said: "Tho beauty and remarks found at the end of his fifth communications" From (1.6) and rts heat and light to be modes guided by the form of (1.5), Planck obtained U = Cy exp (—fr/T), ds, The fist... involved the where Cis a constant. Solving this equation for 7, which according tO gh an clastic solid, euch as thermodynamics equals, at constant. volume, 98/9U, Planck obtained tnd isthe Maxwell-Boltsinaan (1.2) by simple integration. Consistent with ‘his assu the ireversbility associated with “natural radiation,” he then showed s that the scientific literature that the “total electric entropy” Si =D) 8 + Je dr, where the sum ‘England and on the continent, ‘mation extends over all oscillators and the integration over all volume the doctrine of energy equi- ‘elements dr of the radiation field with entropy density s, is a function that Planck must have had fof state which increases in time and reaches a maximum at equilibrium, Planck now assumed that a small amount of energy passes from one oseil- velopment of physics, Planck lator of frequency r, entropy S, and energy U, to another of frequency »’, to say whether it was in view entropy S$’, and energy U. The entropy and energy principles require arity with the Boltsmann- that 58; — §S + 58’ ~ O and BU + BU" = 0, whieh in view of (1.7) s profound aversion to the lead to the equation — (ax)~! log (U/») = —(as")-* log (U'/t!). Hence his strong convietion in the the expression on the left-hand side of this equation is a constant for all \ the concept of entropy. One oscillators considered and therefore, in virtue of (1.6), © common param- tion theorem at this stage of ter of ty for all», Setting this expression—which has just been shown to be ‘a funetion only of T—equal to T-!, Planck obtained U = by exp (~ax/T), , in combination with (1.6), yielded Wien’s radiation law (1.5). fog ane, hay ih ent Wor enn Being fully aware that the result was determined by the particular choice des anclake Wiergeouenton of (17), Planck contended that an equation only of the form of (1.5) in Max Planck, Erinuerungen’ (W. does lead to an expression for S which satisfies the entropy principle, Berlin, 1948), pp, 68-83, suments for the plaus i of this any, 42, 5th communication lam: berechnet men daraus ckwarta fre adduced by’ Martin J. dein, ‘Sin section 29 of this paper Plagek den Ausdruck der Entropie "Physi ital ane Lexi of refers io'a nntrogremive computation” of Halewhe ADhandlungen und Vorirage (Hx ip theory," Arches for History isrbution 42), vol spatheory Arched for Hoy of the entropy Irom the enargy-distebution 42), vol. 1, p. 996. ee a : ——(02/17/2005 12:53 FAX 1 510 643 8497 Physics Dept UC Berkeley 1004/020 16 The Formation of Quantum Conceptions Before the tum of the century, however, the unrestricted validity of Wien’s radiation law (1.5) was seriously challenged. Lummer and Pring heim recorded systematic deviations for smaller frequencies; when ad- itional measurements?” in the range from 12 to 18 u confirmed their ‘suspicion, they had the courage to declare: “Tt has been demonstrated that black-body radiation is not represented, in the range of wavelengths measured by us, by the Wien-Planck spectral equation." In addition to these objections based on experiment also Planck's theoretical pro- cedure in deriving equation (1.5) beeame the target of severe criticisms. No wonder that Thiesen,” Lummer and Jahnke, and Lammer and Pringsheim™ proposed new distribution laws to ft also the experimental lew failed. On the other har data obtained for longer waves. | be wrong for high frequencit Meanwhile Lord Rayleigh, in a two-page paper “Remarks upon the trary to experience, and led- law of complete radiation,’ published in June, 1900, showed that the i frequencies—to a divergent ‘equipactition theorem of statistical mechanics, if applied to the electro } situation which was later, fo magnetic vibrations of cavity radiation, led necessarily to a formula ‘Violet catastrophe.” radically different from (1.5). Rayleigh, an expert in the mathematical However, that for low { treatment of standing waves, as he had already shown in his Theory of portional to 7, as required Sound}* computed the number Ns of modes of free electromagnetic vibra~ been established irrefutably tions per unit volume in an enclosure and per unit range of wavelength Rubens and Kurlbaum.” at \ and found""—if we consider Jean’s subsequent correction’ of Rayleigh’s fatare development of quat result—that Mj is equal to 84/4. Assuming that the average energy of himself, who admitted that * each mode at temperature 7, according to the equipartition theorem, is | lation of the radiation law ‘theory would have perhaps (R/N)T, where Ris the univ or kT, where k is Boltamann’ Lord Rayleigh obtained for length uy = xk T/A or equi ‘This formula, the “Rayleigh Wion’s displacement. law (1 in the region of extremely Sener. 24 (1800), 3 John William Strutt, Baron Rayleigh, ‘ mp S Gisimmey ati E.Pringssim, “User ‘the Phenyl Sousd Macnee perhaps even not at all ia G die Strang des schorarzen Krpers for I877-181S 2d ed 1928; Dover, New York, results to the Berfin Academ lange Wellen’® Verhandlangon str Deut. 1945) i Tests to the Beni Aca egg ining a8 8 ered vole of Ph Thong a ‘ tubens and Kur Tepe O00 Seund (don 36 asta ha : by their report of the inadec Wi Wn, “Lee Iain ehgorigues du bration: Seo" ofay. 13, which Logins i that hia reasoning lending geenion! Repo is SSE etulmemrtt | ottawa en Fo ool Sp fete Piha,” gis) | Wen’ expreon but for sn C4 TS eibg of we wth 7 Plan's pin "B¥Latine and Edt, "Ordo ey "det walls ea Spectealeltchung des sehwarcin Horper Phubsophical Magazine 15, 91-98 (1500. i TP. Beptes,. “Welcbe 2 ‘und dow lanken Paine” Annaton der Jeane pointed ou thet the original Rey } [ientquartonhyptese spiien Physi 3, 288-27 (1900) ish emule had wo be divide by nee : "Then der Warmentrabiong ei #0, Umer ad B. Pringsheim, “Uber ony the tant of postive stage and i go Hel” Avalon Bat gle Stati sew sciwarsen Korders tir not the whole spire has tobe cen into i TiS" GSTS. The fourth chapia ines Mele ectandgey se, Pat Gest Secon te i pose clue et = Phystntincken Geslscheft3, 168-180 “taylor desis lw was any the sate igh Jeane a tog " iment fe snens ot st Lard Ray eh vsletsn, “hore. the orm, SPkiamphiat Mogazine 50, 590-519 Mac neobieed ak cance as SES j {ataaroph™ appeared for the € ue Sane eal cn rt ane con Pid, bok Pane Benak Papers, edited byS aver, Nor Yon Tae) va de. ase asa ane Oe RiSe Goeth eth we adi ilSnce Re j i }Physics Dept UC Berkeley 18005/020 12 The Concept of Quanta of Energy 17 2, the unrestricted validity of (R/N)T, where Ris the universal gas constant andl N Avogadro's number, sallenged. Lummer and Pring ork7, where &is Boltzmann's constant, introduced at that time by Planck, smaller frequencies; when ad- Lord Rayleigh obtained for the energy density per unit interval of wave- 112 to 18 » confirmed their length = Srk7/ or equivalently It has been demonstrated aerkT 4, in the range of wavelengths = = 9) ciral equation." In addition ° also Planck's theoretical pro- ‘This formula, the “Rayleigh-Jeans radiation law,” agreed, of course, with re target of severe criticieme.” Wien’s displacement law (1.3). It also agreed with all experimental data Jahnke," and Lommer and in the region of extremely low frequencies, just where Wien’s radiation ‘5 to fit aloo the experimental law failed. On the other hand, it was immediately clear that (1.9) must bbe wrong for high frequencies. It assigned no maximum to wor Br, eon- ‘ge paper “Remarks upon the trary to experience, and led—in view of the unlimited ineresse for higher Sune, 1900, showed that the froquencies—to a divergent: integral for the total energy density 1, a tics, if applied to the electro- situation which was later, following Bhrenfest,” referred to as the “ultra- led necessarily to a formula : violet eatastrophe.” 1 export in the mathematical However, that for low frequencies and high temperatures 1 was pro- ready shown in his Theory of portional to 1, as required by (1.9) in contrast to (1.5), had meanwhile of free electromagnetic vibra- been established ierefutably in a series of measurements carried out by per unit range of wavelength Rubens and Kurlbaum* The importance of these measurements for the quent correction’ of Rayleigh’s future development of quantum theory is best characterized by Planck «g that the average enongy of himself, who admitted that “without the intervention of Rubens tho forma- ‘the equipartition theorem, lation of the radiation law and consequently the foundation of quantum hn Will Stat, Baton api, theory wonld have perhaps taken place in e totally different manner and May of Sond (Macnlan Caen perhaps even not at all in Germany.” A few days before presenting their Sis! Ya 1020, Dover, New Yorks results to the Berlin Academy »° which was to convene on October 25, 1000, Ahgageond value of he Theory of Rubens and Kurlbaun reported their observations to Planck. Convinced (God roe 36T ayg hi by their report of the inadequacy of Wien's radiation lavr, Planck realized the xine problem for” acoustics! ons. Bee, chap. 13, which, begin ‘that his reasoning leading to the Wien formula had to be revived #0 that stvonia “Wet oni Seat it would lead to « new formula which for large » and small T agrees with ‘ong ete possible within a closed ~ Tae or sie Sas: Wiens expression but for emall v and large 7 reduces to a proportionality Pe ee oe a. of u, with T. Planck's point of departure was, of course, definition (1.7). A Senn oe eBeprcion of aphad Magali 10, 0038 (1808), TP. Bhrenfest, “Welshe Zoge der 1950), pp. 185-212. Pointed out that the orignal Raye Lickiquanterhypothese “apilen fa et HL "Rubeng snd F. Kurlbeum, “An- Seoul ha oo Svsiel by nite LTS W aoa aRe he Weve nending der'hedons det Reukaiken ieoctan of postive atone and Hage ele” asi tor Phys 36,91~ ta Prafane dey Strang te “nfl rece, a ob no in 118! (IOI. ‘the Toueth’ chapter of Chie halen der Pye 4, 630-060 (i ‘hoe Beane sontebtin ohe abet i ooutey “Dio Vertetiuyg tS eatateéde der eg Plenck out plea a wa ony ie tte: igh teat reine Hakunn Boker Boe 1000 ‘feat ote Wat aed Rory sloten herewler Une sodead an unnanuaryncat £8 Fee ee ee CENTS iaion langweligr err er Eee SS Wamu det, Maa Se metntegen” bid, p ake Poot Scene Vopr lieth" avin. oreo remehnegen Tomperaine,™ Sade Sane Kien varPHisuand Pblhing. 03, Betner Boren 1000, pp. 985-341 Amsterdam; Interscience, New» York,02/17/2005 12:55 FAX 1 510 645 8497 Physics Dept UC Berkeley 180067020 r I 18 The Formation of Quantum Conceptions Since under the latter conditions with u,, according to (1.6), also U has ‘ and finally to be proportional to T and since 4S/aU = T+, Planck inferred that S is proportional to log U or | b 28 _ const i a 9) whereas for the former conditions (1.8) has to remain valid. Compromising, Me therefore, between (1.8) and (1.10), Planck assumed* where c', C, A, and B are et as aan Planck obtained this an" DED “comment” (**Diskussionst ¢ } the German Physical Societ; which, in fact, reduces for mall values of U to (1.8) and hence to Wien’s t In this “comment,” pr lave, and for large values of U to (1.10) and hence to the Rubens-Kuslbaurn i of Wien's radiation law? F results, | tion of what was later call: This interpolation, though mathematically a mere trifle, was one of | being, it was an empirical { ‘he most significant and momentous contributions ever made in the history : no rigorous theoretical justi of physics. Not only did it lead Planck, in hia search for its logical cor- i Rubens!" who through the roboration, to the propossl of his elementary quantum of action and thus it against his experimental initiate the early development of quantum theory, as we shall ace presently it also contained certain implications which, onee recognized by Kinstein, affected decisively the very foundations of physics as well as their epistemo- logical presuppositions, Never in the history of physies was there such an inconspicuous mathematical interpolation with such far-reaching physical and philosophical consequences. Now, from this interpolat Lummer and Pringsheim ai a short time afterward. ‘To change the status ¢ slicklich erratene Interpol real physical significance,” P his “thermodynamic appros tion, Hq. (1.11), Planck deduced that coneeption of entropy. W oscillators of frequency », Pl 1-28 a igg ZAP | Sy =k log W, where 1 is a { the energy of the system, Ir 5 i that the total energy Uw i _ . { “energy elements” « (“En exp (1/a'T) j traditional conception of U where a! ~ ~a/b and b are, of couse, still functions of», To find their | admitted combinatorial) dependence on », Planek referred to (1.5) and (1.6) and obtained { it is exactly at this point th binatoral procedure motive y= (2 112 t v=(5) ua strane Yates | bees ne tgs where ®(r/T) is a function of »/7. Henee, he concluded, i Deutchen: wysthaliochen Clear ; Parra rane const.» sneting of the Gerpas Phen =e =1 } Ringe nd Vorge thor ti exp @r/T) =i espa, me . Tho, vol. 3, p. 268, "aq and 8 are constants sere pos(02/17/2005 12:56 FAX according to (1.8), also U has = 1, Planck inferred that. S (10) to remain valid, Compromising, ‘c assumed > aay 1 to (1.8) and hence to Wien's hence to the Rubens-Kurlbaum ically a mere trifle, was one of ations ever made in the history 1 his search for its logical eor- FY quantum of action and thus ‘heory, as we shall see presently; by, once recognized by Einstein, shysies as well as their epistemo- cy of physios was there such an with such far-reaching physical 1), Planck deduced that Ute v ya ‘ll functions of v. To find their and (1.6) and obtained (az) 1510 643 8497 Physics Dept UC Berkeley (007/020 1.2 The Concept of Quanta of Energy 19 and finally : ot os Sp AT) = 1 ae or = STI (133) where c', C, A, and B are constants. Planck obtained this result just in time to prepare an extended “comment” (‘Diskussionsbemerkung”) to follow Kurlbaum’s report to the German Physical Society, which met on October 19, 1900. In this “comment,” published under the title “On an improvement ‘of Wien’s radiation lnw,""* Planck announced formula (1,13), the formula- tion of what was later called “Planck's law of radiation.” For the time being, it was an empirical formula sinee its basic assumption (1.11) had x20 rigorous theoretical justifieation. But it svemed to be a correct formula, Rubens, who through the night following the Academy session checked it against his experimental results, reported complete agreement, as did Lummer and Pringsheim after correcting their own errors of calculation a short time afterward. ‘To change the'status of (1.11) from that of a “lucky guess” ( elUcklich erratene Interpolationsformel”)® to that of a “statement of real physical significance,” Planck ultimately found it necessary to abandon his “thermodynamic approach” and to turn to Boltzmann's probabilistic conception of entropy.* Writing Sw for the entropy of a system of NV oscillators of frequency », Planck, apparently following Boltamann, posited. Sw =k log W, where W is the number of distributions compatible with the energy of the system. In order to determine W, Planck had to assume that the total energy Uy = NU consists of an’integral number P of “energy elements” ¢ (“Energie-clemente”) 60 that Uy = Pe, for the traditional conception of Uy as » continuous magnitude would not have admitted a combinatorial procedure for the determination of W. Since it is exactly at this point that the methodological requirement for a com binatorial procedure motivated Planck's introduction of the quantum of Verbeserung der Wien- "1, Boltzmann, “Uber die Beriehung ldching’ Verhandlungen awiathen dem areiton Hieuptente ot walichen Gerdlschajt ©, Rrechaniechen Warmetheore” tnd der wai bd We oper wacrend ithe Watrthcnichencrmcineng erecting Iecting of the German Physical Society den atzen uber dan Wermegieichgewicht,” (pm Oct: 19, 1800: Phasikalecke Abkond Wiener Berithi 16, SOS (TT). Te: gine Vortrige (er. 2), vol. 1 pp. printed, ime ‘Bolismann,, Wasenachfe e686, Kee ABhanalangen (Barth, Laipig, 149), ‘Tin, vol. 3p. 268, vole, p16 Tia, pis,(02/17/2005 12:56 FAX 1 510 643 8497 Physics Dept UC Berkeley 18008/020 Sinagpansmmmmrsenrensemp nme 20 The Formation of Quantum Conceptions in is tar, led eventually to the development of quanturn and by the use of String theory and its departure from the principles of classical physics, iti ap. propriate to quote Planck's fist explicit reference to “Now we have to consider the distribution of the energy Ux among the N resonators of frequency v. If Uy were regarded as an infinitely divisible quantity, the 80 that tribution could be performed in an infinite number of ways, We consider, -- hhowever—and this is the cardinal point of the whole computation -U'y Sv = HO + P 8 composed ofa finite number of digerete equal parts and employ forth or finaly ‘purpose the natural constant h X10 erg sec. This, constant multiplied by the common frequeney » of the resonators gives the enerty sy = ww [( clement in erg, and by dividing Uy by « we obtain the aumber P of ‘energy clements which are distributed among, the N resonators Sinco the entropy S = Interpreting W in the equation Sy = k log W as the number of (1.11), Planck felt sure F possible ways of distributing P energy elements « among NV oscillators, hie now obtained for the a Planck obtained W+P-1)! We WP . se. Nun iat noah dio Vertilung der gin,” bi, 71-702, The Bnglsh version, hich is compatible with Energie Uy aul die N Resoratoren mit dee "Simplifed deduction of the formula rors Schovingungaahl» vorainchmen. Wenn dhe theory of eombirations which Planck Gora nbentyant or Grote ae a ean has aati Chay angeceton ‘wird, it aie ‘Verteiung aa in the Proeedsngs ofthe Avaer~ ftnendich viele “Arlen mogiich:® Wir dam academy f7, 70-918 GOLD), and te where h is a constant inde) arrived at his famous radi betrachten aber—und dies ist der weeent- appendix ‘“The contrast between Planck's “ Hebe inkCdr gatas EeccvuneUy fyb othe “emer rae sd is summers way einer gant EUncauts typothing “oh” he “encay {in agrooment with Bq. (1 frou "ates enskergleRbor quan” in Baesbro"s73 boll ae t ‘staffer fageder re: Tanta Baht “Ect Planck obtained the Ste ante h = 055 5 10 ore sen Dene BECOME Mere Theo, S88 50 en by? and os alee ‘Gonotante mt der yemeinanrien Schwine Cli"aley “Vereisushts “AWSiasey dor between L4/I? and ¢; cal ‘Eiugaahl der Renatoren multiplier? Lombinmorachen” Wovmel, weeks set suum, he confirmed Ea, (1 Stk Reema ate Ma te el and ) Plank om Si Otane ip faces alae eM eemancn Ree ga of aud 8 Plane comput feos Ket PA? uence hy tt tata, SS thi found heb Tile te Rade raion, Pushed bargerabttes cc 10" rs dg) a wit 14,1000); Phyottalinche Abhandtungenand von Einstein,” ibid 1022 1024 The pox: | number (6.175 X 10% m Peaintle Biatlite dy. PP una wmearner tet | termine te lenantary vincsa ingle oT of he com: loners and by dione att od | ‘These results were ¢ Ektenfect and i. Kameringn Oasies is (N" 4° Sih cubic erttations of | beseanstonienh coarse ‘their paper “‘Vereenvoudigde afleiding van all symbols, divided by the P! permuta- strenuous work of my lif SPEER ut'ieeamteatscloecgs glare dt bye Emre fepan to appear" Ke i aetle Mh cacemater eke igh of fg cum epee Some eg tits, Gralla ce December Hy 1000, a da aa sat onde etal mblmodeet once, Some Monel seen, ee ctl Manel oe ot Br, dilaton Repaid Meee ty lens nga Ma Ae ia Rare eat, Hace oe Te 7 a tas an pninlas ipemem anion gate apes 2 aed ate Sas Se aaa Splat aa ae sa cia nee “Die Batetehung und bis vyiekhung "dor" Quantentheor Prise Lecture, delivered. to Swedish ‘Acadiniy, Stockholm, 1920," Physidalache Abend!BAS 8497 Physics Dept UC Berkeley 1009/020 1.2. The Concept of Quanta of Energy 21 the development of quantum and by the use of Stirling's formula 8 of classical physic, itis ap- (4 yen Merence to h: “Now we have We Pr Jw among the N resonators of finitely divisible quantity, the 0 that number of ways. We consider, 7 - - samba of ways. Wo oonsider, Sy = ALN + P) log (N+ P) = Nlog W ~ P tog PJ qual parts and employ for this or finally 10-* eng seo. This constant wiv he resonators gives the energy Sy =a [(1 + 2) (1 +¥)- 2 8 (14) ‘we obtain the number P of . the 1 resonators."™ Since the entropy $= Sy/N of a single oscillator did indeed aatiaty Eq, * E log W as the number of (1.11), Planck felt sure he was on the right track, From 38/30 = 1/7 ments € among N oscillators, hhe now obtained for the average energy U of the oscillators of frequency » Dt un i (135) exp (AT) Pt which is compatible with his previous result, U “hid, 704-702 The Flo veson, ¥ aed deduction of ine formule rors where h is 8 constant independent of v sory at eniaatiny which nee at hie Fara egpencent Re base of he ral fon toe. arrived at his fasnous radiation lx ‘edn the Precept of he deel. ety cademy 17, 870-872 (1914), and the % = — (1.16) din “The contest between Places @ exp Ww/ET) Si (Si tthe sega and '4(2/7) only if «= ho, inally, in view of Bq. (1.6) Planck or ‘acronis Be (139) Taping 2, (110) oper fonecals tad in “P.” Khrentest, Caleced Planck obtained the Stefan-Boltzmann law and established a relation Set gine, cae between f/andevetedating te Renu ae wees, ton Cee tee tie mum he conte By. (1) ned eles tab eae ma seh te ae Ota tnd» Mack ete the wea lees F iam eon ats 1 ate appends “ee Gogensata and found h = 6.55 X 10-# erg sec. In addition he computed E(1.346 % 100, der, Bnereiestutes hy pothbeae von 10~* erg deg?) and, with the help of the gas constant R, Avogadro's fuind or Enorpaauertentypotios number (6.175 X 16® mole). Finally, from Faraday’s constant he de- ey a Net ere ttn the ssesary oak cca oe Ao eet may ef om ‘These sols were bend lke cute ef out ht week orem at which Pane dosed tow decade ner: Atte ees thea zomie perguttiong of strenuous work of my life, the darkness ited and an unexpected vista Paty Cine ate | Ru ro Sumy Mey the dares ed and ap epee ita entafoouile modesof dicibution December 14, 1900, a date which is often regarded as the “birthday of ‘Seily sured ag wo 206, that ho | 7 lements are inditinguishable on, fDi pane and rn ate Yorge ns 42), vl pp 121-104 som fen ay sa aia ire i erage, 2) on te Soyensan qecTaeene Eekeite Stic he dic Bish Giegny Rast org Shee te ees Gaia Atel te ape Sere 1920," Phyibatche Abhandhngen ed02/17/2005 1: 8 FAX 1 510 643 8497 Physics Dept UC Berkeley 22 ‘The Formation of Quantum Conceptions quantum theory,” Planck read his historic paper “On the theory of the energy distribution law of the normal spectrum,” in which he presented these results and introduced the “universal constant h,” destined to ehange the course of theoretical physics. Ts should be noted that Planck’s combinatorial approach differed from Boltamann’s probabilistic method?" in so far as Planck ascoviated 1 with Sy at the equilibrium state without, maximizing it, For Planck 17 was merely the total number of possible complexions and not, as for Boltzmann, the number of possible complexions corresponding to the macro state which can be realized by the largest number of complexions ‘The reason for this deviation was probably the fact, as already pointed out by Rosenfeld,* that Planck's actual point of departure was the ex- pression (1.14) for S, to fit conjecture (1.11), and that therefore W, to antisfy the equation Sy = log W, necessarily had to be of the form (W + P)SH/NSPE, which, bocause of its similarity to the well-known combinatorial formula” (W'+ P ~ 1)/PI(V — 1)}, prompted him to adopt the combinatorial procedure the way he did 1 is also interesting to note that; nowhere in this paper, nor in any other of his early writings, did Planck bring into prominence the fanda mental fact that U is an’integral multiple of fu. At that time Planck apparently was not yet quite aure whether his introduction of A was merely. 2 mathematical device or whether it expressed a fundamental innovation of profound physical significance. Im an unpublished letter (1981), ade reseed to R. W. Wood, Planck described in detail the paychological motives which led him to the postulate of energy quanta: he ealled it “an act of desperation,” done decanse “a theoretical explanation had to be supplied at all vost, whatever tho price.” As he admitted later in his Autobiography, hhe was dissatisfied with his own approach and attempted repeatedly, though "unsuccessfully, to fit the introduction of h someliow (“irgendiie”) into the framework of classical physios. On the other hand, his gon reported how his father, on long walks through the Grunewald, a forest in the suburbs of ‘Big, by Max von Laue in his Memo- * Beltzrnnn's mthod would lis have rial Ades, delivered at Planck's funeral led tp (La). inthe Albuti Cnurehy Gottingen on Oct, 1 (oventeld, “a, premire phase de PiSah CE Phywiaiaehe ABianavgen 'Gwohason de. ig ‘Theorem Quanta” nd Vorrage iar 43), vol, Sp dio; Ouran 8, 140106 (158) Toi formal ha lay appeared a Doltgmann's paper referred tim fem isummengetaat ann ch dip fanve Tat als einen ABt der Versweifune Feelin he etter (Oct, 7. 1931) te Genlchaft 2 287-248 (1900): Asprsited at the Center Yor History and Gest der Bnernievertatung im Norval Bilonophy of Bhysien, Amerienn Tntiete pektyumn” nualen dor Physik “933- of Phyes New York, Bis G901); Physiol Abkandinngen “A Phyatbatibe ABRandlungen wed Vore tut Vortdge (nee. 13), vole isp 17-127. edge, Vole 8. 207 ‘ jevetlune in Nomelepara Nendlungen der" Denarhew Phy 1@010/020 Berlin, intimated to him hie pethaps only to the discove For the time being, at realized that Planck’s was to tho discovories of New that time, the Fortschritte é Physical Society, menti AuSersten Umrigen”).* Ov Jess attention. An exeeptio to the 547th mecting of the J. HL Jeans’s first edition in 1904, contained no refere introduction of h scems to | methodological device of radiation law was repeatec firmed by Holbom and Va his collaborators." On the thought they hiad found dev however, fully vindicated theoretieal points of view. ees Nebew f egbbatel Mattel ee ann ier om Vergleckung der optischen ae i dry Seay gone tN, W. Coble “A sary tral enerey Sr bus S15 Choio) Ch, ale ‘Vata us Pring de Wi ar Wellenlingen,” Annan + 3-800 111, mexgmctons Aniaion tanta (tb13)5 1 Warbur Mie ther de Kenmare PaneKecen Streanggasts 48410-02018). ‘oh. Norse and T. Wall abi er Pinca Miiaforte! auf expecta gt Verhanungr der Beat sktiachen Cecelisehafe 21,29paper “On the theory of the rum,? in which he presented onstant fh,” destined to change hinatorial approach differed o far as Planck aseociated nnaximiging it, For Planck W ‘complexions and not, as for lexions corresponding to. the ingest number of eomplexions. "the fact, as already pointed dint of departure was the ex- LAD), and that therefore 17, 2ssarily had to be of the form ilarity to the well-known 14, prompted him to vere in this paper, nor in any into prominence the funds >of hv. At that time Planck 's introduetion of h was merely sed a fundamental innovation published Ietter* (1931), ad- ‘tail the psychological motives uuanta: he called it “an act of xplanation had to be supplied ‘ed later in his Autobiography ® attempted repeatedly, though mehow (“‘ingendwie") into the hand, his son reported how his ald, a forest im the suburbs of stesmann’s method would also have (i). Cre ka pete phe de Lone a rents gia sends Oss ER ay aemrtin ow ie era th er ghemrengr ae fa hte SACS Gatien ara es San Be a eee aa FR itn or 1510 643 8497 Physics Dept UC Berkeley (011/020 L2_ The Concept of Quanta of Energy 23 Berlin, intimated to him his feelings of having made a discovery comparable perhaps only to the discoveries of Newton.* For the time being, at least until 1905, nobody in fact seems to have realized that Planck's was indood “a discovery comparable perhaps only to the discoveries of Newton.” Germany's offical Physical Abstracts of that time, the Fortwhriue der Physik, edited and published by the German Physieal Socioty, mentioned Planck's contribution only in outline (“in fiufersten Unrifen”).* Outside Germany it seems to have attracted still less attention. An exception was Arthur L, Day’s report on Planck’s work to the 547th mecting of the Philosophical Society of Washington in 1902. J. H, Jeans's fist edition of his Dynamical Theory of Gases,” published in. 1004, contained no reference whatever to Planck’s law. In hort, Planck's introduction of h seems to have been regarded at that time as an expedient methodological device of no deeper physical significance, although i radiation law was repeatedly aubjected to experimental tet. Tt was con firmed by Holborn and Valentiner® by Coblents, and by Warburg and his collaborators: On the other hand, as late as 1919 Nernst and Wull thought they had found deviations from Planck's law. Subsequent research, however, fully vindicated his result from both the experimental and the ‘theorotical points of view With the increasing number of experimental cf. W. Heisenberg, Physics and ‘0 add on the right-hand ‘London, CG alae P49, heres 10g), 3s. ignetion of» ea? ativan, for 1800 (901), 9. saa” MEH Rube apd O. Miche, “Prato AL, Pepebicanrenent ot hgh te der Planchachen Steslangyonel” Phe erative” Selonoe(na 15420-4090 1902), ikadiche Zech 20, 869-817 1921), ‘MCanibekige Univecsty Press, 1904, confirmed Planck's formula by preciion wi" Holbom and 8. Valentina, “ine mengurementa and ehowed that reults Verglchung "ar" opticher "Rempera: Bian by ‘and Wl (seo turdkala ine, dem Suckstafthermomete: 103) were erroneous. For sabeocuent bie 1600", Annaten dar Physik 28, 1-48 theorellcl derivations of Planck's form Gigor) ced. olen, "Gbor das” Planckscko SEW. W. Coblents, “A charscteriatie of Strahfungsguatta,””"Phystlatiscke Zeit spectral energy curves” Phuoicel Revicw — schajt 10, 103-106 (3000); Debye, “Der SES STS Tioioy. Ce, alee Ee Hach, Wahrechtinlichkeltbegril i der Theorie der Strablung’™ Awnalon der Phyeth 33, Tea7-1as4. (1010); 4. Larmor, "On the ‘Vereache selien Stal Se Nolaalnain nal dor Payne Hatta! abd theese rations ‘apr Worbupe, G. Lethguser, E. opal Seth" London (4), 99, 42-95, Hupks, and C. Miller, “Uber die (1910); 'W. (Nernst, “Zur ‘Theorie’ der Htc lien TIDE ch deat Reena Meme deh. ton ll Elaeetatn BEST hoe hein o: Aiedruusbse dee ketone RE a Eten Bet Sarat Hotes soe ge RoomleSee Mic Hass a sea A RSE ali Bee a sete atc Eo wat tn coe atts “Ege ay veakcamr Ftd se Gey bhai eae ingore! auf “experimenteler Grant "Linige Argumente fir die Annehme einet Verkanlungen der Deutschen Phy- molekularen Agitation bein“ absoluten klicken Grollcknjt 21, 204-357 (1919). Nullponkt™ Anmalen der Physik 40, 081~02/17/2005 1: (0 FAX 1 510 643 8497 Physics Dept UC Berkeley (012/020 ———— — 24 ‘The Formation of Quantum Conceptions confirmations of Planck’s law, numerous attempts were made to evade Rayieigh’s conclusion (1.9) without abandoning classical statistical me- chanics and, in particular, the equipartition theorem." ‘The reason, as Lorentz put it, was undoubtedly that “we cannot say that the mechanism ‘of the phenomena has been unveiled (by Planck’s theory], and it must be admitted that itis difficult to see the reason for this partition of energy by finite portions, which are not even equal to each other, but vary from fone resonator to the other.” Another conceptual difficulty, which prevented the general acceptance of Planck's introduction of b, was undoubtedly the following fact. As shown by its dimension, this quantity represented an invariable unit of “action” (energy X time) or an “elementary quantum of action” (“elementares Wirkungsquantum”), as it was subsequently called, But it was clear that no principle of conservation of action exists in physics. It is therefore not surprising that the attempt to reconcile Planck's law with classical statistical mechanics was not abandoned even after Lorentz had shown that classical physics, that is, the equipartition theorem and Hamilton’s principle, leads necessarily to Rayleigh’s radiation law and its empirically untenable implications. As Lorents put it, the ether is aystem of infinitely many degrees of freedom, and the temperature of a ponderable body, ia thermal equilibrium with it, on this assumption must necessarily be absolute zero, a result contrary to experience. Lorents: made these statements in a series of lectures which he delivered in 1910 at the University of Gottingen, In this context the following historical comments are not without interest: In 1908 the mathematician Paul Wolfekeh!™ of Darmstadt bequeathed the sum of 100,000 marks to the Academy of Sciences in Gottingen as an ‘ward for the first person to publish a complete proof of Fermat’s famous Last Theorem (1687). In this theorem, it will be recalled, Fermat, denied 00 (19). Wollhe, Zur Qantas Brcedings of he Combride Piura theorie"” Verhandlungen der” Deutschen Soeinty 21, 202-273 (1822); 8.N. Bose, Phoattatischen Geseliachayt 75, 1123, 1215 “Plancks Geeots und Lich:quantoahy po: (1918); M. Wolfke, “Walch Strahiuing —uhesa’ Zetuchrit fue Physik 28, 178-1 formel’ folgt aus” der, Annahme der (104); S.1N. Bore, “Warrmogleihyawicht Lichtaiomel” Phyaitalicke Zetachrft 15, im Strakiungateld’ bet Anwesenh 308-310, 103 (1 "dat Materie, sb 27, ‘Quantentheorie Mit Budinglon, “On the Giengen, dee Phartatiken, Geile, tow rm Bina oguauon” Pinphi= Bu"A7 GE" COIG), Phystkaevne cal Magarine 50, 864-808 {1925 Zetntrift is) irs UIT) A Babine “Tie HK" Eocortas “On the emieion snd ‘mies, “Zur Quantehing der Mohiraum= absorpiion by metals of tays of heat, of Fiatlane pide Gost Gor}, CVE eat wavelength arsterdam Pre Barn and Fowlers on the dig i 1008p partion of en ‘ehcp! ‘Sf’ A Laren Phe Phony of Eltron Balm fb tao Erbe a eae {fate 1500S 18 acted rom he Barwa’ aod Ie" fowler, “Partition Dauer ation, Now Yor 1883), Bo {netions“for temperature radiation and" Betannimachung,” Gotenjer Nack tHe internal oncrgy of 8 rystll oli,” richten 1908, 9. 108- the existence of integers 2, yt = 2%. It ig also well kn but has gained the unique greatest number of incorre What is not so well Wolfskehl committee to ur inviting prominent scienti invitation brought Poineat lectures on problems in pu (April 22) he spoke of Fre of Hill and Helge von Koel ‘was not recognized until 19 (April 28)—the only one relativity—ineidentally, In the following year 1910, he delivered six lect: ‘which were subsequently ec Zeitschrift. The last three black-body radiation, Thr ‘of mathematical physies, a 1 sories of loctures. ‘The last scientist to b idttingen lectures, deliver in due course, a: decisive “Seven Leotures on the general survey of atomic spondence principle and t applications (third lectur lecture), the periodic syste (sixth lecture), and conelue ‘The subjects covered in the: in Bohr's paper on the s Mathematical researc Wolfkehi’s incitement, an: the prize and in view of th and Heisenberg it is perha YH, Poincaré, Seche Vora einen’ Mathematie wna Math Phy (Teubner, Llp Ber ‘areata, Rite Progen de? tgs Payabar sgl twat 13k BHO) lectures'whieh Bor delivered 1 ‘under the tile "Sieben Vortrheattempts were made to ovade Toning classical statistical me- fon theorem." ‘The reason, as vannot say that the mechanism Planck's theory], and it must ‘s0n for this partition of energy 1 to each other, but vary from cevented the general aeceptance \btedly the following fact, As presented an invariable unit smentary quantum of aetion”” ‘was subsequently called. But fon of action exists in physics. pt to reconcile Planck's law abandoned even after Lorentz the equipartition theorem and Rayleigh’s radiation law and Lorents, put it, the ether is om, and the temperature of a ith it, on this assumption must, sry to experience. ‘es of lectures which he delivered In this context the following st chi of Darmstadt bequeathed "of Sciences in Gottingen as an wplete proof of Fermat's famous Will be recalled, Fermat, denied ‘dings of the Combridge Philosophical Wy at, 262-248 (1928), 8. Ne Bow, ek Gesate und Licht@uanteahypo PY Zestchrg fr Physik 26, UIS181 ip /SN Bova, “Warmerletchaewieht ‘ahlungseld' bet Anwesentct vos. i i 7 amt de Cat A ‘igton, “On the derivation of Planck's ‘om Hinetein's equation," Phulcsoph Fegasine 60, Bs-808 (1925). Aven, 09 the ostrion and piion by metale of rays of heat of Pi avelengih” “Arteria Pro 1008-10659, Gi. WA Toren Pic Theory of Biecrone 4, 1600, 2d. 1918, quoted from the ‘elition, New York, 1989), p80. “"Bekanmnimachung,”” Gottinjer Nach- 1908, p- 108. 1510 643 8497 Physics Dept UC Berkeley 18013/020 | | i 12° The Concept of Quanta of Energy 25 the existence of integers x, y, ¢, and m which satisfy xyz x0, > 2,2" + y* = 2%, It is also well known that the theorem has not yet: been proved bbut has gained the unique distinetion of being the problem for which the greatest number of incorrect “proofs” has ever been published. ‘What is not go well known, however, is the wise decision of the Wolfskehl committee to use the interest of the amount for the purpose of inviting prominent scientists as guest speakers to Gottingen. Such an invitation brought Poincaré there at the end of April, 1909. He gave six lectures on problems in pure and applied mathematics.% In his first tall (April 22) he spoke of Fredholm’s equations in connection with the work of Hill and Helge von Koch, a subject whose relevance to quantum theory ‘was not recognized until 1925; in his last lecture “La Mécanique Nouvelle” (April 28)—the only one he gave in French—he discussed the theory of relativity-—incidentally, without mentioning the name of Einstein, In the following year Lorentz wns invited. From October 24 to 29, 1910, he delivered six lectures on “Old and Now Problems in Physics" ‘which were subsequently edited by Born and published in the Physikalische Zeitschrift, The last three of these lectures dealt with the problem of black-body mdiation, Three years Inter Sommorfeld spoke on probleme of mathematical physics, and in the summer semester of 1914 Debye gave a sorios of lectures. ‘The last scientist to be invited on this program was Niels Bohr. Tis Gottingen lectures, delivered on June 12 to 22, 1922, had, as we shall seo in due course, a decisive influence upon Pauli and Heisenberg. Bohr's “Seven Lectures on the Theory of Atomic Structure” began with a. general survey of atomic theory (first lecture), dealt with the earre- spondence principle and the adiabatic principle (second lecture), their applications (third lecture), discussed polyelectronic systems (fourth lecture), the periodic system (fifth lecture), xzays and atomic structure (sixth leeture), and concluded with remarks on problems still to be solved. ‘The subjects covered in these lectures were essentially the same us contained in Bohr’s paper on the structure of atoms, published at that time.” ‘Mathematical research so far seems to have profited very little from ‘Wolfkeh!’s incitement, and since the inflation in Germany depreciated the prize and in view of the historie impact of Bohr’s lectures upon Pauli ‘and Heisenberg it is perhaps no exaggeration to say that quantum theory MH, Poincaré, Sechs Veridge ays der ‘Thcorio des Atombans’” ie fond in the Reine’ Mathematik wid Mathematschen Boke arches undae the ttle “Optagnelaor Physik (Teuber, Let ti Forelaesningerae 1 Gottingen, Bohr Me A Lorentay Rie Max No. 0. Fragen det Piya Payeitotacke Zee TWN. poke, “Der Baw der Atome und soiggt 11, 1238-1287 “18t0) die piysllchen und chemehen igen 24 “lanuseript with notea on there Schatten “dor lemeate,” Zeechrft far lectures which Bohr delivered in'German Phystt', (257 (1989), under the title "Sieben: Vorteage Ober de02/17/2005 1: 1 FAX 1 510 643 8497 Physics Dept UC Berkeley 26 The Formation of Quantum Conceptions ‘was the main beneficiary of the Woliskehl Prize, Whether this statement will have to be modified in view of the recently proposed revival of tho prize remains to be seen. Tn concluding our discussion on the carly development of the con ception of energy quanta, in which Planck’s derivation of the radiation law played the dominant role, we think it necessary to stress the following, critical remarks. ‘As we have pointed out, Planck's derivation consisted of two separate parts: (1) s derivation of the relation (1.6) between the radiative energy density 1 and the oscillator energy U, Sr ay Sau (16) @ formula which Planck obtained by using exclusively the principles of classical electrodynamics (as shown in Appendix A); (2) a statistical treatment of the interaction among oscillators of different. proper fre- ‘quencies which resulted in the formula (1.15), — ~ Sp Wok) = By combining (1.6) and (1.15) Planck obtained his radiation lavv (1.16) We have aleo emphasized that these conclusions were adduced by Planck in order to provide a logical justification of his far-reaching interpolation mentioned above, Planck’s reasoning was inconsistent, however, a8 Finatein, in 1906, ‘was the first to recognize." For although either part of Planck's derivation of (1.16) was in iteolf consistent, their combination was logically. incom patible, ‘The reason wus this: in' the electrodynamical part (1) formula (1.0) is based on Maxwells theory (see Appendix A) and the assumption that the oscillator energy is a continuously variable quantity, whereas in the statistical part (2) this same enorgy is treated as a discrete quantity, capable of assuming only values which are multiples of hy, Referring to this inconsistency, Rinstein remarked that “if the energy of a resonator can change only discontinuously, the usual theory of elec tricity cannot be applied for the ealeulation of the average onergy of such a resonator in-a radiation field. Planck's theory hus, therefore, to assume that, although Maxwell's theory of elementary resonators is not applicable, the average energy of such a resonator, surrounded by radiation, is equal to that which would result from the ealoulation on the basis of Maxwells theory of electricity.” “Such an assumption,” continued Binstein, “would be plausible (ats) A. Kington, “Zar ‘Theorie der Lichterseugung und Lichtabsorption,” .tnnaley ter Phish 39, {00-208 (1900). 1014/7020 provided ¢ = ky ware sm: to the average energy ‘Three and a half y Association of Seientists, spoke on the developmer radiation. Repeating on and resuming the questic with each other, Binstei dition, namely, that the with U, is certainly not sa “that «/U fory = 05 wt to unity, but very large. For Binstein this i ‘quantum theory as such, light quanta, as we shall ineonsistoney an indieatic theory, based on Maxwel The logical ineomps Of his radiation law was + But contrary to Einstein, ing the Maxwellian inte tempted to resolve the of ponderable resonators Rayleigh computation of of unit volume and frequ Debye assumed that the content hy each, so that Dofining “black radiatic as tho state with the gre quanta among the NV de inatorial formula that ir which in combination w of radiation, Debye thu i. p, 208 AEs, “Uber de, ‘de Konetitution der StrahanPrize. Whether this statement ‘ently proposed revival of the arly development of the con- ’s derivation of the radiation seessary to stress the following tion consisted of two separate between the radiative energy (1.6) s exclusively the prineiples of spendix A); (2) a statistical ators of different proper fre- Dy a (1.15) lined his radiation law (1.16) sions were adduced by Planck his far-reaching interpolation owever, as Einstein, in 1906, her part of Planck's derivation abination was logically incom vodynamical part (1) formula pendix A) and the assumption variable quantity, whereas in treated as a diserete quantity, anultiples of hr. 1 remarked that “if the energy usly, the usual theory of eleo- of the average energy of such cory has, therefore, to assume ry resonators is not applicable, rounded by radiation, is equal sion on the basis of Maxwell's Sinstei “would be plausible ng und Lichtahrorption,” Annaten 1510 643 8497 Physics Dept UC Berkeley (015/020 1.2 The Concept of Quanta of Energy 27 provided ¢ = fy were small throughout the observable spectrum compared to the average energy U of the resonator; but this is not the case.’ ‘Three and a half years later, at the Sist mooting of the German Association of Scientists, held at Salzburg in September, 1909, Kinstein'™ spoke on the development of our ideas on the nature and constitution of radiation, Repeating on this occasion his challenge to Planck's reasoning and resuming the question of whether the two parts cannot be reconciled with each other, Einstein pointed out that the previously mentioned com. ition, namely, ‘that the energy quantum « = hy be small in comparison with U, is certainly not satisfied. “A simple calculation shows," he declared, “that ¢/U for » = 0.5 wand T = 1700°K is not only not small compared to unity, but very large. Tt is approximately 6.5 X 10%.” For Einstein this inconsistency was no reason to reject Planck's quantum theory as such, Having meanwhile proposed his ideas concerning. light quanta, a8 we shall see in the next paragraph, Binstein saw in this inconsistency an indieation that the foundations of the traditional radiation theory, based on Maxwell's electromagnetic theory, had to be revised ‘The logical incompatibility of the two parts in Planck's derivation ‘of his radiation law was a matter of great concern also for Peter Debye. But contrary to Hinstein, who hoped to overcome the difficulty by modify ing the Maxwellian interaction between resonator and field, Debye at- tempted to resolve the inconsistency by eliminating altogether the role of ponderable resonators in Planck's derivation. Referring to the Jeans Rayleigh computation of the number NV dy of vibrations in an enclosure of unit volume and frequency interval ds, Nay = ay Debye assumed that the N’ dr vibrations consist of f(+) quanta of energy content he each, so that Sah teed = SS fo) a Defining “black radiation” as the most “probable radiation,” that is, as the state with the greatest possible number of distributions of the (+) quanta among the N dy receptors, Debye proved by using Planck's com- inatorial formula that in this ease f(+) = Cexp (ho/kT) — 1}°, a result which in combination with the preceding formula implied Planck's low of radiation. Debye thus showed that Planck's law and its implications "2 Pid p, 203. liaghe Zeitecrift 10, 817-825, (1909). eA" Einstein, "Ober die Entwicklung “WP. "Debye, "Der Waltrachetilich mere: Anicauinges ber as Venue usabigef i der Theorie der Stabling, thie Konstitution der Strabting,” Papesta= Annaien der Phyusk 98, 1420-1484 (1010).1510 643 8497 Physics Dept UC Berkeley 28 ‘The Formation of Quantum Conceptions follow from the assumption alone that the energy as such is quantized in units of lv and no knowledge concerning the properties of resonators ‘or their mechanism is needed for this purpose. Debye’s assumption may be referred to as the “weak quantum postulate,” in contrast to Planck's “quantum postulate,” according to which also the energy content of an ‘oscillator is always a multiple of ho. 13 The Concept of Quanta of Radiation In the doveoent of quam tary dasaaed sa, the one of thong cements sant fad bow roared as apleable ony #0 he Sneha resting the ineraston Between mater aration: was the material oscillator of frequency » which could emit or absorb energy only in multiples of Av. Monee, homve an nmporant coneptnl devloment tok place which ed tam ttn genre coaepin of dant Ws in 1903, won the oer vay f the etomagastc theory OF light was weil calle! into question by sis arte “On 8 Meurie"vowpotn Sonceming the production and tassomaton of Teh 1 tn importnes fore fvtandoveloment ok eran! ys Us say may be compara wih Eiseits Cane pape on spe le nye fe appeted—tgeter ab with his fanaa mayo Browsan motion ie sume volume of thr Amal tr Pig. Al Eiough commonly stared to As ines paper oe, photoes tte it donot apo of ch wier Sita asd onaied ‘rz whch alleged daa physics pra ote sane extent {Sid Panelists paper of 20 insencmetieret movochrmate rion of fratency » and ‘of email density within the range of »/T where Wiens radiation law CL.) vail If vi ho hum ofthe elm andu() the spectra Sinton fondo, the entopy ot be expend hy the equation 5° isgtep) dm whore gn funeton of wanda» Tne of the explicit dependence of y on v and », Einstein had two equations to Me ws fpde Oy expen he fact tht he enzopy forthe ea wl pai sein tie Sm, tai de seomp nigra s'pomegrat CWA FE GD aa Per BES glace iO attest Ponca ata noe Rail crak Wena Breanne ele str rs 2 Recta ie atieceeins aA Act Gantt elt SESS tease eipee ae G's) Maa aut sere "Pepin nomen ‘werden tnd veventuell ie American Journal of Phyeies 3s, 381-37 ergie. vor" anderer"Sehwingungszahl (1065). 18016/020 Tibrium state of the eavi expressing the conservatio: plier, he obtained, for ev tion, J ‘whore \ and consequently Binstein ealoulated the inc cr, in view of the indepen: i the heat added revorsibl ‘of the last two equations particular form of u(»). § differential equation and after integration ole ‘The entropy of the radi the energy , = vu, dv wi s If the radiation, original! ‘the Inst equation shows tt or equivalently s ‘where V is Avogadro's nu from the kinetic theory < the probability of finding partial volume v of the