averse impact of unemployment on various other outcomes in ‘particular, on rental health (Kessler, Turner and House 1988). There isa great deal of evidence that job less and unemploy~ rent produce signiieant deterioration in mental health (Fryer and Payne 1986. ‘The most common outcomes of job los and unemployment are increases in anxiety, somatic aod “depression syraptomaiiogy (Dooley, Catalano and Witoo 1994; Hamihon al. 1990; Kessler, House and Turner 1987; Warr, Jackson and Banks 1968), Furthermore, there is some evidence that unemployment increases by over twafald the risk of onset of cinical depresion (Dooley, Catalano and Wilbon 1994). In ition wo the welldocumented adverse eects of unemployment fon mental heath, thre research that implicates unemployment sa contributing facor to other outcomes oce Catalano 1991 for ' review). These outcomes inchide suicide (Breaner. 1976), and divorce (Stack 198}; Liem and Liem 1988), child nngleet and abuse (Steinberg, Catalano and Dooley 198), alcohol tbuse (Dooley, Catalano and Hough 1992; Catalano ct al 19984), violence in the workplace (Catalano et al. 1998), criminal behaviour (Allan and Stffensmeier 1989), and highway fatalities (Leigh and Waldon 1991). Finally, there is also some evidence, based primarily on selGreport, that unemployment fonmbutes to. physical Wines: (Kesler, House and Turner 1887, The adverse effect of unemployment on displaced workers are ‘not limited o the period during which they have no jobs. In most jnsances, whea workers become their new jobs are ignifcarily worse than the jobs they lst. Even after four years in their new postions, thei earnings are submantally lower than those of similar workers who were not id off (Rum 1991). ‘Because the fundamental causes of job loss and unemployment are rooted in societal and economic processes, remedies for their adverse socal effects must be sought in comprehensive economic and social pobices (Blinder 1987), At the same time, various communit\-hased programmes can be undertaken to redice the negative social and prychological impact of uneraployment at the local level. "There is overcheiming evidence that re-employment reduces distress and depression syptoms and restores psychoso- al funetioning wo pre-tnemployinent levels (Kesler, Turner and House 1989; Vinokur, Caplan andl Williams, 1987), Therefore, programmes for displaced workers or others who wish to become cmployed should be ated primary at promoting and facilitating ther re-employment of new ent into the labour force. A variety of such programmes have been tried succesfully. Among these are special community-based intervention programmes for create ing new venture that in turn generate job opportaitis (eg, Last eal. 1995), and others that focus on retraining (eg. Wolf eal. 1995). (Of the various programmes that attempt to promote rem ployment, the most common are job search programmes organ ized as job clubs that attempt co intensify job search efforts (Azrin so Bema 1060, oy eras at we ee aly chaning job search skills and facinating tansition into rerelated manifestions. On the other hand, oflering broader opportunites wo employees 10 participate in decision making at work can result in improved performance, lower sa turdover and improved levels of mental And physical well-being. A participatory syle of management Shoull also extend to workce volvement in the improvement of safety in the workplace; this could help to overcome apathy ‘among blue-collar worker, which is acknowledged as significant = MANAGERIAL STYLE factor in the cause of accidents (Robens 1972; Sutherland and Cooper 1986). Early work in the relationship berween managerial syle and stress was carried out by Lewin (or example, in Lewin, Lippi ‘and White 1939, in which he docamented the streasful and un- productive effets of authoritarian management styles. More re- cently, Karnsck's (1979) work highlights the importance of managers’ providing workers with grvater control at wok oF a rmvore participative management tye. In a six-year prospective study he demonstrated that job control fi. the freedom to use one’s intellectual discretion) and work schedule freedom were significant predictors of risk of coronary hean discase. Restriction cof opportunity for participation and autonomy results i increased epresion, exhaustion, illness rates and pill consumption. Fee ings of being unable to make changes eanceming a job and lack of consufation are commonly reported stesiors among blue-col- Jar workers inthe ste indstry (Kelly and Cooper 1961), ol and 25 workers on rigs and platforms in Uhe North Sea Sutherland and Cooper 1986) and many other blue-collar workers (Cooper and Smith 1985). On the other hand, as Gowler and Legge (1975) indicate, a participatory management syle can create its own potentially stresfil situations, for example, a mismaich of formal tind actual power, resentment of the erosion of formal power, ‘conflicting pressures both to be participative and to meet high production standards, and subordinates’ refusal to participate. ‘Although there has been a subwantial research focus oa the differences between authoritarian versus participatory manage meat styles on employee performance and health there have also been other, Miorymeratic approaches 1o managerial syle lee nings, Cox and Cooper 1994). For example, Levinson (1978) has focwed on the impact ofthe “abrasive” manager. Abrasive maz agers are usually achievement-ariened, hard-criving and incell- ‘gent (similar to the type A personality, but function fess well at the emotional level. Ar Quick and Qyick (1984) point out, he need for perfection, the preoccupation with self and the conde scending, eitical sje ofthe abrasive manager induce feelings of inadequacy among their subordinates. As Levinson suggests, the stem peor a per bath ciel and rent del With, but as a superior, the comequences are potentially very ‘damaging to interpenional relationships and highly seul for subordinates in the organizason. In addition, there are theories and research which sogaest tha the effec on employce health and safety of managerial style and can only be understood inthe caext ofthe ature of the task and the power of the manager or leader. For example, Fiedler’s (1967) contingency theory suggest that there are eight main group situations based upon combinations of dichotomies: (the warn ofthe cations berwen the lade so flower (the level structure imposed by the task; ane (the power of the leader. The eight combinations could be aranged in & continuum with, atone end (octan one leader who has good relations with member, facing a highly strctured task and possessing strong power, and, atthe other end (octant eight) leader who has poor Felations with members facing a loosely sructored task and hav ing low power. In terms of sires, ic could be argued that the ‘tants formed a continuum fram ow stress to high sures. Fide alto examined two types of leader: the Keader who would value most of the characteristics of the member be liked least (the lower LPC leader) ane the kader who would see many Positive qualies even in the members whorn he dled (the high TC ade) Feder made spect predictions aboat the tance of the leader. He suggested thatthe low LPC leader (wbo had dilficulty in sceing tents in subordinates be disliked) would bbe mont effective in octants one and eight, where there would be very low and very high levels of stress, respectively. On the other hhand, a bigh LPC leader (who is able to ace merits even in thore ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY.he disliked) would be more effective in the middle octants, where moderate stress levels could be expected. In general, subsequent research (for example, Strube and Garcia 1981) has supported Fiedler’s ideas ‘Additional leadership theorics suggest that taukoriented man= agers or leaders create stress. Seltzer, Numerof and Bass (1989) found that intellectually stimulating leaders increased perceived stress and “burnout” among their subordinates. Misumi (1985) found that production-oriented leaders generated physiological symptoms of stress. Bass (1992) finds that in laboratory experi- ments, production-oriented leadership causes higher levels of anxiety and hostility. On the other hand, transformational and ‘charismatic leadership theories (Burns 1978) foeus upon the effect. ‘which those leaders have upon their subordinates who are gener- ally more selrassured and perceive more meaning in their work. Ichas been found that these types of leader or manager reduce the stress levels oftheir subordinates ‘On balance, therefore, managers who tend to demonstrate considerate” behaviour, to have a participative management style, to be less prostuction- oF task-oriented and to prenide subor- dinates with control aver their jobs are likely to reduce the inci- dence of ll health and accidents at work, ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE, Lois E.Tetrch “Most of the articles in this chapter deal with aspects of the work ‘environment that are proximal to the individual employee. The focus of this article, however, is to examine the impact of more distal, macrolevel characteristics of organizations as a whole that may affect employees’ health and well-being, That is, ae there ways in which organizations structure ther internal environments that promote health among the employees of that organization of, ‘comersely, place employees at greater risk of experiencing stres? Most theoretical models of oecupational or job stress incorporate ‘organizational structural variables such as organizational size, lack ‘of participation in decision making, and formalization (Beet and Newman 1978; Kahn and Byosicre 1992). Organizational structure refers to the formal distribution of work roles and functions within an organization coordinating the various functions or subsystems within the organization to ef ciently attain the organization's goals (Porras and Roberson 1992). As such, structure represents a coordinated set of subsyse tems to facilitate the accomplishment of the organization's goals and mision and defines the division of labour, the authority relationships, formal lines of communication, the roles of each ‘organizational subsystem and the interrelaionships among these subsystems. Therefore, organizational structure can be viewed as 4 system of formal mechanisms to enhance the understandabilty fof events, predictability of events and control over events within the organization which Sutton and Kahn (1987) proposed as the three work-relevant antidotes against the stress-strain effect in organizational ie ‘One of the earliest organizational characteristics examined as a potential risk factor was organizational size. Contrary to the literature on risk of exposure to hazardous agents in the work environment, which suggests that larger onganizations or plants are safer, being less hazardous and better equipped to handle potential hazards (Emmett 1991), larger organizations originally were hypothesized to put employees at greater rik of oceu- ational stress It was proposed that larger organizations tend 10 adapt a bureaucratic organizational structure to coordinate the ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY increased complexity. ‘This bureaucratic structure would be characterized by a division of labour based on functional special zation, a welldefined hierarchy of authority, a system of rules covering the rights and duties of job incumbents, impersonal treatment of workers and a system of procedures for dealing with ‘work situations (Bennis 1969). On the surface, it would appear that many of these dimensions of bureaucracy would actually improve or maintain the predictability and understandabilry of ‘events in the work environment and thus serve to reduce stress ‘within the work environment. However, it also appears that these dimensions can reduce employees’ contral over events in the work ‘environment through a rigid hierarchy of authority Given these characteristics of bureaucratic structure, itis not surprising that organizational size, per x has received no consis- tent support as a macro-organization risk factor (Kahn and Byosiere 1992), Payne and Pugh's (1976) review, however, pro- vides some evidence that organizational size indirectly increases the risk of stres. They report that larger organizations suffered a reduction in the amount of communication, an increase in the amount of job and task specifications and a decrease in coordina tion, These effects could lead to less understanding and predict- abilcy of events in the work cavironment as well a a decrease i control over work events, thus increasing experienced stress (Tetrck and LaRocco 1987) ‘These findings on organizational sie have led to the supposi- tiom that the two aspects of organizational structure that seem to pose the most risk for employees are formalization and centralza- tion, Formalization refers to the written procedures and rules governing employees’ activities, and centralization refers to the ‘extent to which the decision-making power in the organization is narrowly distributed to higher levels in the organization. Pines (1982) pointed out that it is not formalization within a bureaucracy that resus in experienced stesso burnout but the Unnecessary red tape, paperwork and communication problems that can result from formalization. Rules and regulations can be ‘vague creating ambiguity or contradiction resulting in conflict oF lack of understanding concerning appropriate actions to be taken in specific uations. If the rules and regulations are too detailed, ‘employees may fel frustrated in thee ability to achieve their goals expecially in customer of clientoriented organizations Inadequate communication can result in employees feeling isolated and alienated based on the lack of predictability and “understanding of events in the work environsnent. While these aspects of the work environment appear to be accepted as potential risk factors, the empirical Literature on formalization and centralization are far from consistent. The lack ‘of consistent evidence may ster from at last two sources. Fis, in ‘many of the stadies, there isan assumption of a single organiza- tional structure having a consistent level of formalization and centralization throughout the entire organization. Hall (1969) concluded that organizations can be meaningfully studied as totalities; however, he demonstrated that the degree of formaliza- tion as well ax decision-making authority can diller within organ laational units. Therefore, fone is looking at an individual level phenomenon such as occupational stress, i may be more mean- {ngful to look at the structure of smaller organizational units than that of the whole organization, Secondly, there is some evidence suggesting that there are individual differences in response to ‘insetural variables, For example, Marino and White (1985) found that formalization was positively related to job stress among individuals with an internal locus of control and negatively related to stress among individuals who generally believe that they have lite control over their environments. Lack of participation, on the other hand, was not moderated by locus of control and resulted in increased levels of job stress. There also appear to be some cultural differences affecting individual responses to struc- ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE alltural variables, which would be important for multinational organizations having to operate across national boundaries (Peter- ton et al. 1998), These cular diferences also may explain the diicaty x adopsing organizational mructres and procedure from other ations. Dapite dhe rather init emptial evidence implicating sruc- tural variables as prychosocal ak fictor, it has been Tecomm- mended that organizations should change thei structures 10 be Aher wit fewer levels of hierarchy or aumnber of communication shanels, more deceatralized with more deetion- making author igy a lower levels in the organization and more integrated swith less jb specialization (Newman and Beehr 1979), Thexe rocom- ‘mendations are consistent with organizational theorists who have sigrested that radional burcaucrace structure may not be the ‘most efficient of healthis form of organiatonal structure (Bea ‘in 1969), This may be especially tru in ight of technological advances in production and consmuicaton that characerze the Postindusral workplace (Hirchbors 1991) "The past two decades have scen considerable interest in the redesign of organizations wo deal with external environmental treats resulting ffom increased globalization and international competion in North America and Western Europe (Whitaker 194}. Stn, Sandelands and! Dutton (1988) proposed that or sanizaions react wo environmental threats by restricting informa: tion and consrcting control. This can be expected ta reduce the preditabily, underwandabiity and contol of work event thereby inereasing the aes experienced by the employees ofthe onganizadon, Therefore, vructural changes that prevent thexe theacridigiy elfece would appear to be beneical to both the ‘organization's and employees’ health and well-being. "The we of a matrix organizational structure is one approach for organization wo structure ther internal erviroumens in response to greater environmental ineabiliy. Baber (1985) dlexribes te Heal pe of matrix organization as one in which there are two oF more intersctng lines of authority, orgie: fia goals are achieved through the we of skorented work soups which are crom-{unctonal and temporary, and fancdonal {epartmentscontinae to exist as mechanism for routine person ‘el Functions and profesional developeens. Therefore, the matrix rgasization provides Ove organization with the needed Hebi to be reponse to cenizormental asabiiy ithe personal have uffcicntfecity gained from the dherication of their sie nd an aby to lear quickly. ‘While empirical research has yt to establish the effects of this onganizanal suuctue, several authors have suggested that the matric organisation tray increase the stem experienced by employees For example, Quick and Quick (1984) point out that the muliple lines of authority (ask and functional supervisor) found in: matix organizations increase Une potential for role confi. Also, Hirschhorn (1991) sugges tha wi postings ‘work organizations, workers Eequenily face new challenge ‘eaqiring them to take a learning cole. This result in employees having to acknowledge thir owe temporary incompetence and tom of contol which can lead to increased sues. Therefore, appears that new organizational structures such as the matrix ‘onganiation aio have potenal ak factors asociated with them. ‘Attempt to change or resign onganization, regardless ofthe particular arecure that an organization choos to adopt, can have sres-inducing properies ty duping securiy and sab 5, eng unceainy bpp pon, re al as, confit which must be conffonted and resived {Golerbscels 1502, Ths oocrinucig proper es co Set, however, by the soesrreducing properties of organizational development which incorporate greater empowerment and deci- sion making acros all eves inthe onganization, enhanced open ews in communication, colaboration and training in team Phe crc camrn0 cna building and conflict resolution (Golembiewski 1982; Porras and Robertson 1993}. Conclusion While the lteranure suggests chat there are occupational risk fac- {ors astociated with various Organizational structures the impact of these macrolevel aspects of organizations appear to be indi- reel, Organizational sructure can provide a framework t en hance the predicabiling understandability and contol of events in the work environment; however, the effect of structure on employees’ health and well-being is mediated by more praxireal workenvironment characteristics such as role characteristics and interpersonal relations. Structuring organizations for beak ex- ployees ax well ax healthy organizations requires organizational flexibility, worker flexibility and attention 10 the sociotechnical systems that coordinate the technological demands and the social structure within the organization, ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE AND CULTURE Denise M. Rousseau ‘The erganizational contest in which people work ix characteriard by summers fares (eg, adi, tructar, rowan, communica Son) aubmimed under the general concepts of organizational climate and etre Clana refers to perecptiogs of crganizational pretioe reponed by people who wotk Ure Rouscan 1900, Suu of dlimate ince many of Ue tos cena cover in ongaizaional roach. Common fears of cise include comsmuicain (as descrbable say by epenves, confi (conarucve or dyauncional, leadership (ay iwabes suppor fous) and reward ephas fc, wnbether an organization is chataccriand by postive vers gate Feeback, of reward of punishment orentason). When stucicd together we observe that Orzacnal atures are highly inter rele ea, eadership and ear, Climate characterizes practices ‘several oes in organizations (eg, work unit rate ae organize Sonal ciate Seats of imate vary inthe acts they fcrs ‘pon, for example, climate fo salty or climates for service. Climate ‘cacy a dessption of the wore sein by thou dire ‘ele wit it ‘The relationship of climate to employce well-being (esate faction, jb sress and svain) has been widely susie. Since ci mate mcaruresrubmare the major organizational character workers experience, virtually any stay of employee perceptions oftheir work sting cam be thought of asa climate sy. Studies link climate features (particularly leadership, communication openness, paripative management und conflict resolion) with ployee ‘aitacion and (avery) ares levels (Schneider 1085). Sues organizational climatcs are characterized by lim ited partipaton in decisions, uke of punishment am negative feedback (raher shan rewards and posite fecdhac\, conic avoidance or confronation (father than problem solving, and ‘onsapportive group and leader relations. Socially supportive cli ‘mates benef employee rectal health, with lower rates of saxty and depres in sxpportive stings (Repest 1987). Whe elec: tive climates exist (where tembors who weract with each other share common pereepions ofthe argaization) research observes that shared perceptions of undesrabie organizational features are linked with lowe rorale ad instances of prychogenic Ue (Call gan, Pennebaker and Murphy 1982). When climate rexarch {tops a specific focus, as in the sudy of climate for safety in an ‘organization, evidence is provided that lack of opennes in ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY‘communication regarding safey issues, few rewarts for reporting ‘occupational hazards, and other negative climate features in crease the incidence of work-related accidents and injury (Zohar 190), ‘Since climates exist at many levels in organizations ane car ‘encompas: a variety of practices, asessment of employee risk factors needs to systematically span the relationships (whether in the work unit, the department oF the eatire organization) atid actviies eg, safety, communication or rewards i which em ployees are involved. Climate-based risk factors can differ froma fone part ofthe organization to another. ‘Culture constitutes the values, norms andl ways of behaving Whiel organization members share. Researchers ideneify five hae sic elements of culture in organizations: fundamental assumptions lunconstious beliefs that shape member's interpretations, «8 views regarding time, eavizonmental hostility or sabiliy), talues preferences for certain outcomes over others, e., service or profit), behavioural nonmas (beliefs regarding appropriate and appropriate behaviours, ¢., dress codes and teamwork}, patterns of behaviours (observable recurrent practices, ¢g. structured per- formance feedback and upward referral of decisions) and artelacts symbole and objects used to express cultral messages, e.g, mis sion statements and logos). Cultural elements which are more ‘uibjetive (Le, assumptions, values and norms) reflect the way members think about and interpret their work seting. These subjective features shape the meaning that patterns af behaviours and artefacts take on within the organization, Culbure, like c= mate, ean exist at many levels, including: 1 dominant organizational culture 2. subcultures associated with specific nite, snd 3. courterculmres, found in svork unite that are poorly inte- grated with the larger organization, Cultures can be strong (widely shared by weanber), weak (ot widely shared), or in transition ‘characterized by gradual replace tent of ome culture by another In contrast with climate, culture i les frequendy sie a8 2 contributing factor to erployee well-being ot occupational Pik ‘The absener of such rewarch is due both to the tl cmergrnce of culture ava concept i organizational iological debates regarding the nature of culture, ts measur rent quantitative vers qualitative), ad the appropriateness of the concept for cross-sectional study (Rowswan 18K), According to quantitative culare research focising om behavioural ore and valves, ranoriented worass ae associated with higher ae ber satisfaction and lower strain thas are consol oe bureaucra- cally oriented norms (Rousseau 1889). Furthermore, the ext to which the workers values are consintent with those of the ‘organization alee stew aod satiation (O'Redy aid Chatras, 1961), Weak cultures and cultures fragmented by roe coe and rember disagreement are found to provoke stress reactions ad ‘ses in professional identities Meyerson 190), The Fagen thon or breallown of organizational cultures de to ecnnoanic oe poliial uphemals affects the wellbeing of merabers prychologk fall and physically, particu ia the wake of downsizing, plant clorings and ober effets of eoncurtent organizational resrctr ings (inch 1987). The appropriateness of particular cultural forms (e,hierarchie or militaristic) for modern society bas bee challenged by several culture statis fet, Hinehhom (S64; Rousseau 1989) concerned withthe sues and health-related out ‘eames of operaors nuclear power tchnicians and air wali controll) and subsequent rss for the general pu “Awesing rs he light of nlormation about organiza Sina caluterequtes firs attention wo the extent to whi orga zation members share oF difler i basic belies, values and norms Differences in function, location and education create wbcaltires ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY ‘within organizations and meat dhat culture-based risk factory ean ‘vary within the same organization. Since cultures tend to be stable and resistant to change, organizational history ean aid assesment (of risk fctors both in terms of stable and ongoing cultural features aswell as recent changes that ean create stress associated with turbulence (Hirsch 1967) ture overlap «@ a certain extent, with percep ure's patterns of behaviour being a large part of what imate research addresses. However, organization members may describe organizational features climate) in the saame way but interpret them differently due to cultural andl subeultural il ‘ences (Rosen, Greenlagh and Anderson 1981), For example, structured leadership and limited participation in decision making may be viewed as negative and controling from one perspective ‘or as positive and legitimate from another. Social influence re Aecting che organization's culture shapes the interpretation mer- bers make of organizational features and activities. Thus, it would sccm appropriate 1o assess both climate and culture simultane ‘ously in investigating the impact ofthe organization om the well- being of members PERFORMANCE MEASURES AND COMPENSATION Richard 1, Shell ‘There are many forms of compensation used i business and government organizations Unroughout the world to pay workers for their physical and mental consribution. Compensation pro- vides money for human effort and is necessary for individual and family existence in most societies. Trading work for money is a longrestablshed practice. linked with compensation plans sustained human effort. Job stress can certainly exist in any work. serting where compensation is not based o incentives, However, physical and mental performance levels that are well above nor ‘mal and that could ead to physical injury or injurious mental sires is more likely to be found in environments sith cert Inds incentive compensation Performance Measures and Stress Performance measurements it ove form or another are wed by roost organizations, and are essential for incentive programenes. Performance measures (standards) can be established for output, quality, throughput time, or any ether productivity measure. Loed ‘Kevin in IRS had this to say about measurements: “T often say that when you can measure what you are speaking about, and cegpres itn numbers, you know something abet i bua when you cannot measure it, when ot expres it in mumbers, your knowledge is a meagre and snsatiafactory kind; it_may be the beginning of Knowledge, but you have scarcely, in your thoughts advanced tothe stage of science, whatever the master may be.” Perfarmance measures should be earelly linked to the fanela- mental goals of the organization. Inappropriate perform measurements have often had liule or n0 effect on goal atain- ‘ment, Some common criticisms of performance measures include unclear porpose, vagueness, lack of connection (or even oppasi- tion, for that mater to the busines strategy, unfirsess or ineoe sistency, and their liability to be used chiely for “punishing” people. But measurements can serve as indispensable bench- ‘marks: remember the saying, “If you don't know where you are, you can't get to where you want to be. ‘The hott line i dhat ‘sorkers at all levels in an organization demonstrate more of the PERFORMANCE AND COMPENSATION axlbehaviours that they are measured on and rewarded tn evince. ‘What gets measured and rewarded gets done. Performance measures must be fair and consistent to minimize stress among the workforce. There are several methods utilised to tablish performance measures ranging from judgement estima- tion guessing) to engineered work measurement techniques Under the work measurement approach to seting performance measures, 100% performance i defined as a “fair day's work pace". This is the work elfor’ and ski at which an average \wellwvained employee can work without undue fatigue while pro- ducing an acceptable quality of work over the course of a work shift. A. 100% performance is not maximum performance; isthe oral or average effort and ail for a group of workers. By way of comparison, the 70% benchmark is geacraly regarded a8 the ‘minimuny tolerable level of performance, while the 120% bench mark is the incentive effort and skil that the average worker should be able to attain when provided with a bonus of atleast 200% above the base rate of pay. While a ntmber of incentive plans have been established using the 120% benchenare, thi ‘alie varies among plans. The general design erteria recom: mended for wage incentive plans provide workers the opportunity to cam approximately 20 t 35% above base rate if they are sora lille and execute high effort continuously Despite the inherent appeal of a “fic day’s work fora fair day's pay", some posible strest problems exin with a work measure- ment approsich to seting performance measures. Performance ‘measures aze fied in refeveuce to the normal or average perform ance of a given work group (i, work standards based on group 238 opposed to individual performance). Thus, by definiion, a large segment of thore working at a task will fll below average (he. the 100% performance benchmark) generating a de- rmand-resource imbalance that exceeds physical or mental stress limita. Workers who have diffeuly meeting performance meas- lures are likely to experience ses through work overload, ncaa tive supervisor feedback, and threa ofjob low if they consiendy perform below the 100% performance benchmark Incentive Programmes Inne fom or another, incentives have been used for many years. Tor example, i dhe New Testament (U1 Timothy 26) Saint Pal declares, “It's the hard-working farmer who ough to have the fim share of the crop. Today, most organizations are srving (0 improve prouctiviy and quality in order to maintain or improve their postion inthe busines word. Most often workers wil nt five exra oF misained flor without some form of incentive Froperly designed and implemented financial incentive pro- srammes can help. Before any incentive programme is iaple- Tented, some measure of performance mst be esablshed. Al incestive programmes can be categorized as follows: direct finan a, inet finan, ed intangble franca Diseet financial programmes may be applied to individuals or groups of workers. For individuals, cach employee's incentive is fzoveraed by his or her performance relative to & standard fo fven time period Group plans are applicable to ovo oF more Sndividuals working as team on taka that are usally iterde= ppendem. Each employee's group incentive i ually based ox his fr ber base rate ad the group performance daring the incentive period. The motivation to muta higher ouput level sully greater for indivihal incentives because of the opportrity forthe bi performing worker to cart a greater incentive. However, oF fznizaions mewe toward participative management and Empowered workgroups and teams, group incentives unually pro- Vide the best overall results. The group effort rales overall vemenis 10 the toral system as compared 10 optimizing vidual oupats. Gairsharing (a group incenive system that has | teams for continuods improvement and provides a share, usually 50%, ofall productivity gains above a benchmark standard) is one form of a direct group incentive programme that is wel suited for ‘the cantinuous improvement organization. Indirect financial prograrimes are usually less effective than direct financial programmes because direct Financial incentives are stronger motivators. The principal advantage of indirect plans is that they require les detailed and accurate performance meas ‘ures. Organizational policies that favourably allect moral, result in increased productivity and provide some financial benefit to ‘employees are considered to be indirect incentive programmes. 1 is important to note that for indirect financial programmes no exact relationship exits between employer output and Gnatcil incentives. Examples of indirect incentive peogrammes include relatively high base rates, generous fringe benef, awards pro- grammes, year-end bonuses and profi-aharing. Intangible incentive programmes include rewards Uhat do tot hhave any (or very litle) financial impact on employees. ‘These programmes, however, when viewed as desirable by the employ- es, can improve productivity. Examples of intangible incenti programmes include job enrichment (adding challenge and intrin- sic satisfaction to the specific ask assigranent), job enlargement (adding tasks to complete a “whole” picee of uni of work output), rnonfinancial suggestion plans, employee invalvement groupe and time of without any reduetion in pay: Summary and Conclusions Incentives in some form ae an integral part of many’ compensa: sion plans fa gener incentive plars should be carly eval ated tov make sore that workers afe ot exceeding sale ergonomic or mental stresliit. This is particularly important for individ tal direc financial plana. I is tsually a Tesier problem in group dct, inet or tangle plans Tnceniives ae desirable because they exhanoe productivity and provide workers an opporuity to eam extra income or other Denes. Gainsharing i today one of the best forms of incentive on for any work group oF ‘cant organization that ‘wishes wo offer bors earnings an fo achive improvement in ‘workplace without ring the imposition of egauve healt sors by the incentive plan icf STAFFING ISSUES Maritya K. Gowing ih Workforce ‘The tn of worl ary ama in oth he and treatment of employes inthis contingent werkt. Contingent workem inl temporary workers hed hah eer tency temporary worker hicd dicey oun and “no voluntary” part-timers (the non-voluntary would prefer full-time wort) andthe efermployed crac! Compatons are i Chl de to iflrencet tthe Gein of each of thee Caer tof meken ‘Overman (1985) vated that tbe temporary lp indy in Woeor Earope about 30% larger tan i the United Staten where abou "vf the wordrce mace op of taporary worker Temporcy workers ar alma potrestent a Tay Spin. ‘While the subgroups of contingent workers vary considerably, the majority of parttime workers in all European countries are women at low salary levels, In the United States, contingent workers alo tend to be young, female and members of minority ‘groups, Countries vary considerably ithe degree to which they ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY.protect contingent workers with laws and regulations cowering. their working conditions, health and other benefirs, The United Kingdom, the United State, Korea, Hong Kong, Mexico and (Chile are the least regulated, with Prance, Germany, Argentina and Japan having fatty rigid requitements (Overman 1993). A new emphasiv on provicing contingent workers with greater benc- fits through inereased legal and regulatory requirements wil help to alleviate occupational stress among those workers. However, those increased regulatory requirements may resul in employer hiring fewer workers overall dic ta increased benefit cost Job Sharing JR erat contingent wok sing” whic ake tern eps are thei br se te jr moles esr Eline potoe sed ie te popeathy tly by pect or cen poop otro Clots pert come) Spt a eed ia srr tr pps of out ats 1980 Rec 1S Inde it mo sharing he comer we dee by wanes Howpec lke cotnt net age Slee ae en oat tote peton of age an ur a tna neh ela a en manag mepemis hun he Eure Como sro te tw Inn, wines ra towed te pee car Ural at Hoan Hs Te Un tae ees Gov ten inthe 19% nme sao os sang popu tr hs conloris eras enoy er pee Tete tre tom olen oo shar atc et 188 fee 1965 Jr deel sone ealace nek an toa pace Flexiplace and Home Work Many" alternative terms are used to denote flexiplce and home ‘wark:teleconumuting, the alternative worksite the electronic cot- tage, location independent work, the remote workplace and work avhowe. For our purposes, chix category of work eludes “work performed at one or mote “predetermind ocations’ such as the home or a suelite work space away fe the comensiona fice where atleast some of the communications maintained with the employer occur through the wie of tlecomamunic: - iment sich as computers, telephowes and fax machines” (PitsCate soupes and Marcha 1981) LINK Resurees, Ine. a privatesector firm monitoring world wide telecommuting activity, has estimated that there were 7.5 smilion telecornmuters in 1993 in the United States out of the cover 41.1 milion work-home households. OF these telecom> ters 81% worked parttime for employers with less than 100 cmployees i a wide array of indhatres acs many geographical locations. Filty-three*% were male, in contrast figures showing a majority of females im convingent and job-sharing work. Research With iffy US companies aso showed thatthe majority of telecom muters were male with succesful flexible work aerangernents lading supervisory positions both line and sta), chent-centted work and jobs that included travel (Matti 1990), In 1992, 1.5, rllion Canadian households had atleast one person who oper- ated busines from home. Lewis, Feral and Hootsman(1992) reported that, despite car lier predictions, telecoeurmti ope. They added that itis best established in the United) Kingtlam and ‘Germany for profemional jobs including computer specialist, a= courtants and insurance agents. In coarras, some hone-based work in both the United States and Europe pays by the piece and involves short deadlines. Typ cally, while telecommuterstend to be male, homeworkers in low ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY ‘work jobs with no benefits tend to be female (Hall Recent research has concentrated on idensijing; a) the eype of person best suited for home work; (b) the type of work best accomplished at home; (¢) procedures to ensure successful home Work experiences and (dl) reasons for organizational support (Hall 1190); Christensen 1992), ‘Welfare Facilities ‘The general approach to social welfare issues aud programmes varies throughout the world depending upon the culture and values of the nation studied. Some of the differences in welfare faciliies in the United States, Canada and Western Europe are documented by Ferber, Oarrelland Allen (1991) Recent proposals for welfare reform in the United States sug- order to make recipients work for their benefits. Cos estimates for welfare re- form range from US$15 billion to $20 billion over the next five ‘year, with considerable cost savings projected for the long term, ‘Welfare administration costs in the United States for such prox grammes as food stamps, Medicaid and Aid to Families with Dependent Children have risen 19% from 1987 0 199), the same percentage athe increase in the numberof beneficiaries ‘Canada has instituted a “work sharing” programme as an alter- native to layoffs and welfare. The Canada Employment and Im- ‘migration Commission (CEIC) progranname enables employers to face cutbacks by shortening the work week by one to three days and paying reduced wages accordingly. For the days not worked, the CEI arranges for the workers to drave normal tnemploy- rent insurance benefits, an arrangement that helps to compen- sate them for the lower wages received from their employer and to relieve the hardships of being laid off: The duration of the ‘programme is 26 weeks, with a I2-week extension, Workers ca lwse work-sharing days for taining and the federal Canadian gow~ ferment may reimburse the employer for a mayor portion of the rect training costs through te "Canadian Jobs Serategy”. Child Care The degree of child-care support is dependent upon the sociologi- cal underpinnings of the nation's culture (Schaach, Lowe and Schneider 1991). Cultures thar |. support the fll participation of women in the workplace 2. view child care as a public responsibilty rather than con ‘cer of individual faniies 8. value child care as an extension of the educational systens, and 4. view early childhood experiences as important and formative will devote greater resources 0 supporting those programmes Thu, international comparisons are complicated by these fxr factors and “hig quality eae” may be dependent on the needs children and families in spec cures. ‘Within the European Community, France prenides the most ormprehensve childveare programane. The Nethedands and the United Kingdom were late im addressing thi ise. Onl 32 of| Beis employers provided some form of chikd care in 1909. Lama et al. (1992) present nonparcetal chikeheare case studies from Sweden, the Netherlands, Ray, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Isae, Japan, the People's Republic of China, Cameroon, Eat Aiea and Brazil Inthe United Stats, approximately 3,500 private companies of the 17 million fam nationside offer some type of chikcare asitanee to thee em Ployees Of those firms, approximately 1,100 offer exe spend Ing accounts, 1,000 offer taformation aud referral services ad fewer shan 350 have onsite or nearsie child-care centres (Barra of National Alfie 1991) STAFFING ISSUES allIna research study in the United Stats, 44% of men and 76% of wornen with children under six missed workin the previous thee months for a faeilyrelated reason. The researchers ex ‘mated thatthe organizations they wuied paid over $4 milion in salary and benefits to employees who were abseat beeause of child-care problems (vee study by Galinsky and Hughes in Fer ssandez 1980), A suady by the United States General Accounting (Office in 1981 showed that American companies lose over $700 millon a year because of inadequate parental leave policies. Elder Care Teil take only 90 year (fom the time of this writing, 1994) for the proportion of eldey in Japan to climb fom 7% 0 14%, while in France it took ever 118 years and in Sweden 90 years Before the end of the century, ote out af every four perwns in smany member Sates of the Coramisson ofthe European Com- tunics willbe over 60 year old. Yet, unit reoendy in Japan, there were few iasituions forthe eel and the isue of elder care has found sant atenton in Britain and other European countries (Lewis, eral and Hootmans 1992). kn America, there axe approsinatly five millon older Americans who require asi tance with day-to-day tasks in order to remain i the comnaaniy, and 30 milion who are curently age 68 or older. Family mem- bers provide more than 80% of the assitance that these elderly people need (Schartach, Lowe and Schneider 1991). Research has shown that those employees who have eldercare responsibilities report significantly greater overall job stress than do other employees (Scharlach, Lowe and Schneider 1991) ‘These caretakers often experience emotional stress and physical and financial strain. Fortunately, global corporations have begun to recognize that difficult family situations can result in absentee- jam, decreased productivity and lower morale, and they are be- ginning to provide an array of “cafeteria benefits” to asst their (The name “cafeteria” i intended vo suggest that employees may select the henefits that would be most helpful to them from an array of benefits) Benefits might include flexible work hours, paid “family lines” hours, referral services for family assistance, or a dependent-care salary-reduction aecount that al- lows employees to pay for elder care or day care with pre-tax SOCIALIZATION Debra L, Nelson and James Campbell Quick TThe process by which outsiders become organizational insiders is known as organizational socialization. While early research on socialization focused on indicators of adjustment such as job satisfaction and performance, recent reacarch has emphasized the links between organizational socialization and work stress. Socialization as a Moderator of Job Stress Enicring a new onganization isan inherently streafl experience. Newcomers encounter a myriad of stressor, including mle ambi- ‘nuit ole confit, work and home conflicts, polices, ime presnare and work overload. These stresiors can lead to distress sympsoms. Sudies in the 1980, howeves, suggest that a propery masaged socialization process has the potential for moderating the stressor- “Two particular themes have emerged in the contemporary esearch on seializatin: 1. the acquisition of information during socialization, 2. supervisory support dariag socialization, Information acquired by newcomers during socialization helps alleviate the consterable uncertainty in thar efor to master their new ts, roles and interpersonal relationships. Ofte, this saformation ix provided via formal onentaion-curaocalizabon| progammes. In the absence of formal programmes, or (where they exit) in addition to them, vocalization occur informally Receat studies have indicated that neweomers who proactively tech out information adjut more effectively (Morrbon 193) In addition, newcomers who underestimate the stressors in their ew ob report higher dew smpoms (Neon and Suton ‘Supervivory support during the socialization proces is of spe- cial value. Newcomers who recehve support from their supervisors Toe cnenseninon sooncion report es ste from unmet expectations (Fisher 1985) and fewer prychologicl symptoms of diate (Nelion and Quick 199). Su pervsory support can help neweamers cope with stressors in at least three wan. Fin, supervisors may’ provide instrumental p> port (ruch as flexible work hours) that helps alleviate a particular sures. Secondly, they may provide emotoual support that leads ‘newcomer to fel more efficncy in coping wath a senor. ‘Thirdly, supervisor play an important role in helping neweomers make seme of thee new environment (Louis Mai). For example, they can frame situations for newcomers a way that help (hens appraise situations a threatening oe nonthreatcning. Tn summary, socialization efforts that provide neoemaryinfor- ‘mation to newcomers and support fom supervisors eam prevent the ses expencice from becoming distesl Evaluating Organizational Socialization ‘The orgasizational socialization process is dynamic, interactive and communicative, and it unfolds overtime. In tis complexity lics the challenge of evaluating socialization efforts Two broad approaches to measuring socialization have been proposed. One approach consists of the stage models of socialization Fekéman 1976; Nehon 1987) These models portray socialization as a mult- stage transition process with key variables at each of the stages. ‘Another approach highlights che various socialization tactics that ‘organizations we to help newcomers become insiders (Van Maanen and Schein 1979) ‘With both approaches, i x contended that there are certain ‘outcomes that mark succesful socialization, Those outcomes io- ‘lage performance, job sathfaction, organizational commit-ment, job involvement and iene co rertain with the organization, tocialzation is a sires moderator, then distress symproms (specifically, ow levels of distress symptoms) should be included as an indicator of successful socialization. Health Outcomes of Socialization [Because the relationship between socialization and siress has only recently received attention, few studies have included health out ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY.