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Rutherfords
ATOM
Atom mostly
empty space
Nucleus of positively
charged matter,
possibly made up of
of particles
Rutherfords model
proposed that:
At the centre is a tiny, dense nucleus with a
positive electrical charge.
The negatively charged electrons orbit around
the nucleus.
The distance from nucleus to the electron
orbits is very large compared to the size of the
particles, so the atom is mostly empty space.
Electrons in orbit
around central
nucleus
Practical Work
High Voltage
light
emission
from
electrons
Optical
viewing system
Telescope can be
rotated to view the
different lines of the
emission spectrum
Tube glows
with emitted
light
white light is
a mixture of
wavelengths
different
wavelengths
spread out to
form a spectrum
(use
your
imagination...
we cant print colours)
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Light is only
emitted at
certain
precise
wavelengths
Prism
Each line is
light of one
exact wavelength.
Spectroscope
Emission Spectra
Element
A
Each
element
has its own
unique set
of spectral
lines
Element
C
Bohrs Postulates
Electrons revolve only in certain allowed orbits.
Bohr theorised that there are a series of orbits, at
fixed distances from the nucleus, in which an electron
will not constantly emit radiation as demanded by
classical theory.
(Why was explained later by de Broglie)
E = h.f
E = energy of a quantum, in joules ( J)
h = Planks constant, value 6.63x10-34
Allowed orbit
positions.
Electrons cannot orbit
anywhere else.
-1
1
2
3
Example Calculation
a) Use the Rhydberg Equation to find the
wavelength of the H line of the hydrogen
spectrum, given that nf= 2 and ni = 6.
2
1/ = 2.438 x 106
= 4.10x10-7 m
Quantum numbers of
the orbits.
(410 nm nanometres)
Limitations of the
Rutherford-Bohr Model
H line. ni = 6
H line. ni = 5
H line. ni = 4
Spectral line
is made up of
a number of
separate,
finer lines
H line. ni = 3
2
1
Nucleus
Quantum energy
levels or allowed
orbits around the
hydrogen atom
Test Questions
section 1
Student Name...............................
1.
Sketch a labelled diagram to show the main
features of Rutherfords atomic model.
5.
The H spectral line for hydrogen is due to an
electron dropping from the 5th to the 2nd orbit.
Compared to the H line (in Q3):
a) would a photon of the H line carry more, less,
or the same amount of energy? Explain.
2.
Outline the major problem with Rutherfords
atomic model, based on the accepted theory of
that time.
7.
It is known that other spectral lines for hydrogen
are present in the infra-red and ultra-violet parts
of the spectrum. One line, for example, is due to
electrons dropping from the 8th to the 1st orbit.
Calculate the wavelength of this spectral line
and state if it is infra-red or ultra violet.
4.
Analyse the significance of the hydrogen
spectrum in the development of Bohrs atomic
model.
Diffraction
Waves can undergo various wave phenomena
such as reflection, refraction and interference.
In fact, it is these things which can identify
waves. For example, it was interference which
allowed Hertz to prove the existence of invisible
radio waves back in the 1880s.
with gaps in it
Parallel wave
fronts
approach the
barrier.
= h
mv
Most of the
wave energy
will be
absorbed or
reflected.
Example Calculation
Find the wavelength of an electron which is
5
-1
travelling at a velocity of 4.35x10 ms .
Solution
= h
mv
= 6.63x10-34/(9.11x10-31 x 4.35x105)
= 1.67x10-9 m
(1.67 nanometres)
Diffraction Forms
Interference Patterns
Result?
An interference pattern was detected! This proved
that electrons have wave properties, and confirmed
the de Broglie hypothesis.
Constructive
interference
Destructive
interference
Light falling on
screen or photo film
shows a pattern of
light and dark spots
+
Light spot
where waves
add together
Dark zone
where waves
cancel
An electron
forms a
Standing
Wave
around the
nucleus
An Assessment
In the 1920s, Quantum Theory was being accepted as a necessary evil to
satisfactorily describe the structure of an atom, and
account for all the known observations.
However, the explanations being used were a mixture of new quantum ideas
overlaid on a framework of classical Physics, so it was all rather
artificial or contrived.
It was the theoretical work of Heisenberg & Pauli that built Quantum
Mechanics into a complete, new branch of Physics without the
need for any reference to the old Physics.
Therefore, their contributions must be seen as being very important.
Although the details of their work are beyond the scope of this course, they
allowed Physics to become a fully modern study with a complete theoretical
base which can explain atoms, super-conductivity, semi-conductors, nuclear
processes and even the creation of the Universe itself.
HSC Physics Option Topic From Quanta to Quarks
Copyright 2006-2
2009 keep it simple science
www.keepitsimplescience.com.au
Worksheet 2
Student Name..........................................
The g)....................................................... of an
element refers to the precise set of
h).................................... of light emitted if the
element is energised, for example, in a
i).............................................................. The lines
are visible if the light is viewed through a
j)...................................................
Electrons o).........................................................,
in which they will not p).........................................
COMPLETED WORKSHEETS
BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES
Worksheet 3
Student Name..........................................
They detected an l).............................. pattern
which proved that the electrons were
undergoing m)................................. This proved
that electrons do have n)..................... properties,
and confirmed de Broglies hypothesis.
Worksheet 4
Test Questions
section 2
Student Name...............................
4.
Explain how de Broglie would describe Bohrs
allowed orbits around the nucleus.
1.
Use de Broglies equation to calculate:
a) the wavelength of an electron with velocity
2.25x106 ms-1 (mass of electron = 9.11x10-31kg)
5.
a) What is diffraction?
b) the velocity of an electron if its quantum
wavelength is 4.75x10-9m.
2.
Describe the impact of de Broglies proposal
that particles could have wave properties.
Account for this reaction by the scientific
community.
6.
Assess the contribution of Heisenberg & Pauli
to the development of atomic theory.
3.
Outline the experiment of Davisson & Germer.
State the result of the experiment and explain
the significance of this result.
10
Protons
Neutrons
target
Proton
Neutron
+1.602x10-19C
Mass
1.673x10
-27
kg
n0
Detecting
equipment
Radioactive
substance
emitting
-p
particles
Electrical
Charge
target
0 (neutral)
1.675x10-27kg
Note that:
The charge on a proton is exactly the same
magnitude, but of opposite sign to that carried by an
electron.
In a normal atom:
No. of protons = No. of electrons = Atomic No.
For example:
Sodium atom
electrons = 11
protons = 11
neutrons = 12
Na
11
23
Background Information
Radioactivity had been discovered in 1896.
Although it was not fully understood, the use of
-p
particles as atomic bullets in experiments
had become quite routine.
Total nucleons = 23
(protons + neutrons)
Atomic Mass Number = 23
Atomic Number = 11
11
Transmutation
Radioactivity
Some naturally-occurring atoms have a nucleus which is unstable and will
spontaneously undergo transmutation to change into a more stable form.
During the reaction, a variety of radiations are emitted from the nucleus.
There are several different reactions which can occur;
knowledge of only the 2 most common reactions is required by the syllabus.
Beta ( ) Decay
Alpha ( ) Decay
1
0
Example:
Uranium is well known as a radioactive
substance, and nuclear fuel for nuclear
reactors and bombs. Its most common isotope
is U-238, meaning it has a mass number of 238.
It decays as follows:
238
U
92
Uranium-2
238
234
Th
90
4
2
He
Alpha
particle
Thorium-2
234
+ n
n+
Gamma
ray also
emitted in
most
cases
88
Ra
86
Rn
4
2
He
14
6
Electron
Proton
14
N
7
Nitrogen
0
-1
1
e-
-p
particle
Gamma ray
-1
1
e-
Carbon
222
Example
Carbon-14 is a well-known radioisotope which
decays:
Example 2
Radium-226 transmutes by alpha decay:
226
p+
The -p
particle
consists of
2 protons &
2 neutrons.
It is the nucleus
of a Helium atom
Neutron
n0
12
proton
-p
particle
(electron)
anti
neutrino
Carbon
14
7
Nitrogen
0
-1
1
e-
Gamma
anti
particle neutrino
Gravity
Electrostatic Forces
13
Energy in Electron-Volts
-27
1 u = 1.661x10
kg
Proton
Mass (in kg)
1.673x10-27
Mass (in u)
1.0073
Neutron
1.675x10-27
1.0087
Example Calculation
A normal carbon atom contains 6 protons and 6
neutrons. (also 6 electrons, but mass is negligible)
The nucleus is known to have a mass = 11.9967 u
= 1.993x10-26 kg
Calculate the Mass Defect,
and total Binding Energy.
Solution
In kg and joules
In u and MeV
Mass of 6 protons
= 6 x 1.673x10-27
= 1.004x10-26 kg
Mass of 6 protons
= 6 x 1.0073
= 6.0438 u
Mass of 6 neutrons
Mass of 6 neutrons
= 6 x 1.675x10-27
= 6 x 1.0087
-26
= 1.005x10 kg
= 6.0522 u
Total particle mass
Total particle mass
-26
= 2.009x10 kg
= 12.0960 u
Mass defect
Mass defect
-26
-26
= 2.009x10 - 1.993x10
= 12.0960 -11.9967
= 1.600x10-28kg
= 0.0993 u
Mass of
Mass of
Protons + Neutrons > Whole Nucleus
This difference is called the Mass Defect. Its
as if a little bit of mass went missing when the
protons and neutrons joined together to form
the nucleus.
E = mc2
E = mc2
= 1.6x10-28 x (3.00x108)2
= 1.44 x10-11J
Each 1 u converts to
931.5 MeV of energy
(This value is in your
Physics Data Table)
So, binding energy
= 0.0993 x 931.5
= 92.50 MeV
14
Nuclear Fission
Al +
30
He
15
-particle
Aluminium
P +
new isotope
of phosphorus
1
0
neutron
In Italy, brilliant young physicist Enrico Fermi (190154) decided that using neutrons as atomic bullets
would be even more productive.
In December 1942 the reactor achieved the first selfsustaining, controlled chain reaction.
Fluorine
20
n
0
Neutron
Start
U+
Uranium
Kr
n
0
Neutron
Krypton
isotope
141
56
Ba
1
0
Barium
isotope
3 extra
neutrons
released.
These can
set off other
atoms in a
chain
reaction
15
U+
U-2
235
mass
235.0439 u
1
0
neutron
mass
1.0087 u
148
57
La +
La-1
148
mass
147.8114 u
85
35
Br + 3
Br-8
85
mass
84.8917 u
1
0
3 neutrons
mass
3.0261 u
931.5 MeV
of energy
Practical Work
Enrico Fermi
in 1943
working on
the
Manhattan
Project
The tracks of
alpha particles
appear as thin
condensation
trails
16
Worksheet 5
Student Name..........................................
COMPLETED WORKSHEETS
BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES
HSC Physics Option Topic From Quanta to Quarks
Copyright 2006-2
2009 keep it simple science
www.keepitsimplescience.com.au
17
Worksheet 6
Practice Problems
Nuclear Reactions
Alpha Decay Equations
1.
222
Rn
86
Student Name..........................................
He
a) Iodine-131
b) Thorium-234
2.
3.
241
Am
95
210
84
Po
4
2
4
2
He
He
c) Hydrogen-3
d) Sodium-24
e) Uranium-239
4.
233
5.
210
Pa
91
Po
84
4
2
4
2
He
f) Cobalt-60
He
b) Xenon-135
6. Write the equation for the alpha decay of
Actinium-227
c) Phosphorus-31
7. Write the equation for the alpha decay of
Plutonium-244
d) Chlorine-38
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PO Box 2575
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18
Worksheet 7
Practice Problems
Mass Defect
Student Name..........................................
Nuclide
1.
9
4
Be +
4
2
12
He
C +
1
0
1
0
4
2
9
4
22
11
92
36
141
56
235
2.
235
92
U+
n
0
141
56
Ba +
92
36
92
Kr + 3
1
0
Nuclear Mass
(u)
Nuclide
1.0087
He
4.0026
Be
9.0122
Na
21.9780
Kr
91.8804
Ba
140.8167
235.0439
1.0073
Li
7.0160
1
3
12
11.9967
Mg
24.9575
Sr
91.8776
Ba
144.8115
Pu
239.0446
6
25
12
92
38
145
56
239
94
Nuclear Mass
(u)
n
4.
239
94
3.
Pu +
145
n
0
56
Ba +
92
38
Sr + 3 0 n
5.
Li +
3
1
1
4
2
He +
4
2
22
He
11
19
Na +
4
2
He
25
12
Mg +
1
1
Worksheet 8
Test Questions
section 3
1.
Outline Chadwicks experiment to
confirm the existence of the neutron,
and discuss the importance of
conservation laws in determining the
neutrons mass.
Student Name...............................
4.
Discuss why the neutrino was
invented (and by whom) and its
existence accepted, many years before
it was physically detected and proven to
exist.
2.
Account for the need for the strong
nuclear force and outline its
properties.
5.
a) Explain why a chain reaction of
fissions is possible.
3.
a) What is meant by the mass defect
of the nucleus?
b) Compare the requirements for
controlled and uncontrolled nuclear
fission.
20
Photo of
Horoshima a
few days after
the bomb.
Parts of the city
literally ceased
to exist.
Technologies Developed
Nuclear power stations, currently meet about 20%
of the worlds energy needs. Fission power is
Greenhouse friendly, but presents the danger of
devastating accidents such as at Chernobyl (Ukraine)
in 1986. There are also great challenges in the safe
storage and disposal of radioactive wastes from
fission power stations.
Nuclear weapons proliferated during the 40 year
Cold War. On several occasions the world seemed
to be on the brink of a nuclear war which potentially
could have destroyed all human civilization.
The Manhattan
all grew from research by scientists like
Chadwick and Fermi who wanted to find out
about the structure of atoms. They used alpha
particles and neutrons as bullets to probe the
nucleus to try to understand the fundamental
structure of matter.
21
Steam driven
Turbine
&
Generator
Fuel Rods
Uranium or Plutonium
Each rod is less than
the critical mass,
but together they form
well over the
critical mass
needed to sustain
a chain reaction.
Heat
Exchanger
Heat from
reactor
boils
water to
steam
Electricity
Condenser
These are
usually
huge
cooling
towers
Photo by
Les Powell
Uses of Radio-isotopes
in Medicine
Radio-isotopes in Industry
The gamma rays from cobalt-60 are very
penetrating, and very destructive to living cells.
Cancer Treatment
Radiation therapy relies on the fact that rapidlydividing cancer cells are more easily killed by gamma
radiation than normal healthy cells.
The isotope cobalt-60 (which emits beta and strong
gamma radiation) is commonly used as a source of
radiation which is accurately beamed into the tumour.
Radio-isotopes in Engineering
In aircraft construction, the airplane parts may
be welded together. It is essential that the
welded joints are totally strong and free of
defects. X-rays are not able to penetrate the
metal welds, but gamma rays can.
Radio-isotopes in Agriculture
Location of
Thyroid
Gland
23
is involved in radioactivity
such as when an electron and an anti-neutrino are produced
during beta decay in the nucleus.
Leptons
&
Hadrons
Leptons
Bosons
24
Worksheet 9
Student Name..........................................
COMPLETED WORKSHEETS
BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES
25
Worksheet 10
Test Questions
section 4
1.
Assess the significance of the
Manhattan Project to society, including
mention of 2 technologies that were
developed from it.
Student Name...............................
4.
Using named examples of 4 different
radio-isotopes, describe an application
of radioactivity in
a) medicine.
b) industry.
c) engineering.
2.
Explain the basic principles of a fission
reactor, outlining the composition and
function of the fuel rods, moderator and
control rods.
d) agriculture.
5.
Discuss the the key features of the
Standard Model of matter including
the main classes of particles,
examples of each, and whether each is
composed of anything smaller.
3.
a) What properties of neutrons make
them useful as probes to investigate
the nucleus?
26
FROM QUANTA
TO QUARKS
Into the
Nucleus
Applications
of
Nuclear
Physics
27
Answer Section
Worksheet 1
1.
7.
Electrons in orbit
around central
nucleus
Atom mostly
empty space
Nucleus
Worksheet 2
2.
The existing theory for EMR stated that electrons
accelerating in circular motion should constantly emit
light energy, but obviously they dont.
a) nucleus
b) J.J.Thomson
c) orbit
d) accelerating/in circular motion
e) (electromag) radiation f) glow
g) emission spectrum
h) wavelengths
i) discharge tube
j) spectroscope
k) hydrogen
l) Balmer
m) Rhydberg
n) wavelength
o) revolve only in allowed orbits
p) radiate energy/emit light
q) jump
r) absorb or emit
s) wavelength/frequency t) Planks
u) Rhydberg
v) allowed
w) angular momentum x) hydrogen
y) intensities/brightness z) Zeeman
aa) hyperfine
ab) divided into sub-orbits
3.
a) Balmer Series is the 4 lines of visible light in the
emission spectrum for hydrogen.
b)
1 = RH( 1/nf2 - 1/ni2 )
c)
c = .f, f = c/
= 3.00x108 /4.86 x10-7
= 6.17x1014Hz.
E = h.f
= 6.63x10-34 x 6.17x1014
= 4.09x10-19 J.
d) The energy difference between the 2nd and 4th
quantum levels (or allowed orbits).
Worksheet 3
a) particle
c) wave
e) standing
g) very little
i) experiment
k) electrons
m) diffraction
o) Diffraction
q) semi-circular
s) add together
u) cancel
w) Heisenberg
4.
It is very unlikely that Bohr could have developed his
atomic model without the evidence of the hydrogen
spectrum. The fact that there were distinct lines at
precise wavelengths all pointed to quanta of energy,
rather than variable amounts.
5.
a) More energy, because it is the difference between
5th-2nd orbits, compared to 4th-2nd.
b) Higher frequency, because Planks E = hf shows a
direct relationship between energy and frequency.
c)Shorter, because frequency and wavelength are
inversely related by the wave equation , v=lf.
6.
a)
electrons revolve only in certain stable, allowed
orbits
Energy must be absorbed, or emitted, in quantised
amounts when an electron jumps from one orbit to
another.
Within the allowed orbits the electrons angular
.
momentum is quantised to a multiple of h/2
b)
* it applied only to the hydrogen atom.
* it could not explain the different intensities of the
spectral lines.
* it could not explain the hyperfine spectral lines.
* it could not explain the Zeeman Effect.
b) particles
d) wavelength
f) wavelengths
h) evidence
j) Davisson & Germer
l) interference
n) wave
p) spread out
r) interfere
t) amplitude
v) bright and dark
x) Pauli
Worksheet 4
1.
a) = h = 6.63x10-34/(9.11x10-31 x 2.25x106)
mv
= 3.23x10-10 m
b) = h
mv
so v = h/m
= 6.63x10-34/9.11x10-31x4.75x10-9
= 1.53x105 ms-1.
= 3.00x108/4.75x10-9
c) c = f,
so f = c/
= 6.32x1016 Hz
d) E = h.f
= 6.63x10-34 x 6.32x1016
= 4.19x10-17 J.
28
Worksheet 4 (cont)
z) increases by 1
aa) stays the same
ab) different amounts of energy
ac) another particle was produced
ad) anti-neutrino
ae) Strong Nuclear Force
af) electrostatic repulsion
ag) extremely short
ah) nucleons
ai) defect
aj) converted to energy ak) E = mc2
al) fission
am) neutron
an) splits apart
ao) neutrons
ap) chain
aq) mass conversion/defect
ar) Manhattan
as) Enrico Fermi
2.
His proposal had very little impact at first. It was a
neat idea, and mathematically valid, but the
scientific community took little notice because there
was no evidence from observation or experiment to
link it to. It was not until the hypothesis was tested by
Davisson and Germer that the Physics world really
took notice.
3.
Outline: In a vacuum tube, a beam of cathode rays
(electrons) were beamed at a specially prepared
nickel crystal.
Result: They detected an interference pattern in that
part of the beam that reflected from the crystal.
Significance: this proved that electrons showed wave
properties (diffraction & interference) and confirmed
de Broglies hypothesis.
Worksheet 6
1. 218 Po
2.
84
237
93
Polonium
4.
The allowed orbits are where the the electron can
exist as a standing wave around the nucleus. The
orbit circumference is exactly equal to an integral
number of electron wavelengths.
4. 237
5.
a) When waves pass through a small gap in a barrier,
the gap acts like a point source of waves, which
spread out in a semi-circular pattern.
b)
6. 227
89
Np
93
3. 206
Np
Lead
Neptunium
214
5.
Pb
82
Rn
86
Radon
Neptunium
223
Ac
Fr
87
4
2
He
He
Francium
7.
240
244
Pu
94
92
4
2
Uranium
a) 131
54
6.
In the 1920s, Atomic Physics was using a mixture of
classical ideas, overlaid with the new quantum
ideas, but it was artificial and contrived.
b) 234
Mg
e) 239
24
d)
12
91
93
Pa
c)
Np
f)
He
2
60
28
Ni
2.
a)
Li
b) 135
Worksheet 5
54
Xe
c) 31
15
d) 38
17
29
Xe
P
Cl
Be
135
55
31
16
38
18
e
-1
1
Cs
Ar
e
-1
1
0
+
+
e-
e
-1
1
-1
1
0
Worksheet 7
4.
It was noticed that the electrons produced by beta
decay varied a lot in the energy they carried, although
the process was thought to be the same in each case.
Why?
Pauli suggested that there was another particle
involved, which shared the total energy with the
electron... the neutrino (actually an anti-neutrino).
This explanation of beta decay was so convincing
that the existence of the neutrino was accepted many
years before its actual detection.
1.
Mass defect = (mass reactants) - (mass products)
= (9.0122+4.0026)-(11.9967+1.0087)
= 13.0148-13.0054
= 0.0094 u
Energy release = 0.0094 x 931.5 = 8.756 MeV
2.
Mass defect = (mass reactants) - (mass products)
= (235.0439+1.0087)-(140.8167+91.8804+3.0261)
= 236.0526 - 235.7232
= 0.3294 u
Energy release = 0.3294 x 931.5 = 306.8 MeV
3.
Mass defect = (mass reactants) - (mass products)
=(7.0160+1.0073)-(4.0026 x 2)
= 8.0233 - 8.0052
= 0.0181 u
Energy release = 0.0181 x 931.5 = 16.86 MeV
4.
Mass defect = (mass reactants) - (mass products)
=(239.0446+1.0087) - (144.8115+91.8804+3.0261)
= 240.0533 - 239.7180
= 0.3353 u
Energy release = 0.3353 x 931.5 = 312.3 MeV
5.
Mass defect = (mass reactants) - (mass products)
=(21.9780+4.0026) - (24.9575+1.0073)
= 25.9806 - 25.9648 = 0.0158 u
Energy release = 0.0158 x 931.5 = 14.72 MeV
5.
a)A fission reaction is set off by a neutron striking a
suitable nucleus. The fission process produces 2 or 3
new neutrons, each of which can set off another
fission. Therefore, once started, it is possible to have
a chain reaction of fissions.
b) If 2 or more neutrons are released, and each sets
off another fission, the chain reaction will grow
exponentially. This is an uncontrolled reaction.
If some neutrons are absorbed so that each fission
sets off exactly 1 other fission, then the chain
reaction will continue, but at a steady, controlled rate.
Worksheet 9
a) Atomic/Nuclear
b) most significant
c) nuclear power stations
d) Nuclear weapons
e) Cold
f) launching satellites
g) radioactive
h) their lack of electric charge makes it more likely
they will collide with the nucleus
i) particle accelerators j) charged
k) speed of light
l) radiation & particles
m) uranium or plutonium
n) Control
o) cadmium/boron
p) neutrons
q) graphite
r) slow down
s) turbine & generator t) electricity
u) radioactive
v) imaging
w) cancer
x) thallium-201
y) gamma
z) cobalt-60
aa) sterilise
ab) americium-241
ac) alpha particles
ad) cobalt-60
ae) welded joints
af) nitrogen-15 & phosph-31
ag) Standard Model
ah) leptons
ai) neutrinos
aj) Hadrons
ak) proton & neutron
al) quarks
Worksheet 8
1.
Chadwick used a radioactive material to fire alpha
particles at a beryllium target. This produced a
penetrating radiation that others thought were
gamma rays. Chadwick let this radiation strike a
paraffin wax target. From this came streams of
protons, dislodged by the mystery rays. He used
the laws of conservation of energy and momentum to
calculate the nature of the radiation that had
dislodged the protons.
This showed it was particles with mass about 1u, and
no electric charge... neutrons.
2.
Calculations showed that gravity was too weak to
hold the nucleons together in the face of electrostatic
repulsion between protons. No other forces were
known, but there must exist another force in the
nucleus.
This Strong Nuclear Force must attract all
nucleons, and must be very powerful. It must be
extremely short-ranged, and work only across the
distance of a single nucleus.
Worksheet 10
1.
This was one of the most significant scientific
projects in history. It led directly to the development
of nuclear weapons which (during the Cold War)
threatened to destroy civilization, and still have that
potential. It also lead to nuclear technologies such as
the many uses of radioactive isotopes in Medicine (eg
for imaging, diagnosis & cancer treatment) Both
these technologies, and others, have had profound
impacts upon society, both positive and negative.
3.
a) Every nucleus larger than hydrogen has a mass
slightly less than the sum of the protons and
neutrons it contains. The difference is the mass
defect.
b) The missing mass of the mass defect is mass
that has converted to energy according to E=mc2.
This energy provides the binding energy of the
strong nuclear force.
30
Worksheet 10 (cont)
4.
a) Iodine-131 can be used to treat thyroid cancer.
Iodine becomes concentrated in the thyroid gland
where the radiation kills tumour cells with minimal
damage to healthy tissue.
2.
The fuel rods are composed of uranium or plutonium
which undergoes fission. Each rod is below the
critical mass for a chain reaction, but when many
rods are inserted into the reactor, a chain reaction
can be sustained.
3.
a) Neutrons have no electrical charge. This makes
them more penetrating, and less likely to be deflected
by electrons or protons before they collide with a
nucleus.
5.
There are many sub-atomic particles, but they all
belong to 2 classes:
Leptons include the electron, and a variety of
neutrinos. These are fundamental particles, not
composed of anything smaller.
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