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Jessica King
Leslie Drake
Research Techniques
28 March 2016
Abstract
This research paper is intended to inform the reader of the evolutionary status of the
human species. Evolution is, scientifically speaking, the most accepted theory of how humans
came to be. As the population and technology continuously grow, the gene pool does as well. The
amount of genetic variation in the human race begs the question, is the population still evolving?
The significance of this can be applied in an array of areas. First, it could reflect how modern
human social behavior directly correlates to the progression of the species. Second, it could
enlighten many about how the human race fits into Darwins postulates on the decent of man and
the multiplication of species (evolution). Lastly, the answer could beg the question on whether or
not current methods of living are conducive to future generations. In other words, the answer
could hint at whether or not the human race is prepared, via evolutionary processes for future
environmental stresses. The intended accomplishment is to help the reader understand the
process of evolution and be able to apply that knowledge to understand what the future could
hold for the human species. This topic has been heavily researched by biologists, psychologists,
and sociologists. What this particular paper does differently is look at the topic from a variety of
professions perspective, rather than just the individual.

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Introduction
Evolution is the continuous change in the characteristics and diversity of life on earth
throughout history. This definition is from Animal Diversity, by Cleveland P. Hickman. It was
printed in year 2015. This is a very credible source because of the authors credentials. Dr.
Hickman was a professor at Washington and Lee and has written several revered works
pertaining to evolution. He specialized in animal physiology, general zoology and ecology.
Typically, when the term evolution is coined, people think about how animals came to be. As a
whole, humans separate themselves from animals due to how humans live, written language, and
the ability to invent/use tools. However, humans must not forget that they evolved from animals,
therefore, they are animals. On a molecular level, humans and animals are not much different at
all. Sociologically, there is a growing gap between humans and animals. When attempting to
decipher whether or not the human race is still evolving, one must examine the ability of humans
to evolve by Darwins definition, the mating protocol in comparison to animals, and how these
things affect mankinds future.
Darwinism and Related Postulates
Darwins theory of evolution is now 150 years old. It was the first logical explanation that
was well documented and supported with evidence, as to why modern animals have the anatomy
they do. Darwins theory is also the baseline of studies on how life came to be and is still widely
accepted as scientific fact. According to Harvard Universitys own Ernst Mayr, there are five
components of Darwins theory of evolution. All of these five must be fulfilled in order for life to
undergo the evolutionary processes. Ernst Mayr was one of the leading evolutionary biologists of
the twentieth century. He is also a world renowned taxonomist, tropical explorer, and philosopher
of biology. According to him, these five components are perpetual change, common descent,

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multiplication of species, gradualism, and natural selection. It is the best to apply the criteria to
humans in order to see if humans are still evolving.
Perpetual change states that the living world undergoes continual allele changes through
heredity ranging from past to present life. Characteristics such as shape and color undergo
modification across generations through time. (Animal Diversity 11) This applies to humans due
to the fact that we are a species who originated directly from Homo sapiens neanderthalensis,
roughly one-hundred and twenty thousand years ago. One step further, Homo sapien
neaderthalensis evolved from Homo sapiens soloensis nearly two-hundred and forty thousand
years ago. (Dobzhansky 172) This is perpetual change because each species deviated from the
last due to allele changes through heredity over several generations. The book this information is
from is called Mankind Evolving by Theodosius Dobzhansky. This book was printed in year
1962. Although this book is rather old, the information, especially in the field of evolution is
expanded upon, not discounted. Doctor Dobzhansky wrote this book to clarify the specific
evolutionary patterns pertaining to the human race.
The second component of Darwins theory is common descent. Common descent states
that all forms of life propagate from a common ancestor through a branching of lineages.
(Animal Diversity 11) This also applies to humans with the same reasoning. To restate the
reasoning: modern humans or Homo sapiens descended from Homo sapiens neanderthalensis,
which illustrates the concept of common descent. Doctor Dobzhansky illustrates this on a
phylogeny tree in his book, Mankind Evolving. However, it goes back so much further than a
handful of synapomorphies. The relations go back millions of years through a series of species,
each being derived from the other through the phylogenic tree.

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The next component of Darwinism is multiplication of species. This component
articulates that evolution must produce new species by splitting/transforming older ones. This
can take place when populations of a particular species are parted from one another by geologic
barriers. The separated populations are forced to adapt to the new area and, over long periods of
time, develop characteristics via survival of the fittest. After enough physical changes take place
for a species to better suit the environment, it is considered an entirely new species that is within
the same group (within phylogenic classification) as the previous. Humans, at this point, may not
follow this rule anymore because our technology has allowed us to travel anywhere for any
amount of time and not need to physically adapt over generations.
The following piece of Darwins theory is gradualism. Gradualism is the statement that
the large enough gap for one species to be considered a different one is caused by an
accumulation of many small incremental changes over long periods of time. (Animal Diversity
12) According to Dobzhanskys Mankind Evolving, a new species accumulates enough
incremental changes to be considered an entirely different species every one-hundred thousand
years or so. Considering modern humans can only be dated back ten thousand years through the
fossil record, I would say it is too soon to tell.
The last component of Darwins theory is Natural Selection. Natural selection articulates
that animals are constructed to survive in/meet the demands of their environment. Natural
selection is a natural process in which modifications are made to populations by survival of the
fittest, where some traits are better suited to help an organism survive in a given environment
over others. Over time, organisms with favored, or desirable traits are able to pass down their
genes, thus, procreating future generations with naturally selected genes. Natural selection is still
occurring in humans. According to Dante Penaloza, there was a recent shift in part of the human

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gene pool. People native to high altitude (HA) environments live in an environment of
hypobaric hypoxia with low ambient partial pressure of oxygen. As a consequence, they develop
alveolar hypoxia, hypoxemia, and polycythemia. Dante Penaloza graduated from Universidad
Peruana Cayetano Heredia in Lima, Peru. He then continued to study there in the High Altitude
Research Institute. People without this mutation get altitude sickness when exerting themselves
or spending long periods of time in high altitude conditions. This change in anatomy came as a
result of natural selection. Individuals with the anatomy change were better suited to live in high
altitude areas. However, there are not enough of these small adaptations present in one specific
geologic population for that to warrant the label of an entirely new species. Furthermore, the
human race is progressing in the form of intelligence and ingenuity, which helps us to survive.
Therefore, one could argue that the human mind is evolving and adapting.
Human Mating
When it comes to the evolution of the human mind in comparison to animals, a point of
separation are mating preferences and rituals. According to Helen Fisher from Psychology Today
(this is a database, not a periodical), the most striking characteristic of our species is that we are
part of 3% of all organisms that are capable of forming enduring bonds, or falling in love. She
attributes this to a series of complex developments of the brain via evolution. There are three
distinct but overlapping brain systems that enable us to fall in love and form long-term emotional
connections: the neural systems for the sex drive, romantic love, and attachment. (Fisher) She
goes into detail that people fall in love with others based on what are called, in psychology, the
big five personality traits. These traits include openness to new experience, conscientiousness,
extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (or anxiety). According to Fisher, these traits
remain stable across a lifetime and an individual finds a specific degree of each to be attractive.

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For animals, it is a much different story. Through time and evolution, species of animals
have formed mating preferences that are dependent upon physical attributes. A common example
of this can be found in pack animals such as wolves, gorillas, and elk. According to Frank A.
Beach, author of Sex and Behavior, these species have one male with many females. The male
serves the role of protection as well as reproduction. Through fighting for dominance over the
pack, he earns exclusive mating rights. In other words, because one male was stronger, faster,
and cleverer than the other, he gets to procreate and pass his genes, the better genes, to his
offspring. Beach is qualified to write on this because he has a degree in animal sexual behavior
from Berkley and was highly influential in the study of neural and endocrinal effects on animal
behavior.
Humans no longer display this sort of sexual selection. Human procreation is based upon
love. Many times, human sex is not even for the purpose of reproduction, rather for pleasure.
hook-ups, or uncommitted sexual encounters, are becoming progressively more engrained in
popular culture, reflecting both evolved sexual predilections and changing social and sexual
scripts. (Garcia) Justin Garcia authored the article Sexual Hookup Culture as well as received
Ph.D. in Evolutionary Biology from Binghamton University and an M.S. in Biomedical
Anthropology from Binghamton University. Garcia has dedicated his career to the connection
between biological evolution and romantic love and intimate relationships. Garcias research
helps us to conclude the human race is no longer evolving due to the absence of mate selection
based on genetic advancement. How can natural selection be applied to humans if there is no
way, both sociologically and psychologically, that humans are mating based upon who is best
suited for environmental pressures? In reality, both logically and metaphorically, it cannot be
applied. What this means for future generations is up in the air.

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Implications
While the survival of our species is one of the most important things, the survival of the
individual is at the forefront of any organisms mind, humans included. But humans really dont
need to worry about that. In first world countries, everything is provided. Food, water, shelter,
and safety are readily prepared and easily obtained. Modern medicine has made it so that the
sick, mutated, and weak can still survive, if not even thrive. Therefore, inferior genetics are no
longer being weeded out of populations, but are rather being multiplied and passed down more
rapidly than ever before. This causes humans to not be prepared for significant possible
environmental pressures. One may state that the evolution of the human mind and our ability to
build/engineer would save us in the long run. This may not be true for everyone. According to
Richard Taflinger, an expert in psychophysiology, the human race is experiencing an intellectual
falling out. While there are individuals who continue to expand upon ideas, we are no longer
progressing at the rate we were. With the incline of social media and material distractions, the
human race is plateauing, so to speak.
Conclusion
This topic is under the microscope in the scientific realm because it is highly
controversial and frequently debated whether or not the human race is still evolving. By
Darwins standard, we are no longer evolving due to a lack of significant differences between
geologically separated populations, and the fact that natural selection is no longer taking place. It
must be approached with diligence and care, as there are so many studies, opinions, and feelings
that can be shaken by the outcome. A human reading this has the initial response to discredit it,
simply because it doesnt bode well for our species. Setting aside an anthropocentric point of
view is the best, simplest way to detach emotion and bias in order to look at the facts.

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Scientifically and socio-psychologically speaking, the human race is no longer evolving.
Evolution requires natural selection through survival of the fittest, at its core. That is one of the
five core ways species have been able multiplicate and evolve in order to get the human race in
the first place. If we are no longer abiding by the rules of the natural processes that allowed the
progression of organisms and creation of us, it is impossible for humans themselves to expect to
progress in the natural world.

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Citation
Beach, Frank. Sex and Behavior. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc, 1965. Print
Darwin, Charles. Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection. New York: Random House
Inc, 1859. Print.
Dobzhansky, Theodosius. Mankind Evolving. New Haven: Yale University, 1962. Print.
Fisher, Helen. Laws of Chemistry. EBSCOhost. Vol. 40 (Issue 3). (2007). Web. 28 March
2016.
Garcia, Justin. Sexual Hookup Culture: A Review. PsycARTICLES. 23559846. (2013). Web.
28 March 2016.
Hickman, Cleveland. Animal Diversity. New York: McGraw Education, 2015. Print
Ker, Than. Darwin's Natural Selection Still at Work in Humans. Live Science. 2 Nov 2005.
Web. 27 Feb 2016.
Mayr, Ernst. One Long Argument. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993. Web.
Penaloza, Dante. The Heart and Pulmonary Circulation at High Altitudes. American Heart
Association. Vol 1 (Issue 15). 1132-1146. (2007) Web. 17 March 2016.
Taflinger, Richard. Social Basis of Human Behavior: Sex. Washington State University. 28
May 1996. Web. 12 March 2016.
Vasseur, Estelle. The Impact of Natural Selection on Health and Disease: Uses of the Population
Genetics Approach in Humans. PubMed. 10.1111 (2013): Web. 26 Feb 2016.