Geosphere: Upper Mantle

Jon Ayre
GEO 1010
Cam Mosher
04/25/2016
Team:
Alec Peterson
Kayla Swank
Yamilex Apodaca

Abstract
GEOLOGY 1010: UPPER MANTLE

The upper mantle consists of three interdependent spheres: the

lithosphere and Mohorovicic boundary, the asthenosphere and the transition
zone. Each zone is studied and understood using seismic waves to determine
structure and properties. Each area and boundary plays an important role in
maintaining equilibrium through the interior of the earth as well as the
surface.

Geosphere: Upper-Mantle
GEOLOGY 1010: UPPER MANTLE

The upper mantle consists of three shells starting at the outermost

boundary between the crust and the mantle called the Moho through the
asthenosphere to the bottom portion called the transition zone, about 660
kilometers deep. This paper will consider and reflect on the scientific
methods used to determine the structure and properties of the upper mantle.
It will also explore the means and processes of the upper mantle in
maintaining equilibrium through the lower mantle and the crust alike.
The Moho is a magnetic discontinuity boundary beneath the
lithosphere separating the upper mantle from the crust where there is a
chemical composition change more in temperature than lithological
differences. It separates the granitic continental crust and the basaltic
oceanic crust from the peridotite (olivine and pyroxene) mantle. The
boundary was discovered by Andrija Mohorovicic in 1909 and was one of the
first discoveries made using seismic waves. He found that the seismic wave
velocity abruptly sped up, meaning it had gone through a denser material
(Carlson, 2005).
It was later found that the Mohorovicic boundary serves as a magnetic
boundary as findings of metals and primary Fe3O4 are absent. Complex CR,
Mg, Al, and Fe spinels dominate the oxide mineralogy. All of the evidence
supports the idea that the seismic Moho is a magnetic boundary (Wasilewski,
1979). The Moho occurs at about 8 kilometers beneath the ocean basins and
32 Kilometers beneath continental surfaces.

GEOLOGY 1010: UPPER MANTLE

Below the Mohorovicic boundary at about 410 kilometers is the

asthenosphere (asthenos= weak + sphere). As the name suggests it is a
hotter soft portion of the upper mantle, especially compared to the
overlaying lithosphere. The top portion of the asthenosphere begins at
approximately 80-200 kilometers below the surface, where heat and
pressure cause the top layer to be near its melting point. This in turn causes
it to be viscous and react ductilely to the rigid lithosphere above. This allows
the different spheres to move almost independently of each other (Tarbuck,
Lutgens ,2014). This is an important fact when considering lithospheric
plates, the theory of plate tectonics, isostatic adjustments and
understanding the earths geologic history. It also offers some understanding
into the geology of Mars, Venus, and other planets that we havent yet been
able to examine physically (Choi,2012).
The exact lower boundary of the asthenosphere is not known but could
extend as deep as 700 kilometers beneath Earths crust. The asthenosphere
is considered a low-velocity zone meaning the seismic waves slow down in
hotter, less ridged mantle. This is especially true in regions where melt is
present (Choi,2012) (Condie,1997, pg. 123). The upper and lower mantle
flow by different means. The upper mantle flows by dislocation creep, and
the lower by diffusion creep. In the lower regions of the asthenosphere, the
pressure is increased, thereby reducing the grain size of the constituent
material (Wu, Karato, 1993).

GEOLOGY 1010: UPPER MANTLE

The third and final layer of the upper mantle is the transition zone. It
occurs at about 410-660 kilometers in depth and was identified by its sudden
increase in density from 3.5 to 3.7g/c m 3 . This increase in density prevents
and slows the exchange of material between the upper and lower mantle.
Large pieces of subducted slabs of lithosphere are restrained from dropping
into the lower mantle for millions of years, slowly breaking down into the
mantle. The transition zone consists of different discontinuities, each packing
atoms into tighter structures. The first occurs at about 410 km, but can occur
higher up if the region is colder, like in the case of a colder slab being
subducted. This can also happen deeper in the presence of a hotter mantle
plume (Fukao, Obayashi,2013). At this depth, one of the main components of
the upper mantle, olivine, is under enough pressure and heat to rearrange its
atoms to form the denser crystal, wadsleyite. The next disconformity takes
place around the 520-660 km depth, where the wadsleyte and olivine can
form ringwoodite (Frost,2008 pg.172).
The transition zone also acts as a type of water reservoir. Wadsleyte
can contain 3% water in the form of hydroxide. Ringwoodite can contain up
to 2.6% water depending on the temperature and pressure of the region. The
presence of water greatly affects the rheology of the mantle. When the upper
mantle is at full water capacity, it can cause partial melting and upwelling to
release the pressure. This upwelling is an important part of the overall
mantle circulation cycle (Smyth, Holl, Frost, Jacobsen, Langenhorst,
McCammon,2003).
GEOLOGY 1010: UPPER MANTLE

The rheology of all three of these stages in the upper mantle play an
important role in maintaining equilibrium throughout the earth interior and
on the surface. The Mohorovicic boundary is just malleable enough to allow
the the lithospheric tectonic plates to react to the forces exerted on them
independently. The asthenosphere is weak enough to allow slabs of earth to
sink through it into the mantle and hot rising mantle plumes to return to the
surface releasing pressure. Lastly, the transition zone is hot and dense
enough to form a barrier between the upper and lower mantle.

Citations

Mayhew, M. A., Wasilewski, P. J., Thomas, H. H., The Moho as a magnetic

boundary
Mar 01, 1979.
Hobart King, Mohorovii Discontinuity - The Moho,
Geology.com.
Carlson, R.W. The Mantle and Core . San Diego, CA: Elsevier Science, 2005.
Deuss, Arwen, et al. The Nature of the 660-Kilometer Discontinuity in
Earth's Mantle from Global Seismic Observations of PP Precursors. Science .
311 (2006): 198201.

Kent C. Condie, Plate Tectonics,1997 pg. 123.

GEOLOGY 1010: UPPER MANTLE

Edward J. Tarbuck, Frederick K. Lutgens, Earth: An Introduction to physical

Geology (Eleventh Edition),2014.
Charles Q. Choi, Seismic Waves Shed Light on Earth's Weak Mantle
March 22, 2012
Patrick Wu, Shun-ichiro Karato, Rheology of the Upper Mantle: A Synthesis
June 1993

Yoshio Fukao, Masayuki Obayashi, Subducted slabs stagnant above,

penetrating through, and trapped below the 660 km discontinuity
22 November 2013
Daniel J. Frost, The Upper Mantle and Transition Zone, June 2008
J. R. Smyth; C. M. Holl; D. J. Frost; S. D. Jacobsen; F. Langenhorst; C. A.
McCammon (2003). "Structural systematics of hydrous ringwoodite and
water in Earths interior".American Mineralogist 88: 14021407

GEOLOGY 1010: UPPER MANTLE