4u Maths Summary

Contents:
Graphs
Basic Graphs
Trigonometric Graphs
Addition & Subtraction of Ordinates
Reflection in Axis
Rules for Graphing
Multiplication of Ordinates
Division of Ordinates
Behaviours at Critical Points
Index Rules
Implicit Differentiation
Inequalities

3
3
7
11
13
15
20
21
23
24
26
30

Complex Numbers
Arithmetic of Complex Numbers
Geometrical Representation
Basic Proofs
Vectors
De Moivres Theorem
nth Roots
Loci of Complex Numbers
Regions

32
32
35
38
41
44
46
47
49

Conics
Ellipse
Tangents & Normals
Equation of a Chord
Chord of Contact
Basic Proofs
Hyperbola
Tangents & Normals
Equation of a Chord
Chord of Contact
Basic Proofs
Rectangular Hyperbola
Equation of a Chord
Tangent
Normal
Chord of Contact
Basic Proofs
Loci

51
51
56
56
56
57
63
65
68
68
68
69
71
72
73
74
74
76

Conics in Cones
Eccentricity Range

78
78

4u Maths Summary

Page 1 of 117

Integration
Algebraic Substitutions
Trigonometric Integrals
Trigonometric Substitutions
Integration by Parts
Recurrence Formulas
Partial Fractions

80
80
80
81
82
82
83

Volumes
Volumes Using Limits
Volumes by slicing
Volumes by shells
Volumes with non-circular slices

84
85
86
87
89

Mechanics
Projectile Motion
Simple Harmonic Motion
Mathematical Descriptions of Motion
Upwards Motion
Downwards Motion
Circular Motion
Uniform Circular Motion
Conical Pendulum
Banked Circular Track

90
91
93
95
96
97
99
100
101
104

Polynomials
Integer Roots of Polynomials
Factoring Polynomials
Roots & Coefficients of Polynomials
Partial Fractions

107
107
109
111
114

Harder 3 Unit
Circle Geometry
Induction
Inequalities

117
117
117
117

4u Maths Summary

Page 2 of 117

SYLLABUS
REFERENCE
Topic 1
Graphs
Basic Curves
Graph a linear
equation.
ax + by + c = 0
y = mx + b

RELATED INFORMATION

ax + by + c = 0
Gradient = a
b

y-intercept: y = c

y = mx + b
Gradient = m
y-intercept: y = c
y

10

-10

-5

10

(0, -3)
-5

-10

Graph a quadratic
Function.
y = ax2 + bx + c

Axis of symmetry: x = b

2a

Roots: ax + bx + c = 0
If a > 0, then concave up.
If a < 0, then concave down.
y
10

-10

-5

10

-5

-10

Graph a cubic
function.
4u Maths Summary

Steps:
1. Find factor of whole equation.
Page 3 of 117

y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d

2. Use polynomial division.

3. Find roots of remaining equation.
Steps:
1. Find stationary points and their nature.
2. Find points of infle xion.
3. Find intercepts.
4. Use table of values.
Properties:
Has at most three roots.
y
10

-10

-5

10

-5

-10

y = x + 4x x 3

Graph a quartic
function.
y = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 +
dx + e

4u Maths Summary

Steps:
1. Find factor of whole equation.
2. Use polynomial division.
3. Find roots of remaining equation.
Steps:
1. Find stationary points and their nature.
2. Find points of inflexion.
3. Find intercepts.
4. Use table of values.
Properties:
o Has at most four roots.

Page 4 of 117

y
10

-4

-2

-5

-10

y = x 2x 2x + 4x 1

Properties:
Asymptote: x ? 0
Use limit to find horizontal asymptotes.

Graph a
rectangular
hyperbola.
xy = k

y= k
x

10

-10

-5

10

-5

-10

Graph a circle.
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c
=0
(x h)

+ (y k)

= r

4u Maths Summary

xy = 4

x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
1. Complete the square to get equation into the form
below.
2

(x h) + (y k) = r
Centre of circle: (h, k)
Radius of circle = r

Page 5 of 117

y
10

-10

-5

10

-5

-10

(x 3) + (y + 2) = 9

Graph an
exponential
function.
y = ax
For both cases:
a>1&0<a<1

a>1
Properties:
y-intercept: y = 1
Horizontal asymptote: y = 0
The large the value for a, the steeper the curve.
The graph is always increasing.
y
10

-4

-2

-5

-10

y= 4

0<a<1
Properties:
y-intercept: y = 1
Horizontal Asymptote: y = 0
The graph is always decreasing.

4u Maths Summary

Page 6 of 117

y
10

-4

-2

-5

-10

y = 0.2

Graph a
logarithmic
function.
y = loga x

Graph
trigonometric
functions.
y = a Sin bx
y = a Cos bx
y = k + a Sin (bx + c)

4u Maths Summary

Function can be re-written as:

x=ay

Properties:
Root: x = 1
Vertical Asymptote: x = 0
Basic Sine Curve:

Page 7 of 117

y
1.5

0.5

-360

-180

180

360

-0.5

-1

-1.5

y = Sin x
Basic Cosine Curve:
y
1.5

0.5

-360

-180

180

360

-0.5

-1

-1.5

y = Cos x
Trigonometric Graph Transformations:
y = k + a Sin (bx + c)

4u Maths Summary

Page 8 of 117

y
6

-360

-180

180

360

-2

-4

y = 2 + 3sin (2x + 10)

Properties:
k moves the graph up or down by a value of k.
b increases the number of cycles per 360. Number of
normal cycles in 360 is b.
c moves the graph left or right by c.
a increases the amplitude. The maximum displacement
on either side of an equilibrium is a.

Graph inverse
trigonometric
functions.
(Eg: y = a Sin -1bx)

The same properties apply for cosine curves.

Basic Sine Curve:
y
1.5

0.5

-360

-180

180

360

-0.5

-1

-1.5

y = Sin x
Inverse Sine Curve:
4u Maths Summary

Page 9 of 117

y
360

180

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0.5

1.5

-180

-360

-1

y = sin x

Properties:
Domain: -1 = x = 1
Range: -90 = y = 90

Graph the
functions:
y = x
&

Odd Function
Passes through origin.
All movements are the same as for normal sine curve.

Basically, an inverse trig graph is the equiva lent of switching

the values on the x & y axis.
y = x
y
10

1
3

y= x

-10

-5

10

-5

-10
1
2

y= x

Properties:
4u Maths Summary

Page 10 of 117

Domain: x = 0
Range: y = 0

Always concave down

Always increasing.

y= x

1
3

-4

-2

-2

-4

1
3

y= x

Properties:

Drawing graphs by
addition and
subtraction of
ordinates

4u Maths Summary

Odd Function
Inflexion point at (0,0)
Can be moved by constants.
Addition and Subtraction of Ordinates:

Page 11 of 117

Graph a function
y = f(x) c
by initially graphing
y = f(x)

y
10

-10

-5

10

-5

-10

y = (x 2) , y = (x 2)

+ 4 & y = (x 2)

y = f(x) c
Rules:

Graph a function
y = f(x) g(x)
By initially graphing:
y = f(x) & y = g(x)

If c is positive, the function is moved up by c.

If c is negative, the function is shifted down by c.
Addition & Subtraction of Ordinates:
y

-360

-180

180

360

-2

-4

-6

y = 2cosx y = 3sinx

y = 2cosx + 3sinx

Rules:
In essence, the y coordinates at each x value are either
added to, or subtracted from each other.
Addition Hints:
4u Maths Summary

Page 12 of 117

Where f(x) & g(x) intersect, the combined graph is

double the value at the intersection.
If either f(x) or g(x) are equal to zero at a point, the
combined graph is equal to the value of the graph not
equalling zero.
Subtraction Hints:
Where the two graphs intersect, the combined graph is
equal to zero.
Drawing graphs by
reflecting functions
in coordinate axes.
Graph y = -f(x) by
initially graphing
y = f(x).

y = -f(x)
y
10

-10

-5

10

-5

-10

f(x) = (x 2)

Graph y = |f(x)| by
initially graphing
y = f(x)

4u Maths Summary

2 y = f(x)

Rules:
Function is reflected about the x-axis.
All positive values become negative
All negative values become positive.
y = | f(x) |

Page 13 of 117

y
10

-10

-5

10

-5

-10

f(x) = (x 2)

Graph y = f(-x) by
initially graphing
y = f(x)

2 y = |f(x)|

Rules:
All negative y-values become the positive equivalent.
All positive values remain the same.
y = f(-x)
y
10

-10

-5

10

-5

-10

f(x) = (x 2)

The initial
emphasis in this
topic is operating
on graphs of
these basic
4u Maths Summary

2 y = f( x)

Rules:
Reflected about the y-axis.
Ways to Graph complex graphs:
Break graph into two or more parts. (Eg: y = logex can be
broken into y = x and y = logex)
Multiply the y-values of each of these.

Page 14 of 117

functions in order
to produce a
graph of a more
complex function
(eg: the graph of y
= x logex will be
developed by
considering
properties of the
graphs of y = x
and y = logex).

y
10

-10

-5

10

-5

-10

y = ln x , y = x , y = x ln x .

The notations
logex and ln x are
used to denote the
natural logarithm
of x and students
should be familiar
with both
notations.
Students will need
to be able to
produce quickly a
neat sketch of
these basic
functions in order
to use them in the
sketching of
further functions.

4u Maths Summary

Basic Fact:
logex = ln x

Rules for graphing:

1. Look for families or recognise graph type. Mark original
function and y = 1.

y
2

y
|y|
1
y

2. Find x & y intercepts.

3. Find asymptotes:
Vertical
Horizontal
Oblique
4. Find Stationary points
y = 0
5. Find inflexion points
y = 0
6. Find critical points
y = 8
7. Find domain & range
8. Use symmetry.
Page 15 of 117

Students need to
examine the
behaviour of the
derivatives of y =
x and y = x 1/3
near x = 0 and
investigate the
behaviour of
these functions at
x = 0. They must
be familiar with
the term critical
point and with
the possibility of
curves having
vertical tangent
lines at points on
them.

Odd or even functions

9. Examine behaviour at extremities.
Right beside asymptotes.
As x 8
10. Table of values
y = x
12

y' = x

2
1
y' =
2 x
y
4

-4

-2

-2

-4

1
2

y = x

y =

1
2 x

Properties of the derivative:

Vertical Asymptote: x = 0
Horizontal asymptote: y = 0

y = x

1
3

y' =
3

4u Maths Summary

Page 16 of 117

y
4

-4

-2

-2

-4

1
3

y = x

y' =
3

Properties of the derivative:

Vertical Asymptote: x = 0
Horizontal asymptote: y = 0
Symmetrical about the y-axis.

Typical functions
involving addition
of ordinates could
include y = 1 + 3
sin 2x for 2p = x
= 2p and y = cos
1
x p. Students
should realise that
the graph of 3 sin
2x can be
transformed to the
graph of 1 + 3 sin
2x by either
translating the
4u Maths Summary

Critical Point:
A critical point is where a tangent drawn to a curve is exactly
vertical. That is, where the gradient of a graph is equal to
infinity or where the first derivative returns a math error.
m=8
y = ERROR (Usually division by zero or square root of
negative)
Tangent to curve is vertical.
y = 1 + 3sin 2x for 2 x 2

Page 17 of 117

graph one unit

upwards or
translating the xaxis one unit in
the opposite
direction.

y
4

-360

-180

180

360

-1

-2

-3

Other types could

include graphing
functions such as
f (x) = 3 sin x + x
for 0 < x < 4. This
may be developed
from the graphs of
y = x and y = 3 sin
x. The points
where y = 3 sin x
cuts the x-axis
correspond to the
points where y = 3
sin x + x cuts y =
x. Once the shape
of the curve has
been roughed out
using addition of
ordinates the
position of
stationary points
and points of
inflexion may be
obtained when
appropriate.

4u Maths Summary

The graph has been shifted one unit up, or the x-axis has
been moved one unit down.
f(x) = 3sin x + x
y
10

-10

-5

10

-5

-10

y = x

Page 18 of 117

y
4

-360

-180

180

360

-1

-2

-3

-4

y = 3sinx

A function such
as y = logex may
be graphed by
reflecting the
graph of y = logex
in the x-axis. The
graph of y = 2
logex may then be
obtained by a
suitable
translation.

Combined Graph:
y= 3sin x cuts the x-axis at 0, 180 & 360.
y = 3sin x + x cuts y = x at the same points.
Basically, y = 3sin x is transposed over y = x.
Reflection of Graphs:
y

-1

-2

-4

y = ln x

y = ln x y = 2 ln x

The relationship
between the
graphs of y = f (x)
and of y = f (x a)
4u Maths Summary

The graph is reflected in the x-axis.

The translation is achieved by moving the reflection up
two units.
Relationship between y = f(x) & y = f(x-a)
If a is positive, the graph is moved by a units to the right.
If a is negative, the graph is moved by a units to the left.
Page 19 of 117

should be
discussed and
used also in
examples
involving the
reflection
properties, such
as, for example,
the graph of |1
sin (x 2)|.

y
2

-360

-180

180

360

-1

-2

y = | 1 sin(x 2) |

Sketching functions
by multiplication of
ordinates.
Graph a function y
= c.f(x) by initially
graphing y = f(x).

y = C . f(x)
y
10

-10

-5

10

-5

-10

y = (x 2)

y = 3(x 2)

y =

1
(x
3

2)

y = (x 2)

Rules:
If C > 1, then the function becomes steeper. All y-values
are multiplied by C.
If 0 < C < 1, then the function becomes shallower. All yvalues are multiplied by C.
If C < 0, then the function is reflected in the x-axis. Then
apply the rules for a positive value of C in terms of
4u Maths Summary

Page 20 of 117

Graph a function
y = f(x).g(x) by
initially graphing y
= f(x) & y = g(x).

steepness and shallowness.

y = f(x).g(x)
y
10

-360

-180

180

360

-5

-10

y = 4sinx

y =

x
100

y =

x (4sin x)
100

Rules:
Y-coordinates are multiplied together.
Sketching functions
by division of
ordinates.
Graph a function
y = 1 by
f(x)
initially graphing y
= f(x).

y =

1
f(x)
y

-2

-2

-4

y = (x 2)

y =
3

1
(x 2)

Rules:
4u Maths Summary

Page 21 of 117

Graph a function
y = f(x)
g(x) by
initially graphing y
= f(x) and y = g(x).

Vertical asymptotes of inverse function where original

1
functions roots lie. That is, where f(x) = 0, y = f(x) has
an asymptote.
Where the original function is larger than 1, the inverse
function becomes smaller.
Where the original function is less than 1, the inverse
function becomes larger.
Same rules apply for when original function is less than
zero, however the values are negative.
Points at y = 1 do not move.
Where the original is less than zero, the inverse is also
less than zero.
Where y = f(x) is increasing then the inverse graph is
decreasing and vice versa.
= f(x)
g(x)
y
8

10

15

-2

y = (x 3)

y = (x 3)
y = x
x

Rules:
Where the denominator is equal to 0, (where the
denominator graph, g(x), cuts the x-axis), a vertical
asymptote occurs at that point.
Can be graphed using reciprocal rule . Eg: graph y = f(x)

4u Maths Summary

1
and y = g(x) . Then use multiplication of ordinates.
f(x)
Where f (x) = 0, g(x) = 0.

f(x)
Where g(x) = 0, g(x) is undefined and a discontinuity

Page 22 of 117

A good initial idea

of the behaviour
of functions of the
form y = f(x)g(x)
may be obtained
by examining the
graphs of y = f(x)
and y = g(x)
independently. To
graph y = xex, the
functions y = x
and y = e x may be
graphed on the
same set of axes.
Important features
of the graph of y =
xex can be
obtained.

exists.
Behaviours:
y
3

-3

-2

-1

-1

-2

-3

y =x

y = e

y = xe

Properties:
For x < 0, xex < 0
For x = 0, xex = 0
For x > 0, xex > 0
As x -8, xex -8
As x 8, xex 0.
This enables a rough shape to be quickly sketched. The
exact positions of the stationary points and points of
inflexion may be determined by calculus.
To graph
y = x (x + 1) , the
x2

y = x (x + 1)
x2

graphs of y = x, y
= x + 1 and y = x
2 can be first
sketched. The
regions in the
number plane, in
which the graph
exists, can be
then shaded,
discontinuities
determined,
points of
intersection with
coordinate axes
marked on and the
behaviour of the
function for x
4u Maths Summary

Page 23 of 117

8 investigated.
Exact positions of
stationary points
and points of
inflexion could
lastly be
determined if
required.

y
15

10

-2

-5

y = x

y = x + 1

y =

1
x 2 y = x (x + 1)
x2

Properties:
Asymptotes of the inverse function of the denominator
are also asymptotes for the overall graph.
Roots occur where the numerator functions roots occur.

To sketch y =

x (x + 1) , a rough sketch of
x2

y = x (x + 1) can first be drawn and then square root

x2

rules (see below) can be used.

Drawing graphs of
the form y = [f(x)]n
Graph a function

y = [ f(x)]

by first
graphing y = f(x).
y = [ f(x)]

4u Maths Summary

Page 24 of 117

y
10

-2

-5

y
3

-1

-0.5

0.5

1.5

-1

-2

y = (x 2)

3 y = ((x 2)

3)

y = ((x 2)

3)

Rules:

Graph a function
y =
f(x) by first
graphing y = f(x).

4u Maths Summary

When f(x) = 0 or 1, y remains at 0 or 1.

When f(x) > 1, y becomes larger

When 0 > f(x) > 1, y becomes smaller.

If n is even, y is always = 0.

If n is odd, y has the same sign as f(x).

Its derivative is n [f (x) ]n1 f '(x), then all stationary points
and intercepts on the x-axis of y = f (x) are stationary
points of [f(x)]n.

y =

f(x)

Page 25 of 117

y
10

-10

-5

10

-5

-10

y = (x 2)

y =

(x 2)

y = (x 2)

Properties:
For a positive square root, only values above the x-axis
are shown.
For a negative square root, only values below the x-axis
are shown.
For the graph of y2 = f(x), both values above and below
the x-axis are graphed.
Where f(x) < 0, the square root graph does not exist.
Where f(x) > 1, the values of y are decreased.
Where 0 < f(x) < 1, the values of y are increased.
Where f(x) = 0 or 1, the values of y do not change.

If y =

(f(x) then y' =

f'(x) .This leads to the

2 f(x)

position of stationary points.

General approach to
curve sketching.
Use implicit
differentiation to
dy
compute dx for

curves given in
implicit form.

Implicit Differentiation:

Differentiate each part separately.

dy
Any part containing a y, multiply that derivative by dx
dy
Make dx the subject.

Make y the subject in the original equation.

Sub the value for y into the derivative function.

Sample Problem:
1
2

1
2

Differentiate x + y = 4
4u Maths Summary

Page 26 of 117

Solution:
1
2

1
2

x + y = 4
12

x
2

12

+ y dy = 0
2
dx

12

12

y dy = x
2
dx
2
12

dy = x 2
12
dx
2
y
dy =
dx

x
1
2
1
2

Rearrange original to find expression for y

1
2

1
2

y = 4 x
Sub into derivative.
dy =
dx

4 x

x
1
2

1
2

Curves graphed
could include:

x 1

y =

y =

x 1
2

y = x e

x
6

y = x ln (x 1)
2

= x 9x

+ 2y = 4
sinx
y =
x
y = x cosx

-3

-2

-1

-2

y = x e

4u Maths Summary

Page 27 of 117

-2

-2

y = x ln (x 1)
y
10

-10

-5

10

-5

-10

4u Maths Summary

= x 9x

Page 28 of 117

y
10

-5

10

-5

-10

+ 2y

= 4

y
3

-3

-2

-1

-1

-2

-3

y =

4u Maths Summary

sinx
x

Page 29 of 117

0.04

0.02

-360

-180

180

360

-0.02

-0.04

y = x cosx
y
360

180

-360

-180

180

360

-180

-360

Solve inequalities Inequalities:

by sketching an
appropriate graph. For graphs where a function is expressed as being larger
or smaller than a fixed value or other graph, graph them
as separate functions.
Eg: Graph:
2

x 3 2x

4u Maths Summary

Page 30 of 117

y
10

-10

-5

10

-5

-10

Find the number

of solutions of an
equation by
graphical
considerations.

4u Maths Summary

Rules:
Graph each function separately.
Where the blue function has a higher y-value than the
red graph, the inequality is fulfilled.
Graph Solutions:
For the graph:
2

x 3 = 2x

The number of solutions can be determined by the number

of times the graphs cross. The x-values at which they cross
are the solutions to the equation.

Page 31 of 117

Topic 2
Complex Numbers
Arithmetic of
complex numbers
and solving quadratic
equations.
Appreciate the
necessity of
introducing the
symbol i, where
i2 = -1, in order to
solve quadratic
equations.

Write down the

real part Re(z) and
the imaginary part
Im(z) of a complex
number z = x + iy.
Add, subtract and
multiply complex
numbers written
in the form x + iy.

The complex number, i, is used when a quadratic equation

has no real roots.
For instance the equation x2 + 2x + 3 = 0 has no real roots
and therefore i must be introduced in order to solve it.
This occurs when the quadratic formula:
x = b

b 4ac
2a
returns a math error.

For the complex number z = x + iy:

Real Part = Re(z) = x
Imaginary Part = Im(z) = y

Addition of Complex Numbers:

The real parts are added together and the imaginary parts
are added together.
(a + ib) + (c + id) = (a + c) + (b + d)i
Subtraction of Complex Numbers:
The real parts are subtracted and the imaginary parts are
subtracted.
(a + ib) (c + id) = (a c) + (b d)i
Multiplication of Complex Numbers:
Use the same rule as for two pairs of brackets. (Eg: first
term by first term, first term by second, etc)
(a + ib)(c + id)

= ac + iad + ibc + bdi

= ac + iad + ibc bd

= (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i

Find the complex

conjugate z of the
number x + iy.

Complex Conjugate:
For the equation:
z = x + iy

The conjugate is:

z = x iy

Divide a complex
number a + ib by a
4u Maths Summary

Complex Number Division:

Multiply both the numerator and the denominator by the
Page 32 of 117

complex number c
+ id.

conjugate of the denominator.

a + ib
c + id

= a + ib c id
c + id
c id

ac iad + ibc + bd
2

2 2

c id

(ac + bd)
2

+ i

c + d

Write down a
condition for a +
ib to be equal to c
+ id.
Prove that there
are always two
square roots of a
non-zero complex
number.

bc ad
c

+ d

Complex Number Equality:

Two complex numbers are equal is their real parts are equal
and their imaginary parts are equal.
a + ib = c + id IF a = c & b = d
Square Roots of Complex Numbers:
Find z given z2 = a + ib.
Let z = x + iy

(x + iy) = a + ib

2 2

x + 2xyi + i y = a + ib

(x y ) + (2xy)i = a + ib

Equating Real & Imaginary Parts:

x y = a

2xy = b

Find the square

4u Maths Summary

Solving these two equations simultaneously gives a quartic

equation whereby an expression for x2 can be derived. One
of these expressions will be negative and therefore has no
solutions. The other remaining expression will be positive
and therefore has two solutions, one positive and one
negative.
Therefore, a non-zero complex number has two square
roots.
Square Roots of Complex Numbers:
Page 33 of 117

roots of a complex Example:

number a + ib.
Find the square root of 3 + 4i.
Solution:
Let z

= 3 + 4i

Let z = x + iy
(x + iy)
2

x y

= 3 + 4i
+ (2xy)i = 3 + 4i

= 3 & 2xy = 4
2

Multiply first equation by x

4

2 2

x x y = 3x

Square the second equation

2 2

xy

= 4

Solve Simultaneously
4

x 3x 4 = 0
2
x

4 x + 1 = 0

x = 4, 1
x = 2
x = 2, y = 1

& x = -2, y = -1

i is a device by which quadratic equations with real

coefficients could be always solvable.
It could be shown that there exist 2 complex roots for a
complex number. This then leads to the discovery that a
quadratic equation with complex coefficients will have 2
complex roots.
In finding the square roots of a + ib, the statement
a + ib = x + iy, where a, b, x, & y are real, leads to the
need to solve the equations x2 y2 = a & 2xy = b.
Examining graphs of these curves for various values of a
and b will lead to the conclusion that two roots will always
exist for a complex number.

4u Maths Summary

Page 34 of 117

y
10

-10

-5

10

-5

-10

x y

Solve quadratic
equations in the
form:
2

ax

= 5 2xy = 9

Expand

+ bx + c = 0 ,

where a, b & c are

complex.
Geometrical
Representation
Appreciate that
there exists a one
to one
correspondence
between the
complex number a
+ ib and the
ordered pair (a, b).

The complex number a + ib , represents an ordered pair of

(a, b) on the argand diagram.
y
6

0.5

Plot the point

corresponding to
a + ib on the
Argand diagram.
4u Maths Summary

1.5

2.5

1 + 4i
For the complex number a + ib.
The x-value = a
The y-value = b

Page 35 of 117

y
6

0.5

Define the
modulus ( |z| ) and
argument (arg z)
of a complex
number z.
Find the modulus
and argument of a
complex number.

1.5

2.5

1 + 4i
The modulus of z is the distance from the origin to the
complex number z. It can be referred to |z|.

The argument of z is the angle that a line drawn from the

origin to a complex number, z, makes with the x-axis in the
positive direction. It can be referred to as arg (z).
The modulus of the complex number z = x + iy is:
2

|z| =

x +y

The argument of the complex number z = x + iy is:

Tan = y
x

Write a + ib in
Modulusargument form.

Modulus-argument form is also known as:

Mod-Arg form
Polar form
Mod-Arg Form of a complex number:
z = r (cos + i sin )
z = r cis

Where:
r =

x + y
Tan = y
x

Remember:
Mod z = |z| = |x + iy| =
Arg z = = ph z

4u Maths Summary

x + y

zz

= r

Page 36 of 117

x + iy
(r, )
r

Prove basic
relations involving
modulus and
argument.

Arg z is any value of for which x = |z| cos and

y = |z| sin .
|z1z2| = |z1||z2|
z1
|z1|
=
z2
|z2|

Arg (z1z2) = Arg z1 + Arg z2 2

Arg z1 = Arg z1 Arg z2 2
z2

|z| = |z| =

x + y

zz = |z| = |z| = x + y

z + z = 2x
(z1z2) = z1 z2
z z = 2yi
Arg z = Arg z
z

Use modulusargument
relations to do
calculations
involving complex
numbers.

4u Maths Summary

-1

z
= 1 = 2
z
|z|

Multiplication in Mod-Arg Form:

Let z1 = r1 cis 1 & z2 = r2 cis 2
z1z2 = r1r2 cis ( 1 + 2)
Division in Mod-Arg Form:
z 1 = r1 cis ( )
1
2
z2
r2

Page 37 of 117

Recognize the
geometrical
relationships
between the point
representing z and
points
representing
z , cz (c is real) &
iz.

y
10

-10

-5

10

-5

-10

z = 4 + 3i z = 4 3 i iz = -3 + 4i
cz = 8 + 6i where c = 2

Rules:

Students should
be able to prove
these relations.

= -1
= i
= 1

Multiplying a complex number by i is equal to a quarter

turn about the origin.
z is a reflection of z in the x-axis.

Multiplying a complex number by a real value, c, results

in both the real and imaginary part being multiplied by
that number.
Proof #1:
|z 1z 2| = |z 1| |z 2| & arg (z 1z 2) = arg z1 + arg z 2
Let
z1z2

z1
z2
=
=

= r1cis1
= r2cis2
(r1cis1 )(r2cis2)
r1r2 (cos1 + isin1)(cos2 + isin2)
2

= r1r2 (cos1cos2 + isin2cos1 + isin1cos2 + i sin1sin2 )

= r1r2 [(cos1cos2 sin1sin2) + i (sin1cos2 + cos1sin2)]
= r1r2 [cos(1 + 2) + isin(1 + 2)]
= r1r2 cis(1 + 2)
|z1z2| = r1r2
|z1z2| = r1r2 = |z1||z2|
arg (z1z 2) = 1 + 2
arg ( z1z2) = 1 + 2 = arg z1 + arg z2

4u Maths Summary

Page 38 of 117

Proof #2:
z1
z
|z |
= 1 & arg 1 = arg z 1 arg z 2
z2
|z 2|
z2
Let
z1
z2

z1 = r1 cis 1
z2 = r2 cis 2

= r1 cis 1
r2 cis 2

= r1 cis 1 r2 cis( 2)
r2 cis 2
r2 cis( 2)
r r cis( 2)
= 12 2 1
r2 cis 0

However, since cis 0 = 1

= r1 cis( 1 2)
r2
z
r
|z |

1 = 1 = 1
r2
|z2|
z2
arg z1 = 1 2 = arg z1 arg z2
z2

Proof #3:
Let

z 1 = a + ib
z 1 = a ib
z 2 = c + id
z 2 = c id

z1 + z2

z1 + z2

=
=
=
=
=

(a ib) + (c id)
(a + c) ib id
(a + c) i (b + d)
a + ib + c + id
(a + c) + i (b + d)

= (a + c) i (b + d)
= LHS

Proof #4:

4u Maths Summary

Page 39 of 117

Let

z1 = a + ib
z1 = a ib
z2 = c + id
z2 = c id

z1z2

= (a ib)(c id)

z1z2

=
=
=
=

ac adi bci + bdi

ac bd adi bci
(ac bd) i (ad + bc)
(a + ib)(c + id)

=
=
=
LHS =
=

ac + adi + bci + b di
ac bd + adi + bci
(ac bd) + i (ad + bc)
(ac bd) i (ad + bc)
RHS

Proof #5:
n

|z | = |z|
Let z = rcis
z

= r cis n

|z |
z
|z|
|z|

= r
= rcis
= r

= r
n

|z | = |z|

Proof #6:
n

arg(z )
Let z
z

= n argz
= rcis

= r cis n
n

arg(z )
z
argz
n argz

=
=
=
=
n

arg(z )

Sample Question
Q4 (1987)
a. Let OABC be a
square on an
argand diagram
where O is the
origin. The points
4u Maths Summary

n
rcis

= n argz

Answer:
a.
Let z = 3 + 2i
iz = -2 + 3i

Page 40 of 117

A and C represent
the complex
numbers z and iz
respectively. Find
the complex
number
represented by B.
b. The square is now
rotated about O
through 45 in an
anticlockwise
direction to
OABC. Find the
complex numbers
represented by
the points A, B
and C.

iz
z

By graphical solution, B = 1 + 5i
1 + 5i = z + iz
B = z + iz
b.
To rotate a complex number about the origin by 45 is the
equivalent of multiplying a complex number by:
|z|
z
2
|z|

Appreciate that a
complex number
can be
represented as a
vector on the
Argand diagram.

A' = z
|z|
B' = z + iz
|z|
C' = iz
|z|

The complex number z = x + iy can be represented as a

vector OZ .

Appreciate the
geometrical
4u Maths Summary

For the addition of two complex numbers. Use vector

addition to find the resulting vector.
Page 41 of 117

significance of the
addition of two
complex numbers.
Given the points
representing z 1
and z 2, find the
position of the
point representing
z, where z = z1 +
z2.
Appreciate that
the vector z = z1 +
z2, corresponds to
the diagonal of a
parallelogram with
vectors
representing z 1
and z 2 as adjacent
sides.
Given vectors z 1
and z 2, construct
vectors z 1 z 2 and
z 2 z 1.

For z1 + z2
Where z1 = 5 + 2i & z2 = 1 + 3i

Familiarity with the vector representation of a complex

number is extremely useful when work on curves and loci is
encountered.

That is:
The gradient of the vector joining z1 to the origin is equal
to the gradient of the vector joining (z1 + z2) to z2.
The gradient of the vector joining z2 to the origin is equal
to the gradient of the vector joining (z1 + z2) to the point
z1.

Subtract the appropriate real parts and separately subtract

the appropriate imaginary parts.
z2

z1

z2 - z1

z1 z2
z 1 = 1 + 4i z 2 = 3 + 6i z2 z1 z 1 z 2

4u Maths Summary

We need to be able to interpret the expression | z (a +

ib) | as the magnitude of a vector joining (a, b) to the
point representing z. Basically it is the same graph only it
is based at (a, b) instead of the origin.
Students need to recognise that the expression arg(z
z1) refers to the angle, which a vector joining the point
representing z1 to the point representing z, makes with
Page 42 of 117

the positive direction of the real axis. Once again,

basically the same graph but with its base at z1 instead
of the origin.

Given z 1 and z 2,
construct the
vector z 1z 2.

z1 z2

z1
z2

z 1 = 1 + 3i

z 2 = 3 + 2i

z1 z2

Prove
geometrically that
|z 1 + z 2| |z 1| + |z 2| .

z1 + z2

z2
z1

4u Maths Summary

Page 43 of 117

r2
D
A
r1

Using z1 = 2 + 2i = A
z2 = 1 + 3i = B
z1 + z2 = 3 + 5i = C
Let

|z 1| = r1
|z 2| = r2

Let

AD be perpindicular to OC

ADO is a right where OA is the hypotenuse

ACD is also a right where AC is the hypotenuse

(Pythagoras' theorem)

DC r2

(Pythagoras' theorem)

|OD| + |DC| r1 + r2
|z 1 + z 2| |z 1| + |z 2|

Proof:

Prove, by
induction, that
(cos + i sin )

OD r1

cos n + i sin n

for positive
integers n.

4u Maths Summary

Page 44 of 117

(cos + isin )

= cos n + isin n

Proof by Mathematical Induction:

Let n = 1
1

LHS = (cos + i sin )

= cos + i sin
RHS = cos(1) + i sin(1)
= cos + i sin
True for n = 1
Assume true for n = k
(cos + i sin )

= cos k + i sin k

Let n = k + 1
RHS = cos(k + 1) + i sin(k + 1)
LHS = (cos + i sin )

k+1
1

= (cos + i sin ) (cos + i sin )

= (cos + i sin )(cos k + i sin k)
= cos cosk sinsink + i cossink + i sincos
= (coscosk sinsink) + i (cos sink + sincos )
= cos (k + ) + i sin (k + )
= cos(k + 1) + i sin(k + 1)
= RHS
True for n = k + 1
True for all positive integer values

Be able to reproduce this.

n

Prove that
n

(cos + i sin )

cos n + i sin n

for negative
integers n.

(cos + isin ) = cos n + isin n

Let n = m, where m is a positive integer.
m

LHS = (cos + isin )

1
=
m
(cos + isin )
1
=
cos m + isin m
1
cos m isin m
=

cos m + isin m
cos m isin m
cos m isin m
=
2
2
cos m + sin m

= cos m isin m
1
= cos( m) + isin( m)
= cos n + isin n
= RHS

Find any integer

4u Maths Summary

This is known a De Moivres theorem:

Page 45 of 117

power of a given
complex number.

(r cis )

Find the complex

nth roots of 1 in
modulusargument form.

To find the nth roots of any complex number we use the

fact:

= r cis n
n

= r (cos n + isin n)

If R (cos + isin ) = r(cos + isin ) then:

1
n

R = r

+ 2k
and =
, where k = 0, 1, 2,...(n-1)
n

Therefore the nth roots of the complex number

1
n

r (cos + i sin ) have the modulus r and arguments

given by = + 2k , where k = 0, 1, 2,(n 1).
n

Finding nth roots of 1:

n

z = 1
Let n = 5
z

= 1
1
n

Using z = r cis + 2k

z1 = cis 0 = 1

where k = 0,1,2,3,4

z2 = cis 2
5

z3 = cis 4
5

z4 = cis 6
5
8
z5 = cis

Use the same method for zn = -1.

4u Maths Summary

Page 46 of 117

Sketch the nth

roots 1 on an
Argand diagram.
Illustrate the
geometrical
relationship
connecting the
nth roots of 1.

z2

z3

z4

z5

The roots represent evenly spaced points on the unit

circle.
They are also the vertices of an nth sided polygon.

Given equations
Re(z) = c, Im(z) =
k, sketch lines
parallel to the
appropriate axis.

y
4

-4

-2

-2

-4

Re(z) = 3

Given an
equation,
|z z 1| = |z z 2| ,

4u Maths Summary

Im(z) = 2

Rules:
For Re(z) = c, the real part of z becomes the graph.
Therefore the locus of the graph is x = c.
For Im(z) = k, the imaginary part of z becomes the
graph. Therefore the locus of the graph is y = k .
For this type of locus, let z1 and z2 represent points on the
argand diagram. If the distance from P to z1 is equal to the
distance from P to z2 , then we know from plane geometry
P(z)

Page 47 of 117

sketch the
corresponding
line.

that the locus is the perpendicular bisector of the line joining

z1 and z2.

z2
z1
O

z 1 = 2 + 0i z 2 = -1 + i

Given equations
|z| = R and
|z z 1| = R ,
sketch the
corresponding
circles.

4u Maths Summary

Rules:
Let z1 and z2 be normal Cartesian co-ordinates.
Find the midpoint of z1 and z2.
Find the gradient of the line joining z1 to z2 .
Inverse the gradient to find the gradient of the line
perpendicular to it.
Use point-gradient formula to find equation of the line
representing the point P.
These two equations represent the locus of a circle.
|z| = R

Is the locus of a circle with a centre at the origin and radius

R units.

Page 48 of 117

y
3

-4

-2

-1

-2

-3

|z| = 2 |z z 1| = 2 where z 1 = 2 i

Given equations
arg z = and
arg (z z 1) = ,
sketch the
corresponding
rays.

Rules:
The value of R becomes the length of the radius.
The point z1 becomes the centre of the circle.
The graph is a ray which originates from either the origin or
z1, and goes off at angle in the positive direction.

z1

O
arg z =

Sketch regions
associated with
any of the above
curves.
4u Maths Summary

arg (z z 1) =

where z1 = -3 + 2i
3

Rules:
The graph is just a ray that starts at z1
The ray makes an angle with the positive direction.
The graphs are sketched exactly the same way but the area
in which the equation is fulfilled must be determined.
Remember:
Page 49 of 117

Dotted lines for < or >.

Solid lines for = or =.
Give a geometrical Use basic names to describe the locus of a point or the
description of any region in which an equation is fulfilled.
such curves or
Eg: The area inside a circle with radius 3 units and centre at
regions.
(3, 2).
Be able to graph and describe these:

Be able to understand the intersection of more than one

region or graph.

Examples need only involve replacing z by z = x + iy in

relations such as:

4u Maths Summary

Page 50 of 117

Topic 3
Conics
Write down the
defining equation
of an ellipse with
centre at the
origin.

Equation of an ellipse with centre at the origin:

2

y
b

= 1

This is regarded as the defining equation.

Sketch the ellipse

showing points of
intersection with
the axes of
symmetry.

(0, b)

(-a, 0)

(a, 0)

(0, -b)

Find the lengths

of the major and
minor axes and
semi-major and
semi-minor axes
of an ellipse.

y
b

= 1

2b

2a

Rules:
Major axis length = 2a
4u Maths Summary

Page 51 of 117

Write down the

parametric
coordinates of a
point on an
ellipse.
Sketch an ellipse
using its auxiliary
circle.

Minor axis length = 2b

Semi-major axis length = a
Semi-minor axis length = b
Parametric Coordinates:
x = a cos
y = b sin
y

(acos , asin )

(acos , bsin )
x

+ y = a

y
b

= 1

Equation of the Ellipse:

x = a cos
y = b sin
Equation of the Auxiliary Circle:
x = a cos
y = a sin
The parametric representation x = a cos , y = b sin is
useful in graphing the ellipse from an auxiliary circle. The
shape of an ellipse should be examined as the ratio b
a

Find the equation

of an ellipse from
its focus-directrix
definition.

4u Maths Summary

varies.
The definition of a conic is:
PS

= e

PM

Where

P Is any point on the conic

S The focus of the conic
M A point on the directrix
Page 52 of 117

e The degree of eccentricity

For an ellipse, 0 < e < 1
Rearranging the definition of a conic gives:
PS = ePM

Therefore, the equation of an ellipse can be calculated by

substituting in appropriate values for the focus, directrix and
eccentricity.

Find the
eccentricity from
the defining
equation of an
ellipse.

The focus -directrix definition should be used whenever a

focal distance is to be calculated.
Using the definition of a conic:
PS = ePM
2

(x ae) + (y 0)
(x ae)

2
2
= e x a

+ y

2 2

x 2aex + a e + y
2

2 2

e x + y

2 2

2
2

Given the
equation of an
ellipse, find the
co-ordinates of
the foci and
equations of the
directrices.

2 2

= a ae
2

= a 1 e

2 2

= e x 2aex + a
2

x ex + y

x a 2 + (y y) 2

= e

y
2

= 1

a 1 e
2

= a 1 e

For the ellipse with equation:

2
2
x
y
+ 2 = 1
2
a
b
Foci:
(ae, 0)
Directrices:
x = a
e

4u Maths Summary

Page 53 of 117

Sketch an ellipse,
marking on it the
positions of its
foci and
directrices.

x =

a
e

x =

(0, b)

(-ae, 0)

a
e

(ae, 0)

(-a, 0)

(a, 0)

(0, -b)

D
2

y
b

= 1

The major properties of an ellipse are to be proven for both

a general ellipse with centre O and for ellipses with given
values of a and b.
Use implicit
differentiation to
find the equations
of the tangent and
the normal at
P(x1, y1) on an
ellipse.

= 1
2
2
a
b
Implicitly Differentiating Gives:
2x
2y dy
= 0
2 +
2
dx
a
b
2y

2x
dy = 2
dx
b
a
2

dy = 2xb
2
dx
2a y
2

dy = b x
2
dx
ay
Let P = (x1, y1)
Gradient =

b x1
2

a y1

4u Maths Summary

Page 54 of 117

 Equation of the tangent at P is:

2

y y1 =

b x1
2

(x x1)

a y1
2

a y1(y y1) = b x1(x x1)

2

a y1y a y1 = b x1x + b x1
2

2 2

a y1y + b x1x = b x1 + a y1
2 2

Dividing everything by a b gives

y y1
b

x x1

a
x

Since

y
b

2
2 = 1
a
b
x x1
yy
+ 21 = 1
2
a
b
2

Gradient of the Normal =

a y1
2

b x1
Equation of the Normal:
2

a y1

y = y1 =

(x x1)

b x1
2

b x1 (y y1) = a y1 (x x1)
2

b x1y b x1y1 = a y1x a x1y1

Dividing everything by x1y1 gives:
2

b y b 2 = a x a2
y1
y1
2

a x b y = a2 b 2
x1
y1

4u Maths Summary

Page 55 of 117

Find the equations

of the tangent and
the normal at P
( acos , bsin )
on an ellipse.

x = acos
dx = asin
d
y = bsin
dy = bcos
d
dy = bcos
dx
asin
Equation of the tangent is:

y bsin = bcos (x acos )

asin
2

aysin absin = bxcos + abcos

2

aysin + bxcos = abcos + absin

Dividing Everything by ab
ysin + xcos = cos2 + sin2
b
a
Tangent is:
xcos + ysin = 1
a
b

Gradient of the Normal = asin

bcos

y bsin = asin (x acos )

b cos
2

bycos b sincos = axsin a sincos

Dividing everything by sincos
by b 2 = ax a2
sin
cos
ax by = a2 b 2
cos
sin

Find the equation

of a chord of an
ellipse.
Find the equation
of a chord of
contact.

4u Maths Summary

The equation for the chord of an ellipse is:

x cos + + y sin + = cos

a
2
b
2
2
Let PT and PQ be tangents of an ellipse.

Page 56 of 117

Let

P = (x1, y1)
Q = (x2, y2)
T = (x0, y0)
Equation of tangent PT:
x0 x1
y0 y1
2 +
2 = 1
a
b
Equation of tangent PQ:
x0 x2
y y
+ 0 22 = 1
2
a
b
Hence both P & Q satisfy:
x x0
yy
+ 20 = 1
2
a
b

The chord of contact is useful as a tool in the proof of a

number of properties of an ellipse.
Prove that the
sum of the focal
lengths is
constant.

P = (acos , bsin )

Let

S = (ae, 0)
S' = ( ae, 0)
PS =
PS

(acos ae)

b
b

2
2

PS
PS
PS

2 2

2
2

+ b sin

= a ae

2 2

PS

= a 1 e
2

ae

PS

2 2

= a cos 2a ecos + a e

Using

PS

+ (bsin 0)

= a b

= a cos 2a ecos + a b

= a cos 2a ecos + a b 1 sin

= a cos 2a ecos + a b cos

2
a

+ b sin

b cos 2a ecos + a

= a e cos 2a ecos + a

2 2

= a (1 ecos)

PS = a (1 ecos)
PS' = a (1 + ecos)
PS + PS' = 2a (A constant)

The focus -directrix definition leads to a simple proof that the

sum of the focal lengths is constant (2a).

4u Maths Summary

Page 57 of 117

Prove the
reflection
property, namely
that the tangent to
an ellipse at a
point P on it is
equally inclined to
the focal chords
through P.

4u Maths Summary

Page 58 of 117

4u Maths Summary

Page 59 of 117


tan = b

aesin

4u Maths Summary

Page 60 of 117

tan = b
aesin

tan = tan
=
RPS' = TPS

4u Maths Summary

The reflection property of the ellipse may be approached

by using the result that the bisector of an angle of a
triangle divides the opposite side into two intervals,
whose lengths are in the same ratio as the lengths of the
other two sides.

Page 61 of 117

Prove that the

chord of contact
from a point on a
directrix is a focal
chord.

QR is a focal chord

Prove that part of

the tangent
between the point
of contact and the
directrix subtends
a right angle at the
4u Maths Summary

Page 62 of 117

corresponding
focus.
Prove simple
properties for
both the general
2

ellipse

=1

and for ellipses

with given values
of a and b.
Write down the
defining equation
of a hyperbola
with centre at the
origin.
Sketch the
hyperbola
2

Students are not expected to do proofs, under examination

conditions, which are more difficult than those involved in
the Contents and Skills objectives.
Locus problems on the ellipse are not included.

General Equation of a Hyperbola:

2

x
a

= 1

=1

,
showing points of
intersection with
axes of symmetry
and positions of
asymptotes.
a

(-a, 0)

(a, 0)

Rules:
Cuts the x-axis at (-a, 0) & (a, 0)

The asymptotes are: y = bx

The shape of the hyperbola should be examined as

b varies.
a

Find the length of

the major and
minor axes and
semi-major and
semi-minor axes
of a hyperbola.
Write down the
4u Maths Summary

Rules:
Length of major axis = 2a
Length of minor axis = 2b
Length of semi-major axis = a
Length of semi-minor axis = b
Parametric Coordinates:
Page 63 of 117

parametric
coordinates of a
point on the
hyperbola.
Find the equation
of a hyperbola
from its focusdirectrix
definition.

x = a sec
y = b tan

The definition of a conic is:

PS

= e

PM

Where

P Is any point on the conic

S The focus of the conic
M A point on the directrix
e The degree of eccentricity

For a hyperbola , e > 1

Rearranging the definition of a conic gives:
PS = ePM

Therefore, the equation of a hyperbola can be calculated by

substituting in appropriate values for the focus, directrix and
eccentricity.

Find the
eccentricity from
the defining
equation of a
hyperbola.

The focus -directrix definition should be used whenever a

focal distance is to be calculated.
Using the definition of a conic:
PS = ePM
2

(x ae) + (y 0)
(x ae)

2
2
= e x a

+ y

2 2

x 2aex + a e + y
2

2 2

e x + y

2 2

2
2

2 2

= e x 2aex + a
2

x ex + y

x a 2 + (y y) 2

= e

2 2

= a ae
2

= a 1 e

y
2

a 1 e

From before b

= 1
2

= a 1 e

Since e > 1, 1 e < 0

b

Given the
equation of the
hyperbola, find
the coordinates of
its foci and
equations of its
directrices.
4u Maths Summary

2 2

= a e 1

For the hyperbola with equation:

2
2
x
y
2 = 1
2
a
b
Foci:
(ae, 0)
Directrices:
Page 64 of 117

x = a
e

Sketch a
hyperbola,
marking on it the
positions of its
foci and
directrices.

y= a

(-ae, 0)

y= a

(ae, 0)

Use implicit
differentiation to
find the equations
of the tangent and
normal at P(x1, y1)
on a hyperbola.

Gradient of Tangent

4u Maths Summary

Page 65 of 117

Equation of tangent to hyperbola:

x x1
yy
21 = 1
2
a
b

Equation of normal to hyperbola:

2

a x + b y = a2 + b2
x1
y1

4u Maths Summary

Page 66 of 117

Find the equations

of the tangent and
normal at P
(asec , btan )
on the hyperbola.

Gradient of Tangent

Equation of tangent to hyperbola

xsec ytan = 1
a
b

Equation of normal to hyperbola

by + ax = a2 + b2
tan
sec

4u Maths Summary

Page 67 of 117

Find the equation

of a chord of a
hyperbola.

The equation of a chord from P (asec , btan ) to

Q(asec , btan ) is:
x cos y sin + = cos +

a
2
b
2
2

Find the equation

of a chord of
contact.

Let the point on directrix = T(x0 , y0)

Let P(x1, y1) & Q(x2 , y2)
Therefore the chord formulas for both are:
x0 x1
2

y0 y1
b

= 1

&

x0 x2
2

y0 y2
b

= 1

Both equations satisfy the relation:

x x0
y y0

= 1
a

Prove that the

difference of the
focal lengths is a
constant.

4u Maths Summary

The chord of contact is useful in proving some properties.

Proving PS PS = k

Page 68 of 117

Prove the
reflection property
for a hyperbola.
Prove that the
chord of contact
from a point on
the directrix is a
focal chord.
Prove simple
properties for the
general hyperbola
and also
hyperbolae with
given values of a
and b.

The same geometry theorem, as used in the case of the

ellipse, is useful in proving the reflection property of the
hyperbola.
This proof is exactly the same for the hyperbola as it is with
the ellipse.

The major properties of the hyperbola are to be proven for

both the general hyperbola with centre O and for hyperbolae
with given values of a and b.
Students are not e xpected to do proofs, under examination
conditions, which are more difficult than those involved in
the skills objectives.
Locus problems, on a hyperbola with the general equation,
are not in the course.

The Rectangular
Hyperbola
Prove that the
hyperbola with
equation

xy =

1
2

a is the

hyperbola
2

x y = a
referred to
different axes.

4u Maths Summary

Page 69 of 117

Write down the

eccentricity,
coordinates of
foci and vertices,
equations of
directrices and
equations of
asymptotes.
Sketch the
hyperbola

xy =

1
2

A definition needs to be given for a rectangular hyperbola. It

quickly follows, from seeing the connection between
x2 y2 = a2 and xy = a2 , that the eccentricity is 2 .
Eccentricity
= 2
Foci
= (a, a)
Directrices
= x + y = a
a
a
Vertices
=
,
or (c, c)
2
2
Asymptotes
= x = 0, y = 0

a , for
varying values of
a, marking on
vertices, foci,
directrices and
asymptotes.

4u Maths Summary

Page 70 of 117

Write down the

parametric
coordinates for
the rectangular
hyperbola
2

xy = c , for

varying values of
c.
Find the equation
of the chord
joining P cp, c

p
to Q cq, c .

Asymptotes are the x and y axes.

When the value of c changes, substitute the new value into
the following formulas:
x = ct
y = c
t
P ct, c
t

Gradient of PQ

4u Maths Summary

Page 71 of 117

Find the equation

of the tangent at
P.

4u Maths Summary

Page 72 of 117

Find the equation

of the normal at P.

Find the equation

of the chord
joining P(x1, y 1) to
Q(x2, y 2).

4u Maths Summary

Page 73 of 117

Therefore, the equation of the chord from P to Q is:

Find the equation

of the chord of
contact from T(x0,
y0).

Find the point of

Use the equations for tangents and normals.
intersection of
tangents and of
Solve these simultaneously to find the points of intersection.
normals.
Area of the Triangle:
Prove simple
geometrical
properties of the
rectangular
hyperbola
T
including:
o The area of the
triangle
P
bounded by a
tangent and
the asymptotes
is a constant.
o The length of
R
the intercept,
cut off a
tangent by the
asymptotes,
equals twice

4u Maths Summary

Page 74 of 117

the distance of
the point of
contact from
the
intersection of
the
asymptotes.

Length of Intercept:
T

4u Maths Summary

Page 75 of 117

Find loci of points

including:
o Loci
determined by
intersection
points of
tangents.
o Loci
determined by
intersection
points of
normals
o Loci
determined by
midpoints of
intervals.

4u Maths Summary

Intersection of tangents:

This example is for a problem whereby the points P & Q

must join to form a chord that passes through a given point,
in this case (0, 4).
Also, for this example, c = 3.

Page 76 of 117

Intersection of Normals:
Midpoints of intervals:

4u Maths Summary

Page 77 of 117

The locus is therefore a hyperbola that shares the same

asymptotes as the original equation.
It is not intended that locus problems should include
sophisticated techniques for elimination of parameters.
Students are expected to be able to proceed from a pair of
parametric equations to obtain a locus expressible by a
linear equation (perhaps with constraints on x or y). In cases
where the resulting locus is not expressible in terms of a
linear equation, it will be given in algebraic o r geometric
form and students will verify that this form is satisfied
(perhaps with additional constraints).

Appreciate that
the various conic
sections (circle,
ellipse, parabola,
hyperbola and
pairs of
intersecting lines)
are indeed the
curves obtained
when a plane
intersects a
(double) cone
Relate the various
ranges of values
of the eccentricity
e to the
appropriate conic
and to understand
how the shape of
a conic varies as
its eccentricity
varies.
Appreciate that
the equations of
all conic sections
4u Maths Summary

For e = 1:
The locus is a parabola
PS = PM
For e < 1:
The locus in an ellipse.
PS < PM
For e > 1:
The locus is a hyperbola
PS > PM
All conic sections deal with just equations in x and y.

Page 78 of 117

involve only
quadratic
expressions in x
and y.

4u Maths Summary

Page 79 of 117

Topic 4
Integration
Use a table of
standard
integrals.
Change an
integrand into an
appropriate form
by use of
algebra.
Evaluate
integrals using
algebraic
substitutions.

The table of standard integrals is supplied in an exam and

can be referred to for integration.
Look for constant values that can be removed, trig
substitutions, etc.

Let u equal some portion of the integrand so that the

integrand can be rearranged to give an integrand in terms of u
and du.
Eg:

u du

Evaluate simple
trigonometric
integrals.

Only simple substitutions are needed, eg u = 1 + x2,

2 4

x
v2 = 1 x in x(1 + x ) dx ,
dx .

1x
The effect on limits of integration is required, and definite
integrals are to be treated.
Trigonometric Identities:
2

sin + cos = 1
2

1 + cot = cosec
2

tan + 1 = sec

Sums & Differences:

sin( + ) = sincos + sin cos
sin( ) = sincos sin cos
cos( + ) = cos cos sinsin
cos( ) = cos cos + sinsin

tan( + ) = tan + tan

1 tan tan

tan( ) = tan tan

1 + tan tan

Double Angles:

sin 2 = 2sincos
2

cos 2 = cos sin

2

= 2cos 1
2

= 1 2sin
2tan
tan 2 =
2
1 tan

Transformations:
4u Maths Summary

Page 80 of 117

asin + bcos
asin bcos
acos + bsin
acos bsin

=
=
=
=

rsin( + )
rsin( )
rcos( )
rcos( + )

where r =

a + b
tan = b
a

Integration of Trigonometric Functions:

Basic Trigonometric Integration:

sinax dx = 1 cosax + c

cosax dx = 1 sinax + c

a
2

sec ax dx = 1 tanax + c

a
Integration of Squared Trig Functions:
2

sin ax = 1 x 1 sin 2ax + c

2

4a

2
cos ax = 12 x + 1 sin 2ax + c

4a
Inverse Trigonometric Functions:
-1
1

dx = sin x + c

2
2
a
a x

1
2

a x

-1
dx = cos x + c
a

-1

a
dx = tan x + c
2
2
a + x
a

Evaluate
Integrals using
trigonometric
substitutions.

The Substitution Method:

1 + t

4u Maths Summary

Page 81 of 117

Let t = tan
2

Ratios:
2

tan = t
2

sin =
2

t
2

1 + t

cos =
2

1
2

1 + t

Basic Ratios:
sin =

2t
2

1+t

1t
cos =
2
1+t
2t
tan =
2
1t

Derivative:
d = 2
2
dt
1+t

Evaluate
integrals using
integration by
parts.

This works for an integrand whereby one part is also to be

differentiated and the other part capable of being integrated.

Derive and use

recurrence
relations.

Recurrence Formula:
n

cos x dx

n
In = cos x dx

n 1
= cos
x . cosx dx

u dv dx = uv v du dx

dx
dx
or

uv' dx = uv vu' dx

n 1

Let u = cos
x
du = sinx (n 1) cos n 2x
dx
dv = cosx
dx
v = sinx

n 1

4u Maths Summary

Page 82 of 117

n 2

x + (n 1)sinxcos
x . sinx dx

n 1

2
n 2
= sinxcos
x + (n 1) sin x cos
x dx

n 1
2
n 2

= sinxcos
x + (n 1) (1 cos x)cos
x dx

n 1
n 2
n

= sinxcos
x + (n 1) cos
x cos x dx

In = sinxcos

= sinxcos
In = sinxcos

n 1

n 1

n 1

n 2
n

x + (n 1) cos
x dx (n 1) cos x dx

x + (n 1)In 2 (n 1)In

In + (n 1)I n = sinxcos

n 1

x + (n 1)In 2

n 1

nIn = sinxcos
x + (n 1)In 2
n

1
In = 1 sinxcos
x + n 1 In 2
n
n

Then use this new-found equation to solve an integral such

as:
6

cos x dx

Integrate rational
functions by
completing the
square in a
quadratic
denominator.
Integrate rational
functions whose
denominators
have simple
linear or
quadratic
factors.

Completing a square will often result in an inverse tan result.

Partial Fractions:
Used in situations whereby the denominator is broken into
parts so it can be integrated.
Example:

5x + 1

(x 1)(x + 2)
5x + 1
= a + b
(x 1)(x + 2)
x 1
x+2
5x + 1 = a(x + 2) + b(x 1)
Then solve for x = -2 & 1 to find values of a & b
Then integrate:
Let

+ b
x1
x+ 2

4u Maths Summary

Page 83 of 117

Integrals involving the Log Function:

1

dx = lnx + c
x
h'(x)

dx = ln h(x) + c
h(x)

If one of the factors in the denominator is a quadratic, then

instead of b being part of the equivalence, use a basic
linear function.
Example:

5x + 1
= a + 2bx + c
2
(x + 3x + 2)(x 2)
x 2
x + 3x + 2

4u Maths Summary

Note that sometimes polynomial division is needed to

solve an integrand.

Page 84 of 117

Topic 5
Volumes
Appreciate that,
by dividing a
solid into a
number of slices
or shells, whose
volumes can be
simply
estimated, the
volume of the
solid is the value
of the definite
integral obtained
as the limit of
the
corresponding
approximating
sums.

A solids volume can be calculated by dividing it into slices or

shells.
Let us say V = A(x). x
By summing these together in a series and taking the limit as
x 0.

V =

lim

x 0

A(x). x

V = A(x) dx
a
This can then be adjusted so a definite integral is reached.

4u Maths Summary

The purpose of this topic is to provide practical examples

of the use of a definite integral to represent a quantity (in
this case, a volume) whose value can be regarded as the
limit of an appropriate approximating sum. Emphasis is to
be placed on understanding the various approximation
methods given, deriving the relevant approximate
expression for the corresponding element of volume and
proceeding from this to expressing the volume as a
definite integral. The evaluations of infinite series by a
definite integral, or of integrals by summation of series, are
not included in this topic.
Volumes of revolution could lead, from questions involving
rotation about a coordinate axis, to rotation about a line
parallel to a coordinate axis, eg find the volume of the
solid formed when the region bounded by y = 2 x , the xaxis and x = 4 is rotated about the line x = 4.
Always draw a sketch

Page 85 of 117

Find the volume

of a solid of
revolution by
summing the
volumes of
slices with
circular crosssections.
Find the volume
of a solid of
revolution by
summing the
volumes of
slices with
annular crosssections.

x = y
From this revolution we take a typical slice, which in this case
is a spherical slice.
x
radius = y

A(x)

So, therefore the area of the circle can be expressed as:

2
A(x) = y
Meaning the volume of this slice is:
2
V = y x
By summing together and taking the limit, the volume of the
whole solid is:

V =

lim

x 0

A(x) x

V = A(x) dx
0
5

V = ( y ) dx
0
5

V = y dx
0

Since y2 = x

4u Maths Summary

Page 86 of 117

V = x dx
0

2 5

V = x
2 0
3
V = 25 units
2

This method can also be applied to rotations around the yaxis.

Find the volume

of a solid of
revolution by
summing the
volumes of
cylindrical
shells.

Notes:
Examples involving annular shells should include
questions as difficult as the following. The region R,
2
4
bounded by: 0 x 2 , 0 y 4x x , is rotated
about the y-axis. The solid so formed is sliced by planes
perpendicular to the y-axis. Express the areas of the
cross-sections so formed as a function of y, the distance
of the plane from the origin. Use this result to calculate the
volume of the solid.
This is used when a graph is being rotated about the y-axis
between x = a & x = b.
Take for instance, this example, where we rotate the area
enclosed between the line y = -x + 2 a nd the x & y-axes.

We firstly take our typical slice. This is a cylinder with:

Radius = x
Height = y
Width = ?x
This is then unfolded to give a rectangle.
?x

4u Maths Summary

Page 87 of 117

2 x

Therefore:
V = Volume of a cylindrical shell .
2

V = [ (x + x) x ] y
2

V = [ (x + 2xx + x ) x ] y
2

V = y (2xx + x )
2

However, x is negligible, so:

V = 2 x y. x

Taking the limit and integrating, gives:

V =

lim

x 0

V = 2 xy dx
0
Since y = x + 2
2

V = 2 x ( x + 2) dx
0
2

V = 2 ( x + 2x ) dx
0

Finding definite integral gives:

2
x3
2
V = 2
+ x
3
0
3

V = 8 units
3

Notes:
A formula for summing by cylindrical shells should not be
learnt. Each problem should rather be developed from first
principles.

4u Maths Summary

Page 88 of 117

Find the volume

of a solid which
has parallel
cross-sections
of similar shape.
4

5
4

3
We are given the dimensions of the base and told the height
is 4m. That is, 4m right through the middle of the pyramid
from top to bottom.
For this our typical slice is:

a
b

Since the sizes of a, b and c will vary proportional to how far

along the pyramid we go, we break them down into three
single triangles.
This way, each of the values for a, b and c can be calculated
in terms of x.
Since each of these vary proportionally with x:

5
a = x
5
4
5x
a =
4

4u Maths Summary

4
b = x
4
4

b = x

3
c = x
3
4
3x
c =
4

Page 89 of 117

We now have values for our typical slice.

5x
4

3x
4

We then use the area of a triangle.

A(x) = 1 bh
2
A(x) =

1
2

3x x
4

Meaning the volume of the typical slice is:

2

V = 3x x
8

By summing and taking the limit:

V =

lim

x 0

3x x
8

V = 3x dx
0 8

3x3 4
V =

24 0
3

V = 8 units

Notes:
The process of writing the limiting sum as an integral
should be extended to cases where cross-sections are
other than circular. These cases should only involve
problems in which the geometrical shape is able to be
visualised, eg prove that the volume of a pyramid of height
h on a square base of side a is

4u Maths Summary

1
3

a h

Page 90 of 117

Topic 6
Mechanics
Projectile Motion
Derive the
equations of
motion of a
projectile

Horizontally:

x = vt cos
.
x = v cos
..
x = 0
Vertically:

y = vt sin gt
2
.
y = v sin gt
..
y = g
Cartesian Equation of Motion:

4u Maths Summary

Page 91 of 117

y =

gx
2

(1 + tan ) + x tan

2V
Maximum Height:
.
Max height occurs when y = 0

h = V sin
2g
Range:
Since projectile motion is a parabola, the time taken for the
entire journey will be double that taken to reach the maximum
height.

4u Maths Summary

Page 92 of 117

R = V sin 2
g
Maximum Range:
Max range occurs when the projectile is fired at 45.
2

Use equations
for horizontal
and vertical
components of
velocity and
displacement to
answer harder
problems on
projectiles.
Simple Harmonic
Motion
Write down
equations for
displacement,
velocity and
acceleration
given that a
motion is simple
harmonic.

4u Maths Summary

R = V
g
Time of Flight:
Since projectile motion is a parabola, the time taken for the
entire journey will be double that taken to reach the maximum
height.
T = 2Vsin
g
Use the above equations and substitute in values that are
known in order to find those that arent.

Simple Harmonic Motion:

Page 93 of 117

x
.
x
.
x
..
x

= a cos(nt + )
= d (a cos(nt + )
dx
= an sin(nt + )
= d ( an sin(nt + )
dx

..
2
x = an cos(nt + )
..
2
x = n [acos(nt + )]
..
2
x = n x

Use relevant
formulae and
graphs to solve
harder problems
on simple
harmonic
motion.
Use Newtons
laws to obtain
equations of
motion of a
particle in
situations other
than projectile
motion and
simple harmonic
motion.

Substitute in known values to the formulas above to find

unknown values.

Newtons Laws:
Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to
remain in that state of motion unless an external force
is applied to it.
The relationship between an object's mass m, its
acceleration a, and the applied force F is F = ma.
Acceleration and force are vectors (as indicated by
their symbols being displayed in slant bold font); in
this law the direction of the force vector is the same
as the direction of the acceleration vector.
For every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
This translates to a few necessary formulas:
F = ma
where

F - Force in Newtons
m - Mass in kg
a - Acceleration in ms

p = mv
where

p - Momentum
m - Mass
v - Velocity in ms

1 kg wt = 9.8 N

4u Maths Summary

The classical statement of Newtons first and second laws

Page 94 of 117

Describe
mathematically
the motion of
particles in
situations other
than projectile
motion and
simple harmonic
motion.
Mathematical
Descriptions of
Motion
..
Given x = f(x)
and initial
conditions
2

derive v = g(x)
and describe the
resultant motion.
Recognise that a
motion is simple
harmonic given
an equation for
either
acceleration,
velocity or
displacement,
and describe the
resultant motion.
Resisted Motion
along a horizontal
line
Derive, from
Newtons laws of
motion, the
equation of
motion of a
particle moving
in a single
direction under a
resistance
proportional to a
power of the
speed.

4u Maths Summary

of motion should be given as an illustration of the

application of calculus to the physical world. Resolution of
forces, accelerations and velocities in horizontal and
vertical directions is to be used to obtain the appropriate
equations of motion in two dimensions.
Use the above formulas and represent situations using them.

If

Students should be able to represent mathematically,

motions described in physical terms. They should be able
to explain, in physical terms, features given by
mathematical descriptions of motion in one or two
dimensions.

..
x = f(x), use

d 1 v2
dx 2

2
f(x) = d 1 v
dx 2
2

v = f(x) dx

Look for equations that look like the ones above.

1
2

Also, if the motion needs to be proven, integrate or

differentiate to show that:
..
2
x = n x

Remembering F = ma,
n
If resistance is kv

a = kv

F = mkv

Page 95 of 117

Derive an
expression for
velocity as a
function of time

..
If x = f(t), use dv
dt
dv = f(t)
dt

v = f(t) dt

..
If x = f(v), use dv if initial conditions are (t,v)
dt
dv = f(v)
dt
dt = 1
dv
f(v)

Derive an
expression for
velocity as a
function of
displacement.

t = 1 dv
f(v)
Then rearrange
..
2
If x = f(x), use d 12 v

dx
d 1 v2 = f(x)

dx 2
1
2

Derive an
expression for
displacement as
a function of
time.

Motion Vertically
Upwards
Derive, from
Newtons laws of
motion, the
equation of
motion of a
particle, moving
vertically
upwards in a
medium, with a
resistance R
proportional to
the first or
second power of
its speed.

2
..
d x
If x = f(t), use
2
dt
2

d x = f(t)
2
dt
Then intergrate twice

Remember F = ma,
..
n
x = (g + kv )
n

F = m (g + kv )

4u Maths Summary

v = f(x) dx

Typical cases to consider include those in which the

resistance is proportional to the speed and to the square
of the speed.
Analysis of the motion of a particle should include
consideration of the behaviour of the particle as t becomes
large. Graphs can offer assistance in understanding the
behaviour of the particle.
The origin should be placed at the point of projection.
The maximum height reached by the particle can be
obtained from the expression relating speed and
displacement.
The time taken to reach this maximum height can be
Page 96 of 117

Derive an
expression for
velocity as a
function of time

obtained from the expression relating speed and

displacement.
The time taken to reach this maximum height can be
obtained from the expression relating speed and time.
Problems should include cases where the magnitude of

the resistance is given. (eg: R =

..
If x = f(t), use dv
dt
dv = f(t)
dt

1
10

v )

v = f(t) dt

..
If x = f(v), use dv if initial conditions are (t,v)
dt
dv = f(v)
dt
dt = 1
dv
f(v)

Derive an
expression for
displacement as
a function of
time.

Solve problems
by using the
expressions
derived for
acceleration,
velocity and
displacement.
Motion of a Particle
Falling Downwards
Derive, from
Newtons laws of
motion, the
equation of
motion of a
particle falling in
a medium with a
resistance R
proportional to
the first or
4u Maths Summary

t = 1 dv
f(v)
Then rearrange
2
..
d x
If x = f(t), use
2
dt
2

d x = f(t)
2
dt
Then intergrate twice
Use the above equations and substitute in values.

Remember, F = ma
n

a = g kv
F = ma

F = m (g kv )

Cases, other than where the resistance is proportional to

the first or second power of the speed, are not required to
be investigated.
Students should place the origin at the point from which
Page 97 of 117

second power of
its speed.

Determine the
terminal velocity
of a falling
particle, from its
equation of
motion.

the particle initially falls. If the motion of a particle both

upwards and then downwards is considered then the
position of the origin should be changed as soon as the
particle reaches its maximum height. Care must then be
taken in determining the correct initial conditions for the
downward motion.
The time taken for the particle to reach the ground should
be found .
Problems should include a study of the complete motion of
a particle, projected vertically upwards, which then returns
to its starting point. For specific resistance functions,
comparisons should be made between the times required
for its upward and downward journeys and between the
speed of projection and the speed of its return.
Terminal velocity occurs when acceleration has ceased.
n
g kv = 0
n

g = kv
n
v = g
k
v =

Derive
expressions for
velocity as a
function of time
and for velocity
as a function of
displacement.

g
k

Time:
..
If x = f(t), use dv
dt
dv = f(t)
dt

v = f(t) dt

..
If x = f(v), use dv if initial conditions are (t,v)
dt
dv = f(v)
dt
dt = 1
dv
f(v)

t = 1 dv
f(v)
Then rearrange
Displacement:
..
2
If x = f(x), use d 12 v

dx
d 1 v2 = f(x)

dx 2
1
2

4u Maths Summary

v = f(x) dx

Page 98 of 117

Derive an
expression for
displacement as
a function of
time.

Solve problems
by using the
expressions
derived for
acceleration,
velocity and
displacement.
Circular Motion
Define angular
velocity of a
point moving
about a fixed
point.

Deduce, from
this definition of
angular velocity,
expressions for
angular
acceleration of a
point around a
fixed point.
Prove that the
instantaneous
velocity of a
particle moving
in a circle of
radius R, with
angular velocity
, is R .

2
..
d x
If x = f(t), use
2
dt
2

d x = f(t)
2
dt
Then intergrate twice
Use above equations and substitute in known values.

Angular Velocity:

.
= d =
dt
Through differentiation
= d
dt
2
.
..

= d2 =
dt

Velocity:
v = Change in arc AB
Change in time
v = d R
dt

v = Rd
dt
v = R

Prove that the

tangential and
normal
components of
the force acting
on a particle
4u Maths Summary

Page 99 of 117

moving in a
circle of radius
R, with angular
velocity
. , need
to be Mr and
2
mR
respectively.
Uniform Circular
Motion
Write down the
formula
appropriate for a
particle moving
around a circle
with uniform
angular velocity.

4u Maths Summary

Page 100 of 117

Apply these
formulae to the
solution of
simple problems
Conical Pendulum
Use Newtons
law to analyse
the forces acting
on the bob of a
conical
4u Maths Summary

Use above equations, substitute in known values.

Conical Pendulum:

Page 101 of 117

pendulum.

Vertically:
T cos mg = 0
Radially:
2

2
T sin = mv = mr
r

Derive results

Tension = 4 mn l

4u Maths Summary

Page 102 of 117

h =

4u Maths Summary

g
2

Page 103 of 117

Discuss the
behaviour of the
pendulum as its
features vary.
Apply derived
formulae to the
solution of
simple
problems.
Banked Circular
Track
Use Newtons
laws to analyse
the forces acting
on a body,
represented by a
particle, moving
at constant
speed around a
banked circular
track.

tan = v
rg
The vertical depth of the bob below the pivot point is
independent of the length of the string and the mass of the
bob.
As the speed of the particle increases, it rises upwards.
Use above formulas and substitute in known values.

Vertically:
N cos F sin mg = 0
Radially:
2

N sin + F sin = mv
r

Derive results

4u Maths Summary

Page 104 of 117

h = vd
Rg
2

tan = v
Rg

Calculate the
optimum speed
around a banked
track given the
construction
specifications.

v =

4u Maths Summary

Rg tan

Page 105 of 117

Calculate the
forces acting on
a body,
travelling around
a banked track,
at a speed other
than the
optimum speed.

F = mv cos mg sin
r

4u Maths Summary

Page 106 of 117

Topic 7
Polynomials
Integer roots of
polynomials with
integer coefficients.
Prove that, if a
polynomial has
integer
coefficients and
if a is an integer
root, then a is a
divisor of the
constant term.
Test a given
polynomial with
integer
coefficients for
possible integer
roots.

The general form of a polynomial is:

n

n 1

a nx + a n 1x

n 2

+ a n 2x

+ ..... + a1x + a0

a 0 is the constant term

If a is an integer root, then a is a factor of a0 .

This is known as the remainder theorem.
If P(a) = 0 then:
(x a) is a factor of P(x)
a is a root of P(x)
Example:
2

P(x) = x 6x + 5 = 0
Testing x = 5
2

65+5 = 0

P(5) = 5

Since P(5) = 0 , (x 5) is a factor of P(x)

All possible integer roots of polynomials lie among the

positive and negative integer divisors of its constant term.

However, not all polynomials contain integer coefficients.

If P b = 0 then:

(ax b) is a factor of P(x)

b is a factor of P(x)
a

Where b is a factor of the constant term and a is a factor of

the leading term.
Example:
P(z) = 2z

3z

+ 2z 3 = 0

z could potentially be any of the following:

3 , 1 , 32 , 12
In this case, P 3 = 0.
2

(2z 3) is a factor of P(z)

4u Maths Summary

Page 107 of 117

Multiple Roots
Define a multiple
root

A polynomial of degree n has n roots, but they are not

necessarily all different.
We say that a is a root of multiplicity r when the factor
(z a) occurs r times.
Therefore:
r

P(x) = (z a) .Q(x)

Write down the

order
(multiplicity) of a
root.
Prove that if
r

P(x) = (x a) .S(x)

, where r > 1 and

S(a) 0 , then
P'(x) has a root a
of multiplicity
(r 1).

The order of a root is the number of times it appears as a

factor.

where r > 0 and S(a) 0

P(x) = (x a) .S(x)
r

u = (x a)

du = r (x a)r 1
dx
v = S(x)
dv = S'(x)
dx
r

r 1

P'(x) = (x a) .S'(x) + r (x a)
r 1

= (x a)

r 1

= (x a)

Solve simple
problems
involving
multiple roots of
a polynomial.
State the
fundamental
theorem of
algebra.
Deduce that a
polynomial of
degree n > 0,
with real or
complex
coefficients, has
exactly n
complex roots,
allowing for
multiplicities.

4u Maths Summary

.S(x)

[(x a)S'(x) + r S(x)]

Q(x)

These can include examples whereby the derivative of a

function must first be established.

The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra asserts that every

polynomial P(x) of degree n over the complex plane has at
least one complex root.
n

n 1

Let P(z) = a nz + a n 1z

+ .... + a 1z + a 0 = 0

Let z1 be a root. So P(z1) = 0

P(z) = (z z1)Qn 1(z)
where Qn 1(z) is a polynomial of degree (n 1)
By continuing this pattern we get:
P(z) = a n(z z1)(z z2)....(z zn) where an 0

Using this result, the factor theorem should now be used to

prove (by induction on the degree) that a polynomial of
degree n > 0 with real or complex coefficients has exactly n
complex roots.
Page 108 of 117

Factoring
Polynomials
Recognise that a
real polynomial
of degree n can
be written as a
product of real
linear and real
quadratic
factors.
Factor a real
polynomial into
a product of real
linear and real
quadratic
factors.

A real polynomial can be written as a product of real linear

and quadratic factors.
Example:
3

P(z) = 2z 3z + 2z 3
Using the remainder theorem:
P 3 = 0
2

2z 3 is a factor of P(z)
2

z + 0z + 1
3

2z 3 |2z 3z + 2z 3
2z 3z

0z + 2z
2

0z + 0z
2z 3
2z 3
0
2

P(z) = (2z 3)(z + 1)

Recognise that a
complex
polynomial of
degree n can be
written as a
product of n
complex linear
factors.
Factor a
polynomial into
a product of
complex linear
factors.

A complex polynomial of degree n can be written as a product

of n complex linear factors.
Using the example from above:
2
P(z) = (2z 3)(z + 1)
2

= (2z 3)(z i )
= (2z 3)(z i)(z + i)

As you can see above, the complex roots of real

polynomials occur in conjugate pairs.

That means that if (z i) is a factor of P(x), (z + i) is also a

factor.

Students should be able to factor cubic and quartic

polynomials over both the real and complex planes.

There are instances where a polynomial cannot be factorised

using the remainder theorem. There are a number of
alternatives that need to be familiarised:
Difference of cubes:
3

z 1 =0
2

(z 1)(z + z + 1) = 0

4u Maths Summary

Page 109 of 117

Difference of two squares:

4

z =1
4

z 1=0
2

(z 1)(z + 1) = 0
z = 1, i
Completing the square:

z = -1
4

z +1=0
4

z + 2z + 1 2z = 0
2

(z + 1) 2z = 0
2

(z + 1 2 z)(z + 1 + 2 z) = 0

(z 2 z + 1)(z + 2 z + 1) = 0
Any combination of two or more of the above methods.
If given the roots, say a, b & c.

Write down a
polynomial given
P(x) = (x a)(x b)(x c)
a set of
properties
sufficient to
define it.
Solve
Solve as shown above.
polynomial
There is, however, another method that can be employed.
equations over
the real and
complex planes. De Moivres Theorem:
If z = r(cos + isin) then
z
z

= r (cos + isin)

= r (cosn + isinn)

r (cos + isin) = r (cosn + isinn )

Example:
Use De Moivre's theorem to express cos 3 in terms of cos
and sin 2 in terms of sin.
cos 3 + i sin 3
3

= (cos + i sin)
3

= cos + 3 i cos sin 3cossin i sin

Equating Real & Imaginary parts:
cos 3

= cos 3cossin
3

= cos 3cos(1 cos )

3

= 4cos 3cos

4u Maths Summary

Page 110 of 117

sin 3

= 3cos sin sin

2

= 3(1 sin )sin sin

3

= 3sin 4sin

Roots &
Coefficients of
Polynomials
Write down the
relationships
between the
roots and
coefficients of
polynomial
equations of
degrees 2, 3 & 4.

Quadratic Equations:
2

If & are roots of ax + bx + c = 0 then:

+ = b
a
= c
a

Cubic Equations:
3

If , & are roots of ax + bx + cx + d = 0 then:

++ = b
a
+ + = c
a
= d
a

Quartic Equations:
4

If , , & are roots of ax + bx + cx + dx + e = 0 then:

+++ = b
a
+ + + + + = c
a
+ + + = d
a
= e
a

Use these
relationships to
form a
polynomial
equation given
its roots.

Quadratic:
2

P(x) = x (sum of roots )x + (Product of roots )

Cubic:
3

P(x) = x (Sum of roots )x + (Sum of roots 2 at a time )x

(Product of roots )

Quartic:
4

P(x) = x (Sum of roots )x + (Sum of roots 2 at a time )x

(Sum of roots 3 at a time )x + (Product of roots )

4u Maths Summary

Page 111 of 117

Form an
equation, whose
roots are a
multiple of the
roots of a given
equation.

Roots are: m, m & m

m( + + ) = mb
a
2

2
m ( + + ) = m c
a
3

3
m = m d
a
2

3
2
x + mb x + m c x + m d = 0
a
a
a
3

Form an
equation, whose
roots are the
reciprocals of
the roots of a
given equation.

ax + mbx + m cx + m d = 0
Roots are: 1 , 1 & 1

1 +1+1

= + +

=c a
a
d
1 +1+1 = c

d
1 + 1 + 1

++

= b a
a
d
1 + 1 + 1 = b

d
1 = a

d
3
2
x + cx + bx + a = 0
d
d
d
3

dx + cx + bx + a = 0

4u Maths Summary

Page 112 of 117

Form an
equation, whose
roots differ by a
constant from
the roots of a
given equation.

Roots are: + k , + k & + k

+ + + 3k = b + 3k = b + 3ak
a
a
( + k )( + k ) + ( + k )( + k ) + ( + k )( + k )
2

= + k + k + k + + k + k + k + + k + k + k
= + + + 2k ( + + ) + 3k

2
= c + 2k b + 3k
a
a
2
= c 2bk + 3k = c 2bk + 3ak
a
a
a

Sum of Roots Two at a time = c 2bk + 3ak

a
( + k )( + k )( + k )
2

= + k + k + k + k + k + k + k
2

= + k ( + + ) + k ( + + ) + k

3
3

3
= d + kc + k b + k
a
a

a
2

= d + kc k b + ak
a

= d kc + k b ak
a

3
2
x + b 3ak x + c 2bk + 3ak x + d kc + k b ak
a
a
a
3

= 0
3

ax + ( b 3ak)x + ( c 2bk + 3ak )x + (d kc + k b ak ) = 0

Form an
equation, whose
roots are the
squares of the
roots of a given
equation.

Roots are: &

2

2
2

= ( + ) 2
2
= b 2c
a
a
2

2c
a
a
2
2

b 2ac
2

4u Maths Summary

Page 113 of 117

2 2

2
= c
a
2

c
a

2
2

2
b
c
x + 2ac
x + 2 = 0
2
a
a
2 2

a x + (2ac b )x + c = 0

Partial Fractions
Write a fraction
in terms of
quotient and
remainder.
2

f(x) = 2x + 3x + 8
x+ 2
2x 1
2

x + 2 2x + 3x + 8
2

2x + 4x
x+8
x2
10
R(x)
f(x) = Q(x) +
B(x)
f(x) = (2x 1) +

10
x+ 2

Write a fraction
in terms of
distinct linear
factors.

f(x) =

x+ 3
2

x 6x + 5
x+3
a + b
2
x 5
x 1
x 6x + 5
x + 3 = a(x 1) + b(x 5)
Let x = 1
4 = -4b
b = -1
Let x = 5
8 = 4a
a = 2

4u Maths Summary

Page 114 of 117

x+3

x 6x + 5

Write a fraction
in terms of
distinct linear
factors and a
simple quadratic
factor.

2 1
x 5
x 1

6x 53x + 42
2

(2x 3)(2x 5x 3)
2

bx + c
a
+
2
2x 3
2x 5x 3

6x 53x + 42 = a(2x 5x 3) + (bx + c)(2x 3)

Let x = 1.5
-24 = -6a
a = 4
Let x = 0
42 = -12 3c
c = -18
Let x = 1
-5 = (-6 4) + (b 18)(-1)
-19 = b 18
b = -1
x + 18
4
f(x) =

2
2x 3
2x 5x 3

Write a fraction
in terms of the
product of two
different simple
quadratic
factors.

f(x) = 2x 2+ 7x 24x + 3
(x 1)(x + 1)
3

2x + 7x 4x + 3 ax + b + cx + d
2
2
2
2
(x 1)(x + 1)
x 1
x +1
2

2x + 7x 4x + 3 = (ax + b)(x + 1) + (cx + d)(x 1)

Let x = 1
8 = 2(a + b)
a +b = 4
(1)
Let x = 0
3 = bd
(2)

4u Maths Summary

Page 115 of 117

Let x = 2
39 = 5(2a + b) + 3(2c + d)
Let x = -1
12 = 2(b a)
ba = 6
(4)
(1) into (4)
4 a a =6
-2a = 2
a = -1
b = 5
d = 2
Sub a, b & d into (3)
39 = 15 + 6c + 6
6c = 18
c = 3
3x + 2
x5
f(x) = 2
2
x +1
x 1

(3)

Apply these
Refer to integration summaries.
partial fraction
decompositions
to the integration
of
corresponding
functions.

4u Maths Summary

Page 116 of 117

Topic 8
Harder 3 Unit
Circle Geometry
Solve more
difficult
problems in
geometry.
Induction
Carry out proofs
by mathematical
induction in
which S(1),
S(2)S(k) are
assumed to be
true in order to
prove S(k+1) is
true.
Use
mathematical
induction to
prove results in
topics which
include
geometry,
inequalities,
sequences and
series, calculus
and algebra.
Inequalities
Prove simple
inequalities by
use of the
definition of a >
b for real a and
b.
Prove further
results involving
inequalities by
logical use of
previously
obtained
inequalities.

4u Maths Summary

See attached sheet.

Mathematical induction occurs in four steps.

STEP 1) Prove the statement is true for the lowest possible
integer value, usually n = 1.
STEP 2) Assume the result is true for n = k.
STEP 3) Use algebraic manipulation to prove the result is true
for n = k + 1.
STEP 4) Have a concluding statement.
Since the formulas was proven true for n=1, it was
assumed true for n=k. It was then proven true for
n=k+1, meaning it is true for all n = 1.

If a > b then:
2

(a b) > 0
2

a 2ab + b
2

a +b

> 0

> 2ab

Page 117 of 117