Cell and molecular biology is reductionist; that is it is based on the

view that knowledge of the parts of the whole can explain the
character of the whole
Cells are small, they can only be seen with microscope, an instrument
that provides a magnified image of tiny object. First made in Europe in
13th century and made by end of sixteenth century
Discovery of cells is credited to Robert Hooke, English microscopist.
Hooke attempted to answer why stoppers made of cork were suited to
holding air in a bottle.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek, duchman: grinding lenses and constructing
simple microscopes. The first to describe various forms of bacteria
which he obtained from water pepper had been soaked and from
scrapings of his teeth.
1830s: widespread importance of cells was realized.
Matthias Schleiden: plants were made of cells and the plant embryo
arose from a single cell
Theodor Schwann: report on the cellular basis of animal life. Cells of
plants and animals are similar structures and proposed these two
tenets of the cell theory
All organisms are composed of one or more cells
The cell is the structural unit of life
Schleiden and Schwann=both agreed that cells could arise from
noncellular materials.
Rudolf Virchow- made a convincing case for 3rd tenet of cell theory
Cells can arise only by division from a preexisting cell
BASIC PROPERTIES OF CELLS
Life is the most basic property of cells.
Cells are the smallest units to exhibit this property. Whole cells can be
removed from a plant or animal and cultured in a lab where they will
grow and reproduce for a long time
Death may also be considered the most basic property of life
ThefirstcultureofhumancellswasbegunbyGeorgeandMarthaGeyofJohnsHopkins
Universityin1951.ThecellswereobtainedfromamalignanttumorandnamedHeLa
cellsafterthedonor,HenriettaLacks.HeLacellsdescendedbycelldivisionfromthis
firstcellsamplearestillbeinggrowninlaboratoriesaroundtheworldtoday

Cells grown in vitro have become an essential tool of cell and

molecular biologists.
Cells are highly complex and organized. Complexity is a property that
is evident when encountered but difficult to describe: think of
complexity in terms of order and consistency.
Themorecomplexastructure,thegreaterthenumberofpartsthatmustbeintheirproper
place,thelesstoleranceoferrorsinthenatureandmoreregulationorcontrolmustbe
exertedtomaintainthesystem.
DNAduplication,forexample,occurswithanerrorrateoflessthanonemistakeevery
tenmillionnucleotidesincorporated
Epithelialcells:linetheintestinetightlyconnectedtoeachotherlikebricksinawall.
Apicalendsfaceintestinalchannelhavemicrovillithatfacilitateabsorptionofnutrients.
Theyprojectoutwardfromsurfacebecausetheycontaininternalskeletonmadeof
filamentswhicharecomposedofactinmonomerspolymerized
Atbasalendintestinalcellshavelotofmitochondriaforenergy
Manyofthemostbasicprocesses,suchasthesynthesisofproteins,theconservationof
chemicalenergy,ortheconstructionofamembrane,areremarkablysimilarinallliving
organisms.
CELLSPOSSESSAGENETICPROGRAMANDTHEMEANSTOUSEIT
Organismsarebuiltaccordingtoinfoencodedincollectionofgenes,whichareofDNA
Genes:storagelockersforinfo,constituteblueprintsforconstructingcellularstructures,
directionsforrunningcellularactivities,programformakingmoreofthemselves
CELLSARECAPABLEOFPRODUCINGMOREOFTHEMSELVES
Individualorganismsaregeneratedbyreproduction,soareindividualcells
Cellsreproducebydivisionmothertotwodaughtercells
Whenahumanoocyteundergoesdivision,oneofthecellscanretainnearlyallofthe
cytoplasm,eventhoitreceiveshalfofthegeneticmaterial
CELLSACQUIREANDUTILIZEENERGY
Everybiologicalprocessrequirestheinputofenergy
Lightenergyisconvertedbyphotosynthesisintochemicalenergythatisstoredinenergy
richcarbslikesucroseorstarch
Formostanimalcellsenergyarrivesprepackagedinformofsugarglucose
Glucoseinhumansisreleasedbyliverintobloodanddeliverschemicalenergytoall
cells

Cellsexpendanenormousamountofenergysimplybreakingdownandrebuildingthe
macromoleculesandorganellesofwhichtheyaremade.Thiscontinualturnover,asit
iscalled,maintainstheintegrityofcellcomponentsinthefaceofinevitablewearandtear
andenablesthecelltorespondrapidlytochangingconditions.
CELLSCARRYOUTAVARIETYOFCHEMICALREACTIONANDENGAGEIN
MECHANICALACTIVITIES
Virtuallyallchemicalchangesthattakeplaceincellsrequireenzymesmoleculesthat
greatlyincreasetherateatwhichachemicalreactionoccurs.Thesumtotalofthe
chemicalreactionsinacellrepresentsthatcell'smetabolism.
Thesetypesofactivitiesarebasedondynamic,mechanicalchangeswithincells,manyof
whichareinitiatedbychangesintheshapeofmotorproteins.Motorproteinsarejust
oneofmanytypesofmolecularmachinesemployedbycellstocarryoutmechanical
activities.
CELLSAREABLETORESPONDTOSTIMULIANDCAPABLEOFSELF
REGULATION
respondtostimuliinobviousways;asinglecelledprotest;movesawayfromanobjectin
itspathormovestowardsourceofnutrients
coveredwithreceptorsthatinteractwithsubstancesintheenvironmentinhighlyspecific
ways.Cellspossessreceptorstohormones,growthfactors,andextracellularmaterials,as
wellastosubstancesonthesurfacesofothercells.
respondtospecificstimulibyalteringtheirmetabolicactivities,movingfromoneplace
toanother,orevencommittingsuicide.
robustness.Cellsarerobust,thatis,heartyordurable,becausetheyareprotectedfrom
dangerousfluctuationsincompositionandbehavior
HOWCELLSEVOLVED

cellsevolvedfromsometypeofprecellularlifeform,whichinturnevolvedfrom
nonlivingorganicmaterialsthatwerepresentintheprimordialseas
alllivingorganismshaveevolvedfromasingle,commonancestralcellthatlivedmore
thanthreebillionyearsago.Becauseitgaverisetoallthelivingorganismsthatweknow
of,thisancientcellisoftenreferredtoasthelastuniversalcommonancestor(orLUCA)
Featuresheldincommonbythetwotypesofcells:
Plasmamembraneofsimilarconstruction
GeneticinformationencodedinDNAusingidenticalgeneticcode

Similarmechanismsfortranscriptionandtranslationofgeneticinformation,
includingsimilarribosomes
Sharedmetabolicpathways(e.g.,glycolysisandTCAcycle)
SimilarapparatusforconservationofchemicalenergyasATP(locatedinthe
plasmamembraneofprokaryotesandthemitochondrialmembraneofeukaryotes)
Similarmechanismofphotosynthesis(betweencyanobacteriaandgreenplants)
Similarmechanismforsynthesizingandinsertingmembraneproteins
Proteasomes(proteindigestingstructures)ofsimilarconstruction(between
archaebacteriaandeukaryotes)
Featuresofeukaryoticcellsnotfoundinprokaryotes:
Divisionofcellsintonucleusandcytoplasm,separatedbyanuclearenvelope
containingcomplexporestructures
ComplexchromosomescomposedofDNAandassociatedproteinsthatare
capableofcompactingintomitoticstructures
Complexmembranouscytoplasmicorganelles(includesendoplasmicreticulum,
Golgicomplex,lysosomes,endosomes,peroxisomes,andglyoxisomes)
Specializedcytoplasmicorganellesforaerobicrespiration(mitochondria)and
photosynthesis(chloroplasts)
Complexcytoskeletalsystem(includingmicrofilaments,intermediatefilaments,
andmicrotubules)andassociatedmotorproteins
Complexflagellaandcilia
Abilitytoingestparticulatematerialbyenclosurewithinplasmamembrane
vesicles(phagocytosis)
Cellulosecontainingcellwalls(inplants)
Celldivisionusingamicrotubulecontainingmitoticspindlethatseparates
chromosomes
Presenceoftwocopiesofgenespercell(diploidy),onefromeachparent

PresenceofthreedifferentRNAsynthesizingenzymes(RNApolymerases)
Sexualreproductionrequiringmeiosisandfertilization
CHAPTER1QUIZ

Allofthefollowingindividualscontributedtocelltheoryexcept:
ROBERTHOOKE

Ofthefollowingstructures,whichisthesmallest?

HYDROGENATOM

Ofthefollowing,whichisthemostprimitive?

PROKARYOTE

Celltheoryincludesallofthefollowingexcept:

THECELLISTHEMOSTPRIMITIVEFORMOFLIFE

Allofthefollowingarebasicpropertiesofcellsexcept:

CELLSHAVENUCLEIANDMITOCHONDRIA

TheArchaeaincludeallofthefollowingexcept:

CYANOBACTERIA

Modelorganismsrepresentingdiversebuttypicalprokaryoticandeukaryoticspeciesincludeallbut:

HOMOSAPS

Allofthefollowingarefeaturesofprokaryotesexcept:

SEXUALREPRODUCTION

Whichofthefollowingmayaccountforthesmallsizeofcells?

THERATEOFDIFF,SURFACEAREA/VOLUMERATIO,#OFMRNASTHATCANBE
PRODUCED

WhichofthefollowingstatementsisNOTtrueofviruses?

VIRUSESHAVEBEENSUCCESSFULLYGROWNINPURECULTURESINTESTTUBES

Achangeinviralhostrange:

OCCURSIFGENESENCODINGVIRALATTACHMENTPROTEINSMUTATE
MAYALLOWADDITIONALSPECIESTOCONTRACTAPARTICULARDISEASE
MAYALLOWDIFFORGANSORTISSUESTOBECOMEDISEASEDDURINGINFECTION

Bonemarrowtransplantsaretobloodtransfusionsasorganengineeringisto_________.

ORGANTRANSPLANT

Themostpowerfultoolfordeterminingevolutionaryrelationshipsamongcelltypesis:

THESTUDYOFNUCLEICACIDSEQUENCESINGENOMES

Inorderforeukaryoticcellsasweknowthemtoexist:

PLASMAMEMBRANEINVAGINATIONNEEDEDTOEVOLVE
ENDOCYTOSISEVOLVED
SYMBIOTICRELATIONSHIPSANDGENETICINFOSWAPPING

CarlWoese'sevolutionarystudiesthatledhimtoproposethethreeSuperkingdomtaxonomicsystem
comparednucleotidesequencespresentin:

16SRRNAGENES

CHAPTER2QUIZ!!!!!!!
Theelementneon(Ne)haseightelectronsinitsoutermostelectronshell.Howmanycovalentbonds
willNereadilyform?

NONE

Ofthefollowingelements,whichislikelytoformtheleastpolarcovalentbondswithhydrogen:

CARBON

Ofthefollowingchemicalbonds,whichisthestrongestinwater?

HOH2CCH2OH

WhichofthefollowingcharacteristicdoesNOTapplytowater?

THEWATERMOLECULEREADILYFORMSHYDROPHOBICINTERACTIONS

Themajorcellularmacromoleculesinclude:

PROTEINS,NUCLEICACIDS,CARBSANDLIPIDS

Ifyouweretotakeatriaglycerolmoleculeandchemicallybreaktheesterbonds,youwouldendup
withtwodifferentkindsofmolecules.Whatisthenameofthekindofmoleculethatwouldbesoluble
inwater?

GYCEROL

WhichofthefollowinghasbeenusedasevidencethatprimitivelifeformslackedbothDNAand
enzymes?

RNACANBOTHCODEGENETICINFOANDACTASCATALYST

Ofthefollowingfunctionalgroups,whichwouldmakeacarbonbasedcompoundtheleastpolar?

METHYL

CytoplasmhasapHofabout7.Whatistheconcentration,inmoles/liter,ofthehydrogenion?

1X10^7

Whichofthefollowingacid/basepairsactasnaturalbuffersinlivingsystems?

H2CO3/CO3
H2PO4/HPO4
HISTIDINE+/HISTIDINE

Whattypesofisomersarethese?

A IS CIS ISOMER AND B IS TRANS ISOMER

Whichofthefollowingpairsoffunctionalgroupsmightformweakboneswithoneanother?

CARBOXYLANDAMINO

Ifyoucouldgrabtheendsofeachofthefollowingpolysaccharidesandpull,whichonemightyoube
abletostretchthemost?

CELLULOSE

Whattwofeaturesofthestructureofcholesterolmakeitsomewhatamphipathic?

THESINGLEHYDROXYLALONGWITHTHEHYDROCARBONNATUREOFTHEREMAINDER
OFTHEMOLECULE

Proteinsandmacromolecularstructurestakeontheirhigherorderstructures

BYSELFASSEMBLY
WITHTHEHELPOFMOLECULARCHAPERONES
WITHTHEHELPOFPRECURSORSEQENCESTHATAREREMOVEDFROMTHEFINAL
STRUCTURE

Thedifferentordersofproteinstructurearedeterminedbyallofthefollowingbondtypesexcept:

PHOSPHODIESTERBONDS

ThehigherorderstructureofDNAshowssymmetry,whereasthehigherorderstructuresofmost
proteinsdnot.Whyisn'tproteinshapemoreregularlikeDNA?
DNAHASONEMAINFUNCTIONINCELLSWHERASPROTEINSHAVEMANY
THEMANYDIFFERENTAMINOACIDRGROUPSONPROTEINSCONFERMANYDIFF
SHAPES
SOMEAMINOACIDSCAUSEPROTEINSTOBEND;OTHERCAUSEPROTEINSTO
FLATTEN

Whichaminoacidswouldmostlikelyresideinthemembraneanchoringdomainofamembrane
embeddedprotein?

ISOLEUCINE,VALINEANDPHENYLALANINE

ATPisfromwhichgeneralcategoryofbiomolecules?

NUCLEOTIDES

RNAiscomposedofnucleotideswhocompartmentsare:

RIBOSESUGARS,PHOSPHATEGROUPSANDBASESAUCG

Regionsofaproteinmoleculethoughttohavedistinctevolutionaryoriginsareknownas:

DOMAINS

Proteinchipsallowscientiststostudy:

PROTEINACTIVITY

Selfassemblyofcomplexmolecularstructureswasfirstdemonstratedinstudiesof:

TABACCOMOSAICVIRUS

TheHsp60chaperoneGroELhasfeaturesthatinclude:

14POLYPEPTIDEUNITS
AMOLECULARASSEMBLYWITHCENTRALCAVITY
ACAPOFGROESSUBUNITSONEITHERENDOFDIMETRICARRAY

Whichofthesestuctureswouldbeleastlikelytooccurincells?