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Feature Articles [
cate that boys (odds ratio [OR] = 1.66), children born at very low
birth weight (OR = 3.98) or with congenital anomalies (OR = 2.17),
and children engaging in externalizing problem behaviors (OR = 1. 10)
Providing
children
with
orimprove
at risk their
for delays
or disabilities
school
entry can
help
long-term
educational
and societal opportunities. This is because receipt of these ser
vices, if of high and sustained quality, can increase children's cog
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DECEMBER 2012
339
Represented in EI/ECSE?
and racial bias, which may cause minority children's abilities and
behaviors to be considered relatively more problematic, is a second
Hosp & Reschley, 2003). This can occur even when the academic
Klingner, & Sturges, 2008; Hays, Prosek, & McLeod, 2010). For
tors (Waitoller, Amies, & Cheney, 2010). Those few studies that
1997; Harry, 1992; O'Hara, 2003; Pena & Fiestas, 2009). For
example, Blanchett et al. (2009) posit that the U.S. special educa
has also not been able to control for strong confounders, including
factors (e.g., Delgado & Scott, 2006; Delgado, Vagi, & Scott,
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respectively. This lower health care access may delay some minor
was drawn from birth certificate files and oversampled Asian and
Pacific Islanders, Native Americans and Alaska Natives, children
with moderately low and very low birth weight, and twins. At
that children born preterm or with low birth weight or who were
factors, they found that Black and Asian children were less likely
currently known.
Measures
2007; Merrell & Shinn, 1990). Hibel et al. (2010) reported that
kindergarten children with greater reading and mathematics pro
Purpose
care access can delay a diagnosis and referral for services (Flores
about 450 children whose parents indicated that they were cur
Sample
Data are from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth
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reported the condition for which the child was receiving special
for his or her ability to communicate and, if so, whether the par
for his or her ability to pay attention or learn and, if so, whether
The composite averaged these variables after each had been trans
formed into a Z score. In cases where only one parent was inter
viewed, not all the survey information was obtained, and so the
category.
Mother's age and marital status. Mother's age at the child's birth
cate whether a language other than English was the primary lan
Flanagan, McPhee, & Park, 2007, pp. 22-23). Fourth, our own
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past 3 months. For those items that ask about how the parent's
child behaves with other children, field staff asked the parent to
think about the child's behavior during interaction with children
who are no more than 2 years older or younger than the child.
Analyses
(e.g., Baroody, Lai, & Mix, 2006; Gersten, Jordan, & Flojo,
2005; H. Scarborough, 1990) and empirically established (e.g.,
Results
ties of the item response theory (IRT) scores of the numeracy and
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Table 1
Descriptive Statistics (Weighted) of ECLS-B Analytical Sample for Children Without and
With Parent-Reported lEPs or IFSPs (N = 7,950a)
Children Without Parent-Reported Children With Parent-Reported
lEPs or IFSPs (n = 7,500a) lEPs or IFSPs (n = 450a)
Variable
M or Proportion
Male
SD
0.50
52.47
Age
M or Proportion
SD
0.68
4.14
52.99
f Test
3.99
White
0.56
0.70
Black
0.15
0.07
Hispanic
0.23
0.17
Asian
0.03
0.01
Native American
0.00
0.01
Other
0.04
0.04
0.18
0.15
0.20
0.23
0.20
0.23
0.21
0.21
0.21
27.31
0.19
6.37
27.89
0.33
0.34
0.18
0.22
Behavioral risks
0.12
0.20
Obstetric procedures
Labor complications
0.59
0.61
6.10
0.36
0.40
Very preterm
0.02
0.06
Moderately preterm
Very low birth weight
0.09
0.10
0.01
0.05
0.06
0.09
0.05
0.13
Congenital anomalies
Numeracy score, 48 months
Receptive language score, 48 months
22.62
8.60
1.93
7.85
1.89
18.85
4.78
21.80
5.40
4.05
1.34
4.20
1.41
7.47
19.75
7.42
48 months
0.16
0.08
Northeast residence
0.17
0.17
Midwest residence
South residence
West residence
0.22
0.31
0.38
0.31
0.23
0.21
Rural residence
0.17
0.20
Urban residence
0.83
2.06
0.80
0.91
2.10
0.94
Note. ECLS-B = Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort; IEP = Individualized Education Program; IFSP = Individualized Family Services Plan;
SES = socioeconomic status.
*p< .05.
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80
children who are Black are approximately one third as great as the
odds for children who are White. The effects for children who are
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
8_H
(although the Hispanic children's odds, at 0.6, are still well below
those of White children). However, even after these controls, oth
erwise identical 48-month-old children who are Black or Asian
are significantly less likely than children who are White to par
have lower odds. The Model 2 results for receptive language show
hood. Boys are 2.08 times (p < .001) more likely to be identified
as disabled or delayed than girls. Results indicate that 48-month
range = .23-. 56). For instance, the odds of being identified for
who were born with very low birth weight, and who display
DECEMBER 20iT| [345
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Table 2
Logistic Regression Models (Odds Ratios) of Very Low Numeracy or Receptive Language
Knowledge (Lowest 10%) at 48 Months (N = 7,950s)
Very Low Numeracy Knowledge
Variable
Model 1
Model 2
Model 2
Male
1.52***
1.37**
1.54***
1.42**
Age
0.84***
0.83***
0.90***
0.87***
Black
2.65***
1.42*
1.36
0.81
Hispanic
2.67***
1.37*
8.60***
-j g^***
Asian
0.76
0.73
4 49***
1.21
Native American
6.80***
3.53***
3.27***
1.86
Other
2ii ***
1.65**
0.62
0.46*
6.46***
5.48***
3.53***
3.96***
2.55***
2.19**
1.61
1.64
0.98*
0.99
1.18
0.92
months
Medical risks
Behavioral risks
1.14
1.15
1.02
0.78
quintile
SES, middle quintile
SES, second highest
quintile
Maternal age at child's
birth
Obstetric procedures
Labor complications
0.91
1.02
1.08
1.04
1.06
0.89
Very preterm
Moderately preterm
Very low birth weight
Moderately low birth
weight
1.04
1.00
2.35**
2.28*
1.48**
1.35
0.88
1.16
Externalizing problem
behaviors, 48 months
1.06***
1.03*
Internalizing problem
behaviors, months
0.90*
1.04
Congenital anomalies
lEPorlFSP
2 24***
3.99***
Midwest residence
South residence
West residence
1.60*
1.35
1.61*
1.81**
1.84**
1.92**
Urban residence
0.74
1.12
Non-English primary
1.70*
7 20***
0.84
0.88
language
child checkups
Note. SES = socioeconomic status; IEP = Individualized Education Program; IFSP = Individualized Family Services Plan.
"Rounded to the nearest 50.
Discussion
.56). The results also indicate that children from the lowest three
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Table 3
Logistic Regression Models (Odds Ratios) Estimating Child's Likelihood of Parent-Reported IEP or IFSP,
Professional's Diagnosis of Communication Problem, or Professional's Diagnosis of Attention or
Learning Problems All at 48 months, ECLS-B Data (N = 7,950*)
Professional's Diagnosis of Professional's Diagnosis of
lEPorlFSP Communication Problem Attention or Learning Problems
Variable
Model 2
Model 1
2.15***
1 87***
2 12***
1.01
1.05*
1.03
1.09**
0.24***
0.49***
0.40***
0.65
0.42*
0.77
Model 1
Model 2
Model 1
Male
2.08***
1.66**
Age
1.04
1.10***
0.36***
Black
Model 2
1.52*
0.56**
0.60
0.66**
0.70
0.95
Asian
0.23***
0.32**
0.23***
0.28***
0.23***
0.20**
Native American
1.57
0.94
1.22
0.89
1.80
0.91
Other
0.74
0.60
0.77
0.69
0.75
0.56*
Hispanic
0.48*
0.47**
0.23***
0.69
0.68
0.35***
0.81
0.82
0.48*
0.80
0.90
0.60
1.03*
1.02
1.00
1.23
1.18
1.63
1.06
1.16
1.02
1.26
1.21
1.91**
Obstetric procedures
Labor complications
0.92
0.86
1.04
1.04
1.06
0.99
Very preterm
0.83
1.36
0.46*
Moderately preterm
Very low birth weight
0.80
1.15
1.27
3 98***
2.08
4.81***
0.96
1.59*
0.98
Congenital anomalies
Numeracy score, 48 months
Receptive language score,
2 i j***
1.82**
1.37
0.96**
0.98*
0.97*
0.76***
0.80***
0.64***
1.10***
1.05***
1.17***
0.92
1.04
0.95
48 months
48 months
Midwest residence
South residence
West residence
Urban residence
1.17
0.91
0.80
0.66
0.69
0.39*
0.74
0.63*
0.36**
1.10
1.31
0.81
0.39**
0.50**
0.94
1.09
1.42*
1.49
checkups
Note. IEP = Individualized Education Program; IFSP = Individualized Family Services Plan; ECLS-B = Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort;
SES = socioeconomic status. Parent-reported IEP or IFSP, n = 450a; communication problem diagnosis, n = 600a; attention or learning problem diagno
sis, n = 250.
aRounded to the nearest 50.
Study Limitations
but this rate likely varies by age. Our study relied on parental
DECEMBER 2011 [347
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alence rate, that children with IEPs or IFSPs have greater likeli
numeracy delays was not consistent with their much lower likeli
Frisco, Farkas, & Hibel, 2010). Our study extends prior work by
cannot directly evaluate why children who are minorities are dis
dren who are able to access a physician often receive delayed diag
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al., 2009; O'Hara, 2003; Pena & Fiestas, 2009) to ensure that
EI/ECSE services are delivered in ways that are culturally and
linguistically responsive to the diverse needs of minority children
parities in health and well being and, as a result, help ensure that
opportunities.
NOTES
Coll, C. G., Crnic, K., Lamberty, G., & Wasik, B. H. (1996). An inte
grative model for the study of developmental competencies in minor
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