"Regenerative Braking": Project Report On

REGENERATIVE BRAKING
PROJECT REPORT ON
Submitted by
HARISH KUMAR
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
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ABSTRACT
As the basic law of Physics says energy can neither be created nor be destroyed it can
only be converted from one form to another. During huge amount of energy is lost to
atmosphere as heat. It will be good if we could store this energy somehow which is
otherwise getting wasted out and reuse it next time we started to accelerate. Regenerative
braking refers to a system in which the kinetic energy of the vehicle is stored temporarily,
as an accumulative energy, during deceleration, and is reused as kinetic energy during
acceleration or running. Regenerative braking is a small, yet very important, step toward
our eventual independence from fossil fuels. These kinds of brakes allow batteries to be
used for longer periods of time without the need to be plugged into an external charger.
These types of brakes also extend the driving range of fully electric vehicles.
Regenerative braking is a way to extend range of the electric vehicles. In many hybrid
vehicles cases, this system is also applied hybrid vehicles to improve fuel economy.
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER1. Introduction
1.1
Need for regenerative brakes
CHAPTER2. Basic idea of Regenerative brakes

2.1 The Motor as a generator
CHAPTER3. Basic elements of the system
3.1 Energy Storage Unit (ESU)
3.2 Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)
3.3 Controller
3.4 Regenerative Brake Controllers
CHAPTER4. Different types of Regenerative braking
4.1. Electric Regenerative Braking
4.2. Hydraulic Regenerative Brakes
4.3. Fly Wheels
4.4. Use in compressed air
4.5. Regenerative Braking Using Nitilon Spring
CHAPTER5. Applications
CHAPTER6. Comparisons
6.1 Advantages of regenerative braking over conventional braking
6.2 Comparison of Dynamic brakes and Regenerative brakes
6.3 Why Regenerative Brakes are assisted with the Frictional Brake??
CHAPTER7. Conclusion
CHAPTER 1
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INTRODUCTION
Brakes are employed to stop or retard the motion of any moving body. Thus, in
automobiles the brakes are having the most important function to perform.
In conventional braking system the motion is retarded or stopped by absorbing
kinetic energy by friction, by making the contact of the moving body with frictional
rubber pad (called brake liner) which causes the absorption of kinetic energy, and this is
wasted in form of heat in surroundings. Each time we brake, the momentum of vehicle is
absorbed that it has gained by it and to re-accelerate the vehicle we have to start from the
scratch to redevelop that momentum by using the more power from an engine .Thus, it
will ultimately result in huge waste of energy.
As the basic law of Physics says energy can neither be created nor be destroyed it
can only be converted from one form to another. It will be good if we could store this
energy somehow which is otherwise getting wasted out and reuse it next time we started
to accelerate. That's the basic concept of regenerative ("regent") brakes, which provide
braking for the system when needed by converting the available energy to some usable
form. These are widely used in electric trains and the latest electric cars. Regenerative
brake is an energy recovery mechanism which slows a vehicle by converting its kinetic
energy into another form, which can be either used immediately or stored until needed.
Thus, the generated electricity during the braking is fed back into the supply system (in
case of electric trains), whereas in battery electric and hybrid electric vehicles, the energy
is stored in a battery or bank of capacitors for later use. Energy may also be stored by
compressing air or in a rotating flywheel.
A brake is a tool that enables in deceleration of a moving object; they use friction
to convert kinetic energy into heat. Conventional braking systems use this mechanism.
Once the brake pads rub against the wheels of the car, excessive heat energy is produced.
The heat generated is lost into the air nearly accounting for about 30% of the cars
generated power. The project here Regenerative Braking System Project For
Mechanical Students introduces a different braking technology.
In this system, regenerative braking mechanism reuses the energy created by the
braking process and uses this energy to charge the battery for further use. Generally the
energy lost in the conventional use is transferred to the generator of the rotating wheel
and is given to the battery. This saves a lot of energy.
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A regenerative brake is an energy recovery mechanism which slows a vehicle or object

down by converting its kinetic energy into another form, which can be either used
immediately or stored until needed. This contrasts with conventional braking systems,
where the excess kinetic energy is converted to heat by friction in the brake linings and
therefore wasted.
The most common form of regenerative brake involves using an electric motor as an
electric generator. In electric railways the generated electricity is fed back into the supply
system, whereas in battery electric and hybrid electric vehicles, the energy is stored in a
battery or bank of capacitors for later use. Energy may also be stored mechanically via
pneumatics, hydraulics or the kinetic energy of a rotating flywheel.
The motor as a generator

Vehicles driven by electric motors use the motor as a generator when using regenerative
braking: it is operated as a generator during braking and its output is supplied to an
electrical load; the transfer of energy to the load provides the braking effect.
Regenerative braking is used on hybrid gas/electric automobiles to recoup some of the
energy lost during stopping. This energy is saved in a storage battery and used later to
power the motor whenever the car is in electric mode.
Early examples of this system were the front-wheel drive conversions of horse-drawn
cabs by Louis Antoine Krieger (18681951). The Krieger electric landaulet had a drive
motor in each front wheel with a second set of parallel windings (bifilar coil) for
regenerative braking. In England, the Raworth system of "regenerative control" was
introduced by tramway operators in the early 1900s, since it offered them economic and
operational benefits as explained by A. Raworth of Leeds in some detail. These included
tramway systems at Devonport (1903), Rawtenstall, Birmingham, Crystal PalaceCroydon (1906) and many others. Slowing down the speed of the cars or keeping it in
hand on descending gradients, the motors worked as generators and braked the vehicles.
The tram cars also had wheel brakes and track slipper brakes which could stop the tram
should the electric braking systems fail. In several cases the tram car motors were shunt
wound instead of series wound, and the systems on the Crystal Palace line utilized seriesDept of Mechanical Engineering
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parallel controllers. Following a serious accident at Rawtenstall, an embargo was placed

on this form of traction in 1911. Twenty years later, the regenerative braking system was
reintroduced.[4]
Regenerative braking has been in extensive use on railways for many decades. The BakuTbilisi-Batumi railway (Transcaucasian railway or Georgian railway) started utilizing
regenerative braking in the early 1930s. This was especially effective on the steep and
dangerous Surami Pass.[6] In Scandinavia the Kiruna to Narvik railway carries iron ore
from the mines in Kiruna in the north of Sweden down to the port of Narvik in Norway to
this day. The rail cars are full of thousands of tons of iron ore on the way down to Narvik,
and these trains generate large amounts of electricity by their regenerative braking. From
Riksgrnsen on the national border to the Port of Narvik, the trains use only a fifth of the
power they regenerate. The regenerated energy is sufficient to power the empty trains
back up to the national border. Any excess energy from the railway is pumped into the
power grid to supply homes and businesses in the region, and the railway is a net
generator of electricity.
An Energy Regeneration Brake was developed in 1967 for the AMC Amitron. This was a
completely battery powered urban concept car whose batteries were recharged by
regenerative braking, thus increasing the range of the automobile.
Many modern hybrid and electric vehicles use this technique to extend the range of the
battery pack. Examples include the Toyota Prius, Honda Insight, the Vectrix electric
maxi-scooter, the Tesla Roadster, the Nissan Leaf, and the Chevrolet Volt.
1.1NEED FOR REGENERATIVE BRAKES?

The regenerative braking system delivers a number of significant advantages
over a car that only has friction brakes. In low-speed, stop- and-go traffic where
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little deceleration is required; the regenerative braking system can provide the
majority of the total braking force. This vastly improves fuel economy with a
vehicle, and further enhances the attractiveness of vehicles using regenerative
braking for city driving. At higher speeds, too, regenerative braking has been shown
to contribute to improved fuel economy by as much as 20%.
Consider a heavy loaded truck having very few stops on the road. It is
operated near maximum engine efficiency. The 80% of the energy produced is
utilized to overcome the rolling and aerodynamic road forces. The energy wasted in
applying brake is about 2%. Also its brake specific fuel consumption is 5%.
BRAKES
A brake is a device that decelerates a moving object / prevents an object from

accelerating.
Brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy into heat
Guiding principle- kinetic energy increases quadratic ally with velocity -K =
mv2 / 2
When the brake is pushed the caliper containing piston pushes the pad
towards the brake disc which slows the wheel down.
Now consider a vehicle, which is operated in the main city where traffic is a
major problem here one has to apply brake frequently. For such vehicles the wastage
of energy by application of brake is about 60% to 65%.
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Fig (a): Graphical Representation of Energy usage of two vehicles
CHAPTER 2
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BASIC IDEA OF REGENERATIVE BRAKES

Concept of this regenerative brake is better understood from bicycle fitted with
dynamo. If our bicycle has a dynamo (a small electricity generator) on it for powering the
lights, we'll know it's harder to peddle when the dynamo is engaged than when it's
switched off. That's because some of our peddling energy is being "stolen" by the dynamo
and turned into electrical energy in the lights. If we're going along at speed and we
suddenly stop peddling and turn on the dynamo, it'll bring us to a stop more quickly than
we would normally, for the same reason: it's stealing our kinetic energy. Now imagine a
bicycle with a dynamo that's 100 times bigger and more powerful. In theory, it could
bring our bike to a halt relatively quickly by converting our kinetic energy into electricity,
which we could store in a battery and use again later. And that's the basic idea behind
regenerative brakes!
Electric trains, cars, and other electric vehicles are powered by electric motors
connected to batteries. When we're driving along, energy flows from the batteries to the
motors, turning the wheels and providing us with the kinetic energy we need to move.
When we stop and hit the brakes, the whole process goes into reverse: electronic circuits
cut the power to the motors. Now, our kinetic energy and momentum makes the wheels
turn the motors, so the motors work like generators and start producing electricity instead
of consuming it. Power flows back from these motor-generators to the batteries, charging
them up. So a good proportion of the energy we lose by braking is returned to the
batteries and can be reused when we start off again. In practice, regenerative brakes take
time to slow things down, so most vehicles that use them also have ordinary (friction)
brakes working alongside (that's also a good idea in case the regenerative brakes fail).
That's one reason why regenerative brakes don't save 100 percent of our braking energy.
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Fig. (c): Basic idea of Regenerative brakes
2.1 The Motor as a generator

Vehicles driven by electric motors use the motor as a generator when using
regenerative braking, it is operated as a generator during braking and its output is
supplied to an electrical load; the transfer of energy to the load provides the braking
effect.
Regenerative braking is used on hybrid gas/electric automobiles to recoup some of the
energy lost during stopping. This energy is saved in a storage battery and used later to
power the motor whenever the car is in electric mode.
Conventional Braking Systems
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In braking systems on conventional vehicles, friction is used to counteract the forward

momentum of a moving vehicle. As the brake pads rub against the wheels or a disc that is
connected to the axles, excessive heat energy is created. This heat energy dissipates into
the air, wasting as much as 30 percent of the vehicle's generated power. Over time, this
cycle of friction and wasted heat energy reduces the vehicle's fuel efficiency. More energy
from the engine is required to replace the energy that was lost by braking.
Regenerative Braking Systems
Hybrid gas/electric automobiles use a completely different method of braking at slower

speeds. Hybrid vehicles still use conventional brake pads at highway speeds, but electric
motors help the vehicle brake during stop-and-go driving at slower speeds. As the driver
applies the brakes by pressing down on a conventional brake pedal, the electric motors
reverse direction. The torque created by this reversal counteracts the forward momentum
and eventually stops the car.
Generates Electricity
Regenerative braking does more than simply stop the car, however. Electric motors and
electric generators such as a car's alternator are essentially two sides of the same
technology; both use magnetic fields and coiled wires, but in different configurations.
Regenerative braking systems take advantage of this duality. Whenever the electric motor
of a hybrid car begins to reverse direction, it becomes an electric generator. This
generated electricity is fed into a chemical storage battery and used later to power the
vehicle at city speeds.
Some Loss of Energy
The technology employed during regenerative braking takes the energy that is normally
wasted during braking and turns it into usable energy. A hybrid vehicle is not, however, a
type of perpetual motion machine. Energy is still lost through friction with the road
surface and other drains on the system. The energy collected during braking does not
restore all of the energy that is lost during driving. It does improve energy efficiency,
however, and it assists the main alternator.
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Comparison of dynamic and regenerative brakes

Dynamic brakes ("rheostatic brakes" in the UK), unlike regenerative brakes, dissipate the
electric energy as heat by passing the current through large banks of variable resistors.
Vehicles that use dynamic brakes include forklifts, diesel-electric locomotives, and
streetcars. This heat can be used to warm the vehicle interior, or dissipated externally by
large radiator-like cowls to house the resistor banks.
The main disadvantage of regenerative brakes when compared with dynamic brakes is the
need to closely match the generated current with the supply characteristics and increased
maintenance cost of the lines. With DC supplies, this requires that the voltage be closely
controlled. Only with the development of power electronics has this been possible with
AC supplies, where the supply frequency must also be matched (this mainly applies to
locomotives where an AC supply is rectified for DC motors).
A small number of mountain railways have used 3-phase power supplies and 3-phase
induction motors. This results in a near constant speed for all trains as the motors rotate
with the supply frequency both when motoring and braking.
Working:
The driving system of the vehicle is responsible for most of the braking process. As
soon as the driver steps onto the brake pedal of the vehicle (either hybrid or electrical),
the brakes put the vehicles motor in the reverse mode enabling it to run backwards
causing the wheels to slow down. While in the reverse mode, the motor operates as an
electric generator feeding this electricity into the vehicles batteries.
Most of the hybrid and electric vehicles in the market employ this technique to extend
the life span of the battery pack. It is highly beneficial to use regenerative mechanism as
it reduces pollution and also increases the engine life.
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BLOCK DIAGRAM
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Kinetic energy recovery systems
The device recovers the kinetic energy that is present in the waste heat created by
the cars braking process.
The concept of transferring the vehicles kinetic energy using Flywheel energy
storage was postulated by physicist Richard Feynman in the 1950s
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When the driver brakes most of the kinetic energy is still converted to heat energy
but a portion is treated differently and is stored up in the car.
When the driver presses his boost button that stored energy is converted back into
kinetic energy
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CHAPTER 3
BASIC ELEMENTS OF THE SYSTEM
There are four elements required which are necessary for the working of regenerative
braking system, these are:
3.1 Energy Storage Unit (ESU):
The ESU performs two primary functions
1) To recover & store braking energy
2) To absorb excess engine energy during light load operation
The selection criteria for effective energy storage include:
I.
High specific energy storage density
II.
High energy transfer rate
III.
Small space requirement
The energy recaptured by regenerative braking might be stored in one of three devices:
o An electrochemical battery
o A flywheel
o Compressed air
Batteries:
With this system as we know, the electric motor of a car becomes a generator
when the brake pedal is applied. The kinetic energy of the car is used to generate
electricity that is then used to recharge the batteries. With this system, traditional friction
brakes must also be used to ensure that the car slows down as much as necessary. Thus,
not all of the kinetic energy of the car can be harnessed for the batteries because some of
it is "lost" to waste heat. Some energy is also lost to resistance as the energy travels from
the wheel and axle, through the drive train and electric motor, and into the battery.
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When the brake pedal is depressed, the battery receives a higher charge, which
slows the vehicle down faster. The further the brake pedal is depressed, the more the
conventional friction brakes are employed.
The motor/generator produces AC, which is converted into DC, which is then used
to charge the Battery Module. So, the regenerative systems must have an electric
controller that regulates how much charge the battery receives and how much the friction
brakes are used.
Fly wheels:
In this system, the translational energy of the vehicle is transferred into rotational
energy in the flywheel, which stores the energy until it is needed to accelerate the vehicle.
The benefit of using flywheel technology is that more of the forward inertial energy of the
car can be captured than in batteries, because the flywheel can be engaged even during
relatively short intervals of braking and acceleration. In the case of batteries, they are not
able to accept charge at these rapid intervals, and thus more energy is lost to friction.
Another advantage of flywheel technology is that the additional power supplied by the
flywheel during acceleration substantially supplements the power output of the small
engine that hybrid vehicles are equipped with.
3.2 Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT):

The energy storage unit requires a transmission that can handle torque and speed
demands in a steeples manner and smoothly control energy flow to and from the vehicle
wheels.
3.3 Controller:
An ON-OFF engine control system is used. That means that the engine is ON
until the energy storage unit has been reached the desired charge capacity and then is
decoupled and stopped until the energy storage unit charge fall below its minimum
requirement.
3.4 Regenerative Brake Controllers

Brake controllers are electronic devices that can control brakes remotely, deciding
when braking begins ends, and how quickly the brakes need to be applied.
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During the braking operation, the brake controller directs the electricity produced
by the motor into the batteries or capacitors. It makes sure that an optimal amount of
power is received by the batteries, but also ensures that the inflow of electricity isn't more
than the batteries can handle.
The most important function of the brake controller, however, may be deciding
whether the motor is currently capable of handling the force necessary for stopping the
car. If it isn't, the brake controller turns the job over to the friction brakes. In vehicles that
use these types of brakes, as much as any other piece of electronics on board a hybrid or
electric car, the brake controller makes the entire regenerative braking process possible.
Motor as dynamo
Before we can examine the function of a drive, we must understand the basic operation of
the motor. It is used to convert the electrical energy, supplied by the controller, to
mechanical energy to move the load. There are really two types of motors, AC and DC.
The basic principles are alike for both. Magnetism is the basis for all electric motor
operation. It produces the force required to run the motor. There are two types of magnets
the permanent magnet and the electro magnet. Electro magnets have the advantage over
permanent magnet in that the magnetic field can be made stronger. Also the polarity of the
electro magnet can easily be reversed. The construction of an electro magnet is simple.
When a current passes through a coil of wire, a magnetic field is produced.
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This magnetic field can be made stronger by winding the coil of wire on an iron core.
One end of the electro magnet is a north pole and the other end is a south pole The
poles can be reversed by reversing the direction of the current in the coil of
wire. Likewise, if you pass a coil of wire through a magnetic field, a voltage will
be induced into the coil And, if the coil is in a closed circuit, a current will flow.
DC Motor
When a current passes through a conductor, lines of magnetic force (flux) are
generated around the conductor. The direction of the flux is dependent on the
direction of the current flow. If you are thinking in terms of conventional current
flow (positive to negative) then, using your right hand point your thumb in the
direction of the current flow and your fingers will wrap around the conductor in
the same direction of the flux lines.
If you are thinking in terms of electron current flow (negative to positive) then
you must use your left hand. If we look at the air gap between two magnets that
have their opposite poles facing each other, we would see magnetic lines of force
(flux) from the N to S poles.
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Now, if we place a current carrying conductor in the air gap of two magnets, the lines of
flux in the air gap will be affected.
On the side of the conductor where the lines of flux oppose each other, the
magnetic field will be made weaker. On the side of the conductor where the lines
of flux are not opposing each other, the magnetic field will be made
stronger.Because of the strong field on one side of the conductor and a weak field
or, the other side, the conductor will be pushed into the weaker field.
Now, lets apply this principle to the operation of the DC motor. The armature of
the motor is a loop of wire (current carrying conductor) which is free to rotate.
The field magnets are permanent or electro magnets with their N and S poles
facing each other to set up the lines of flux in the air gap.
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The armature is connected to the commutator which rides along the brushes which
are connected to a DC power source. The current from the DC power source flows
from the positive lead, through the brush labeled A1 through one commutator
section, through the armature coil, through the other commutator section, through
the brush labeled A2 and back to the negative lead.
Fundamentals of Motor - Part 2
This current will generate lines of flux around the armature and affect the lines of flux in
the air gap. On the side of the coil where the lines of flux oppose each other, the magnetic
field will be made weaker. On the side of the coil where the lines of flux are riot opposing
each other, the magnetic field is made stronger.Because of the strong field on one side of
the coil and the weak field on the other side, the coil will be pushed into the weaker field
and, because the armature coil is free to rotate, it will rotate.
The torque available at the motor shaft (turing effort) is determined by the magnetic force
(flux) acting on the armature coil and the distance from the renter of rotation that force
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is. The flux is determined by the current flowing through the armature coil and strength of
the field magnets
The rotational speed (N) of the motor is determined by the voltage applied to the armature
coil.
AC Motor
The AC motor operates on the same principle of the OC motor (interaction between
magnetic lines of flux). One major difference is the OC motor requires DC current and
the AC motor requires AC current. There are basically two types of AC
motors: synchronous and induction. The basic principle for synchronous motors can be
shown using two electro
magnets and a permanent magnet.
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We can pass current through the coils in a direction so the north and south poles are
aligned with the permanent
magnet. The permanent magnet is free to rotate and is therefore called the rotor. The
electro magnets are stationary and are therefore called the stator. Initially if the north and
south poles are aligned in the motor and, because like poles repel and unlike poles attract,
the rotor will be pushed by the magnetic force of the like poles. As it rotates, it will be
pulled by the magnetic force of the unlike poles.
Once the rotors north and south poles line up with the stators south and north poles the
stator current is reversed, thus changing the south and north pole orientation in the stator
and the rotor is pushed again. This process repeats until the current in the stator stops
alternating or stops flowing. In a three phase (30) motor, the stator flux (magnetic force)
does not just alternate back and forth but it actually rotates around the motor and the
rotator actually follows this rotating
magnetic field. This type of motor is called a synchronous motor because it always runs at
synchronous speed (rotor and magnetic field of stator are rotating at exactly the same
speed). Maximum torque is achieved when the stator flux vector
and the rotor flux vector are 90 apart.
The induction motor operates much the same way that the synchronous motor does It uses
the same magnetic principles to couple the stator and the rotor.However, one major
difference is the synchronous motor uses a permanent magnet rotor and the induction
motor uses iron bars arranged to resemble a squirrel cage.
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As the stator magnetic field rotates in the motor, the lines of flux produced will cut the
iron bars and induce a voltage in the rotor. This induced voltage will cause a current to
flow in the rotor and will generate a magnetic field. This magnetic field will interact with
the stator magnetic field and will produce torque to rotate the motor shaft; which is
connected to the rotor. The torque available at the motor shaft is determined by the
magnetic force (flux) acting on the rotor and the distance from the center of rotation that
force is.
The flux is determined by the current flowing through the stator windings. Another factor
determining torque and another difference between the induction motor and the
synchronous motor is slip. Slip is the difference between the stator magnetic field speed
and the rotor speed. As implied earlier, in order for a voltage to be induced into a
conductor, there must be a relative motion between the conductor and the magnetic lines
of flux. Slip is the relative motion needed in the induction motor to induce a voltage into
the rotor. If the induction motor ran at synchronous speed, there would be no relative
motion and no torque would be produced. This implies that the greater the slip, the
greater the torque. This is true to a limit. (Please see speed/torque curve below)
The above curve shows the speed/torque characteristics that the typical induction motor
would follow, excited by a given voltage and frequency. We can see by this curve that the
motor produces zero torque at synchronous speed because
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there is no slip. As we apply a load, the rotor begins to slow down which creates slip. At
about 1 0E slip (at the knee of the curve) we get maximum torque and power transfer
from the motor. This is really the best place on the curve to operate the motor.
Vector control (slip control) from a closed loop drive system can be used to keep the
motor operating at this optimum point on the curve. Vector control is implemented using
a microprocessor based system that has a mathematical model of the motor in memory
and a position transducer on the motor to indicate rotor.
The mathematical model allows the microprocessor to determine what the speed/torque
curve the motor will follow with any applied voltage and frequency, will be. This will
allow the system to control the slip in the motor to keep it operating at the knee of the
speed/torque curve. This technology achieves extremely high performance. Now that we
have a basic
understanding of the operation of the motor, we can better understand the function and
operation of the high performance drive.
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CHAPTER4
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DIFFERENT TYPES OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING

Based on the mode of storage of energy some of the system developed can be listed they
are:-
4.1. Electric Regenerative braking

In an electric system which is driven only by means of electric motor the system
consists of an electric motor which acts both as generator and motor. Initially when the
when the system is cruising the power is supplied by the motor and when the there is a
necessity for braking depending upon drivers applied force on the brake pedal the
electronic unit controls the charge flowing through the motor and due to the resistance
offered motor rotates back to act as a generator and the energy is energy is stored in a
battery or bank of twin layer capacitors for later use.
In hybrid system motor will be coupled to another power source normally I.C
Engines as shown in the fig (1)
The main components of this system
Engine
Motor/Generator
Batteries
Electronic control system
During acceleration, the Motor/generator unit acts as electric motor drawing electrical
energy from the batteries to provide extra driving force to move the car as(Shown in fig
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2). With this help from the motor, the cars internal combustion engine that is smaller and
with lower peak power can achieve high efficiency. During braking electric supply from
the battery is cut off by the electronic system. As the car is still moving forward, the
Motor/ Generator unit is acts as electric generator converting cas kinetic energy into
electrical and store in the batteries (shown in fig 3) for later use.
Fig (2) showing energy consumption from battery .
Fig (3) showing charging of battery when brake applied.
4.2. Hydraulic Regenerative Brakes

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Hydrostatic Regenerative Braking (HRB) system uses electrical/electronic

Components as well as hydraulics to improve vehicle fuel economy. An alternative
regenerative braking system is being developed by the Ford Motor Company and the
Eaton Corporation. It's called Hydraulic Power Assist or HPA. With HPA, when the
driver steps on the brake, the vehicle's kinetic energy is used to power a reversible pump,
which sends hydraulic fluid from a low pressure accumulator (a kind of storage tank)
inside the vehicle into a high pressure accumulator. The pressure is created by nitrogen
gas in the accumulator, which is compressed as the fluid is pumped into the space the gas
formerly occupied. This slows the vehicle and helps bring it to a stop. The fluid remains
under pressure in the accumulator until the driver pushes the accelerator again, at which
point the pump is reversed and the pressurized fluid is used to accelerate the vehicle,
effectively translating the kinetic energy that the car had before braking into the
mechanical energy that helps get the vehicle back up to speed. It's predicted that a system
like this could store 80 percent of the momentum lost by a vehicle during deceleration
and use it to get the vehicle moving again.
Bosch Rexroth has a regenerative braking system that does not require a hybrid
vehicle. In fact, it does not involve electrical storage. The Hydrostatic Regenerative
Braking (HRB) system is intended for commercial vehicles and mobile equipment. The
company says that initial measurements show that the HRB system reduces the fuel
consumption in these vehicles by up to 25%.
In the HRB system, braking energy is converted to hydraulic pressure and stored in
a high-pressure hydraulic accumulator. When the vehicle accelerates, the stored hydraulic
energy is applied to the transmission reducing the energy that the combustion engine has
to provide. An electronic controller and a hydraulic valve manifold control the process.
At present, these hydraulic regenerative brakes are noisy and prone to leaks;
however, once all of the details are ironed out, such systems will probably be most useful
in large trucks
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Fig. (d) Hydraulic Regenerative Brake (HRB)
4.3. Fly Wheels

Regenerative brakes may seem very hi-tech, but the idea of having "energy-saving
Reservoirs" in machines is nothing new. Engines have been using energy-storing devices
called flywheels virtually since they were invented.
The basic idea is that the rotating part of the engine incorporates a wheel with a very
heavy metal rim, and this drives whatever machine or device the engine is connected to. It
takes much more time to get a flywheel-engine turning but, once it's up to speed, the
flywheel stores a huge amount of rotational energy. A heavy spinning flywheel is a bit
like a truck going at speed: it has huge momentum so it takes a great deal of stopping and
changing its speed takes a lot of effort. That may sound like a drawback, but it's actually
very useful. If an engine supplies power erratically, the flywheel compensates, absorbing
extra power and making up for temporary lulls, so the machine or equipment it's
connected to is driven more smoothly.
It's easy to see how a flywheel could be used for regenerative braking. In something
like a bus or a truck, you could have a heavy flywheel that could be engaged or
disengaged from the transmission at different times. You could engage the flywheel every
time you want to brake so it soaked up some of your kinetic energy and brought you to a
halt. Next time you started off, you'd use the flywheel to return the energy and get you
moving again, before disengaging it during normal driving. The main drawback of using
flywheels in moving vehicles is, of course, their extra weight. They save you energy by
Page 30
storing power you'd otherwise squander in brakes, but they also cost you energy because
you have to carry them around all the time.
The transfer of energy in both directions (captured from the driveline during coasting and
braking, and released to the driveline for boost) is managed through a CVT (Continuously
Variable Transmission) gear box. Packaged inside a single housing is a shaftmounted flywheel that is connected via a chain/gear or belt/pulley drive to a series of
discs and rollers (the CVT). During braking and coasting, the flywheel spools-up
(accelerates as it spins) and absorbs a storehouse of otherwise wasted energy (heat from
friction brakes). During power delivery, as the vehicle begins to accelerate, the pent-up
energy in the flywheel is released and it turns the shaft. The rollers within the CVT can
change position across the discs and either retard or augment the torque of the spinning
flywheel shaft much like a conventional step-up or step-down gear box. This gearing is
necessary, because unlike aircraft, and to a certain extent watercraft, which travel at a
relatively constant load and speed, earth-bound vehicles travel at regularly and greatly
varying speeds and loads as they negotiate traffic and topography. It is this variable output
velocity that allows for smooth power transmission from the flywheel to the driveline as
the vehicle travels over the roadway.
Advanced transmissions that incorporate hi-tech flywheels are now being used as
regenerative systems in such things as formula-1 cars, where they're typically referred to
as Kinetic Energy Recovery Systems (KERS).
Pros of flywheel systems

Compact weight and size -- The entire system (the CVT, the flywheel and
the housing) is roughly half the weight and packaging of a battery hybrid
system.
Twice as efficient -- Battery-electric structures lose kinetic potential during
the conversion of energy from mechanical to electrical to chemical, and
then back again. Its a fundamental of the Second Law of Thermodynamics:
transforming energy from one form to another introduces losses. BatteryDept of Mechanical Engineering
Page 31
electrics are approximately 34 percent efficient. Flywheel drives are all

mechanical and suffer no conversion losses. Most of the energy loss that
does occur comes from normal friction between moving parts. These
systems are about 70 percent efficient.
Lower cost -- Smaller size and weight and reduced complexity make these
arrangements about one quarter the cost of a battery-electric system.
4.4. Use in compressed air

Regenerative brakes could be employed in compressed air cars to refill the air tank
during braking. By absorbing the kinetic energy (necessary for braking), using the same
for compressing the air and reuse these compressed air while powering the car.
4.5. Regenerative Braking Using Nitilon Spring

From fig it is clear that while braking the kinetic energy is stored in form of potential
energy in spring. When the system actually demands for the acceleration this potential
energy stored is given back to the wheels to power them.
Fig (e) Regenerative braking using Nitilon Spring
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LED AS INDICATOR
LED
Light emitting diodes (LEDs) are semiconductor light sources. The light emitted
from LEDs varies from visible to infrared and ultraviolet regions. They operate on low
voltage and power. LEDs are one of the most common electronic components and are
mostly used as indicators in circuits. They are also used for luminance and optoelectronic
applications.
Based on semiconductor diode, LEDs emit photons when electrons recombine with holes
on forward biasing. The two terminals of LEDs are anode (+) and cathode (-) and can be
identified by their size. The longer leg is the positive terminal or anode and shorter one is
negative terminal.
The forward voltage of LED (1.7V-2.2V) is lower than the voltage supplied (5V) to drive
it in a circuit. Using an LED as such would burn it because a high current would destroy
its p-n gate. Therefore a current limiting resistor is used in series with LED. Without this
resistor, either low input voltage (equal to forward voltage) or PWM (pulse width
modulation) is used to drive the LED. Get details about internal structure of a LED.
Pin Diagram:
How LED works

LED (Light Emitting Diode) is a special diode that emits light when an electric voltage is
applied to it. It is common electronic component that is being used in devices like TV,
computer, etc. generally for indicating purpose. They are available in various colors like
red, yellow, green etc.
Page 33
There are two leads of an LED that are used to supply input voltage. The longer lead is
positive and known as Post, and the smaller is negative known as Anvil as shown in
the image above.
The above image shows the structure of an LED. A metal cup is placed on the negative
lead (Anvil) which holds a semiconductor die. The semiconductor die is a combination of
two semiconductor materials N type and P type and an active region (known as P-N
junction) between them. The outer body is formed of an epoxy glass that provides
directionality to the light as well as protection to the die and leads.
A closer look shows the structure of various components clearly. A cone shape cup, which
holds the semiconductor die. The conical shape plays an important role to reflect the light
emitted from the semiconductor die. Both leads are connected with the die by a wire
bond.
Page 34
The entire assembly is encapsulated in a epoxy glass case. The shape of the glass gives
directionality to the light emitted from semiconductor die.
This image is the top view of the LED after removing some section of the epoxy glass
case. You can see how the semiconductor die is placed in the cone. The wires are also
visible on a closer look.
Page 35
After removing the glass completely, the above image shows the front view of the leads.
It showcases the structure of both the leads Anvil and Post, which are connected to the
N layer and P layer of the semiconductor die respectively by wire bond.
The negative terminal (Anvil) has a cavity where the semiconductor die is placed. This
cavity is shaped so as to reflect the produced light into upward direction.
The semiconductor die which is the heart of the LED, placed on the cavity located on
negative terminal (Anvil).
Working:
The P type semiconductor is connected with the positive end of battery and N type with
the negative end of the battery. When a current is passed through the LED, free electrons
from the N layer moves to the P layer in the active region (P-N Junction). This involves a
Page 36
drop from the conduction band to the lower orbit and electrons release some energy in the
form of photons. The frequency and wavelength of the light produced photons is
dependent on the material and doping level of the semiconductor. In case of LED, the
material used and doping levels are set so as to produce photons with wavelength in the
range of desired color of light in the visible spectrum.
DESCRIPTION OF BATTERIES
Silver chloride: too expensive, have to be recharged often
Lithium MH
Lead Acid: conventional but too heavy
Lead Selenium.
PowerGenix Ni-Zn battery not only has the highest energy density at lower discharge
rates but also that the margin actually improves as the discharge rate is increased. The
effect of this high pulse current has been to significantly shorten the life of conventional
Ni-Cd batteries. Based on current data no such effect has been seen with the PowerGenix
Ni-Zn battery.
Lithium-ion batteries, compared with other typical lead and nickel hydride batteries, have
superior energy density (energy that can be extracted per unit mass or per unit volume),
power density (power that can be extracted per unit mass or per unit volume), and are
currently the most desirable second-generation battery.
Lead-acid is the most conventional one. Its main advantages are cheap and highly
recyclable, but it is poor in energy efficiency (i.e., generates less power per kg of weight)
and takes a full night to recharge.
Page 37
***
***
**
***
**
**
Another battery is Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH), currently being used by Honda EV

Plus and many others. It is one times more efficient than Lead-acid, that means it can
double the range of the car or reduce the battery weight by half while maintaining
mileage. Besides, it takes shorter time to recharge, and last longer. Any disadvantages?
Yes, very high price.
The latest newcomer is Lithium-ion battery, which was developed by Sony and has been
installed in Nissan Altra EV. It is even more efficient than Ni-MH, even more durable and
even quicker to recharge. Disadvantage is still even high price and difficulty to be
recycled. The lithium ion batteries are rapidly into laptop and cell phone markets because
of their high specific energy. They also have high specific power, high-energy efficiency,
good high temperature performance, and low self-discharge. Components of lithium ion
batteries could also be recycled. The cycle life is also pretty good as for our design. And it
is light in weight! However very expensive
Electric vehicles with lead acid batteries have limited range, allowing drivers to travel
only relatively short distances before they must recharge. Lead-acid batteries with a
specific energy (energy-to-weight ratio) of 30-40 watt-hours per kilogram (Wh/kg), at a
cost of up to $150 per kilowatt hour, are not adequate for competitive electric
vehicles.The targets for advanced battery performance are a specific energy of 150 Wh/kg
at a cost of $150 per kilowatt hour. Other goals include power-to-weight ratios of 300
watts per kilogram and a ten-year useful life.
The nickel Metal hydride battery is currently the technology that has come closest to
achieving these objectives, and although U.S. and major Japanese automakers are now
offering this battery in their electric vehicles, this technology still falls short of the
USABCs performance and cost targets.
Page 38
Lithium-based batteries appear to offer the best chance for meeting those targets.
Page 39
BATTERY CHARGE AND DISCHARGE CURVES
Nickel Metal-Hydride
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
Page 40
Page 41
Page 42
Lithium-Ion Batteries
Page 43
Lead-Acid
Page 44
NiZn PERFORMANCE FEATURES
NOTE: This battery was chosen for use in Jan 2004 because of the following criteria as
below. However, because of availability issues, and more research, we finally decided to
use the conventional type: LEAD ACID. In future, this battery (NiZn) may be of good
standard use.
Key Performance Features: each of the following constitute major improvements over
lead acid batteries:
Environmental Status: This battery technology provides the lowest impact to the
environment of any standard rechargeable battery technology on the market today.
Evercel's battery meets the requirements of the EPA for disposal in landfills with regard to
heavy metals. A TCLP test has been done by an independent laboratory, which confirms
that the Evercel battery does not leach out controllable levels of any heavy metals.
Evercel is working on the EU requirements now. Like all of the standard rechargeable
batteries, this battery system contains an electrolyte -- an alkaline solution of 20%
potassium hydroxide.
Cycle Life: Evercel nickel-zinc batteries can provide 10,000 shallow cycles (10% Depth
Of Discharge) and up to 500 very deep cycles (100% DOD) in normal use with approved
charging method.
Weight: For a given amount of energy, such as 10Ah, the Evercel battery is the weight
of an equivalent lead-acid battery. If the battery will be used in a high power use, such as
a mower or electric vehicle, the actual weight savings would be the weight of lead.
Page 45
Nickel-zinc will have equal weight to advanced Nickel Metal Hydride and 30% less
weight than Nickel Cadmium batteries of equivalent energy. Today, the nickel-zinc
battery's gravimetric energy density with standard cells is 50-60 Wh/Kg.
Volume: For a given amount of energy, such as 10Ah, the Evercel battery is equivalent in
size to a lead-acid battery. If the battery will be used in a high power use, such as a
mower or electric vehicle, the size would be the size of lead. Nickel-zinc will have
equal size to most Nickel Cadmium batteries of equivalent energy. Volumetric energy
density depending upon configuration varies from 75 Wh/L to 110 Wh/L.
Temperature Range: Nickel-zinc batteries can operate from -10C (14F) to 50C
(122F) in normal load ranges and performance levels. At very high power the
temperature limits are narrower. Charging can be achieved at temperatures from 0C
(32F) to 40C (104F). Charging outside this range is possible but shortens the life of the
battery.
Power: Nickel-Zinc batteries are similar to Ni-Cd batteries in the amount of power
available. This power is available without significant affect on the capacity of the battery.
This is a major advantage over lead acid, which rapidly sacrifices capacity when
providing high power. Evercel's high energy system is able to provide peak power of 280
W/kg today and special designs for HEV can provide 500 W/Kg.
Shelf-Life: Evercel nickel-zinc batteries can be be stored at any temperature from -60C
(-76F) to +70C (158F), without long-term damage. Normal self-discharge, which is
accelerated at higher temperatures and slowed at lower temperatures, will occur. Standard
recharging will recover the lost capacity completely. In same cases, as many as 5-6
charges may be necessary to wake up a battery after long storage. Always fully charge
battery before storage. Expected shelf life of stored batteries is undefined but expected to
exceed 10 years.
Page 46
Charging Method: Nickel-Zinc cells are charged in an upright position to allow proper
handling of the gases generated during the charging process. Evercel's standard charging
regime is nearly identical to lead acid batteries but uses higher voltage settings and no
trickle charge. It is easily accomplished with reasonable and simple charging systems.
Refer to charging algorithms page of this section by adhering to the algorithms shown, it
will ensure a long life and many charging cycles.
Maintenance: There is no required maintenance for this battery. Charging and discharging
are the only actions necessary for the use of the battery. The battery is sealed and should
not be opened under any circumstances.
Economics: Due to the low initial cost, the high capacity per cycle and the high cycle
life, along with no maintenance in the life-time of the battery, nickel-zinc batteries
provide excellent economics when compared to other technologies.
Evercel can provide its nickel-zinc technology in a monoblock design or in a single cell
package that can be configuration to suit the customer application.
An
in
depth
technical/scientific
report
can
be
downloaded.
http://www.evercel.com/featuresofnizn.html
***
***
***
Page 47
This 12V 12Ah size is the same as the popular sealed lead acid type of the same Ah.
Rating. But though these are two-thirds the weight and expected to last twice as many
charge cycles as the lead type, we still haven't conducted sufficient testing to feel
comfortable selling them. Better availability than lithium ion but still rare.
Costing less than Lithium Ion or Nickel Metal Hydride, Nickel Zinc will allow higher
amp hours required by e-trikes, e-wheelchairs, e-motorbikes, e-scooters, golf cart type
NEVs (Neighborhood Electric Vehicles), and larger electric vehicles requiring more range
or less weight than lead acid allows.
Page 48
CHAPTER5
APPLICATIONS
Some of vehicles using regenerative brake:-
Fig (f): Toyota Prius
Fig.(g): Ford FUSION
Page 49
Fig.(h):Tesla Roadster Electric Car
Fig(i). Truck using Hydraulic Regenerative Brake (HRB)
Fig.(j): Vectrix Electric Maxi-Scooter
Fig.(h):KERS is used in F1 cars from 2009

Page 50
Benefits of regenerative braking
Reduction of pollution
Increase in engine life
Breaking is not total loss
Wear Reduction
Reduction in pollution
Railway vehicle The Delhi Metro saved around 90,000 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2)
from being released into the atmosphere by regenerating 112,500 megawatt hours of
electricity through the use of regenerative braking systems
Increase engine efficiency
Regenerative brakes have been able to improve the performance of engines.
This has been exhibited in the Motor sport industry The system used by F! cars is called
K. E. R. S (Kinetic Energy Recovery System)
Breaking is not total loss
Conventional brakes apply friction to convert a vehicles kinetic energy into heat. In
energy terms, therefore, braking is a total loss: once heat is generated, it is very difficult
to reuse. The regenerative braking system, however, slows a vehicle down in a different
way.
Wear Reduction
An electric drive train also allows for regenerative breaking which increases Efficiency
and reduces wear on the vehicle brakes.
Limitations of regenerative braking system
The regenerative braking effect drops off at lower speeds, therefore the friction
brake is still required in order to bring the vehicle to a complete halt.
The friction brake is a necessary back-up in the event of failure of the regenerative
brake.
Most road vehicles with regenerative braking only have power on some wheels (as
in a 2WD car) and regenerative braking power only applies to such wheels, so in
order to provide controlled braking under difficult conditions (such as in wet
roads) friction based braking is necessary on the other wheels
Conclusion:
The energy efficiency of a conventional brake is only about 20 percent, with the
remaining 80 percent of its energy being converted to heat through friction. The
Page 51
miraculous thing about regenerative braking is that it may be able to capture as much as
half of that wasted energy and put it back to work.
This reduces fuel consumption by 10 to 25 percent.
Hence regenerative braking plays an important role in fuel consumption and also in the
field of speed.
Page 52
CHAPTER 6
COMPARISIONS
6.1 Advantages of regenerative braking over conventional braking
Energy Conservation:
The flywheel absorbs energy when braking via a clutch system slowing the car
down and speeding up the wheel. To accelerate, another clutch system connects the
flywheel to the drive train, speeding up the car and slowing down the flywheel. Energy is
therefore conserved rather than wasted as heat and light which is what normally happens
in the contemporary shoe/disc system.
Wear Reduction:
An electric drive train also allows for regenerative breaking which increases
Efficiency and reduces wear on the vehicle brakes.
In regenerative braking, when the motor is not receiving power from the battery
pack, it resists the turning of the wheels, capturing some of the energy of motion as if it
were a generator and returning that energy to the battery pack. In mechanical brakes;
lessening wear and extending brake life is not possible. This reduces the use of use the
brake.
Fuel Consumption:
The fuel consumption of the conventional vehicles and regenerative braking
system vehicles was evaluated over a course of various fixed urban driving schedules.
The results are compared as shown in figure. Representing the significant cost saying to
its owner, it has been proved the regenerative braking is very fuel-efficient. The Delhi
Metro saved around 90,000 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) from being released into the
atmosphere by regenerating 112,500 megawatt hours of electricity through the use of
regenerative braking systems between 2004 and 2007. It is expected that the Delhi Metro
will save over 100,000 tons of CO 2 from being emitted per year once its phase II is
complete through the use of regenerative braking. The energy efficiency of a conventional
car is only about 20 percent, with the remaining 80 percent of its energy being converted
to heat through friction. The miraculous thing about regenerative braking is that it may be
able to capture as much as half of that wasted energy and put it back to work. This could
Page 53
reduce fuel consumption by 10 to 25 percent. Hydraulic regenerative braking systems

could provide even more impressive gains, potentially reducing fuel use by 25 to 45
percent.
Braking is not total loss:
Conventional brakes apply friction to convert a vehicles kinetic energy into heat.
In energy terms, therefore, braking is a total loss: once heat is generated, it is very
difficult to reuse. The regenerative braking system, however, slows a vehicle down in a
different way.
Regenerative braking technology is one more positive step forward in Toyotas quest to
realize the ultimate ecocar. By working in concert with previously developed electric
motor technologies, its application helps Toyotas electric vehicles and hybrid vehicles
(including the recently released prius) to achieve extended ranges and to be friendlier to
the environment than ever before. At the same time, this new technology remains
unobtrusively in the background; drivers benefit from regenerative braking while
enjoying the same firm braking feel found in conventionally equipped vehicles.
Wheel
Rotating Device.
Wheel A
Rotating Device B
Shafts C.D.
Gearbox E
Clutch G
Spring - H
Shafts.
Gearbox
Clutch
Spring
7.1 Regenerative braking system using Nitinol Spring

Page 54
A hydraulic regenerative braking system improves the

fuel economy of Ford's F-350 Tonka 25-35% during
stop-and-go driving. The system provides power during
initial acceleration when demand peaks.
The HLA system consists of a reversible hydraulic pump/motor from Eaton's Fluid Power
Group (Eden Prairie, MN) coupled to the drive shaft through a clutch and two
accumulators. As the driver steps on the brake, the pump/motor forces hydraulic fluid out
of a low-pressure accumulator and into a high-pressure accumulator, increasing the
pressure of nitrogen gas stored there to 5,000 psi.
During acceleration, the HLA system switches from the pump mode to the motor mode,
the nitrogen gas forces the hydraulic fluid back into the low-pressure accumulator, and
the pump/motor applies torque to the driveshaft through the clutch. If quick acceleration
is required, the F-350's diesel engine works with the HLA system
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The hydraulic launch assist system in the F-350 Tonka functions as a secondary source of
energy during peak power demand. It consists of a low-pressure accumulator in blue, and
Page 56
a high-pressure accumulator in red. The system captures energy normally dissipated as

heat during breaking, stores it, and uses it later during periods of peak power demand.
Eighty percent of the initial kinetic energy is returned to the vehicle. "The system stores
approximately 380 kJ of energy," says Brad Bohlmann, a mechanical engineer and
business development coordinator in Advanced Technology at Eaton's Fluid Power
Group. "With that much energy, we can accelerate a 10,000-lb vehicle from a dead stop to
between 25 and 30 miles per hour with no assistance from the vehicle's combustion
engine."
"Ford thinks that both electric and hydraulic regenerative systems have a future," says
John Brevick, a Ford mechanical engineer working on the HLA system. "But for heavy
vehicles like our 10,000-lb F-350 trucks, hydraulics are better at capturing lost energy
than electric systems."
Eaton's Bohlmann explains that the real advantage of hydraulics is in its power density.
"Hydraulics is capable of transferring energy very quickly," says Bohlmann. "The rate of
energy transfer is in a hybrid electric system of a similar size is much lower."
Bohlmann adds that the specific vocation or driving cycle of the vehicle determines
whether a hybrid hydraulic or hybrid electric system is best suited for the vehicle. "Think
of hydraulics as a sprinter, providing fast bursts of power," he says. "An electric hybrid is
more like a marathon runner."
"The challenge now is to make use of the regenerative braking system seamless to the
customer," says Ford's Brevick. "We still have room for improvements and feel the HLA
system has a lot of potential."
As for the future, Ford, Eaton, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) are
jointly conducting research on hydraulic hybrid vehicles, including internal combustion
engines that would produce hydraulic pressure to drive the vehicle. Eaton signed both a
technology license agreement and a cooperative research and development agreement
with the EPA for the development of future generation systems.
Page 57
Inertia,
Force
and
Mass
Everything has inertia; if it has a mass, it has inertia. A hybrid reclaims energy through
the fundamentals of physics. Do you remember any high school or college physics?
You apply a force to move an object. The equation for this is:
F=ma
F
being
the
force,
being
the
mass
and
a being the acceleration

The faster you want an object to accelerate, the more force you have to apply.
Lets just look at the electric motor for now. Energy from the battery (Watts) is applied to
the coil windings in the motor. These windings then produce a magnetic force on the rotor
of the motor, which produces torque on the output shaft. This torque is then applied to the
wheels of the car via a coupling of gears and shafts. When the wheel turns, it applies a
force to the ground, which due to friction between the wheel and the ground causes the
vehicle to move along the surface. This is like if you were in a boat at a dock, and you
grabbed the dock and pushed with your arm. The force you are generating is moving the
boat relative to the location of the dock. The more force you apply, the fast you get the
boat to move.
Friction
in
Hybrids
There is friction everywhere in the hybrid system. There is electrical friction between the
atoms and electrons moving in the wires between the battery and the motor and through
the motor itself. There is magnetic friction in the metal laminations that make up the
magnetic circuit of the motor, as well as in the magnets again on the atomic level. Then,
there is mechanical friction between every moving part, such as the bearings, seals, gears,
chains and so on. The by-product of friction is heat. Take your hands rub them together
and your palms get warm. The faster you do it, the faster they heat up. Also, the harder
they are pressed together, the faster they will heat. Friction is energy lost to heat. When all
of these losses are added up, that is what determines the efficiency of the vehicle.
Frictional
Losses
in
Conventional
Cars
A standard car generates torque to move the wheels to drive the vehicle down the road.
During this time, it is generating friction and losses. When you apply standard brakes, it is
just another friction device that has specially designed material to handle the heat from
friction, which is applied to the drums and rotors that stop the wheel from turning. The
Page 58
friction between the wheel and the ground stops the vehicle. This standard vehicle has
frictional losses to move the vehicleand uses the fundamental behind frictional losses to
stop the vehicle. So its a lose-lose situation.
Transferring
Torque
Back
to
the
Motor
This inertia is the fundamental property of physics that is used to reclaim energy from the
vehicle. Instead of using 100% of the foundation brakes of the vehicle, which are the
friction brakes, we now let the linkages back to the motor such as the drive shafts, chains,
and gears transfer the torque from the wheels back into the motor shaft. One of the unique
things about most electric motors is that electrical energy can be transferred into
mechanical energy and also mechanical energy can be transferred back into electrical
energy. In both cases, this can be done very efficiently.
Thus, through the technology of the motor and motor controller, the force at the wheels
becomes torque on the electric motor shaft. The magnets on the shaft of the motor (called
the rotorthe moving part of the motor) move past the electric coils on the stator (the
stationary part of the motor) passing the magnetic fields of the magnets through the coils
producing electricity. This electricity becomes electrical energy, which is pumped back to
the battery. This, in turn, charges the hybrid battery pack. This is where the comment
regeneration or reclaiming energy comes from.
That is the basics of how regeneration works. How much energy you can reclaim depends
on a lot of factors. There are different regeneration theories and designs, which fall into
two groups: one being called parallel regen and the other called series regen, which are
different from the parallel and series hybrids. These regen groups strictly are design
topologies for braking systems. It also matters how many wheels you are using to reclaim
energy. Most vehicles to date are front wheel drive so you can only reclaim energy from
the front wheels. The back wheels still waste energy to standard friction brakes unless
they are somehow connected back to the electric motor. The other factor is battery state of
charge and how hard can you drive that energy back into the battery.
Page 59
6.2 Comparison of Dynamic brakes and Regenerative brakes

Dynamic brakes ("rheostatic brakes" in the UK), unlike regenerative brakes,
dissipate the electric energy as heat by passing the current through large banks of variable
resistors. Vehicles that use dynamic brakes include forklifts, Diesel-electric locomotives,
and streetcars. This heat can be used to warm the vehicle interior, or dissipated externally
by large radiator-like cowls to house the resistor banks.
The main disadvantage of regenerative brakes when compared with dynamic
brakes is the need to closely match the generated current with the supply characteristics
and increased maintenance cost of the lines. With DC supplies, this requires that the
voltage be closely controlled. Only with the development of power electronics has this
been possible with AC supplies, where the supply frequency must also be matched (this
mainly applies to locomotives where an AC supply is rectified for DC motors).
A small number of mountain railways have used 3-phase power supplies and 3phase induction motors. This results in a near constant speed for all trains as the motors
rotate with the supply frequency both when motoring and braking.
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6.3 Why Regenerative Brakes are assisted with the Frictional Brake??
Traditional friction-based braking is used in conjunction with mechanical regenerative
braking for the following reasons:
The regenerative braking effect drops off at lower speeds; therefore the friction
brake is still required in order to bring the vehicle to a complete halt. Physical
locking of the rotor is also required to prevent vehicles from rolling down hills.
The friction brake is a necessary back-up in the event of failure of the regenerative
brake.
Most road vehicles with regenerative braking only have power on some wheels (as
in a two-wheel drive car) and regenerative braking power only applies to such
wheels, so in order to provide controlled braking under difficult conditions (such
as in wet roads) friction based braking is necessary on the other wheels.
The amount of electrical energy capable of dissipation is limited by either the
capacity of the supply system to absorb this energy or on the state of charge of the
battery or capacitors. No regenerative braking effect can occur if another electrical
component on the same supply system is not currently drawing power and if the
battery or capacitors are already charged. For this reason, it is normal to also
incorporate dynamic braking to absorb the excess energy.
Under emergency braking it is desirable that the braking force exerted be the
maximum allowed by the friction between the wheels and the surface without
slipping, over the entire speed range from the vehicle's maximum speed down to
zero. The maximum force available for acceleration is typically much less than
this except in the case of extreme high-performance vehicles. Therefore, the
power required to be dissipated by the braking system under emergency braking
conditions may be many times the maximum power which is delivered under
acceleration. Traction motors sized to handle the drive power may not be able to
cope with the extra load and the battery may not be able to accept charge at a
Page 61
sufficiently high rate. Friction braking is required to absorb the surplus energy in
order to allow an acceptable emergency braking performance.
For these reasons there is typically the need to control the regenerative braking
and match the friction and regenerative braking to produce the desired total braking
output.
Page 62
CHAPTER7
CONCLUSION
The beginning of the 21st century could very well mark the final period in which
internal combustion engines are commonly used in cars. Already automakers are moving
toward alternative energy carriers, such as electric batteries, hydrogen fuel and even
compressed air. Regenerative braking is a small, yet very important, step toward our
eventual independence from fossil fuels. These kinds of brakes allow batteries to be used
for longer periods of time without the need to be plugged into an external charger. These
types of brakes also extend the driving range of fully electric vehicles. In fact, this
technology has already helped bring us cars like the Tesla Roadster, which runs entirely
on battery power. Sure, these cars may use fossil fuels at the recharging stage -- that is, if
the source of the electricity comes from a fossil fuel such as coal -- but when they're out
there on the road, they can operate with no use of fossil fuels at all, and that's a big step
forward. When you think about the energy losses incurred by battery-electric hybrid
systems, it seems plausible to reason that efficient flywheel hybrids would soon become
the norm. But of course its not quite so black and white, and further analysis shows that a
combination of battery-electric and flywheel energy storage is probably the ideal solution
for hybrid vehicles.
As designers and engineers perfect regenerative braking systems, they will
become more and more common. All vehicles in motion can benefit from utilizing
regeneration to recapture energy that would otherwise be lost.
Page 63
REFERENCES
1. Cibulka, J. Kinetic energy recovery system by means of flywheel energy storage
Advanced engineering 3(2009)1, ISSN 1846-5900
2. How stuffswork.com
3. Hewko L. O; Automotive traction drive CVTs An overview; SAE paper
861355;
4. Juan W. Dixon, Micah Ortzar and Eduardo Wiechmann*, Regenerative Braking
for an Electric Vehicle Using Ultracapacitors and a Buck-Boost Converter
5. Chris Brockbank, BSc (Hons) Development of Full-Toroidal Traction Drives in
Flywheel Based Mechanical Hybrids
6. Wikepidia.org
7. Scribd.com
8. Ziqiang CHEN, Jiaxi QIANG, Jianhui HE, Lin YANG Intelligent Regenerative
Braking Control of Hybrid Buses
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REGENERATIVE BRAKING

Dept of Mechanical Engineering

Dept of Mechanical Engineering

Need for regenerative brakes

CHAPTER2. Basic idea of Regenerative brakes

A regenerative brake is an energy recovery mechanism which slows a vehicle or object

The motor as a generator

parallel controllers. Following a serious accident at Rawtenstall, an embargo was placed

1.1NEED FOR REGENERATIVE BRAKES?

A brake is a device that decelerates a moving object / prevents an object from

Dept of Mechanical Engineering

Fig (a): Graphical Representation of Energy usage of two vehicles

BASIC IDEA OF REGENERATIVE BRAKES

Dept of Mechanical Engineering

Fig. (c): Basic idea of Regenerative brakes

2.1 The Motor as a generator

Conventional Braking Systems

Dept of Mechanical Engineering

In braking systems on conventional vehicles, friction is used to counteract the forward

Regenerative Braking Systems

Hybrid gas/electric automobiles use a completely different method of braking at slower

Comparison of dynamic and regenerative brakes

Dept of Mechanical Engineering

Dept of Mechanical Engineering

Kinetic energy recovery systems

Dept of Mechanical Engineering

Dept of Mechanical Engineering

High specific energy storage density

High energy transfer rate

Small space requirement

Dept of Mechanical Engineering

3.2 Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT):

3.4 Regenerative Brake Controllers

Dept of Mechanical Engineering

Dept of Mechanical Engineering

Dept of Mechanical Engineering

Dept of Mechanical Engineering

Fundamentals of Motor - Part 2

Dept of Mechanical Engineering

Dept of Mechanical Engineering

Dept of Mechanical Engineering

DIFFERENT TYPES OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING

4.1. Electric Regenerative braking

The main components of this system

Electronic control system

Fig (2) showing energy consumption from battery .

Fig (3) showing charging of battery when brake applied.

4.2. Hydraulic Regenerative Brakes

Hydrostatic Regenerative Braking (HRB) system uses electrical/electronic

Dept of Mechanical Engineering

Fig. (d) Hydraulic Regenerative Brake (HRB)

4.3. Fly Wheels

Pros of flywheel systems

electrics are approximately 34 percent efficient. Flywheel drives are all

4.4. Use in compressed air

4.5. Regenerative Braking Using Nitilon Spring

Fig (e) Regenerative braking using Nitilon Spring

Dept of Mechanical Engineering

How LED works

Dept of Mechanical Engineering

Dept of Mechanical Engineering

Dept of Mechanical Engineering

Silver chloride: too expensive, have to be recharged often