Concrete Design 8110 PDF

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering
1.
Construction Planning, Estimating Management,

Methods & Safety Engineering
INTRODUCTION
Reinforced Concrete Structures
Concrete is the most important building material, due to its ability to be moulded to
take up the shapes required for the various structural forms.
and fire resistant.
It is also very durable
Structural Elements and Frames

Its utility and versatility is achieved by combining the best features of concrete and
steel. Consider some of the widely differing properties of these two materials that
are listed below.
strength in tension
strength in compression
strength in shear
durability
fire resistance
Concrete
poor
good
fair
good
good
Steel
good
good, but slender bars will buckle
good
corrodes if unprotected
poor suffers rapid loss of strength a high
temperatures
It can be see from this list that the materials are more or less complementary.
The complete building structure can be broken down into the following elements:
Beams
Slab
Columns
Wall
Bases and foundations
horizontal members carrying vertical and/or lateral

loads
horizontal plate elements carrying vertical loads
vertical members carrying primarily axial load, but
generally also subjected to lateral load and moment
vertical plate elements resisting vertical, lateral or
in-plane loads
pads or strips supported directly on the ground that
spread the loads from columns or walls so that they can
be supported by the ground without excessive
settlement

Composite Action
The tensile strength of concrete is only about 10 per cent of the compressive strength;
therefore, nearly all reinforced concrete structures are not designed to resist any
tensile forces, while all tensile forces are designed to be carried by reinforcement,
which are transferred by bond between the interface of the two materials. If the
bond is not adequate, the reinforcing bars will just slip within the concrete and there
will not be a composite action.
In the analysis and design of the composite reinforced concrete section, it is assumed
that there is perfect bond, so that the strain in the reinforcement is identical to the
strain in the adjacent concrete.
Figure 1.1
Composite action
Figure 1.1 illustrates the behaviour of a simply supported beam subjected to bending
and shows the position of steel reinforcement to resist the tensile forces, while the
compression forces in the top of the beam are carried by the concrete.
1.4 Stress-Strain Relations
1.4.1 Concrete
Figure 1.2 Stress-strain curve for concrete in compression

A typical curve for concrete in compression is shown in above fig.1.2.
As the load is
applied, the ratio between the stresses and strains is approximately linear at first and
the concrete behaves almost as an elastic material.
Eventually, the curve is no longer
linear and the concrete behaves more and more as a plastic material. The ultimate
strain for most structural concrete tends to be a constant value of approximately
0.0035, irrespective of the strength of the concrete.
1.4.2 Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete
This is measured for a particular concrete by means of a static test in which a cylinder
is loaded to just above one-third of the corresponding control cube stress and then
cycled back to zero stress. This removes the effect of initial bedding in and minor
stress redistribution in the concrete under load. Load is then reapplied and the
behaviour will then be almost linear; the average slope of the line up to the specified
stress is taken as the value for EC.
Figure 1.3
Moduli of elasticity of concrete
The magnitude of the modulus of elasticity is required when investigating the

deflection and cracking of a structure. When considering short-term effects, member
stiffness will be based on the static modulus EC. If long-term effects are being
considered such as creep, modified value of EC should be used.

Short-term modulus of elasticity of concrete

28 day characteristic
cube strength
Static modulus Ec,28

(kN/mm2)
fcu,28
(N/mm2)
Typical
Mean
25
19 31
25
30
20 32
26
40
22 34
28
50
60
24 36
26 38
30
32
Elastic modulus at an age other than 28 days may be estimated from

Ec,t = Ec,28 (0.4 + 0.6 f cu,t /fcu,28)
1.4.3 Steel
Figure 1.4
Stress-strain curves for reinforcing bars.
Fig.1.4 shows typical stress-strain curves for (a) hot rolled mild steel & high yield
steel, and (b) cold worked high yield steel. The hot rolled bars have definite yield
point, but the cold worked bar does not have a definite yield point. The specified
strength used in design is based on the yield stress for hot rolled mild steel and high
yield steel, whereas for cold worked high yield steel, the strength is based on a
specified proof stress. A 0.2% proof stress is defined in fig.1.4.

1.5 Durability
Concrete structures, properly designed and constructed, are long lasting and should
required little maintenance.
The durability of the concrete is influenced by:
i)
ii)
the exposure conditions

the concrete quality
iii)
the cover to the reinforcement
iv)
the width of any cracks
1.6 Specification of Materials

1.6.1 Concrete
The selection of the type of concrete is usually governed by the strength and
durability requirements. The concrete strength is assessed by measuring the
crushing strength of cubes or cylinders of concrete made from the mix. These are
usually cured and tested at 28 days according to standard procedures. A grade 25
concrete has a characteristic cube crushing strength of 25 N/mm.
The table below shows the lowest grade of concrete for use as specified.
GRADE
Lowest Grade for Use as Specified
C7
C10
Plain concrete
C15
C20
Reinforced concrete with lightweight aggregate
C25
Reinforced concrete with dense aggregate
C30
Concrete with post-tensioned tendons
C40
Concrete with pre-tensioned tendons
Table 1.1 Lowest grade of concrete for use

1.6.2 Reinforcing Steel

The characteristic strength of the more common types of reinforcement are shown
below.
Designation
Nominal Sizes (mm)
Specified Characteristic
Strength (N/mm)
Hot-rolled mild steel

(CS2:1995)
Hot-rolled high yield
(CS2:1995)
Cold-worked High Yield
(BS4461)
Hard drawn steel wire
(BS4482)
(6), 8, 10, 12, 16,

25, 32, 40 & (50)
250
(6), 8, 10, 12, 16,

25, 32, 40 & (50)
460
(6), 8, 10 & 12
485
Table 1.2 Nominal Steel with strength
1.7 Concrete Cover

1.7.1 Nominal cover against corrosion
The nominal cover should protect steel against corrosion and fire. The cover to a
main bar should not be less than the bar size or in the case of pairs or bundles the size
of a single bar of the same cross-sectional area.
The cover depends on the exposure conditions shall be as follows.
Mild
Moderate
Severe
Very severe
Extreme
concrete is protected against weather

concrete is sheltered from severe rain
concrete under water
concrete in non-aggressive soil
concrete exposed to severe rain or to alternate wetting and drying
concrete exposed to sea water, de-icing salts or corrosive fumes
concrete exposed to abrasive action

Limiting values for nominal cover are given in the following Table 1.3. Note that the
water-to-cement ratio and minimum cement content are specified.
Good
workmanship is required to ensure that the steel is property placed and that the
specified cover is obtained.
Conditions of exposure
Nominal cover (mm)
Mild
Moderate
25
20
35
20
30
Severe
40
Very severe
Extreme
Maximum free water-to-cement ratio
Minimum cement content (kg/m)
Lowest grade of concrete
--
--
50
--
0.65
275
C30
0.6
300
C35
0.55
325
C40
Table 1.3 Nominal cover to all reinforcement including links to meet durability requirements
1.7.2 Cover as fire protection

Nominal cover to all reinforcement shall meet a given fire resistance period for
various elements in a building is given in Table 1.4 and in the design code. Minimum
dimensions of members from the Code of Practice are shown in following Fig. 1.5.
Reference should be made to the complete table and figure in the Hong Kong Code of
Practice for Fire Resisting Construction.
Nominal Cover mm
Fire
Resistance
Beams
Floors
Ribs
Column
Hour
SS
SS
SS
1.0
1.5
2.0
20
20
40
20
20
30
20
25
35
20
20
25
20
35
45
20
20
35
20
20
25
SS simply supported, and C continuous

Table 1.4 Nominal cover to all reinforcement including links to meet specified FRP

Fire
Min. beam
Rib
Min. floor
Column width
Min. wall
full exposed
b
thickness
0.4% < p < 1%
200
250
300
120
140
160
resistance
(hour)
thickness
h
1.0
1.5
2.0
200
200
200
125
125
125
95
110
125
Dimensions mm
p = area of steel relative to concrete
Figure 1.5
Minimum dimensions for fire resistance
2.

LIMIT STATE DESIGN
Introduction
The design of an engineering structure must ensure that
i)
Under the worst loadings the structure is safe.
ii)
During the normal working conditions the deformation of the members does not
detract from the appearance, durability or performance of the structure.
Design Methods
Three basic methods using factors of safety to achieve safe, workable structures have
been developed and they are:
i)
The permissible stress method in which ultimate strengths of the materials are
divided by a factor of safety to provide design stresses, which are usually
within the elastic range. e.g. actual strength = 460N/mm2, applying F.O.S. = 2
using 230N/mm2 for design.
The permissible stress method has proved to be a simple and useful method
but it does have some serious inconsistencies. Because it is based on an
elastic stress distribution, it is not really applicable to a semi-plastic material
such as concrete.
ii)
The load factor method in which the working loads are multiplied by a factor
of safety. e.g. actual load = 20kN, applying F.O.S. = 2 using 40kN for
design.
In load factor method the ultimate strength of the materials should be used in
the calculations. As this method does not apply factors of safety to the
material stresses, it cannot directly take account of the variability of the
material.
iii)
The limit state method which multiplies the working loads by partial factors
of safety and also divides the materials ultimate strength by further partial
factors of safety.
The limit state of design overcomes many of the disadvantages of the above
two methods.

Limit States
The purpose of design is to achieve acceptable probabilities that a structure will not
become unfit for its intended use that is, that it will not reach a limit state.
The two principal types of limit state are the Ultimate Limit State and the
Serviceability Limit State.
i)
Ultimate Limit State
The most important serviceability limit states are:

a)
Deflection the appearance or efficiency of any part of the structure must

not be adversely affected by deflection.
b)
Cracking local damage due to cracking and spalling must not affect the
appearance, efficiency or durability of the structure.
c)
Durability this must be considered in terms of the proposed life of the

structure and its conditions of exposure.
Other limit states that may be reached include:

d)
Excessive vibration which may cause discomfort or alarm as well as

damage.
e)
Fatigue must be considered if cyclic loading is likely.
f)
Fire resistance this must be considered in terms of resistance to collapse,

flame penetration and heat transfer.
g)
Special circumstances any special requirements of the structures which

are not covered by any of the more common limit states.
10

Characteristic Strength
It is assumed that for a given material, the distribution of strength will be
approximately normal, so that a frequency distribution curve of a large number of
sample results would be of the form shown in the Fig.2.1 The characteristic strength is
taken as that value below which it is unlikely that more than 5% of the results will fall.
This is given by
fk = fm 1.64s
where fk = characteristic strength, fm = mean strength, s = standard deviation.
Figure 2.1 Normal frequency distribution of strengths
Characteristic Loads
Ideally, it should be possible to assess loads statistically, that
Characteristic Load = mean load 1.64 Standard Deviations
These characteristic values represent the limits within which at least 90% of values
will lie in practice. It is to be expected that not more than 5% will exceed the upper
limit and not more than 5% will fall below the lower limit.
* In Hong Kong, design loads should be obtained from the Building (Construction)
Regulations.
11

Partial Factors of Safety

Partial Factors of Safety for Materials (m)
Design Strength = Characteristic Strength ( fk ) / m
e.g. 460kN/mm2 / 1.15 0.87 fy
Factors to be considered in selecting m
i)
The strength of the material in an actual member.

e.g. The strength of concrete is easily affected by placing, compacting,
curing=> higher m
Steel is a relative consistent material, therefore, using small m
ii)
The severity of the limit state being considered.

Higher for ULS
Small or even neglected for SLS
Recommended values for m, see table below. (to BS8110)

Material
Limit state
Concrete
Steel
Ultimate
Flexure
Shear
Bond
1.5
1.25
1.4
1.15
1.15
Serviceability
1.0
1.0
Table 2.1 Partial factors of safety applied to materials (m)
12

Partial Factors of Safety for Loads (f )

Errors may arise due to: i)
Design assumptions and inaccuracy of calculation
ii)
Possible unusual load increases
iii)
iv)
Unforeseen stress redistributions

Constructional inaccuracies
These are taken into account in design by applying a partial factor safety (f ) on
loading, so that,
Design Load = Characteristic Load x (f )
The partial factor of safety (to BS8110) is as shown below.
Ultimate
Load Combination
Concrete Imposed
Dead & Imposed

(+ Earth & Water)
(G)
(Q)
1.4
1.6
(or 1.0) (or 0.0)
Serviceability All
Earth &
Water
Wind
(Q)
(W)
(GQW)
1.4
1.0
Dead & Wind

(+ Earth & Water)
Dead & Imposed &
1.4
(or 1.0)
1.4
1.4
1.0
Wind
(+ Earth & Water)
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.0
Table 2.2 Partial factors of safety for loadings
*It should be noted that the Partial Factors of Safety for Loadings in local code ( Code
of Practice for Structural Use of Concrete ) uses a different for LL and DL.
13
3.

ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE

Loading
Dead Load
Dead load includes the weight of the structure, and all architectural components such
as exterior cladding, partitions and ceilings.
Equipment and static machinery, when
permanent fixtures, are considered as part of the dead load.

* The typical value for the self-weight of reinforced concrete is 24 kN/m3
Imposed Load
Imposed loads on buildings are: the weight of its occupants, furniture, or machinery;
the pressure of wind, the weight of snow, and of retained earth and water.
Load Combinations
For ULS the loading combination to be considered are as follows:
i)
Dead and imposed load

1.4 Gk + 1.6 Qk
ii)
Dead and wind load

1.0 Gk + 1.4 Wk
iii)
Dead, imposed and wind load

1.2 Gk + 1.2 Qk + 1.2 Wk
Fig. 3.1 shows the arrangement of vertical loading for multi-span continuous beam to
cause (i) maximum sagging moment in alternate spans and (ii) maximum moment at
support A.
*BS8110 & HK Code of Practice allow the ultimate design moments at the supports
to be calculated from one loading condition with all spans fully loaded.
14
Figure 3.1

Multi-span beam loading arrangements
Load Combination for SLS

A partial factor of safety f = 1.0 is applied to all load combinations at SLS.
Frame Analysis
Braced Frame
A braced frame is where the sway deflection is reduced substantially by the
presence of cross bracing, shear wall or core wall.
Sub-frame analysis
All columns and beam spanning between joints which allow rotation take the
full stiffness. Beams having one end fixed take a reduced stiffness of 50% to
allow for the remote end of the beam is fixed against rotation. (see fig.3.2)
The structure will be subjected to the following loading cases:i)
ii)
All spans with full loading (1.4Gk + 1.6 Qk)

Alternative span full loading and the remainder with 1.0 Gk
15

Unbraced Frame
An unbraced frame is where the sway due to the imposition of horizontal loading is
not limited (except the inherent stiffness of the columns and beams) and the
beam-column connection is required to resist the moment induced by sway.
Sub-frame analysis
Only the two frames shown in fig. 3.2b can be considered, i.e. the sub-frame (viii) and
the sub-frame (ix). The sub-frame (ix) is analysed by using 1.4Gk + 1.6 Qk and
1.2Gk + 1.2 Qk. The sub-frame (viii) is analysed by using 1.2 Wk. The most
critical loading case for the structural members is obtained by comparing the
results of the two loading cases.
i)
ii)
1.4Gk + 1.6 Qk
1.2Gk + 1.2 Qk + 1.2 Wk
The sub-frame (viii) is analysed under the loading of and is carried out by assuming
point of contraflexure at the mid-spans of all beams and mid-storey heights for all
columns.
16

Fig. 3.2 Basic frame with typical subframes for both the braced and unbraced case.
17
4.

ANAYLSIS OF THE SECTION
The most important principles are:i)
The stresses and strains are related by the material properties, including the
ii)
stress-strain curves for concrete and steel.

The distribution of strains must be compatible with the distorted shape of the
cross-section.
iii)
The resultant forces developed by the section must balance the applied loads
for static equilibrium.
Stress-Strain Relations
Concrete
The behavior of structural concrete (Fig. 4.1) is represented by a parabolic

stress-strain relationship, up to strain o , from which point the strain increases while
the stress remains constant.
Figure 4.1 Short term design stress-strain curve for normal-weight concrete
18

The ultimate strain = 0.0035 is typical for all grades of concrete.
The ultimate
design stress is given by:0.67 fcu
0.67 fcu
= 0.447 fcu 0.45 fcu
1.5
Where 0.67 allows the difference between the bending strength and cube crushing
strength of concrete and m = 1.5 is the usual partial safety factor.
Steel Reinforcement
Fig. 4.2 shows a typical short-term design stress-strain curve for reinforcement.
behaviour of steel is identical in tension and compression.
The
Figure 4.2 Short term design stress-strain curve for reinforcement
Design Yield Stress =
fy
Stress = Es s
Design Yield Strain y =
fy
) / Es
For high-tensile steel (T), fy = 460 N/mm.

y = 460/(1.15 200 10 ) = 0.002
For mild steel (R), fy = 250 N/mm
y = 250/(1.15 200 10 ) = 0.00109
19

Distribution of Strains and Stresses Across a Section

Assumptions:i)
Concrete cracks in the region of tensile strain
ii)
iii)
After cracking, all tension is carried by the reinforcement.

Plane sections remain plane after straining.
The following Fig. 4.3 shown the cross-section of a member subjected to bending, and
the resultant stain diagram, together with three types of stress distribution in the
concrete.
Figure 4.3 Section with strain diagram and stress blocks
i)
The triangular stress distribution applies to the serviceability limit state. (SLS)
ii)
The rectangular parabolic stress block represents the distribution at failure

when compressive strains are within the plastic range and if is associated with
the design for ultimate limit state. (ULS).
iii)
The equivalent rectangular stress block is a simplified alternative to the

rectangular-parabolic distribution. It is adopted in BS8110.
From the compatibility of stains,
st = cc = (
and sc = cc = (
dx
x
x d
x
)
)
Where d and d are the effective depth & the depth of comp. reinf. Respectively
20

dx
By rearranging (1),
x =
1+
st
cc
At ULS, the maximum compressive strain in concrete is 0.0035.

For steel with fy = 460 N/mm, the yield strain is 0.002.
dx
x =
1+
st = 0.636 d
cc
Hence to ensure yielding of the tension steel at ULS,

x 0.636d
To be very certain of the tension steel yielding, BS8110 Limits the depth of neutral
axis so that
x (b 0.4)d
Where,
b =
moment at the section after redistribution

moment at the section before redistribution
Thus with moment redistribution not greater than 10%

b 0.9,
x 0.5d
Equivalent Rectangular Stress Block
The rectangular stress block shown in Fig. 4.4 may be used in preference to the more
rigorous rectangular-parabolic stress block. This simplified stress distribution will
facilitate the analysis and provide more manageable design equations.
Note that the stress block does not extend to the neutral axis of the section but has a
depth s = 0.9x. This will result in the centroid of the stress block being s/2 = 0.45x
from the top edge of the section, which is very nearly the same location as for the
more precise rectangular-parabolic stress block; also the areas of the two types of the
stress block are approximately equal.
21

Figure 4.4
Singly reinforced section with rectangular stress block
Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section in Bending

Fst tensile force in the reinforcing steel
Fcc resultant compressive force in concrete
For equilibrium, the ultimate design moment M must be balanced by the moment of
resistance of the section.
= Fcc
z = Fst
z, z lever arm
Fcc = Stress Area of action

= 0.45 Fcu bs
and z
= d- s/2 => s = 2(d-z)
= 0.45bs z fcu
= 0.45b 2(d z)z fcu
= 0.9 fcu b(d z)z
Let K = M / (bd fcu),

Eq.(3) becomes,
Also
(z/d) - (z/d) + K/0.9 = 0
z = d[0.5 + (0.25-K/0.9)]
Fst = (fy / m)
As =
with m = 1.15
As
M
0.87 fy z
22

The lever arm z can be found by using formula, table or design chart as shown below.
z = d[0.5 + (0.25-K/0.9)]
Formula
K = M/bd2fcu
0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.156
la = z/d
0.941 0.928 0.915 0.901 0.887 0.873 0.857 0.842 0.825 0.807 0.789 0.775
Table
Design Chart
The % values on the K axis mark the limits for singly reinforced sections with
moment redistribution applied.
The upper limit of the lever-arm curve, z = 0.95d, is specified by BS8110.
The
lower limit of z = 0.775d is when the depth of neutral axis x = d/2, which is the
maximum value allowed by the code for a singly reinforced section in order to
provide a ductile section which will have a gradual tension type failure.
With
z = 0.775d,
M = 0.9 fcu b(d 0.775d) 0.775d

=> M = 0.156 fcu bd
The coefficient 0.156 is calculated from the more precise concrete stress.
M
When
= K > 0.156, compression reinforcement is required.
bd2 fcu
Rectangular Section with Compression reinforcement at ULS
23

Figure 4.5 Section with compression reinforcement
When M > 0.156 fcu bd, the design ultimate moment exceeds the moment of
resistance of the concrete. compression reinforcement is required.
Z = d s/2
= d 0.9 x/2
= d 0.9 0.5d/2
= 0.775d
For equilibrium, Fst = Fcc + Fsc

0.87 fy As = 0.45 fcu bs + 0.87 fy As
and with s = 0.9 d/2 = 0.45d
0.87 fy As = 0.201 fcu bd + 0.87 fy As
Take moment at the centroid of the tension steel As ,

= Fcc z + Fsc (d d)
= 0.201 fcu bd(0.775d) + 0.87 fy As (d d)
= 0.156 fcu bd + 0.87 fy As (d d)
M 0.156 fcu bd2
As =
0.87 fy (d d)
0.156 fcu bd2
+ As with z = 0.775d
and As =
0.87 fy z
the value 0.156 is usually denoted by K
M
Moment Redistribution
24

The moment derived from an elastic analysis may be redistributed based on the
assumption that plastic hinges have formed at the sections with largest moments.
The formulation of plastic hinges requires relatively large rotations with yielding of
the tension reinforcement. To ensure large strains in the tension steel, the code of
practice restricts the depth of neutral axis.
X (b - 0.4)d
Where d = effective depth
b =
moment at the section after redistribution

moment at the section before redistribution
Depth of stress block, s = 0.9 ((b - 0.4)d
and
z = d- s/2
= d 0.9(b - 0.4)d/2
Moment of resistance of the concrete in compression,

Mc = Fcc z = 0.45fcu bsz
= 0.45 fcu b 0.9(b - 0.4)d[d 0.9(b - 0.4)d/2]
Mc
bd2 fcu
= 0.45 0.9(b - 0.4) [1-0.45(b - 0.4)]

= 0.402(b - 0.4)-0.18(b - 0.4)
Let
Mc
= K
bd2 fcu
K = 0.402(b - 0.4)-0.18(b - 0.4)
when M > Kbdfcu , then compression steel is required such that
As =
(K K) fcu bd2
0.87 fy (d d)
K fcu bd2
+ As
0.87 fy z
Table 4.1 shows the various design factors associated with the moment redistribution.
If the value of d/d for the section exceeds that shown in the table, the compression
and As =
25

steel will not be yielded and the compressive stress shall be taken as fsc = Essc.
Redistribution
x/d
z/d
d/d
0.9
0.5
0.775
0.156
0.215
(per cent)
10
15
20
0.85
0.8
0.45
0.4
0.797
0.82
0.144
0.132
0.193
0.172
25
30
0.75
0.7
0.35
0.3
0.842
0.865
0.119
0.104
0.150
0.129
Table 4.1 Moment redistribution design factors
26
5.

BOND & ANCHORAGE

Minimum Distance Between Bars
i) The recommended distance between bars are given in C1.3.12.11 of BS8110
Part 1, hagg (the maximum size of coarse aggregate).
ii) Horizontal Distance between bars hagg + 5mm.
iii) Vertical Distance between bars 2 hagg /3
iv) And if the bar size exceeds hagg + 5mm, a spacing of bar size is required.
Minimum Percentages of Reinforcement in Beams, Slabs and Columns
Situation
Definition of Minimum percentage

percentage
fy = 250 N/mm
fy = 450 N/mm
100As / Ac
0.8
0.45
(1) b W / b < 0.4
100As /bwh
0.32
0.18
(2) b W / b 0.4
100As /bwh
0.24
0.13
(1) T-beam
100As /bwh
0.48
0.26
(2) L-beam
100As /bwh
0.36
0.20
100As /Ac
0.24
0.13
100Asc /Acc
0.4
0.4
100Asc /Ac
0.4
0.4
(1) flange in compression
100Asc /bht
0.4
0.4
(2) web in compression
100Asc /bwh
0.2
0.2
100Asc /Ac
0.2
0.2
0.15
0.15
Tension reinforcement
Sections subjected mainly to pure tension
Sections subjected to flexure
(a) Flanged beams, web in tension:
(b) Flanged beams, flange in tension

over a continuous support:
(c) Rectangular section (in solid slabs this minimum

should be provided in both directions)
Compression reinforcement (where such reinforcement is
required for the ultimate limit state)
General rule
Simplified rules for particular cases:
(a) rectangular column or wall
(b) flanged beam:
(c) rectangular beam

Transverse reinforcement in flanges of flanges of flanged
beams (provided over full effective flange width near top 100Asc /htl
surface to resist horizontal shear)
27

Anchorage Bond
The reinforcing bar subject to tension shown in Fig. 5.1 must be firmly anchored if it
not be pulled out of the concrete
The anchorage depends on the bond between the
bar and the concrete, and the contract area.
Figure 5.1 Anchorage bond
L = Min. anchorage length to prevent pull out.

= Bar size or nominal diameter.
fbu = Ultimate anchorage bond stress.
fs = Direct tensile or compressive stress in the bar.
Consider the forces on the bar,
Tensile pull-out force =
2
4
fs
Anchorage force = ( L ) fbu
L =
fs
4fbu
= ( L ) fbu
0.87 fy
4 fbu
The ultimate anchorage bond stress, fbu = (fcu)

Values of are given in table 5.2
Table 5.2 Values of bond coefficient
Bar type
Bars in tension
Plain bars
Type 1 : deformed bars
Type 2 : deformed bars
Fabric
anchorage length L can be written as:
0.28
0.40
0.50
0.65
L = KA
Bars in compression
0.35
0.50
0.53
0.81
28

Table 5.3
Ultimate anchorage bond lengths and lap lengths as multiples of bar size
Reinforcement
Grade 250
plain
Grade 460
Plain
Deformed
Deformed Fabric
type 1
type 2
Concrete cube strength 25

Tension anchorage and lap length
39
72
51
41
31
1.4 x tension lap
55
101
71
57
44
2.0 x tension lap
78
143
101
81
62
Compression anchorage
32
58
41
32
25
Compression lap length
39
72
51
40
31

36
66
46
37
29
1.4 x tension lap
50
92
64
52
40
2.0 x tension lap
71
131
92
74
57
29
53
37
29
23
36
66
46
37
29

33
61
43
34
27
1.4 x tension lap
46
85
60
48
37
2.0 x tension lap
66
121
85
68
53
27
49
34
27
21
33
61
43
34
27

31
57
40
32
25
1.4 x tension lap
43
80
56
45
35
2.0 x tension lap
62
113
80
64
49
25
46
32
26
20
31
57
40
32
25
NOTE, The values are rounded up to the whole number and the length derived from these values may
differ slightly from those calculated directly for each bar or wire size.
Furthermore, anchorage length may be provided by hooks and bends in the

reinforcement as shown in below figure 5.2.
29
Figure 5.2

Anchorage provided by hooks & bends
Lapping of Reinforcement
Rules for lapping are:i)
ii)
The laps should be staggered and be away from sections with high stresses.
Tension laps should be equal to at least the design tension anchorage length,
but in certain conditions, it should be increased.
a) At top section and with min. cover < 2 (Multiply by 1.4)
b) At corners where min. cover to either face < 2 or clear distance between
adjacent laps < 75 mm or 6. (Multiply by 1.4)
c) Where both (a) and (b) apply. (Multiply by 2.0)
Figure 5.3 Lapping of reinforcing bars
iii)
iv)
Compression laps should be at least 25% greater than the compression

anchorage length.
Lap lengths for unequal size bars may be based on the smaller bar.
30

Shear
Shear reinforcement can be in the form of stirrups and inclined bars.
However,
inclined bars are less frequently used in construction today, due to difficult in actual
construction work.
Stirrups
Fig. 5.4 shows an analogous truss in which the longitudinal reinforcement forms the
bottom chord, the stirrups are the vertical members and the concrete acts as the
diagonal and top chord compression member.
Figure 5.4 Stirrups and the analogous truss
The spacings of the stirrups are equal to the effective depth d.

Let Asv = Cross-sectional area of the two legs of the stirrup.
fyv = Characteristic strength of the stirrup reinforcement
V = Shear force due to the ultimate load.
Consider section x x
0.87 fyv Asv = V = vbd
31

Where v = V/bd is the average shear stress.

If Sv is the actual spacing of stirrups, then
0.87 fyv Asv = vbd(sv/d)
Asv
vb
=
sv
0.87 fyv
Taken the shear resistance of concrete into account,
Asv
sv
b(v vc)
0.87 fyv
where vc is the ultimate shear stress that can be resisted by the concrete.
of vc is given in table 5.3
The values
Table 5.4 Values of Vc, design concrete shear stress

100 As
bvd
Effective depth (in mm)

125
150
175
200
225
250
300
>400
N/mm
N/mm
N/mm
N/mm
N/mm
N/mm
N/mm
N/mm
0.15
0.45
0.43
0.41
0.40
0.39
0.38
0.36
0.34
0.25
0.53
0.51
0.49
0.47
0.46
0.45
0.43
0.40
0.50
0.67
0.64
0.62
0.60
0.58
0.56
0.54
0.50
0.75
0.77
0.73
0.71
0.68
0.66
0.65
0.62
0.57
1.00
0.84
0.81
0.78
0.75
0.73
0.71
0.68
0.63
1.50
0.97
0.92
0.89
0.86
0.83
0.81
0.78
0.72
2.00
1.06
1.02
0.98
0.95
0.92
0.89
0.86
0.80
3.00
1.22
1.16
1.12
1.08
1.05
1.02
0.98
0.91
NOTE 1. Allowance has been made in these figures for a m of 1.25

NOTE 2. The values in the table are derived from the expression:
0.79 (100 As /(bvd)1/3(400/d)1/4/m
where
100A Vs /bvd
should not be taken as greater than 3:
400/d
should not be taken as less than 1.
For characteristic concrete strengths greater than 25 N/mm, the values in the table may be
multiplied by (fcu/25) 1/3. The value of fcu should not be taken as greater than 40.
The values of Vc increases for shallow members and those with larger percentages of
tensile reinforcement.
32

Enhanced Shear Resistance

Within a distance of 2d from a support or a concentrated load, the design concrete
shear stress vc may be increased to
vc2d / av
The distance av is measured from the support or concentrate load to the section being
designed.
*
Average shear stress should never exceed the lesser of 0.8(fcu) or 5 N/mm.
33

DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETER BEAM

Preliminary Analysis and Member Sizing
The preliminary analysis need only provide the max. moments and shears in order to
ascertain reasonable dimensions.
i)
Cover to reinforcement (c)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Breath (b)
Effective depth (d)
Overall depth (h)
Beam dimension required are:-
The strength of a beam is affected more by its depth than its breath.
breath may be 1/3 1/2 of the depth.
A suitable
Suitable dimensions for b and d can be decided by a few trial calculations as

follows:i)
For no compression reinforcement,

M/bdfcu 0.156
With compression reinforcement,
M/bdfcu 10 / fcu
ii)
if the area of bending reinforcement

is no to be excessive.
Shear stress v = V / bd and v should never exceed 0.8fcu or 5 N/mm

whichever is the lesser. To avoid congested shear reinforcement, v, shall be
in about 1/2 of the max. allowable value.
iii)
The span-effective depth ratio for span 10m should be within the basic
values given below.
Cantilever Beam
Simply Supported Beam
Continuous Beam
7
20
26
Basic span- effective depth ratio.
The basic span-effective depth ratio shall be modified according to M/bd and
the service stress in the tension reinforcement.
34

For span greater than 10m, the basic ratios shall be multiplied by 10/span.
iv)
The overall depth of the beam is given by

h = d + cover + t
where t = estimated distance from the outside of the link to the center of the
tension bar.
Figure 6.1 Beam dimensions
Effective Span of Beam

i)
ii)
iii)
Simply supported beam:- the smaller of the distance between the centre of
bearings, or the clear distance between support plus the effective depth.
Continuous beam:- the distance between the centre of supports.
Cantilever beam:- the length to the face of the support plus 1/2 effective depth,
or the distance to the center of the support if the beam is continuous.
Design for Bending
An excessive amount of reinforcement indicates that a member is undersized and

it may also cause difficulty in fixing the bars and pouring of concrete.
Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section (b 0.9)
Refer to the diagram below.
35

Figure 6.2
Singly reinforced section
The design procedures and can be summarized as follows:i)

ii)
Calculate K = M/bdfcu
Determine the lever-arm, z, by from formula, table or the design chart below.
z = d[0.5 + (0.25-K/0.9)]
Formula
K = M/bd2fcu
0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.156
la = z/d
0.941 0.928 0.915 0.901 0.887 0.873 0.857 0.842 0.825 0.807 0.789 0.775
Table
Design Chart
The % values on the K axis mark the limits for singly reinforced sections with moment redistribution
applied.
iii)
The area of tension steel is:M

As =
0.87 fy z
iv)
v)
Select suitable bar sizes

Check that the area of steel provided is within the limits required by the code,
i.e.:
And
As /bh
As /bh
4.0%
0.24%
0.13%
(for mild steel)

(for high yield steel)
36

Example 6.1. Design of Tension Reinforcement for a Rectangular Section

The beam section shown in figure 6.3 has characteristic material strengths of fcu = 45
N/mm for the concreter and fy = 460 N/mm for the steel with R12 stirrups and
30mm concrete cover. The design moment at the ultimate limit state is 250 kN m
which causes sagging of the beam
Figure 6.3
Solution:
K = M/bdfcu assuming Y32 steel to be used, d = 600 30 12 32/2
= 542 mm
K = 250 106 / (300 5422 45)
= 0.063 < 0.156 compression steel is not required
by formula, lever arm, la = 0.5 +(0.25 - K/0.9)
= 0.5 +(0.25 -0.063/0.9)
= 0.942 < 0.95 use 0.942
la = z/d
z = 0.942 542 mm = 500.9 mm
Calculating the required tension reinforcement,
M
As =
0.87 fy z
= 250 106 / (0.87 460 500.9) = 1247 mm2
Provide 2Y32 bars, area = 1608 mm (As% = 0.99%) > 0.13% & < 4%
the section is satisfy for resisting the applied moment
Doubly Reinforced Concrete Beam
*
Compression steel is required whenever the concrete in compression is unable to

develop the necessary moment of resistance.
37

Moment Redistribution Factor b 0.9 and d/d 0.2

Compression reinforcement is required if M > 0.156 fcu bd
that is K > 0.156
i)
Area of compression steel

M 0.156 fcu bd
As =
0.87 fsc (d-d)
ii)
Area of tension steel,

0.156 fcu bd
As =
0.87 fy z
+ As
and z = 0.775d
If d/d > 0.2, the stress in compression steel should be determined by the
stress-strain relationship.
Figure 6.4
Beam doubly reinforced to resist a sagging moment
Moment Redistribution Factor b < 0.9

The design procedures and can be summarized as follows:i)
Calculate K = M/bd fcu
ii)
Calculate K = 0.402 (b 0.4) 0.18 (b 0.4)
If K < K, no compression steel required.
If K > K, compression steel required.
iii)
Calculate x = (b 0.4)d
If d /x < 0.43,
If d /x < 0.43,
the compression steel has yielded and fsc = 0.87 fy

calculate the steel compressive strain sc and then
38

iv)
calculate fsc = Es sc
Calculate the area of compression steel by
As =
v)
(K - K) fcu bd
fsc (d-d)
Calculate the area of tension steel by,
As =
K fcu bd
0.87 fy z
+ As
fsu
0.87 fy
where z = d 0.9 x/2

*
Links should be provided to give lateral restraint to the outer layer of

compression steel according to the following rules.
A)
B)
The links should pass round the corner bars and each alternative bar.
The link size 1/4 of the size of largest compression bar.
C)
D)
The spacing of links 12 of the smallest compression bars.

No compression bar should be more than 150 mm from a restrained bar
Example 6.2 Design of Tension and Compression Reinforcement, b > 0.9

The beam section shown in figure 6.5 has characteristic material strengths of fcu = 30
N/mm and fy = 460 N/mm. The ultimate moment is 165 kNm, causing hogging of the
beam.
Figure 6.5 Beam doubly reinforced to resist a hogging moment
Solution:
K = M/bdfcu K = 160 106 / (230 3302 30)
= 0.22 > 0.156 compression steel is required
d/d = 50/330 = 0.15 < 0.2
39

fcu = 0.87 fy
By formula, required compression steel
M 0.156 fcu bd
As =
0.87 fsc (d-d)

165 106 0.156 30 230 3302
0.87 460 (330 - 50)
= 427 mm2
and required tension steel

As =
=
0.156 fcu bd
0.87 fy z
+ As
0.156 30 230 3302

0.87 460 0.775 330
+ 427
= 1572 mm2
Provide 2Y20 bars for As, area = 628 mm and 2Y32 bars for As, area = 1610 mm.
Checking of As%,
100As
bh
100As
bh
100 628
230 390
100 1610
230 390
= 0.70
= 1.79
> 0.13% & < 4%

the section is satisfy for resisting the applied moment
Example 3 Design of Tension and Compression Reinforcement, b = 0.7
The beam section shown in figure 6.6 has the characteristic material strengths of fcu =
30 N/mm and fy = 460 N/mm. The ultimate moment is 370 kNm causing hogging
of the beam.
40

Figure 6.6 Beam doubly reinforced to resist a hogging moment
As the moment reduction factor b = 0.7, the limiting depth of the neutral axis is
x = (b 0.4)d
= (0.7 0.4) 540 = 162 mm
K = M/bd fcu
= 370 106/(300 5402 30)
= 0.141
K = 0.402 (b 0.4) 0.18 (b 0.4)
= 0.104
K > K therefore compression steel is required
therefore fsc < 0.87 fy
(1)
Steel compressive strain sc =

=
(2)
0.0035 (x d)
X
0.0035 (162 100)
162
= 0.00134
Steel compressive stress = Essc

= 200 000 0.00134
= 268 N/mm2
(3)
Compression steel As =
=
(4)
Tension Steel As =
As =
(K - K) fcu bd
fsc (d-d)
(0.141 0.104) 30 300 5402
K fcu bd
268 (540 100)

+ As
fsu
0.87 fy z
0.87 fy
0.104 30 300 5402
+ 823
268
41

0.87 460 (540 0.9 162/2)
0.87 460
Provide 2Y25 bars for As, area = 982 mm and 2Y32 & 1Y25 bars for As area = 2101
mm, which also meet the requirements of the code for steel areas..
T-Beam and L-Beam
Fig. 6.7 shows a T-beam and an L-beam. Where the beams are resisting sagging
moment, part of the slab acts as a compression flange and the members may be
designed as a T-beam or L-beam.
*
With hogging moment, the slab will be in tension and assumed to be crack,
the beam must be designed as a rectangular section of width bw and overall
depth h.
Figure 6.7
T-beam and L-beam
BS8110 defines effective width as follows:i)
T-section, the lesser of the actual flange width, or the width of the web + 1/5 of
the distance between point of zero moment.
ii)
L-section, the lesser of the actual flange width or the width of the web +
1/10 of the distance between point of zero moment.
As a simple rule, the distance between the points of zero moment may be
taken as 0.7 times the effective span for a continuous beam.
When the N.A. falls within the flange, design the T-beam or L-beam as an
equivalent rectangular section of breath bf.
Transverse reinforcement should be placed across the top flange with an area
42

of not less than 0.15% of the longitudinal cross-section of the flange.

Design Procedures for T or L Beam
i)
Calculate K = M/ bfd fcu and determine the lever-arm.
ii)
If d z < hf /2, the stress block falls within the flanged depth, and the design is
proceeded as for a rectangular section.
iii)
Provide transverse steel in the top of the flange.

Area = 0.15hf 1000/100
= 1.5hf mm per meter length of the slab.
Curtailment of Bars
In every flexural member every bar should be extend beyond the theoretical cut-off
point for a distance equal to greater of :i)
The effective depth of the member or
ii)
12
This applies to compression and tension reinforcement, but reinforcement in the

tension zone should satisfy the following additional requirements.
iii)
iv)
The bars extend a full anchorage bond length beyond the theoretical cut-off
point.
At the physical cut-off point, the shear capacity is at least twice the actual
shear force.
v)
At the physical cut-off point, the actual bending moment is not more than half
the moment at theoretical cut-off point.
For example:-
Figure 6.8
Locations of Cut-off Points along a beam
43

For condition (i) and (ii),

For condition (iii),
AB is the greater of d or 12
AB equals the full anchorage bond length.
For condition (iv),

For condition (v),
At B, actual shear < half the shear capacity.

At b, moment < half moment at A.
Where the loads on a beam are substantially uniformly distributed, simplified

rules for curtailment may be used. These rules only apply to continuous beam
if the characteristic imposed load does not exceed the characteristic dead load
and the spans are equal. Fig. 6.9 shows the rules in a diagrammatic form.
Figure 6.9 Simplified rules for curtailment of bars in beams
Design for Shear

If V is the shear force at a section, then the shear stress v is given by v = V/bd.
( * v must never exceed the lesser of 0.8fcu or 5 N/mm )
Vertical Stirrups
Rules:
i)
Min. spacing Sv of stirrup should not be less than 80 mm.
44
ii)

Max. spacing Sv of stirrup should not exceed 0.75d longitudinally along the
span.
iii)
At right angles to the span, the spacing of the vertical legs should not exceed d,
and all tension bars should be within 150 mm of a vertical leg.
The choice of steel type is often governed by the fact that mild steel may be
bent to a smaller radius than high-yield steel. This is important in narrow
members to allow correct positioning of the tension reinforcement.
The size and spacing of the stirrups is given by the following equation.
Asv
Sv
Where
b(v-vc)
0.87fyv
Asv = Area of the legs of a stirrup

Sv = Spacing of the stirrup
B = Breath of the beam
V = V/bd = shear stress
vc = The ultimate shear stress of conc.
fyv = Characteristic strength of the link reinforcement.
If v is less than vc nominal links must still be provided unless the beam is a very minor
one and
vc
v<
2
The nominal links should be provided such that
Asv
0.4b
=
Sv
0.87fyv
Example 6.4
Design of Shear Reinforcement for a Beam
Shear reinforcement is to be designed for the one span beam of example as shown in
figures 6.10. The characteristic strength of the mild steel links in fyv = 250 N/mm.
(a) Check maximum shear stress
Total load on span F = wu span
= 75.2 x 6.0
= 451 kN
At face of support
45

Shear Vs = F/2 - wu support width /2

= 451/2 758.2 0.15= 214 kN
Figure 6.10 Non-continuous beam-shear reinforcement
shear stress
v=
vs
bd
214 103
300 550
= 1.3 N/mm2 < 0.8fcu

(b) Shear links
Distance d from face of support
shear Vd
= Vs - wu d
= 214 75.2 0.55 = 173 kN
shear stress v = 173 103 / ( 300 550)

= 1.05 N/mm
Only 2 Nos. 25 mm bars extend a distanced d past the critical section.
Therefore for determining vc
100As
100 982
=
= 0.59
bd
300 550
From table 5.4. vc = 0.56 N/mm
Asv
b (v vc)
300 (1.05 0.56)
=
= 0.68
=
Sv
0.87fyv
0.87 250
46

Provide R10 links at 220 mm centers

Asv
Sv
2 78.5
220
= 0.71
(c) Nominal links

for mild steel links
Asv
Sv
0.4b
0.87fyv
0.4 300
0.87 250
= 0.55
Provide R10 links at 280 mm centers

Asv
Sv
2 78.5
280
= 0.56
(d) Extent of shear links

shear resistance of nominal links + concrete is
Vn =
Asv
0.87 fyv + bvc
Sv
)d
= (0.56 0.87 250 + 300 0.56) 550

= 159 kN
shear reinforcement is required over a distance s given by
s=
Vs - Vn
214 - 159
Wu
75.2
= 0.73 metres from the face of the support
Number of R10 links at 220 mm required at each end of the beam is

l + (s/220) = l + (730/220) = 5
*
There is a section at which the shear resistance of the concrete plus the nominal
stirrups equals the shear force form the envelope diagram. At this section, the
stirrups necessary to resist shear can stop and replaced by the nominal stirrups.
The shear resistance Vn of the concrete plus the nominal stirrups is given by
47

Vn = (0.4 + Vc )bd
Design for Torsion

Design procedures consist of determining an additional area of longitudinal and link
reinforcement required to resist the torsional shear forces.
i)
Determine As and Asv to resist the bending moments and shear forces.
ii)
Calculate the torsional shear stress.

2T
vt =
h2min (hmax hmin/3)
hmin
hmax
Torsional moment
The smaller dimension of the beam section.
The larger dimension of the beam section.
iii)
If vt > vtmin , in Table 6.1, then torsional reinforcement required. Refer to Table
6.2 for the reinforcement requirements with a combination of torsion and shear
stress v.
iv)
v + vt vtu (refer to Table 6.1), where v is the shear stress due to shear force.
Also, for sections with yl < 550mm
vt (
vtu y1
550
where yl is the larger c/c dimension of link

v)
Calculate additional shear reinforcement required from

Asv
sv
T
0.8x1y1(0.87fyv)
where xl is the smaller c/c dimension of link.

This value of Asv /sv is added to (i), and a suitable link size and spacing is
chosen.
48

vi)
Sv < 200 mm or xl and the link should be of the closed type.
Calculate the additional area of longitudinal steel.
As =
Where
Asv
sv
Asv
sv
fyv
fy
(x1 + y1)
is the value from step (v).
As should be evenly distributed around the inside perimeter of the links.

At least four corner bars should be used and the clear distance between
bars should not exceed 300mm.
Figure 6.11
Torsion example
Concrete grade
yl min
vtu
25
30
40
or more
0.33
4.00
0.37
4.38
0.40
5.00
Table 6.1 Ultimate torsion shear stresses (N/mm)
49

vt < vt min
vt > vt min
v vc + 0.4
Nominal shear reinforcement.
Designed torsion reinforcement

only, but not less than nominal
shear reinforcement
v > vc + 0.4
Designed shear reinforcement,

not torsion reinforcement
Designed shear and torsion

reinforcement
Table 6.2
Reinforcement for shear and torsion
Example 5 Design of Torsional Reinforcement

The rectangular section of figure 6.11 resists a bending moment of 170 kN m, a shear
of 160 kN and a torsional moment of 10kN m. The characteristic material strengths
are fcu = 30N/mm fy = 460 N/mm and fyv = 250 N/mm.
(1)
Calculations for bending and shear would give

As = 1100mm
and
Asv
sv
= 0.79
(2)
Torsional shear stress
vt =
vt =
2T
2
min
(hmax hmin/3)
2 10 106
2
300 (500 300/3)
(3)
is required.
(4)
v=
= 0.56 N/mm2
0.56> 0.37 from table 6.1. Therefore torsional reinforcement
V
bd
160 103
300 450
= 1.19 N/mm2
Therefore
v + vs = 1.19 + 0.56 = 1.75 N/mm2
vut from table 6.1 = 4.38 N/mm2, therefore
50

vtu y1
550
4.38 400
550
= 3.5
So that vt < vtu y1 / 500 as required

(5)
Additional
Asv
sv
=
=
T
0.8x1y1(0.87fyv)
10.0 106
0.8 240 440 0.87 250
= 0.55
Therefore
Total
Asv
sv
= 0.79 + 0.55 = 1.34
Provide R10 links at 100 centres

Asv
sv
= 1.57
(6)
Additional longitudinal steel
As =
=
Asv
sv
0.55
fyv
fy
250
460
(x1 + y1)
(240 + 440) = 203 mm2
Therefore
Total steel area 1100 + 203 = 1303 mm2
Provide the longitudinal steel shown in figure 6.11.
(7)
The torsional reinforcement should extend at least hmax

beyond where it is
required to resist the torsion.
51

6.10 Checking of Deflection

BS 8110 specifies a set of basic span-effective depth ratios to control deflections
which are given in table 6.3 for rectangular sections and for flanged beams with spans
less than 10 m. Where the ratios for spans > 10 m are factored by 10/Span.
Rectangular
section
Flanged
(bw > 0.3b)
7
20
26
5.6
16.0
20.8
Cantilever
Simply supported
Continuous
Table 6.3 Basic span-effective depth ratios
The basic ratios given in table 6.3 are modified in particular cases according to
(a) The service stress in the tension steel and the value of M/bd in table 6.4,
(b) The area of compression steel as in table 6.5
Reinforcement
service
(N/mm)
stress
(fy = 250)
(fy = 460)
100
150
156
200
250
288
300
M/bd
0.50
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.90
1.68
1.60
0.75
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.95
1.70
1.50
1.44
1.0
2.0
1.98
1.96
1.76
1.55
1.38
1.33
1.5
1.86
1.69
1.66
1.51
1.34
1.21
1.16
2.0
1.63
1.49
1.47
1.35
1.20
1.09
1.06
3.0
1.36
1.25
1.24
1.14
1.04
0.95
0.93
4.0
1.19
1.11
1.10
1.02
0.94
0.87
0.85
5.0
1.08
1.01
1.00
0.94
0.87
0.82
0.80
6.0
1.01
0.94
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.78
0.76
NOTE 1. The values in the table derive from the equation:

(477 fs)
Modification factor = 0.55 +
2.0
120
( 0.9 + bd )
2
where M is design ultimate moment at the center of the span or, for a cantilever, at the support
NOTE 2. The design service stress in the tension reinforcement in a member may be estimated
from the equation:
fs =
5 fy As, require
8 As, provided
NOTE 3. For a continuous beam, if the percentage of redistribution is not known but the design
ultimate moment at mid-span is obviously the same as or greater than the elastic
ultimate moment, the stress, fs, in this table may be taken as fy.
Table 6.4
Tension reinforcement modification factors
52

100 As prov
bd
Factor
0.00
0.15
0.25
1.00
1.05
1.08
0.35
0.50
1.10
1.14
0.75
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
1.20
1.25
1.33
1.40
1.45
1.50
NOTE 1. The values in this table are derived from the following
equation:
Modification factor for compression reinforcement =
1 +
100 As, prov

bd
/( 3 +
100 As, prov

bd
) 1.5
NOTE 2. The area of compression reinforcement As, prov used in this

table may include all bars in the compression zone, even
those not effectively tied with links.
Table 6.5 Compression reinforcement modification factors
Example 6.6 Span-Effective Depth Ratio Check
A rectangular continuous beam spans 12 m with a mid-span ultimate moment of 400

kN m. If the breadth is 300 mm, check the acceptability of an effective depth of 600
mm when high yield reinforcement fy = 460 N/mm is used. Two 16 mm bars are
located within the compressive zone.
Basic span-effective depth ratio from Table 6.3 = 26
To avoid damage to finishes modified ratio = 26 10/12 = 21.7.
Tensile reinforcement modification factor:
M
400 106
=
= 3.7
bd2
300 6002
53

thus, from table 6.4 for fy = 460 N/mm, modification factor = 0.89.
Compression reinforcement modification factor:
100As
100 402
= 2.2
=
bd
300 600
thus from table 6.5, modification factor = 1.07
Hence, modified span-effective depth ratio is equal to
21.7 0.89 1.07 = 20.7
Span-effective depth ratio provided =
12 103
600
= 20
Which is less than the allowable upper limit, thus deflection requirements are likely to
be satisfied.
6.11 Worked Examples
Example 6.6 Design of a simply supported L-beam in footbridge
(a) Specification
The section through a simply supported reinforced concrete footbridge of 7 m
span shown in Fig.6.12. The imposed load is 5 kN/m2 and the materials to be
used are grade 30 concrete and grade 460 reinforcement. Design the L-beams
that support the bridge. Concrete weights 2400 kg/m and the weight of the
handrails are 16 kg/m per side.
(b) Loads, shear force and bending moment diagram

The dead load carried by one L-beam is
[(0.15 0.8) + (0.2 0.28)] 23.5 + 16 9.81/10 = 4.3 kN/m
The imposed load carried by one L-beam is 0.8 5 = 4 kN/m. The design load
(1.4 4.3) + (1.6 4) = 12.42 kN/m
The ultimate moment at the center of the beam is
54

12.42 7 / 8 = 76.1 kNm

The load, shear force and bending moment diagrams are shown in Fig 6.12(b),
6.12(c) and 6.12(d) respectively.
(c) Design of moment reinforcement

The effective width of the flange of the L-beam is given by the lesser of
1. the actual width, 800mm, or
2. b = 200 + 7000/10 = 900 mm
From Table 1.3 (BS 8110: Part 1. Table 3.4) the cover for moderate exposure is 35
mm. The effective depth, d = 400 35 8 12.5 = 344.5 mm say 340 mm
55
Fig.6.12

Section through footbridge; (b) design load; (c) shear force diagram; (d) bending
moment diagram.
56

Figure 6.13 (a) Beam section; (b) beam support; (c) beam elevation.
The L-beam is shown in Fig. 6.13(a)

The moment of resistance of the section when 0.9 of the depth to the neutral axis is
equal to the slap depth hf = 120 mm is
MR = 0.45 30 800 120 (340 0.5 120)/106
= 362.9 kNm
The neutral axis lies in the flange.
K =
76.1 106
= 0.027
800 3402 30
z = 340 [0.5 + (0.25 0.027/0.9)]
= 329.5 mm
> 0.95d using 0.95d = 0.95 340 = 323 mm
As =
76.1 106
0.87 460 323
= 589 mm2
Provide 4Y16 mm, As = 804 mm. Using the simplified rules for curtailment of bars,
2 bars are cut off as shown in Fig. 6.13(c) at 0.08L of the span from each end.
57

(d) Design of shear reinforcement
The enhancement of shear strength near the support using the simplified
approach is taken into account in the design of shear.
stress at the support is
v =
43.5 103
300 340
The maximum shear
= 0.64 N/mm2
This is less than 0.830 = 4.38 N/mm or 5 N/mm.
The shear at d = 340mm
from the support is

V = 43.5 0.34 12.43 = 38.8 kN
38.8 103
v =
= 0.57 N/mm2
200 340
The effective area of steel at d from the support is 2Y16 of area 402 mm
100 As
100 402
=
= 0.59
bd
200 340
The design concrete shear strength from the formula in Table 5.4 (BS 8110: Part
1, Table 3.9) is
vc = 0.79 (0.59)1/3(400/340)1/4(30/20)1/3/1.25
= 0.586 N/mm2
Provide R8 vertical links (two legs), Asv = 100mm, in grade 250 reinforcement.
The spacing required is determined using Table 6.6 (BS 8110: Part 1, Table 3.8).
v < vc
The spacing for minimum links is
sv =
0.87 250 100
= 271.9
0.4 200
0.75 340 = 255 mm

The links will be spaced at 250 mm throughout the beam. 2Y20 are to be
provided to carry the links at the top of the beam. The shear reinforcement is
shown in Figs 6.13(b) and 6.13(c)
58

(e) End anchorage
The anchorage of the bars at the supports must comply with BS8110: Part 1,
clause 3.12.9.4. The bars are to be anchored 12 bar diameters past the center of
the support. This will be provided by a 90 bend with an internal radius of three
bar diameters.
From clause 3.12.8.23, the anchorage length is the greater of
1. 4 internal radius = 4 48 = 192 mm but not greater than 12 16 = 192

mm
2. the actual length of the bar (4 16) + 56 2/4 = 151.9 mm
The anchorage is 12 bar diameters.
Value of v
Form of shear reinforcement
Area of shear reinforcement to
(N/mm )
to be provided
be provided
Less than 0.5 vc throughout
See note 1
the beam
0.5 vc < v < ( vc + 0.4 )
Minimum links for whole
Asv 0.4 bvsv / 0.87fyv
length of beam
(see note 2)
( vc + 0.4 ) < v < 0.8fcu or
Links or links combined with Where links only provided:
5 N/mm2
bent-up bars. Not more than
Asv bvsv ( v - vc ) / 0.87f yv
50% of the shear resistance

provided by the steel may be
in the form of bent-up bars
(see note 3)
NOTE 1. While minimum links should be provided in all beams of structural importance,
it will be satisfactory to omit them in members of minor structural importance
such as lintels or where the maximum design shear stress is less than half vc.
NOTE 2. Minimum links provide a design shear resistance of 0.4 N/mm2.
NOTE 3. Spacing of links. The spacing of links in the direction of the span should not
exceed 0.75d. At right-angles to the span, the horizontal spacing should be such
that no longitudinal tension bar is more than 150mm from a vertical leg; this
spacing should in any case not exceed d.
Table 6.6
Form and area of shear reinforcement in beams
59

(f)
Deflection check
The deflection of the beam is checked using the rules given in table 6.4 & 6.5
(BS8110: Part 1, clause 3.4.6).
web width
effective flange width
bw
b
200
800
= 0.25 < 0.3
The basic span-to-effective depth ration is 16

M
bd2
76.1 106
800 3402
= 0.82
The service stress is

fs =
5 460 589
8 804
= 210.6N/mm2
The modification factor for tension reinforcement using the formula in Table 6.4
is
0.55 +
477 210.6
120 ( 0.9 + 0.82 )
= 1.84 < 2.0
For the modification factor for compression reinforcement, with As.prov = 226
mm according to Table 6.5 is
100 As, prov
bd
100 226
800 340
= 0.083
Therefore, the modification factor by the formula is

1 + [0.083 / (3 + 0.083)] = 1.027
allowable span / d = 16 1.84 1.027 = 30.23
actual span / d = 7000/340 = 20.5 < 30.23
The beam is satisfactory with respect to deflection.
60

Example 6.7 Design of simply supported doubly reinforced rectangular beam

(a)
Specification
A rectangular beam is 300 mm wide by 450 mm effective depth with inset to the
compression steel of 55 mm. The beam is simply supported and spans 8 m.
The dead load including an allowance for self-weight is 20 kN/m and the
imposed load is 11 kN/m.
The materials to be used are grade 30 concrete and
grade 460 reinforcement. Design the beam.

(b)
Loads and shear force and bending moment diagrams are shown in Fig. 6.14.
design load = ( 1.4 20 ) + (1.6 11 ) = 45.6 kN/m
ultimate moment = 45.6 82 / 8 = 364.8 kN
(c)
Design of the moment reinforcement (section 4.6)

When the depth x to the neutral is 0.5d, the moment of resistance of the concrete
only is MRC = 0.156 30 300 450 / 106 = 284 kNm. Compression
reinforcement is required.
Figure 6.14
(a) Design Loading; (b) ultimate shear force diagram; (c) ultimate bending
61

moment diagram.
The stress in the compression reinforcement is 0.87 fy.

compression steel is
( 364.8 274 ) 106
As =
The area of
= 508 mm2
( 450 55 ) 0.87 460
Provide 2Y20, As = 628 mm

As =
( 0.203 30 300 450 ) + ( 0.87 460 508 )

0.87 460
Provide 6Y25, As = 2945 mm. The reinforcement is shown in Fig. 6.15(a). In

accordance with the simplified rules for curtailment, 3Y25 tension bars will be
cut off at 0.08 of the span from each support. The compression bars will be
carried through to the ends of the beam to anchor the links. The end section and
the side elevation of the beam are shown in Figure 6.15(b) and 6.15(c)
respectively. The cover to the reinforcement is taken as 35 mm for moderate
exposure.
(d)
Design of shear reinforcement
The maximum shear stress at the support is

v=
182.4 103
300 462.5
= 1.31 N/mm2
This is less than 0.830 = 4.38 N/mm or 5 N/mm.

mm from the support is
V = 182.4 0.46 45.6
v=
161.4 103
300 462.5
The shear at d = 462.5
= 161.4 kN
= 1.16 N/mm2
The area of steel at the section is 1472mm.

100 As
bd
100 1472
300 462.5
= 1.06
62

The design shear strength from the formula in BS8110: Part 1, Table 3.9. is
vc = 0.79 ( 1.06 )1/3 ( 30/25 )1/3 / 1.25
= 0.68 N/mm2
Provide R10 (two-leg vertical) links, Asv = 157 mm.
sv =
157 0.87 250

300 ( 1.16 0.68)
The spacing required is:
= 237.1 mm
For minimum links the spacing is

sv =
157 0.87 250

300 0.4
= 284.6 mm
The spacing is not to exceed 0.75d = 346.8 mm. This distance x from the
support where minimum links only are required is determined. In this case v =
vc. The design shear strength where As = 2945 mm2 is
100 As / bd = 2.18
vc = 0.87 N/mm2
For the distance x, it is found by solving the equation
0.87 300 450 / 10 = 182.4 45.6x
x = 1.42m
Space links at 200 mm centres for 2 m from each support and then at 250 mm
centres over the center 4 m. Note that the top layer of three 25 mm diameter bars
continues for 780 mm greater than d past the section when v = vc
(e)
Deflection check
The basic span-effective depth ratio from Table 6.3 is 20 for a simply supported
rectangular beam
Tensile reinforcement modification factor:
M
364.8 106
=
= 6.0
bd2
300 4502
63

The service stress is

fs =
5 460 2631.2
8 2945
= 256.9 N/mm2
The modification factor for tension reinforcement using the formula in Table 6.4
is
0.55 +
477 256.9
120 ( 0.9 + 6.0 )
= 0.816 < 2.0
For the modification factor for compression reinforcement, with As.prov = 628
mm according to Table 6.5 is
100 As, prov
bd
100 628
300 450
= 0.46
Therefore, the modification factor by the formula is

1 + [0.083 / (3 + 0.46)] = 1.13
allowable span / d = 20 0.816 1.13 = 18.4
actual span / d = 8000/450 = 17.8 < 18.4
The beam is satisfactory with respect to deflection.
64

Figure 6.15 (a) Section at centre; (b) end section; (c) part side elevation.
Example 6.8 Design of a Continuous Beam

The beam is 300 mm wide by 660 mm deep with three equal 5.0 m spans.
In the
transverse direction, the beams are at 4.0 m centres with a 180 mm thick slab, as
shown in figure 6.17.
The live load qk on the beam is 50 kN/m and the dead load gk, including self weight is
85 kN/m.
Characteristic material strengths are fcu = 30 N/mm, fy = 460 N/mm for the
longitudinal steel fyv and 250 N/mm for the links. For a mild exposure the
minimum concrete cover is to be 25 mm.
For each span
Ultimate load wu = (1.4gk + 1.6qk) kN/metre
(1.4 85 + 1.6 50) = 199 kN/metre
65

Figure 6.16 Continuous beam with ultimate bending moment and shear force coefficients
Total ultimate load on a span is

F = 199 5.0 = 995 kN
As the loading is uniformly distributed, qk ( gk and the spans are equal, the
coefficients shown in figure 6.16 have been used to calculate the design moment
and shears.
Bending
(a) Mid-span of 1st and 3rd Spans Design as a T section
Moment M = 0.09 FL = 0.09 x 995 5 = 448 kNm
Effective width of flange = bw + 0.7 L/5
= 300 +
0.7 5000
5
= 1000 mm
therefore
M
bd2 fcu
448 106
1000 6002 30
= 0.041
From the lever-arm curve, la = 0.95 therefore

z = 0.95 600 = 570 mm
and
d z = 600 570 = 30 < hf / 2
so that the stress block must lie within the 180 mm thick flange.
Therefore
M
448 106
As =
=
= 1964 mm2
0.87 fy z
0.87 460 570
66

Provide 2Y32 plus 1Y25, As = 2101 mm (bottom steel)

(b) Interior Supports Design as a Rectangular Section
M = 0.11FL = 0.11 995 5 = 547 kNm hogging
M
bd2 fcu
547 106
300 5802 30
= 0.18 > 0.156
Thus. Compression steel is required,

As =
M 0.156 fcu bd2

0.87 fy ( d d )
547 106 0.156 30 300 5802
= 352 mm2
0.87 460 ( 580 50 )

This area of steel will be provided by extending the span reinforcement beyond the
supports
As =
0.156 fcu bd2
+ As
0.87 fy z
0.156 30 300 5802
=
+ 352 = 2977 mm2
0.87 460 0.775 580

Provide 2Y32 plus 3Y25, As = 3080 mm (top steel).
(c) Mid-span of 2nd Span Design as a T-section
M = 0.07 FL = 0.07 995 5 = 348 kNm
Using the lever-arm curve, it is found that la = 0.95
M
348 106
As =
=
0.87 fy z
0.87 460 (0.95 600)
Provide 1Y32 plus 2Y25, As = 1786 mm (bottom steel)
= 1525 mm2
67

Shear
(a) Check maximum shear stress
Maximum shear at face of support is
Vs = 0.6F wu support width / 2
= 0.6 995 199 0.15 = 567 kN
v=
Vs
bd
567 103
300 580
= 3.26 N/mm2 < 0.8fcu

(b) Nominal links
Asv
0.4 b
0.4 300
=
=
= 0.55
sv
0.87 fyv
0.87 250
Provide R10 links at 280 mm centres, Asv / sv = 0.56
(c) End supports
Shear distance, d from support face is
Vd = 0.45F - wu ( d + support width / 2 )
= 0.45 995 199 (0.6 + 0.15)
= 299 kN
Vd
299 103
v=
=
= 1.66 N/mm2
bd
300 600
Therefore from table 5.4
vc = 0.70 N/mm
Asv
sv
b ( v vc )
0.87 fyv
= = 1.32
Provide R10 links at 110 mm centres Asv / Sv = 1.41

Shear resistance of nominal links + concrete is
Asv
Vn =
0.87 fyv + bvc d
s
= (0.56 0.87 250 + 300 0.7) 600= 199 kN
68

Shear reinforcement other than the nominal is required over a distance
s=
Vd - Vn
wu
+d=
299 199
199
+ 0.6 = 1.1 m
from the face of the support.
Figure 6.17 End-span reinforcement details
69

(d) First and third spans interior supports

Distance d from support face
Vd = 0.6 995 199 (0.58 + 0.15)
= 452 kN
452 103
= 2.60 N/mm2
300 580
100 Asv
100 3080
=
= 1.77
bd
300 580
v=
therefore from table 5.4

vc = 0.81
Asv
300 ( 2.6 0.81)
=
= 2.47
sv
0.87 250
Provide R12 links in pairs at 180 mm centres, Asv / sv = 2.51. Using Vn from
part (c) as a conservative value, shear links are required over a distance
Vd - Vn
452 - 199
+d=
+ 0.58 = 1.85 m
s=
wu
199
A similar calculation would show that single R12 links at 120 mm centres would
be adequate 1.0 m from the support face.
(e) Second span
Distance d from support face

Vd = 0.55 995 199 (0.58 + 0.15) = 402 kN
Calculation would show that R10 links in pairs at 150 mm centres would be
adequate.
70
7.

SLAB
Types of Slab
Slabs are plate elements forming floors and roofs in buildings which normally carry
uniformly distributed loads. Slabs may be simply supported or continuous over
supports. Slabs can be classified according to the method of support as follows:
i)
Spanning one way between beams or walls
ii)
Spanning two ways between the supports
iii)
Flat slabs carried on columns and edge beams or walls with no interior beams.
One Way Spanning Solid Slabs
Idealization for Design
a)
Uniformly Loaded Slabs

One way slabs carrying uniform load are designed on the assumption that they
consists of a series of rectangular beam 1 m wide spanning between
supporting beams or walls. The sections through a simply supported slab and
a continuous slab are shown in Fig. 7.1.
Figure 7.1
(a) Simply Supported Slab;
(b) Continuous One-way Slab
71

Effective Span, Loading and Analysis

a)
Effective Span
The effective spans for one-way slabs are:i)
Simply supported slabs:- the smaller of the centres of bearings or the
ii)
b)
clear span + d.
Continuous slabs:- centres of supports.
Arrangement of Loads
The code states that the slab should be designed to resist the most
unfavourable arrangement of loads. However, it is possible to design for a
single-load case of max. design load on all spans. This is permitted subject
to the following conditions:
i)
ii)
iii)
c)
The area of each bay, i.e. the building width column spacing > 30m.
The ratio of Qk to Gk 1.25
Qk 5 kN/m (excluding partition)
Analysis and Redistribution of Moments
The code states that if the analysis is carried out for a single-load case of all spans
loaded, the support moment except at the supports of cantilevers should be
reduced by 20%. This gives an increase in span moment.
redistribution is to be carried out).
d)
(No further
Analysis using Moment Coefficients
BS8110 states that where the spans of the slab are approx. equal, the moment and
shears for design may be taken from Table 7.1. This table allows for 20%
redistribution.
Table 7.1
slabs
Ultimate bending moment and shear force coefficients in one way spanning
Outer
support
Middle of
end span
First interior
support
Middle of
interior span
Interior
supports
Moment
0.086 FL
0.086 FL
0.063 FL
- 0.063 FL
Shear
0.4F
0.6F
0.5F
Note: F is the total design ultimate load on the span and L is the effective span
72

Section Design and Slab Reinforcement

a)
Main Reinforcement
The min. area of main reinf. is:For rectangular sections and solid slabs:Mild Steel, fy = 250 N/mm2,
100 As
= 0.24
Ac
High Yield Steel, fy = 250 N/mm2,
100 As
= 0.13
Ac
b)
Distribution Steel
The distribution steel runs at right angles to the main moment steel and serves
the purpose of tying the slab together. The area of distribution steel is the
same as the min. area for main reinforcement in (a).
c)
Curtailment of Bars in Slabs

BS8110 sets out simplified rules for curtailment of bars for slabs. These
rules may be used subject to the following provisions:i)
The slabs are designed for predominately uniformly distributed loads;
ii)
In continuous slabs the design has been made for the single load case of
max. design load on all spans.
The simplified rules are shown in Fig. 7.2
d)
Cover
The amount of cover required for durability and fire protection is taken from
Table 1.3 and 1.4 (Table 3.4 and 3.5 of BS8110).
73

Figure 7.2 (a) Simply Supported Span; (b) Cantilever; (c) Continuous Span
Shear
Under normal loads shear stresses are not critical and shear reinforcement is
not required. Shear reinforcement is provided in heavily loaded thick slabs
but should not be used in slabs less than 200 mm thick.
In design, the average shear stress v is given by
74
v = V/bd

(where b is normally taken as 1m wide)
The design procedures for slab is essentially the same as that for beams.
However, in the design of slab in shear, the following points should be noted.
i) v should not exceed 0.8fcu or 5 N/mm whichever is less.
ii) if v < vc , then no shear reinforcement is required.
iii) if vc < v (vc + 0.4), then provide min. links as :Asv
Sv
0.4b
0.87fyv
iv) if v > (vc + 0.4), provide shear links as

Asv
Sv
b(v-vc)
0.87fyv
Deflection
In slab design, deflections are usually controlled by limiting the span/effective
depth ratio.
iii)
Basic span/effective depth ratio:Cantilever slab

7
Simply supported slabs
20
Continuous slabs
26
iv)
The basic span/effective depth ratio is multiplied by a modification factor

for tension reinforcement. Only the tension steel at the centre of span is
taken into account.
Crack Control
To control cracking in slabs, max. values for clear spacing between bars are set
out in BS8110, Cl.3.12.11.2.7. The clause states that in no case should the
clear spacing exceed the lesser of three times the effective depth or 750 mm.
75

Example 7.1
Design of a Simply Supported Slab
Figure 7.3 Simply Supported Reinforced Concrete Slab
The slab shown in figure 7.3 is to be designed to carry a live load of 3.0 kN/m plus
floor finishes and ceiling loads of 1.0 kN/m. The characteristic material strengths
are fcu = 30 N/mm and fy = 460 N/mm. Basic span-effective depth ratio = 20.
therefore minimum effective depth d =

=
(1)
Span
20 modification factor, m.f.
4500
225
=
20 m.f.
m.f.
Estimating the modification factor to be of the order of 1.3 for a lightly

reinforced slab. Try effective depth d = 170 mm. For a mild exposure the
cover = 25 mm. Allowing say 5 mm as half the diameter of the reinforcing bar
Overall depth of slab, h = 170 + 25 + 5 = 200 mm
Self-weight of slab = 200 24 10-3 = 4.8 kN/m
Total dead load = 1.0 + 4.8 = 5.8 N/m
For a 1 m wide slab
ultimate load = (1.4 gk + 1.6 qk) 4.5
= (1.4 5.8 + 1.6 3.0) 4.5 = 58.1 kN
M = 58.1 4.5/8 = 32.7 kNm
76

Span-Effective Depth Ratio

M
32.7 106
=
= 1.13
bd2
1000 1702
From table 6.4 for fs = 288 N/mm the span-effective depth modification factor = 1.34
Therefore :
limiting
actual
span
effective depth
span
effective depth
= 20 1.34 = 26.8
= 4500 / 170 = 26.5
Thus d = 170 mm is adequate.
Bending Reinforcement
K =
M
bd2 fcu
32.7 106
1000 1702 30
= 0.038
z = d[0.5 + (0.25 - K/0.9)]

= d[0.5 + (0.25 - 0.038/0.9)]
= 0.956 d ( > 0.95 d)
= 0.95 d
= 0.95 170 mm = 161 mm
As =
M
0.87 fy z
= 32.7 106 / (0.87 460 161) = 508 mm2 /m

Provide Y10-150 mm centers, As = 523 mm/m
77

Shear
At the face of the support
Shear, V =
Shear stress, v =
100 As
bd
58.1
2
V
bd
2.25 0.5 0.23

2.25
27.6 103
= 0.16 /mm2 < 0.8fcu
1000 170
100 523
1000 170
) = 27.6 kN
= 0.31
from table 5.4 vc = 0.55 N/mm and since v < vc no further shear checks or
reinforcement are required
Distribution Steel
Area of transverse high-yield reinforcement =

=
0.13 bh
100
0.13 1000 200
100
= 260 mm2/m
Provide Y10 at 300 mm centers (As = 261 mm2/m)
2)
The second part of this example illustrates how a smaller depth of slab is
adequate provided it is reinforced so that there is a low service stress in the steel
and therefore a high modification factor for the span-effective depth ratio. Try
a thickness of slab h = 170mm and d = 140mm
Self-weight of slab = 0.17 24 = 4.08 kN/m
total dead load
= 5.08 kN/m
ultimate load
= (1.4gk + 1.6qk) 4.5
= (1.4 5.08 + 1.6 3.0) 4.5 = 53.6 kN
Bending
M = 53.6
K =
M
bd2 fcu
4.5
8
=
= 30.2 kNm
30.2 106
1000 1402 30
= 0.051
78

z = d[0.5 + (0.25 - K/0.9)]

= d[0.5 + (0.25 - 0.051/0.9)]
= 0.94 d ( < 0.95 d)
= 0.94 d
= 0.94 140 mm = 131.6 mm
As =
M
0.87 fy z
= 30.2 106 / (0.87 460 131.6)

= 1055 mm2 /m
Provide R12-100 mm centers, As = 1130 mm/m

Service stress fs is given by the equations of Table 6.4 as
5 fy As, require
1
fs =
8 As, provided
b
1
5 250 1055
=
= 146 N/mm2
1
8 1130
(477 fs)
M
120 0.9 + bd2
(477 146)
= 0.55 +
30.2 106
120
( 0.9 + 1000 140 )

2
= 1.7 2.0
Therefore
limiting
actual
span
effective depth
span
effective depth
= 20 1.7 = 34
= 4500 / 140 = 32.1
Therefore, d = 140 mm is adequate
79

Two-way Spanning Solid Slabs

Slab Action, Analysis and Design
When floor slabs are supported on four sides two-way spanning action occurs as
shown in Fig. 7.4. In square slabs, the action is equal in each direction. In narrow
slabs where the length is greater than twice the breath the action is effectively one way.
However the end beams always carry some slab load.
Figure 7.4
(a) Two-way action: (b) one-way action.
Slabs may be classified according to the edge conditions.

follows:i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
They can be defined as
Simply supported one panel slabs where the corners can lift away from the
supports.
A one panel slab held down on four sides by integral edge beams (the stiffness
of the edge beam affects the slab design)
Slabs with all edges continuous over supports
A slab with one, two or three edges continuous over support(s) may be simply
supported or held down by integral edge beams.
Simply Supported Slabs
The design of simply supported slabs may be made in accordance with BS8110,
C13.5.3.3. This clause gives the following equations for maximum moment msx and
msy at mid-span on strips of unit width for spans lx and ly respectively, where lx is the
length of shorter span, ly is length of the longer span, n = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk per unit area
and sx, sy are the moment coefficients from Table 7.1 (Table 3.14 of the code)
80

msx =sx n lx ,
msy =sy n lx
Table 7.1 Bending moment coefficients for slabs spanning in two directions at
right-angles, simply-supported on four sides
ly / lx
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.75
2.0
sx
sy
0.062
0.074
0.061
0.084
0.059
0.093
0.055
0.099
0.051
0.104
0.046
0.113
0.037
0.118
0.029
0.062
Example 7.2 Design the Reinforcement for a Simply Supported Slab 220 mm
Thick and spanning in Two Directions
The effective span in each direction is 4.5 m and 6.3 m and the slab supports a live
load of 10 kN/m. The characteristic material strengths are fcu = 30 N/mm and fy =
460 N/mm.
ly / lx = 6.3 / 4.5 =1.4
From table 7.1 sx = 0.099 and sx = 0.051
self-weight of slab = 220 24 10- = 5.3 kN/m
ultimate load n
= 1.4gk + 1.6qk
= 1.4 5.3 + 1.6 10.0 = 23.4 kN/m
Bending Short Span
With mild exposure conditions take d = 185 mm
Msx
K =
Msx
bd2 fcu
= sx n lx = 0.099 23.4 4.5

= 46.9 kNm
=
46.9 106
1000 1852 30
= 0.046
z = d[0.5 + (0.25 - K/0.9)]

= d[0.5 + (0.25 - 0.046/0.9)]
= 0.95 d
= 0.95 185 mm = 176 mm
As =
Msx
0.87 fy z
= 46.9 106 / (0.87 460 176)

= 666 mm2 /m
81

Provide Y12-150 mm centres, As = 754 mm/m

Msx
bd2
46.9 106
1852
1000
= 1.37
Service stress fs is given by the equations of Table 6.4 as

5 fy As, require
1
fs =
8 As, provided
b
1
5 460 666
=
= 254 N/mm2
1
8 754
(477 fs)

120
= 0.55 +
( 0.9 +
bd2
(477 254)
120 ( 0.9 + 1.37 )
= 1.37 2.0
Therefore
limiting
actual
span
effective depth
span
effective depth
= 20 1.37 = 27.4
= 4500 / 185 = 24.3
Therefore, d = 185 mm is adequate

Bending Long Span
Since the reinforcement for this span will have a reduced effective depth that
d = 185 12 = 173 mm.
Msy
K =
Msx
bd2 fcu
= sy n lx = 0.051 23.4 4.5

= 24.2 kNm
=
24.2 106
1000 1732 30
= 0.027
z = d[0.5 + (0.25 - K/0.9)]

= d[0.5 + (0.25 - 0.027/0.9)]
= 0.97 d
82

z = 0.95 173 mm = 164.4 mm

As =
Msx
0.87 fy z
= 24.2 106 / (0.87 460 164.4) = 413 mm2 /m

Provide Y10-200 mm centres, As = 393 mm/m
100 As
100 393
=
= 0.18 > 0.13
bh
1000 220
Which is greater than 0.13 the minimum for transverse steel
Figure 7.5 Simply supported slab spanning in two directions
The centre strips and location of maximum moments are shown in Fig. 7.6
83
Figure 7.6
*
*

(a) Centre strips; (b) end support; (c) loads on beams and slab shears
The tension reinforcement can be designed using formulae for rectangular beams.
(i.e. same as one-way spanning slab)
For deflection control, it is necessary to check the span/effective depth ratio of the
shorter span.
84
8.

COLUMN
General requirements for design of columns are treated in BS8110: Part I, Section
3.8.1.
The provisions apply to columns where the greater cross-sectional dimension
does not exceed four times the smaller dimension.

The code classifies columns as:
i)
Short column when the ratio lex /h and ley /b are both less than 15 for braced
column and less than 10 for unbraced column.
ii)
Slender column when the ratios are larger than the values give above.
where lex effective column height when bending about x-x axis.
ley effective column height when bending about y-y axis.
Figure 8.1
Cross-section of a column
Design Provision
85

Minimum percentage of Reinforcement

The minimum percentage of reinforcement for both grade 250 and grade 460
reinforcement is
100 Asc / Acc = 0.4
where
Asc Area of steel reinforcement in compression.
Acc Area of concrete in compression.
Maximum Area of Reinforcement

The maximum area of reinforcement should not exceed 6% of the gross
cross-sectional area of a vertically cast column except at laps where 10% is permitted.
Requirements for Links
i)
The of links 6mm or of the largest longitudinal bar.
ii)
iii)
The maximum spacing is to be 12 of the smallest longitudinal bar.

The links should be arranged so that every corner bar and each alternate bar in
an outer layer is supported by a link passing round the bar and having an
included angle of not more than 135. No bar is to be further than 150mm
from a restrained bar.
Short Brand Axially loaded Column
Code Design Expressions

BS8110: Part I, cl.3.8.4.3 gives the following expression for the ultimate load N that a
short braced axially loaded column can support.
N = 0.4 fcu Ac + 0.75 Ascfy
where Ac is the net cross-sectional area of conc. in column.
Asc is the area of vertical reinforcement.
This expression allows for eccentricity due to construction tolerances but applies only
to a column that cannot be subjected to significant moments. An example is column
86

A in Fig. 8.2, which supports a symmetrical arrangement of floor beams.
Figure 8.2
Typical Floor and Column Arrangement
For pure axial load the ultimate capacity Nuz of a column given in clause 3.8.3.1
of the code is
Nuz = 0.45 fcu Ac + 0.87 fy Asc
Clause 3.8.4.4 gives a further expression for short braced columns supporting an
approximately symmetrical arrangement of beams. These beams must be designed
for uniformly distributed loads and the span must not differ by more than 15% of the
longer span. The ultimate load is given by the expression:
Nuz = 0.35 fcu Ac + 0.67 fy Asc
Example 8.1 Axially loaded short column
A short braced axially loaded column 300mm square in section is reinforced with four
25 mm diameter bars. Find the ultimate axial load the column can carry and the
pitch and diameter of the links required. The materials are grade 30 concrete and
grade 460 reinforcement.
steel area, Asc = 1936 mm2
87

concrete area, Ac = 3002 1963 = 88037 mm2

N = 0.4 30 88037 10-3 + 0.75 1963 460 10-3
= 1056 + 677 = 1733 kN
The links are not to be less than 6 mm in diameter or one-quarter of the diameter of
the longitudinal bars. The spacing is not to be greater than 12 times the diameter of
the longitudinal bars. Provide 8 mm diameter links at 300 mm centres. The
column section is shown in Fig. 8.3. Form Table 3:4 of the code the cover for mild
exposure is 25 mm.
Figure 8.3 Steel arrangement of the Column
Example 8.2 Axially loaded short column

A short braced column has to carry an ultimate axial load of 1366 kN. The column
size is 250mm 250mm. Find the steel area required for the longitudinal
reinforcement and select suitable bars. The materials are grade 30 concrete and
grade 460 reinforcement.
Substitute in the expression for the ultimate load
1366 10 = 0.4 30 ( 250 - Asc ) + 0.75 460 Asc
Asc = 1850 mm
88

Provide four 25 mm diameter bars to give a steel area of 1963 mm.

100 Asc
100 1963
bh
2502
>0.4% & <6% O.K.
Check:
= 3.14
This is satisfactory.
Short columns subjected to axial load and bending about one axis
symmetrical reinforcement
Code Provisions
i)
Cl. 3.8.2.3 states that in column and beam construction in monolithic braced
frames the axial force in column can be calculated assuming the beams are
simply supported. If the arrangement of beam is symmetrical, the column
can be designed for axial load only as in 8.2. The column may also be
designed for axial load and a moment due to the nominal eccentricity given in
(ii).
ii)
No section in a column that the design moment be taken as less than the
ultimate load acting at a minimum eccentricity emin equal to 0.05 times the
overall dimension of the column in the plane of bending, but not more than 20
mm.
iii)
Cl. 3.8.4.2 states that design charts for symmetrical reinforced columns are
given in BSS8110: Part 3.
Bending Plus Axial Load at UL S
Fig. 8.4 represents the cross-section of a member with typical strain and stress
distribution for varying positions of neutral axis. The cross-section is subjected to a
moment M and an axial force N.
89

Figure 8.4 Bending plus axial load with varying positions of the neutral axis
Let Fcc be the compressive force in concrete.

Fsc be the compressive force in reinf. As
Fs be the tensile or compressive (depending on the position of N.A.) force in
reinforcement, As .
Basic Equations and Design Charts
N = Fcc + Fsc + Fs
(Applied F = Resisting F)
In this equation, Fs will be negative whenever the position of the neutral axis is such
that the reinforcement, As is in tension.
where
N = 0.45 fcu bs + fsc As + fs As

fsc compressive stress in As
fs tensile or compressive stress in As
The design moment M must be balanced by the moment of resistance of the forces
developed within the cross-section. Take moment about the mid-depth of the
90

section.
h
M = Fcc
sc
M = 0.45 fcubs
*
( 2 - 2 ) + F ( 2 - d ) + F ( 2 -d )
s
(2 -2)+f
sc
( 2 - d) + f
As
As
( 2 -d)
In these equations, the steel strains and hence the stresses fsc and fs vary with the
depth of N.A. N/bh and M/bh can be calculated for a specified ratios of
As/bh and x/h so that column design chart can be obtained as in Fig. 8.5.
91

Modes of Failure
The relative magnitude of the moment (M) and axial load (N) govern the modes of
92
failure.

With large effective eccentricity (e = M/N) a tensile failure is likely, but with
a small eccentricity a compression failure is more likely.
(see Fig. 8.6)
Figure 8.6 Bending, plus axial load chart with modes of failure
Example 8.2 Column Design Using Design Charts

Figure 8.7 shows a frame of a heavily loaded industrial structure for which the centre
columns along line PQ are to be designed in this example. The frames at 4 m centres
are braced against lateral forces, and support the following floor loads:
dead load gk = 10 kN/m
live load qk = 15 kN/m
93
Figure 8.7

Columns in an industrial structure
Characteristic material strengths are fcu = 30 N/mm and fy = 460 N/mm.

Maximum ultimate load at each floor = 4.0 (1.4 gk + 1.6 qk) per metre length of beam
= 4 (1.4 10 + 1.6 15)
= 152 kN/m
Minimum ultimate load at each floor = 4.0 10 gk
= 4.0 10 = 40kN per metre length of beam
Consider first the design of the centre column at the underside (u.s.) of the first floor.
The critical arrangement of load, which will cause the maximum moment in the
column, is shown in figure 8.8(a).
Column loads
second and third floors = 2 152 10/2
= 1520 kN
first floors = 152 6/2 + 40 4/2 = 536 kN
94

Column self-weight = 3 14 (say)
42 kN
Total = 2098 kN
Similar arrangements of load will give the axial load in the column at the underside
(u.s.) and top side (t.s.) of each floor level and these values of N are shown in table
8.1.
The moments on the column are not large and therefore the following equation may
be used for a preliminary sizing.
Trying a 300 400 column
N = 0.35 fcu bh + 0.67 fyAsc

2098 10 = 0.35 30 300 400 + 0.67 460 Asc
from which
Asc = 2719 mm and 100 Asc / bh = 2.27
This provides an adequate cross-section and a 300 400 column is to be used.
Column Moments
The loading arrangement and the substitute frame for determining the column
moments at the first and second floors are shown in figure 8.8(b). Member
stiffnesses are
kAB
1
bh3
1 0.3 0.73
=
=
= 0.71 10-3
2
2 12LAB
2
12 6
kBC
1 0.3 0.73
=
= 1.07 10-3
2
2
12 4
0.3 0.43
kCol =
= 0.46 10-3
12 3.5
95

Figure 8.8 Loading and Moment Diagram of the framing system
therefore
k = (0.71 + 1.07 + 2 0.46) 10- = 2.70 10-
and
distribution factor for the column =
kcol
k
0.46
2.70
= 0.17
Fixed end moments at B are

152 62
F.E.M.BA =
= 456 kNm
12
40 42
F.E.M.BC =
= 53 kNm
12
Thus
column moment M = 0.17 (456 53) = 69 kNm
96

At the 3/F
k = (0.71 + 1.07 + 0.46) 10-
= 2.24 10-
and
column moment, M =
0.46
2.24
(456 53) = 83 kNm
The areas of reinforcement in table 8.1 are determined by using the design chart of
figure 8.5.
Sections through the column are shown in figure 8.9.
Cover for the reinforcement is taken as 50 mm and d/h = 320/400 = 0.8.
The
minimum area of reinforcement allowed in the section is given by

Asc = 0.004 bh = 0.004 300 400 = 480 mm
and the maximum area is
Asc = 0.06 300 400 = 7200 mm
or at laps
Asc = 0.1 300 400 = 12000 mm
and the reinforcement provided is within these limits
Table 8.1
Floor
Column Schedule
(kN)
(kN m)
bh
3rd u.s.
536
83.0
2nd t.s.
774
+536
2nd u.s.
1st t.s.
1st u.s.
Foundation
bh
100 Asc
bh
Asc
(mm)
4.47
1.73
0.4
480
69.0
6.45
1.44
0.4
480
1310
1548
+536
69.0
69.0
10.92
12.9
1.44
1.44
0.4
0.9
480
1080
2084
2098
69.0
34.5
17.37
17.48
1.44
0.72
2.1
1.6
2520
1920
A smaller column section could have been used above the first floor but this would
have involved changes in formwork and also increased areas of reinforcement. For
simplicity in this example no reduction was taken in the total live load although this is
permitted with some structures, as shown by table 9.1.
97

Figure 8.9 Column section in design example
Column Section Subject to Axial Load and Biaxial Bending

Method given in BS8110
The method is derived from the failure surface theory and consists of designing a
section subject to biaxial bending for an increased moment about one axis. The main
design axis depends on the relative values of the moments and the column section
dimensions. The amount of increase depends on the ratio of the axial load to the
capacity under axial load only. The code procedures are set out here.
Mx
Mx
design ultimate moment about x x axis.

effective uniaxial design moment about the x x axis.
My
My
h
h
b
b
design ultimate moment about the y y axis.

effective uniaxial design moment about the y y axis.
overall depth perpendicular to the x x axis.
effective depth perpendicular to the x x axis.
overall width perpendicular to the y y axis.
effective width perpendicular to the y y axis.
If
Mx
h
My
b
Mx = Mx +
h
b
My
98

If
Mx
h
<
My
b
My = My +
b
h
Mx
The coefficient is taken from Table 8.2 (Table 3.24 of the Code) as shown below.
Figure 8.10
Biaxial moment acting on a column
Table 8.2 Values of the coefficient

N
bh fcu
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
1.00
0.88
0.77
0.65
0.53
0.42
0.30
Example 8.3 Design of a Column for Biaxial Bending

The column section shown in figure 8.11 is to be designed to resist an ultimate axial
load of 1200 kN plus moments of Mxx = 75 kNm and Myy = 80 kNm. The
characteristic material strengths are fcu = 30 N/mm fy = 460 N/mm
99

Figure 8.11
Mx
h
My
b
75
(350 70)
80
(350 60)
Biaxial bending example
= 0.268
= 0.333
Mx / h < My / b
therefore increased single axis design moment is
My = My +
b
h
Mx
N/bh fcu = 1200 10 / (300 350 30) = 0.38

From table 8.2, = 0.55
My = 80 + 0.55
240
75 = 115.4 kNm
280
N/bh = 1200 10 / (300 350) = 11.4
M/bh = 115.4 106 / (350 300) = 3.66
From the design chart of figure 8.5
100 Asc/bh = 2.6
Therefore required Asc = 2730 mm
100

Provide 4Y32 bars.

Effective Heights of Column
i)
For a braced structure, the column is considered as short if both the

slenderness ratio lex /h and ley /b are less then 15.
than 15, the column is considered as slender.
ii)
If either ratio is greater
For an unbraced structure, the column is considered short if both the

slenderness ratio lex /h and ley /b are less than 10.
than 10, the column is considered as slender.
If either ratio is greater
h is the column depth perpendicular to the x x axis.

b is the column width perpendicular to the y y axis.
lex is the effective height of column when bending is about x x axis.

ley is the effective height of column when bending is about y y axis.
The effective height of a column depends on:

i)
the actual height between floor beams;
ii)
the column sectional dimensions h b;
iii)
the end conditions; and
iv)
whether the column is braced or undraced.
The theoretical effective height is the distance between the points of inflection along
the member length. These points may lie within the member as in a braced column
or on an imaginary line outside the member as in an unbraced column. Some
effective heights for columns are shown in Fig. 8.12.
101

Figure 8.5 (a) Braced columns; (b) unbraced columns
Effective Height Estimation from BS8110

Two methods are given in the Code to determine the effective height of a column:
i)
ii)
Simplified recommendation given in Cl.3.8.1.6.

A more rigorous method given in Section 2.5 of the Code.
Only the first method would be outlined here.

Cl. 3.8.1.6.1 gives the following general equation for obtaining effective heights:
le = lo
where lo is the clear height between end restraints and is a coefficient from Tables
102

8.3 and 8.4 (Tables 3.21 and 3.22 of the Code) for braced and unbraced columns.
Cl.3.8.1.6.2
(a)
End conditions.
The four end conditions are as follows.
Condition 1. The end of the column is connected monolithically to

beams on either side, which are at least as deep as the overall dimension of the
column in the lane considered.
Where the column is connected to a foundation
structure, this should be of a form specifically designed to carry moment.

(b)
Condition 2. The end of the column is connected monolithically to

beams or slabs on either side, which are shallower than the overall dimension of
the column in the plane considered.
(c)
Condition 3. The end of the column is connected to members which,

while not specifically designed to provide restraint to rotation of the column will,
nevertheless, provide some nominal restraint.
(d)
Condition 4. The end of the column is unrestrained against both lateral

movement and rotation (e.g. the free end of a cantilever column in an unbraced
structure).
Table 8.3 Values of for braced columns
End condition at top
1
2
3
End condition at bottom

1
0.75
0.80
0.90
0.80
0.85
0.95
0.90
0.95
1.00
Table 8.4 Values of for unbraced columns

End condition at top
1
2
3
4
End condition at bottom

1
1.2
1.3
1.6
2.2
1.3
1.5
1.8
1.6
1.8
103
9.

RETAINING WALL
Retaining walls are usually required to resist a combination of earth and hydrostatic
loadings.
The retaining wall shall be capable of holding the retained materials in
place without undue movement arising from deflection, overturning and sliding.
Types of Retaining Walls
i)
Gravity Wall
In a gravity wall stability is provided by the weight of concrete in the wall;
ii)
Cantilever Wall
In a cantilever wall, the wall slab acts as a vertical cantilever. Stability is
provided by the weight of structure and earth on an inner base or the weight of
the structure only when the base is constructed externally.
iii) Counterfort and Buttress Walls

In counterfort and buttress walls, the slab is supported on three sides by the base
and counterforts or buttress. Stability is provided by the weight of structure in
case of buttress wall and by the weight of structure and earth on the base in the
counterfort wall.
104
Figure 9.1

Typical Retaining Walls
Analysis and Design

The design of retaining wall consists of three main steps.
i) Stability Analysis
ii) Bearing Pressure Analysis
iii) Member Design and Detailing
(ULS)
(SLS)
(ULS + SLS)
Stability Analysis
A retaining wall must be stable in terms of resistance to overturning and sliding under
the action of the loads at ULS.
The critical conditions for stability are when a maximum horizontal force acts with a
minimum vertical load.
To guard against failure, f = 1.6 or higher should be used

105

for stability calculations.

a factor of 1.4 maybe used.
the dead load Gk.
If this force is predominately hydrostatic and well defined,

A partial factor of safety of f = 1.0 is usually applied to
Refer to Fig. 9.2

For resistance to overturning, moments would be taken about the toe of the base, point
A.
1.0 Gk x f Hky
Figure 9.2
Forces and pressures on a gravity wall
Resistance to sliding is provided by friction between the underside of the base and the
ground.
*
Resistance provided by the passive earth pressure on the front face of the base
may make some contribution, but since this material is often backfilled against
the face, this resistance cannot be guaranteed and is usually ignored.
1.0 Gk k Hk
Where is the coefficient of friction between the base and soil.

If considering cantilever walls, a considerable amount of backfill is often placed on
the top of the base and this is taken into account in Stability Analysis.
Refer to Fig. 9.3, the worst condition for stability is with minimum dead load and
maximum imposed load.
1.0Gk x + 1.0 V kq k Hk y
(for overturning)
106

&
*
(1.0Gk + 1.0 V k ) k Hk
(for sliding)
When a heel beam is provided the additional passive resistance of the earth must
be included in the above equation.
Figure 9.3
Forces on a cantilever wall
Bearing Pressure Analysis

*
The bearing pressures underneath retaining walls/foundation are assessed on the

basis of SLS. (i.e. f = 1.0)
Refer to Fig. 9.3

M = f1 Hk y +f2 Gk (D/2 x) +f3 Vk (D/2 q)
and the vertical load is
N = f2 Gk + f3 Vk
for SLS, f1 = f2 = f3 = 1.0
107

The distribution of bearing pressures lies within the middle third of the base if
M
N
D
6
The maximum bearing pressure:-
P1 =
P1 =
& P2 =
N
D
N
D
N
D
M
I
D
2
where I =
D3
12
6M
D2
6M
D2
Member Design and Detailing

Reinforced concrete design for the wall is made for ultimate loads. The partial
safety factors for the wall and earth pressure are each 1.4. Surcharge, if present, may
be classified as either dead or imposed load depending on its nature.
i)
For the wall, calculate shear forces and moments caused by the horizontal
earth pressure. Design the vertical moment steel for the inner face and check
the shear stresses. Minimum secondary steel is provided in the horizontal
direction for the inner face and both vertically and horizontally for the outer
face. (Refer to Fig. 9.4)
ii)
The net moment due to earth pressure on the top and bottom faces of the inner
footing causes tension in the top.
iii)
The net moment due to earth pressure causes tension in the bottom face of the
outer footing.
108
Fig. 9.4

Main Reinforcement of a Cantilever Retaining Wall
Example 9.1 Design of a Retaining Wall

The cantilever retaining wall shown in figure 9.5 supports a granular material of
saturated 2000 kg/m and the allowable bearing pressure is 110 kN/m. It is required
to
(1) check the stability of the wall
(2) determine the actual bearing pressure and
(3) design the bending reinforcement using high yield steel, fy = 460 N/mm and
grade 35 concrete.
109

Figure 9.5 General Arrangement of the Retaining Wall
(a)
Stability
Horizontal force: it is assumed that the coefficient of active pressure Ka = 0.33,
which is a typical value for a granular material. So that the earth pressure is
given by
p = Ka gh
where p is the density of the backfill and h is the depth considered.
base
p = 0.33 2000 10- 9.81 4.9
= 31.7 kN/m
Thus at the
Therefore horizontal force on 1 m length of wall is
110

Hk = 0.5 ph = 0.5 31.7 4.9 = 77.7 kN

Vertical loads
wall = (0.4 + 0.3) 4.5 24
37.8 kN
base = 0.4 3.4 24

= 32.6 kN
earth = 2.2 4.5 2000 10 9.81 = 194.2 kN
Total = 264.6 kN
For stability calculations a partial factor of safety of 1.6 is used for the lateral
loading while 1.4 will be used for strength calculations.
(i)
Sliding: from equation in section 9.2.1, it is necessary that

(1.0Gk + 1.0 V k ) k Hk for no heel beam
Assuming a value of coefficient of friction = 0.45
frictional resisting force = 0.45 1.0 264.6 = 119.1 kN
sliding force = 1.6 77.7 = 124.3 kN
Since the sliding force exceeds the frictional force, resistance must also
be provided by the passive earth pressure acting against the heel beam
and this force is given by
Hp = f 0.5 kp pga
where Kp is the coefficient of passive pressure, assumed to be 3.0 for this
granular material and a is the depth of the heel. Therefore
Hp = 1.0 0.5 3.0 2000 10- 9.81 0.6
= 10.6 kN
Therefore total resisting force is
119.1 + 10.6 = 129.7 kN
which exceeds the sliding force.
111

(ii) Overturning: taking moments about point A at the edge of the toe at the
ultimate limit state
overturning moment = f Hk h/3 = 1.6 77.7 4.9/3
= 203 kNm
restraining moment = 1.0 (37.8 1.0 + 32.6 1.7 + 194.2 2.3)
= 540 kNm
Thus the criterion for overturing is satisfied.
(b)
Bearing Pressures
From equations in section 9.2.2, the bearing pressures are given by
N
P =
6M
D2
where M is the moment about the base centre line. Therefore

M = 77.7 4.9/3 + 37.8 (1.7 1.0) + 194.2 (1.7 2.3)
= 126.9 + 26.5 116.5 = 36.9 kNm
Therefore
maximum bearing pressure P1 =
264.6
3.4
6 36.9
3.42
= 77.8 + 19.2 = 97 kN/m

which is less than the allowable.
(c)
Bending Reinforcement
(i) Wall
Horizontal force = f 0.5 ka pgh
= 1.4 0.5 0.33 2000 10- 9.81 4.5
= 91.8 kN
considering the effective span, the maximum moment is
112

M = 91.8 (0.2 + 4.5/3) = 156 kNm

M
156 106
K =
=
= 0.04
bd2 fcu
1000 3302 35
for which la = 0.95 from Design Chart.
As =
Therefore
M
0.87 fy z
= 156 106 / (0.87 460 0.95 330) = 1243 mm2 /m
Provide Y20-200
(ii) Base: the bearing pressures are obtained form equations
The critical partial factors of safety are
f1 = 1.4 and f2 = f3 = 1.0

Using the figures from part (b) of this example, the moment about the base
centre-line is
M = f1 126.9 + f2 26.5 - f3 116.5 = 87.7 kNm
and
N = f2 (37.8 + 32.6) + f3 194.2 = 264.6 kN
Therefore
pressure, p1 =
p2 =
264.6
3.4
6 87.7
= 78 + 45 = 123 kN/m2
3.42
78 45 = 33 kN/m
and in figure 9.5
113

p3 =
p3 = 33 + (123 33) 2.2/3.4 = 91 kN/m
Heel: taking moments about the stem centre-line for the vertical loads and
the bearing pressures
M = f2 32.6
2.2
3.4
+f3 194.2 1.3 33 2.2 1.3 -
(91 33)
2.2
2
0.93 = 126 kNm
therefore
As =
126 106
0.87 460 0.95 330
= 1004 mm/m
Provide Y20-200 top steel

Toe: taking moments about the stem centre-line
M = f2 32.6 0.6
0.8
3.4
- f3 132 0.8 0.6
= 55 kN m
(In fact for this wall the design moment for the toe would be marginally
higher with f2 = 1.4 and f3 = 1.4 throughout)
As =
55 106
0.87 460 0.95 330
= 438 mm/m
The minimum area for this, and for longitudinal distribution steel which is
also required in the wall and the base is
As = 0.13 1000 400 = 520 mm/m
Thus provide Y12-200 mm bottom and distribution steel.
114

Also steel should be provided in the compression face of the wall in order
to prevent cracking say, Y10-200 each way.
Bending reinforcement is required in the heel beam to resist the moment
due to the passive earth pressure.
in the form of closed links.
This reinforcement would probably be
115

10. PRESTRESSED CONCRETE SIMPLE BEAMS

Prestressing and the prestressed section
BS8110 divides prestressed concrete members into three classes: no tensile stress is
permitted in Class 1 members; in Class 2 members the permissible tensile stresses
are kept sufficiently low so that no visible cracking occurs; in Class 3 members, the
tensile stresses are restricted such that crack widths do not exceed 0.1 mm for very
severe environments and 0.2 mm for other conditions. However, we shall consider
only Class 1 and Class 2 members; hence, except when considering the ultimate limit
state of collapse, the members are analysed and designed as uncracked members, i.e.
the ordinary elastic beam theory applies.
Consider a beam subjected to a prestressing force P, as in Fig.10.1, which also shows
the stresses obtained by the elastic theory. The sign convention in the figure, is that
used in current British design practice:
Fig. 10.1
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Prestressed beam and stresses at a typical section
Moment due to applied load: sagging is positive and hogging is negative.

Concrete stress: compressive is positive and tensile is negative.
Tendon stress: tensile is positive (the term tendon is defined later).
Tendon eccentricity: downwards is positive, and upwards is negative.
Also, the subscripts 1 and 2 in the symbols refer respectively to the bottom and the top
faces of the beam. Thus, in Fig. 10.1, f1 is the prestress at the bottom fibres, and f2
that at the top fibres. Similarly, Z1 and Z2 are the elastic section moduli referred to
the bottom and the top fibres respectively; i.e. Z1 = I/1 and Z2 = I/2, where I is the
second moment of area of the cross-section about a horizontal axis through the
116

centroil G.
In practice, the prestressing force (P in Fig 10.1-1 (a)) is usually applied by means of
tendons, which may be:
(a) 7-wire strands of typical characteristic strength fpu of 1770 N/mm2 (BS 5896);
(b) cold-drawn wires of typical fpu 1570 N/mm2 (BS 5896);
(c) high-tensile alloy bars of typical fpu N/mm2 (BS 4486)
Note that both BS5896 and BS4486 use the term characteristic breaking load, the
breaking load being the tensile strength times the cross-sectional area. However, in
BS8110 it use the term characteristics strength (fpu ).
Stresses in service: elastic theory
In contrast to the design of reinforced concrete members, the design of Class 1 and
Class 2 prestressed concrete members is generally governed by the stress criteria in
service or at transfer, rather than by their ultimate strengths, though the latter must be
checked. Hence the elastic theory is very relevant in prestressed concrete design.
Designs are normally based on the conditions in service, but the stresses at transfer
(not discussed in the course) must be checked.
Consider the simply supported beam in Fig. 10.1. Suppose the prestressing force in
the tendon is P at transfer. When the beam is in service, the prestressing force will
be less than P, because of loss of prestress. In the meantime it is sufficient to note
that under service condition the effective prestressing force will be
Pc = P
Fig. 10.2
Equation 10.1
Section of a prestressed beam
117

where P is the prestressing force at transfer, andis the loss ratio, = 0.8 being a
typical value.
For clarity, Fig. 10.1(b) is redrawn in Fig. 10.2.
for the typical section:
f1 =
f2 =
Pe
A
Pe
A
Under service conditions, we have
Pe es
Z1
Pe es
Z1
Equation 10.2
Equation 10.3
where (see notation and sign convention in Section 10.1)

f = the compressive prestress in the concrete;
A = the concrete section area (usually taken as the nominal area of the
cross-section);
Z = the elastic section modulus;
es = the eccentricity of the prestressing force Pe;
subscript 1 refers to the bottom fibre and
subscript 2 refers to the top fibre
Still considering the typical section in Fig.10.2, let us introduce symbols as follows:
Md = sagging moment due to dead load
Mimax (Mimin) = maximum (minimum) sagging moment due to imposed load
Mr = the moment range Mimax Mimin
The prestress values at a typical section must be such that the following stress criteria
are satisfied under service conditions:
f1
f1
f2 +
Mimax + Md
Z1
Mimin + Md
Z1
Mimax + Md
Z2
famin
Equation 10.4
famax
Equation 10.5
famax
Equation 10.6
118

f2
Mimin + Md
Z2
Equation 10.7
famin
where famax is the maximum allowable stress in the concrete and fimax the minimum
allowable stress, the sign convention being, as usual, positive for compression;
BS8110 gives the values in Tables 10.1 and 10.2, which include allowance for the
partial safety factor.
Table 10.1
Compressive stresses in concrete for the serviceability limit states (BS8110 : Clause
4.3.4.2)
Design load in bending
Allowable compressive stress (famax )

0.33 fcu (in continuous beams this may be increased to
0.4 fcu within the range of support moments)
Design load in direct

compression
0.25 fcu
Nature of loading
Table 10.2
Flexural tensile stresses for Class 2 members: serviceability limit state of cracking
(BS8110 : Clause 4.3.4.3)
Allowable tensile stress (famin )(N/mm)

Characteristic strength fcu (N/mm)
30
40
50
60
Pre-tensioned members
Post-tensioned members
2.1
2.9
2.3
3.2
2.6
3.5
2.8
Note:
(a)
For Class 1 members famin = 0
(b)
Table 10.2 gives the allowable stresses in tension and hence a negative sign should be used when
assigning these stress values to famin.
(c)
Designers usually limit the tensile stresses under service conditions to less than the limiting
values in Table 10.2. For example, for a post-tensioned member of fcu = 50 N/mm, famin may well
be taken as, say, 2N/mm instead of 2.6N/mm2 as permitted by BS8110.
119

Figure 10.3
Stresses in a prestressed section
Figure 10.3 shows the stresses in a prestressed beam section. The line O1a1b1
represents level 1, i.e. the beam-soffit; the line O2a2b2 represents level 2, i.e. the beam
top. Line CGD is the stress distribution due to Pe; therefore O1D1 is the prestress f1
and O2C is f2 . Line HGJ is the stress distribution due to Pe + Mimin + Md and EGF that
due to Pe + Mimax + Md. The application of a sagging moment rotates the
stress-distribution line clockwise about G. O1O2 is the ordinate for zero stress;
similarly a1a2 and b1b2 are the ordinates for the stresses famin and famax respectively. It
should be noted that:
(a) Equation 10.4 represents the condition that point F must not pass beyond the line
a1a2 .
(b) Equation 10.5 represents the condition that point J must not pass beyond the line
b1b2 .
(c) Similarly, Equation 10.6 and Equation 10.7 represent the conditions that E and H
must not lie outside the region a2b2 .
(d) Under service condition, the maximum change of stress at the bottom fibres is
M1/Z1, when Mr is the range of imposed moments Mimax - Mimin.
(e) Similarly, the maximum change of service stress at the top fibres is Mr/Z2.
(f) Therefore the minimum Zs to be provided must satisfy the conditions:
Mimax - Mimin
Z1
Equation 10.8
Z
f
-f
2
amax
amin
that is, the minimum Zs are independent of Md , f1 and f2 .

(g) The critical section for the beam is where the imposed-load moment range Mr
(= Mimax - Mimin ) is a maximum. In particular, Mimax at the critical section is not
necessarily larger than that at another section, and Mimin at the critical section is
not necessarily smaller than that at another section.
(h) If at the critical section, the actual Z1 (or Z2 ) is exactly equal to the minimum
value of Equation 10.8, then the prestress f1 (or f2 ) must have that unique value
120

which makes Equations 10.4 and 10.5 (or Equations 10.6 and 10.7) identities.
Referring to Fig.10.3 for such a case the points F and J (or H and E) fall on a1
and b1 (or a2 and b2 ) respectively.
(i)
In practice it is rare for the Zs actually provided to be exactly the minima

required.
Therefore, f1 and f2 may vary within limits.
The minimum f1
required is that at which point F coincides with point a1; the minimum f2 required
is that at which H coincides with a2. Similarly, the maximum permissible f1 is that
which makes J coincide with b1, and the maximum permissible f2 makes E
coincide with b2. In other words, the minimum required pre-stresses are those
that make Equations 10.4 and 10.7 identities:
minimum required f1 = famin +
minimum required f2 = famin -
Mimax + Md
Z1
Mimin + Md
Z2
Equation 10.9
Equation 10.10
Similarly the maximum permissible prestresses are those that make Equations
10.5 and 10.6 identities:
maximum permissible f1 = famax +
maximum permissible f2 = famax -
(j)
Mimin + Md
Z1
Mimax + Md
Z2
Equation 10.11
Equation 10.12
Referring to Fig.10.3, the prestress at the centroid of the section is
fep =
Pe
A
where A is the cross-sectional area.
Equation 10.13
Minimum fep is compatible with minimum
f1 and f2 ; hence, from Equation 10.13, the required minimum prestressing force
Pemin is that which gives the minimum f1 and f2 . From Equations 10.2 and 10.3,
Pe =
( f1Z1 + f2Z2 ) A
Z1 + Z2
Equation 10.14
121

es =
( f1 + f2 ) Z1Z2
Equation 10.15
( f1Z1 + f2Z2 ) A
To obtain Pemin , and the es to be used with Pemin , it is only necessary to insert in
these equations the minimum f1 and f2 . Substituting Equations 10.9 and 10.10
into Equations 10.14 and 10.15.
Pemin =
[ famin ( Z1 + Z2 ) + Mr ] A
Equation 10.16
Z1 + Z2
Z2Mimax + Z1Mimin + ( Z1 + Z2 ) Md
es
=
(for Pemin)
[ famin ( Z1 + Z2 ) + Mr ] A
Equation 10.17
Example 10.1
A Class 1 pre-tensioned concrete beam is simply supported over a 10 m span. The
characteristic imposed load Qk is a 100 kN force at midspan. The concrete
characteristic strength is 50 N/mm and the unit weight of concrete is 23 kN/m.
(a) Determine the minimum required sectional moduli for the service condition.
(b) If the section adopted is of area 120 000 mm and exactly the minimum required
moduli, determine the effective prestressing force Pe required under service
conditon and the tendon eccentricity es at midspan.
Solution
For Class 1 members, famin = 0. From Table 10.1,
famax = 0.33 50 = 16.5 N/mm
design imposed load for the service condition = 1.0 Qk = 100 kN
Therefore
Mimax = 100 10 = 250 kNm;
Mimin = 0
(a) From Equation 10.8,
minimum required Z =
250 106 - 0
16.5 - 0
= 15.15 106 mm3
(b) Adopted section : A = 120 000 mm; Z1 =Z2 = 15.15 106 mm3.
122

design dead load =
120 103
23 = 2.76 kN/m
106
Md = 2.76 102 = 34.5 kNm
Since exactly the minimum required Zs have been used, Equations 10.4 to 10.7
become identities, as explained in statement (h) above. Equations 10.4 and
10.5 will give the same value for f1 ; similarly Equations 10.6 and 10.7 will give
the same f2 . Use say, Equations 10.4 and 10.6:
f1 -
f2 +
250 106 + 34.5 106

15.15 106
250 106 + 34.5 106
15.15 106
=0
therefore f1 = 18.78 N/mm2
= 16.5 therefore f2 = -2.28 N/mm2
Substituting into Equations 10.14 and 10.15 (or Equations 10.2 and 10.3 ),
Pe = 990 kN
es = 161 mm
Example 10.2
A Class 2 post-tensioned concrete beam is simply supported over a 10 m span. The
characteristic imposed load consists of a single 100 kN force at midspan. The
characteristic concreter strength is 50 N/mm and the unit weight of concrete is
23 N/ m3. The beam is of uniform section having the following properties: area A =
120 000 mm, Z1 (bottom) = 19.0 106 mm3, Z2 (top) = 21.7 106 mm3. Determine
for the service condition:
(a)
(b)
the minimum effective prestressing force required (Pemin ) and the corresponding
midspan tendon eccentricity (es );
the maximum effective prestressing force (Pemax ) that may safely be used, and
the midspan tendon eccentricity (es ) for this force.
Solution
From Table 10.1,
famax = 0.33 50 = 16.5 N/mm
From Table 10.2,
123

famin = -2.55 N/mm

(but see note (c) following Table 10.2 )
By inspection, the critical section is at midspan, where
Mimax = 25 kNm
Mimin = 0
and
Md = 34.5 kNm
(all as in Example 10.1 ).
124

(a)
Pemin is associated with the minimum required values of f1 and f2.

From Equations 10.9 and 10.10,
minimum required f1 = -2.55 +
minimum required f2 = -2.55
250 106 + 34.5 106

6
19.0 10
0 + 34.5 106
21.7 106
= 12.42 N/mm2
= -4.14 N/mm2
Pemin = 431 kN
es = 390 mm
Alternatively, Pemin and es can be obtained directly from Equations 10.16 and
10.17 without first calculating f1 and f2
(b)
Pcmax is associated with the maximum permissible values of f1 and f2

From Equations 10.11 and 10.12,
maximum permissible f1 = 16.5 +
maximum permissible f2 = 16.5
0 + 34.5 106
6
19.0 10
= 18.32 N/mm2
250 106 + 34.5 106

21.7 106
= 3.39 N/mm2
Pemax = 1243 kN
es = 122 mm
125

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Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

Construction Planning, Estimating Management,

It is also very durable

Structural Elements and Frames

horizontal members carrying vertical and/or lateral

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

Construction Planning, Estimating Management,

Figure 1.2 Stress-strain curve for concrete in compression

Construction Planning, Estimating Management,

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

A typical curve for concrete in compression is shown in above fig.1.2.

Eventually, the curve is no longer

Moduli of elasticity of concrete

The magnitude of the modulus of elasticity is required when investigating the

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

Construction Planning, Estimating Management,

Short-term modulus of elasticity of concrete

Static modulus Ec,28

Elastic modulus at an age other than 28 days may be estimated from

Stress-strain curves for reinforcing bars.

Construction Planning, Estimating Management,

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

The durability of the concrete is influenced by:

the exposure conditions

the cover to the reinforcement

the width of any cracks

1.6 Specification of Materials

Lowest Grade for Use as Specified

Reinforced concrete with lightweight aggregate

Reinforced concrete with dense aggregate

Concrete with post-tensioned tendons

Concrete with pre-tensioned tendons

Table 1.1 Lowest grade of concrete for use

Construction Planning, Estimating Management,

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

1.6.2 Reinforcing Steel

Nominal Sizes (mm)

Hot-rolled mild steel

(6), 8, 10, 12, 16,

(6), 8, 10, 12, 16,

Table 1.2 Nominal Steel with strength

1.7 Concrete Cover

concrete is protected against weather

Construction Planning, Estimating Management,

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

Nominal cover (mm)

1.7.2 Cover as fire protection

SS simply supported, and C continuous

Construction Planning, Estimating Management,

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Minimum dimensions for fire resistance

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Construction Planning, Estimating Management,

LIMIT STATE DESIGN

Under the worst loadings the structure is safe.

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Construction Planning, Estimating Management,

Ultimate Limit State

The most important serviceability limit states are:

Deflection the appearance or efficiency of any part of the structure must

Durability this must be considered in terms of the proposed life of the

Other limit states that may be reached include:

Excessive vibration which may cause discomfort or alarm as well as