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Running head: FRINDLE #1

Frindle #1
Haniyyah Bashir
University at Buffalo
ELP 514: Student Development Theory
February 2, 2015

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Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S., Guido-DiBrito, F. M., Patton, L. D., & Renn, K. A. (1998).
Definitions and historical roots of student development. In Student development in college:
Theory, research, and practice (pp. 5-21). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
This was a thorough introduction to student development theory as they gave an
overview of student development theory, how they developed, mentions of popular theories, and
terminology to remember when learning theories.
Student Development: the ways that a student grows, progresses, or increases his or her
developmental capabilities as a result of enrollment in an institution of higher education.
(Rodgers)
o Concern for a student
o Encourage learning and student growth
Developmental Theorys 4 Questions
1. What interpersonal and intrapersonal changes?
2. What factors?
3. What aspects encourage or retard growth?
4. What outcomes should we strive for?
There was a new focus on the students because the popularity of the Student Affairs field,
psychology of individual difference, need for institutions, Great Depression (1930s), and the
pressure to place students in the world of work. It was great to look at the timeline to when
theories where developed.
[1920s Guidance Movement] Frank Parsons was the 1st to articulate a connection between
personality and particular careers to choose the best fit for individuals in the work field.
o Vocational prep was great, but optimal learning occurs when students rational and
emotional selves are integrated. There was a shift to students multidimensional
needs. (Today, there is a mix of both needs: vocational and development)
[1937 and 1949] Data collection-Personality rating scales to examine student performance,
American Council of Educations Student Personnel Point of View
o Guide the whole student to reach his/her potential for society. It was expanded for
faculty, administrator, Student Affairs to recognize individual differences in
background, ability, interest, and goals.
[1960s] Psychologists focused on human development that helped understand college
students transition from adolescence to young adult.
o Nevitt Sanford-cycles of differentiation and integration helpful in student
understanding of personality and how it shapes them. Balancing support and
challenge when students lessen tension on campus to succeed.
o Douglas Heath-focused on maturity based on areas such as intellect, values, selfconcept, and interpersonal relationships and dimensions such as symbolically,
allocentric, integrated, stable, and autonomous.
o Roy Heath-Ego functioning meaning how you interact with the world to achieve
satisfaction and defend yourself; and individual style in how you regulate the
dynamic tension between inner, instinctual feeling self and outer, more rational self.
This idea that EVERYTHING IS ALL ABOUT ME!
o Kenneth Feldman & Theodore Newcombs Peer Group Influence Theory help
accomplish family independence, meet schools goals, offer emotional support and

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meet needs not met by faculty, provide contact with people unlike themselves,
reinforce change (or not), source of gratification if students fail, affect retention, &
give social training and personal ties that help students.
Hazen Foundation created the committee on the student in Higher Ed (1968) to assume
responsibility for human development of students.
Tomorrows Higher Ed. Project (THE)-SA commit to student development and collaborating
with academics.
Miller and Prince (1976) highlight the developmental tasks and suggest programming to
reach goals.
William Perry (1968)- intellectual development
Arthur Chickering (1969)-developmental issues
Lawrence Kohlberg (1969/1976) Theory moral reasoning
Banning Theory, 1978-Campus ecology-interaction of student and campus setting
Myers Theory, 1980-Differences in personality type
Holland Theory, 1985/1992-vocational choice theory
Kolbs Theory, 1984-learning styles
Building on Perrys Theory of cognitive structural theory
King and Kitchener, 1994, cognitive development beyond relativism
Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, and Tarule, 1986- 1st to explore intellectual development of
women
Baxter-epistemological development of men and women at Miami U, 1992
James Rest and Colleaguess Theory of Moral development, 2000
Gilligans identification of care-based rationales for moral decision, 1982/1993
Keegans Life Span Model of Development (1982, 1994)-self-authorship is the ability to
internalize multiple points of view, reflect on them, and construct them into ones own theory
about oneself and ones experience.
Baxter saw shift in young adulthood from an identity shaped by external forces and other
point of views to an internal identity created by individuals themselves.
Fowler (1981, 2000) Theory of Faith from a development perspective
Park (1986, 2000) Faith development in college
Schlossberg (1984) examined the process of negotiating transitions caused by life events
(90s) Racial Identity as a sense of group or collective identity based on ones perception that
he or she shares a common racial heritage with a particular racial group. (Helms, p.3)
Theories of gay, lesbian, and bisexual identity development began to appear in the literature
about the same time as the gay liberation movement started in the late 1960s.Casss model is
the most well-known of this movement.
Gender Identity Development Theories are based on the assumption that gender roles and
understanding of what it means to be a gendered person in society are socially constructed
rather than determined by ones biological sex. Noted theorists: Bem, DAugellis
Jones and McEwen and Abes, Jones, and McEwen have reminded us that social identities
such as class, religion, and ability/disability do not exist independently but rather are
intertwined and of varying salience at different times and in different contexts.

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Paradigm: a basic set of beliefs that guide action; represent basic beliefs; guide both theory and
research.
Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S., Guido-DiBrito, F. M., Patton, L. D., & Renn, K. A. (1998). Using
student development theory. In Student development in college: Theory, research, and
practice (pp. 22-40). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Informal Theory is the body of common knowledge that allows us to make implicit
connections among events and persons in our environment and upon which we act in
everyday life. There is no basis to determine accuracy of interpretation.
Formal theory helps to explain how variables interact and provides more of a structured
framework for the study of these relationships.
o Description: a conceptualization of what is happening.
o Explanation: explaining the causes of behavior
o Prediction: is the goal that few theories can achieve. When theories are able to predict the
behaviors of a set group.
o Control: the ability to control the outcomes.
Theory is evaluated by comprehensiveness (understanding a wide range of behavior), clarity
and explicitness (cleared defined), consistency (allow inclusion of findings within a logical
framework), parsimony (concise, simple, and easy to follow), and heurism (generate ideas for
further research). Some characteristics to look for in theories are population, creation of the
theory, descriptiveness, explanations, prescriptiveness, heurism, and usefulness.
When deciding whether a theory is valid, practitioners should examine the research on which
it was based, as well as later studies that have tested the theorys assumptions, propositions,
and transferability. A good theory is one that can be verified by research, as well as its ability
to generate new knowledge.
Challenges: Time, lack of knowledge or failure to remember what they previously by staying
up to date on current research and theories, lack of support from other staff members, politics
in policies,
Debate between the trial and error method of learning and staying abreast of theories: which
is more effective in the long run in terms of student development, time, and cost.
Strategies for dealing with the challenges described: solid rationales, avoiding jargon, using
language and strategies appropriate to the audience, building alliances, persuading staff
members one at a time, being unobtrusive vs blatant, identifying and using windows of
opportunity, using pilot programs, demonstrating perseverance, and recognizing and
celebrating success. By being a good influence and a good role model is also helpful.
Integrating concepts from several theories can often provide a more comprehensive
understanding of development. Educators have an intellectual and ethical responsibility to study
theory in order to better understand students, colleagues, and environments, and they have an
obligation as well to make appropriate us of their expertise. Using theory provides more
assurance that the programs implemented will have a supportable rationale and lead to effective
outcomes.
The Interactionist Perspective.B= f (P X E) Behavior (B) is a function (f) of the
interaction (x) of a person (P) and environment (E). To understand why people behave as they do

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and to facilitate their development, such factors as their characteristics, background, and
developmental level must be examined. Factors related to the environment in which the person is
living, studying, and working also must be explored. Also, remembering that not every person
experiences the same environment in a similar way.
Focusing on the environment interaction aspect, environments in the form of physical
surroundings, organizational structures, organizational structures, human aggregates, and
individually held constructions about them, present the experiences that retard or facilitate
development. By intentionally attending to the design of the environment through
implementation of policy, creation of programs, and training and supervision of staff, educators
can help to ensure person-environment interaction that is healthy and contributes to
development.
Nevitt Sanford (1966) 3 developmental conditions: readiness, challenge, and support.
Involvement: the amount of physical and psychological energy that the student devotes to the
academic experience.
For student learning and growth to occur, students need to actively engage in their
environment, and educators need to create opportunities for in-and out-of-classroom
involvement.
Marginality can be defined as a sense of not fitting in and can lead to self-consciousness,
irritability, and depression and students feel this way when they take on new roles.
Mattering is defined as our belief, whether right or wrong, that we matter to someone else.
1. Attention, the feeling that one is noticed
2. Importance, a belief that one is cared about
3. Ego-extension, the feeling that someone else will be proud of what one does or will
sympathize with ones failures
4. Dependence, a feeling of being needed.
5. Appreciation, the feeling that ones efforts are appreciated by others.
Validation: an enabling, confirming and supportive process initiated by in- and out-of class
agents that foster academic and interpersonal development.
Typology theory: When faced with similar developmental challenges, environmental factors,
or living situations, students respond differently, depending on their type. Most used typology
theory: Holland (1997) and Myers (1980)
Hollands Person-Environment Theory: explores satisfaction, achievement, persistence, and
degree of fit between persons and the environments in which they find themselves. Realistic
people, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional. Assumptions: Consistency,
Differentiation, Identity, Congruency
o Myers-Briggs Theory of Personality Type: examines how individuals orient themselves to
the world around them, how they take in information from their environment, how they
come to conclusions about what they observe, and how they relate to their environment.
There are introverts vs. extroverts, intuition vs. sensing, thinking vs. feeling, perception
vs. judgement. This has been used in many student leader training at my undergrad and I
know I am an ESFJ!
CAUTION: (1) Labels should be used with caution in student affairs practice because often
it used without full knowledge of the meaning of the terms such as immersed or dualist.
Immersed is equated with hating white people. (When I read this section, I was totally
shocked! I have not heard of this before in this context) Focusing on individual behavior is a

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better approach than labeling; put the student first and the descriptor second. (2) Descriptive
and do not indicate what behaviors or changes are best for students. (3) Theories attempt to
describe universal phenomena, but students are unique. Students take precedence over
theory. (4) Avoid the tendency to view students are inert substances that can be manipulated
in desired directions. Role is to empower, not make decisions.
Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S., Guido-DiBrito, F. M., Patton, L. D., & Renn, K. A. (1998). Using
theory in combination. In Student development in college: Theory, research, and
practice (pp. 349-358). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Models provide guidance in using theory.


Process models consist of a recommended series of action steps for connecting theory to
practice, grounded in theory.
Procedural models present a particular way of accomplish some aspect of student affairs
practice.
Theories can be used in combination to better understand a students challenging situation
and work with the students to address the issues. Rarely is a single theory likely to be
sufficient in making meaning of students experiences ad supplying appropriate
challenges and supports. Practice can be enhanced by drawing on a combination of
theories.
Practice to Theory to Practice Model: Knefelkamp, Golec and Wells (1984): Model
guides users to identify an issue, tie the issue to relevant theories, analyze the issue
through a theoretical lens, design an intervention to facilitate development, and
implement the intervention in practice.
o Step 1: Identify concerns or enhancement opportunities
o Step 2: Determine desired educational goals and outcomes.
o Step 3: Identify which theories may be helpful in understanding the issue or
enhancement opportunity and achieving the desired goals.
o Step 4: Analyze relevant student characteristics from the perspective of each of
the theories identified.
o Step 5: Analyze characteristics of the environment associated with the issue from
the perspective of each identified theory.
o Step 6: Identify potential sources of challenge and support, taking into account
both student and environmental characteristics, and recognizing factors that
produce a balance.
o Step 7: Reexamine goals and outcomes in light of the theoretical analysis. Modify
if needed.
o Step 8: Design the intervention using methods that will encourage achievement of
goals.
o Step 9: Implement the intervention.
o Step 10: Evaluate the outcomes of the intervention.
o Step 11: Redesign the intervention if necessary.
Use of process models provide an opportunity to be thorough, deliberate, and thoughtful
in better understanding and addressing developmental concerns of students.
Labeled procedural models encourage big picture thinking about how developmental
outcomes can be achieved.

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Developmental interventions are targeted at either the individual or the institution, they
are either planned or responsive, and the approach used is either explicit or implicit. SA
professionals are encourage to think about intention, purpose, and creativity when using
theory.
o Target of intervention: Individual focuses on the attitude, knowledge, behavior, or
concerns of specific students. Institutional are designed to create a developmental
environment on campus by looking at university policy is a way to affect the
climate by focusing on the educational experience. Formally assessing the overall
campus climate using a model is another way.
o Type of intervention: Planned are intentional, proactive, and structured designed
in anticipation of challenges or developmental needs that college students are
expected to face. Responsive interventions are reactive and make use of, or
respond to, opportunities or challenges as they arise.
o Intervention approach: Explicit intervention address developmental issues
directly; those involved make very clear what the developmental issue is and how
the intervention is designed to advance development in the targeted area. Implicit
interventions approach developmental issues indirectly. Programs will be
implemented to address issues without mentioning them but will still have a
developmental effect.
o 4 Ss Strategies mentioned to be later discussed: Self, situation, support, and
strategies.

Reading about this section made me really excited to be able to have experiences where I
will interact with theories first hand and be able to apply my knowledge to implement implicit or
explicit changes in my department and/or institution.

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Jones, S. R. & Abes, E. S. (2011). The nature and uses of theory. In J. H. Schuh, S. R. Harper, &
S. R. Harper (Eds.), Student services: A handbook for the profession (5th Ed.), (pp. 149-167).
Jossey-Bass: San Fransisco
Although this chapter seemed to be repetitive, it emphasized the purpose of theories and the
importance of knowing them to be able to use them to help further develop college students. The
approach to introducing theory was similar to our Student Development in College: Theory,
Research, and Practice textbook.
Theories help to simplify and make sense of the complexities of life, representing an
attempt to organize and integrate knowledge and to answer the question why?
Rodgers defined formal theory: a set of propositions regarding the interrelationship of two or
more conceptual variables relevant to some realm of phenomena. It provides a framework for
explaining the relationship among variables and for empirical investigations.
Strange and King defined a theory as an abstract representation based on a potentially
infinite number of specific and concrete variations of a phenomenon.
Theory offers a framework for understanding more than what is obvious from our
observations. Theories in student affairs are grounded in the particularities of individual
stories and experiences and serve as a way to make sense of the diversity and complexity of
phenomena by reducing many aspects of a phenomenon into a more integrated
representation.
All theory is autobiographical: it represents the knowledge, experience, and worldviews of
the theorists who construct it.
Depending on the worldview of the theorist, therefore, theory can reinforce the status quo or
societal power of relationships.
Six purposes: describe, explain, predict, influence outcomes, assess practice, and generate
new knowledge and research.
Criteria to evaluate the value of a theory:
o Important and relevant to everyday life
o Precise and understandable
o Simple and parsimonious
o Comprehensive
o Able to be operationalized
o Empirically valid or verifiable
o Able to generate new research and ideas
o Useful to practitioners
Important to consider what population that the theory is geared toward
Theories need to be true to the stories of the individuals and situations upon which they are
based.

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Normally grouped together in families of theories or theory clusters


o Developmental and focus on the individual (social identities)
o Examine students in the collegiate context (success, engagement, and learning)
o Explain the relationship between campus environment and development
o Focused on organizations and institutions of higher education
Newer theories provide alternative theoretical explanations for understanding students or
grounded more in holistic conception of overlapping theory families and intersecting
theories.
Student Development Theories serve as a foundation for SA practice. It breaks down the
term: Student being one that is enrolled in higher education and development suggests that
the students change in a positive way. To formulate the definition: the ways that a student
grows, progresses, or increases his or her developmental capabilities as a result of enrollment
in an institution of higher education.
Stanfords Theory of challenge and support was highlighted. There needs to be an optimal
balance of challenge and support for development to occur. Its important to remember that
not all students need the same amount of challenge and/or support.
For development to occur, the individual must experience dissonance or crisis. The moment
when one reaches an interaction and must turn one way or the other.
The terminology is used to place or locate individuals along a continuum or on a map such as
stages, statuses, vectors, positions, perspectives, types, frames, dimensions, or elements. It
conveys the underlying ideas about the process of development and worldviews about how
students and their experiences are best understood.
Post-structural theorists resist the use of terminology that suggests the possibility of
categorizing or compartmentalizing something as complex as identity.
Each stage or status is intended to capture some defining feature of an individual.
Epigenetic principle or the idea that anything that grows has a ground planand out of this
ground plan the parts arise, each part having its time of special ascendancy until all parts
have arisen to form a functioning whole. It calls for the individual to address such core
identity questions.
The content of development and the process of development will look different depending on
the actual theory but developmental movement is characterized by sequential movement
along a trajectory.
The importance of viewing social identities as intersecting and representing the overlap of
psychosocial and cognitive domains of development.
Rooted in the work of Erik Erikson, psychosocial focuses on the interaction of the individual
with his or her social world. Individuals are most concerned about in different time periods of
the life cycle.
Piagets cognitive-structural theories focus on the structure of thinking applied to the content
of those psychosocial issues identified.
Social identity theories focus on those roles or membership categories that a person claims as
a representation of themselves such as race, ethnicity, culture, sex, gender, religion, disability,
and social class.
New perspectives may be used to both critique and reconceptualize existing theoretical
frameworks. Emphasize the centrality of power and the importance of social change.

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Holistic development that is interrelated to interpersonal, identity, and cognitive


development.
There is an emphasize on the campus environment and how it affects students
Student engagement and how it affects student success.

Qualitative and Quantitative research is done to generate formal theories that describe the
experiences of all participants but also stays true to the particularities of each of the individuals
story. I am still really confused about what a paradigm is but I think it is a way to categorize
theory.
Pope, R. L., Reynolds, A. L., & Mueller, J. A. (2004). Multicultural competence in theory and
translation. In Multicultural Competence in Student Affairs (pp.29-45). San Francisco: JosseyBass.
All of the readings discuss what a theory is and what it means to the writer, however, this
specific reading makes a connection to multicultural competence and how it relates to theory.
Theory is defined in relation to student affair practice to help communicate more effectively;
understand how students learn and develop; identify more effective ways to supervise staff and
manage departments, help design meaningful interventions, programs, services, and research
endeavors. Theories provide clarity to student and group behavior on a college campus even
though not all students or groups are the same. It becomes difficult to integrate theory into
practice because student affair professions tend to focus on the outcome instead of applying their
theoretical knowledge.
Student Affairs professionals uses theories from other academic disciplines to strengthen
the development of college students. Yes, it is important to understand the theories, but it is more
important to question the origin of them and how it applies to the students of today. That can be
done by grounding the theories in practice and testing it out for educational and developmental
use. In order to understand and apply the theories, there has to be an in-depth knowledge of
theory. Rodgers is known for creating a continuum for understanding theory in four levels that
happens gradually with the fourth level being the highest, similar to Blooms Taxonomy.
1. A basic understanding of a theory or construct like a definition. A Student Affairs
professional does not have enough information to use with any students or apply to the field.
2. Understand, Recognize, and describe the core concepts of a theory. A Student Affairs
professional would be able to just mention it in conversation with someone about it, but
would not know historical background or offer any insights.
3. A greater understanding because they are able to make it relevant to their profession. A
Student Affairs professional would be able to explain the theory to another person and would
be able to apply it if need be but does not have much experience doing so.
4. The utmost knowledge of theory as if they wrote the theory themselves. Student Affairs
professionals would be able to draw connections between theories and the relationships it has
been others. Not only would they would be able to apply it, but would be able to make a
developmental or organizational change to affect more students while staying up to date on
recent theories.

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Knowing theory but being able to apply it is another component of the profession. It can
be difficult to look at a situation and want put a student into a particular group that a theory
focuses on. While a theory may be relevant to a situation, how the situation is dealt with can
change based on how the student identifies themselves and cultural changes need to be
considered. Most of these theories were written decades ago and society and the students in
which they live in have changed since then. Student Affairs professionals help students grow and
develop on their own so the key is to focus on where they are and allow them to figure out where
they need to be. Reason being is that every individual is multidimensional, and growth and
development are rarely linear. (p. 35)
If these diverse values and cultural realities are not incorporated into a theory, the ability
of practice to meet the needs of a diverse campus is limited. (p. 35) There has been research and
studies done to make theories more inclusive, but it hasnt been enough because personal and
cultural values havent been taken into consideration that influence student development on a
daily basis. It was interesting to read about what multicultural awareness, knowledge, and skills
must be infused into theories to make them meaningful and appropriate for all students and
student affairs professionals? I think the answer to this question is to considerate every persons
identity and background since it has an impact on how they interact with others on a college
campus and what types of support they need to be successful.
How can theories ever be diverse and inclusive if it focuses on one aspect or construct of
one individual? I understand that assumptions of universality limit our ability to make meaning
of the attitudes, behaviors, and experiences of all students as well as create organizations and
institutions that best meet their needs. (p. 36) But is it possible for a theory to truly be inclusive
if the person who is creating them has set assumptions? There needs to be more multicultural
sensitive and inclusive theorists to solve this problem and it is a work in progress.
Not to discard the most prominent theories in student development, but there needs to be
a greater exploration on the origin to make meaning of the unique experiences of
underrepresented groups. I look at it as someone important once said, You must know where
you came from to know where you are going. Popes Multicultural Organization Development
Theory reformed the organization development theory and added a social justice perspective. My
first thought was that my professor is pretty amazing to be at the highest level of the Rodgers
continuum to be able to do further research on a theory to apply it and make it current to the
student affairs profession.
There is a focus on multicultural awareness, knowledge, and skill to organize the various
competencies that need to be incorporated into practice of theories.
Multicultural awareness: understand our own social identity in terms of race, gender, sex,
religion, sexual orientation, and class. With that understanding, there needs to be an
acknowledgement that all theories are based on a particular view and may or may not
incorporate the values and beliefs of all individuals. I feel like some theories may lead to
assumptions and develop more social constructs. It is just important to always remember that
not all black/white people are the same and have the same experiences. Once there is
awareness, then there can be critique and room for improvement to remove bias.

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Multicultural knowledge: know the theories and know enough about diverse cultures in order
to know a theory is appropriate to apply. It requires many studies, interactions, and
experiences to understand social constructs, concepts, and realities especially if as a
privileged individual, one may have never been aware of. I think it just comes with
understanding that this is a profession of life-long learning.
Multicultural Skills: ability to critique theories and apply them to the experiences of a diverse
student body and complex organizational structure. Its all about how the theory applies to
the dominant culture that it focuses on. Although perceptions are there, as professionals, we
have to be able to put that to the side to become aware of how others might view and
evaluate the same behavior and beliefs.

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