Shore Approach Design

OIL & GAS TRANSMISSION 605
SHORE APPROACH DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION
April 2005
Shore Approach Design and Construction

PIPELINE ENGINEERING COURSE
Module 8B
1.0
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background
The majority of oil and gas, produced from the development of offshore fields
is traditionally transported by subsea pipeline to onshore for
processing/distribution.
This routing necessitates a landfall or shore
approach.
Shore approaches are traditionally areas that have given rise to problems in
construction and operation. Not only are the wave and current conditions
which the pipeline must withstand the most severe, but the difficulties of
access and control of operations in the breaking wave zone render
construction and subsequent inspection activities potentially hazardous.
Issues of sediment movement and beach erosion make prediction of the
The sites are often prominent and so negotiation with stakeholders can be
protracted with high public visibility. Lastly, risks to the pipeline from all
causes including third party contact (vessels, digging incidents etc) are
higher than for most other parts of the pipeline and consequences from
pipeline leakage are severe. Hence, a conservative high integrity design is
needed.
Purpose of these Notes
1.2
These notes supplement the presentation materials to provide a summary of

the design and construction issues, that must be considered when designing
this difficult section of a pipeline, together with a description of the installation
methods available to the designer and constructor to suit the prevailing
conditions.
The notes also contain detailed coverage of issues such as:
wave modification
liquefaction
general survey techniques and requirements.
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc

Module 8B
2.0
DEFINITIONS
2.1
Figures
A1
Beach Profile-Related Terms
4.1
Logic Diagram for Evaluation of Marine Environment
5.1
Design Features for Predicting Liquefaction
5.2
Design Figures for Predicting Liquefaction (Gravesen and Fredsoe,

1983)
5.3
Relationship between Initial Liquefaction and Cyclic Stress Ratio
5.4
Influence of Cover Depth in Pore Pressure Response
6.1
Hjulstrom's Curve
7.1
Concrete Armour Units
7.2
Rubble-Mound Section for Non-Breaking Condition (Zero to Moderate

Overtopping)
7.3
Rubble-Mount Section for Breaking Condition (Moderate Overtopping)
7.4
Logic Diagram for Preliminary Design of Rubble Structure
7.5
Logic Diagram for Evaluation of Preliminary Design
7.6
Protection and Stabilisation Methods Chart

Module 8B
2.2
Glossary
The following definitions are used in this guideline:
Shore Approach:
that section of pipeline near the shore

constructed by a distinctly different method,
often corresponding to the zone of a
pipeline landfall extending from the Shore
Point to the end of the surf zone;
Shore Point (SP):
an arbitrary location which represents the

interface between the onshore and offshore
sections of a pipeline, usually in the back
beach area;
Surf Zone:
the extent of breaking waves used for

design purposes, from the limit of wave
uprush on the shore to the seawards extent
of regularly breaking waves. For any given
storm, the extent of the surf zone will
depend on the water level (Ref: Fig A1);
Water Depth:
depth of water below the Still Water Level;
Still Water Level (SWL):
water level when wave height = 0;
Scour:
underwater removal of material by waves

and currents;
Erosion:
depletion of sediment from the berm and

cutting back of the shoreline;
Nearshore Zone:
an indefinite zone extending seaward from

the shoreline well beyond the breaker zone
defining the area of nearshore currents (Ref:
Fig A1);
Beach:
the zone of unconsolidated material that

extends landward from the mean low water
line to the place where there is a marked
change in materials or profile or to the line
of permanent vegetation (Ref: Fig A1);

Module 8B
Berm:
a nearly horizontal part of the beach formed

by the deposit of material by wave action
(Ref: Fig A1);
Backbeach
the zone of the beach comprising the berm

and (Backshore) acted upon by waves only
during severe storms (Ref: Fig A1)
Maximum Wave Height (Hm):
the maximum height of all the waves

recorded a specified return period
Significant Wave Height (Hs):
the average height of the one-third highest

waves for a specified return period
Liquefaction:
the loss of shear strength in saturated

cohesionless soils due to repeated loads
(breaking waves, mechanical vibration,
seismic shocks)
Bathymetry:
the measurement of depths of water in

oceans, seas and lakes (also information
derived from such measurements);
Aeolian:
an occurrence due to the flow of air;
Longshore:
parallel to and near the shore;
Refraction:
the process by which the direction of a wave

travelling in shallow water at an angle to the
contours is changed due to changing wave
celerity;
Shoaling:
becoming shallow gradually;
Celerity (C):
wave speed, C = L/T. Where L = wave

length, and T = period as opposed to
particle velocity or group (energy) velocity.
Diffraction:
the phenomenon by which energy is

transmitted laterally along a wave crest.
When part of wave train is interrupted by a
barrier, the waves propagate into the
sheltered region within the barriers
geometric shadow
Streamers:
ribbons of sand with little or no profile

Module 8B
Megaripples:
large sand ripples as streamers but have a

profile
Sandwaves:
a large dune like sediment feature

composed of sand in shallow water;
Engineering Backfill:
backfill
selected
by
engineering
characteristics, rather than native material
won from the adjacent seabed. Often, a
protective layer of facing of quarry stones
usually well graded, randomly placed to
prevent erosion or scour;
Mean Grain Size (D50):
mean grain size, D50, is the diameter of the

soil particle at which half of the soil
particles (by weight) have larger diameters
and half have smaller diameters;
Coast:
sea/land interface

Module 8B
2.3
Notation
PARAMETER
Soil Relative Density
Cone Penetrometer Resistance
Effective Over Burden Pressure
Coefficient of Permeability
Coefficient of Earth Pressure at Rest
Soil Angle of Internal Friction
Soil Modulus of Elasticity
Poisson's Ratio for Soil
Pre Pressure Generation Constant
Effective Number of Wave Cycles
Average Drainage Path Length
Volume of Soil/Area of Drainage
Coefficient of Volume Compressibility
Unit Weight of Water
Pore Water Pressure
Density of Seawater
Density of Soil Particles
Rate of Porewater Pressure Generation
Mean Grain Size
Kinematic Viscosity of Seawater
Horizontal Component of Velocity
Bed Friction Factor
Orbital Amplitude
Density of Soil Particle
Critical Bed Shear Stress
Acceleration due to Gravity
Reynolds' Number
Deepwater Celerity
Wave Length
Deepwater Wave Length
Angle with Respect to Deepwater Angle
Breaking Wave Height
Breaking Wave Depth
Ratio of Breaking Wave Height/Depth
Critical Wave Period
Critical Breaking Parameter
Beach Slope
Grain Size such that 20% by Weight are Finer
Shear Stress
Significant Wave Height
Porewater Pressure
Initiation Pressure
Reference Cyclic Stress Ratio
Depth Below Seabed to which Liquefaction Extends
Pore Pressure Ratio
Number of Cycles to Liquefaction
Unit Weight of Water
SYMBOL
Dr
qc
v
k
ko
Es
v
Neff
L
L1
Mv
pw
p
w
s
D50
u
ff
a
lp
g
Re
Co
L
Lo
Hb
db
Tc
Fc
m
D20
Hs
Pd
Po
io
z
ru
Ni
w
UNIT
%
N/m 2
N/m 2
m/sec
degrees
N/m 2
m
m
N
N/m 2
kg/m 3
kg/m 3
mm
m2/sec
m/sec
m
kg/m 3
N/m 2
m/s2
m/s
m
m
degrees
m
m
secs
mm
N/m 2
m
N/m 2
N/m 2
m
N/m 2

Module 8B
SITE SELECTION
3.0
Landfall selection is the first step in shore crossing design. The process is
necessarily iterative since there are many factors to be balanced including:
directness of route
suitability of onshore pipeline alignment to the consumer
suitability of offshore alignment
suitability of landfall.
The landfall site will be selected initially for its proximity to both the offshore
site and the consumer location. In general, the shortest route is taken as a
first step and several candidate landfalls will be located and researched by
desktop study.
Since each landfall with have a different onshore and
offshore route, the attributes of all candidates are reviewed as a set and one
or two shortlisted options are taken forward for detailed review.
Once the area in which the landfall is desired has been chosen, the actual site
can be selected after consideration of a number of factors. These include the
following:
wave and current climate
local geology
topography and bathymetry
area use
environment sensitivity of the area
local coastal policy.
Table 3.1 outlines the most and least preferred features associated with the
considerations mentioned above.
Table 3.1
PIPELINE SITING CONSIDERATIONS

Module 8B
CONSIDERATIONS
COASTAL WATERS
MOST PREFERRED FEATURES
LEAST PREFERRED FEATURES
Level of gradually sloping grade,

relatively stable contour.
Continual, drastic up and down grade

changes dynamic contour.
Easily removed light sediments

(sand or sandy loam), horizontal
homogeneity over line length, stable
sediments over full range of local
current velocities.
Heavy sediments, not easily removed

which require loosening before
removal (mud, clay, gravel and rock),
continual changes in sediment
composition over line length, dynamic
sediments within range of local
current velocities.
No presence of historical presence.
History for formation and presence.
Shoreline Sediments
Homogeneous (non-layered), stable,

high bearing strength, low water
table. Soils stable when saturated.
Diverse texture layers, unstable low

bearing strength, high water table.
Unstable when saturated, ie. running
sand.
Barrier Islands
Sandy ocean front, relative historical

stability, little wet land or bay area
landward of shore crossing.
Heavy
sediment
ocean
front,
significant historical and tidal inlet
formation large wet land or bay
expanse
between
island
and
mainland.
Beaches
Accreting,
sandy
beach
with
historical stability (long-term and
during storm activity).
Eroding, heavy sediment ocean with

a history of significant and storminduced erosion.
Small in size with historical erosion

levels small in magnitude.
Large in size with historical levels

large in magnitude.
Wet Lands
Firm
soil
conditions
(high
trafficability) with no obstructions
such as tree stumps.
Soft, much soil conditions (low

trafficability) with many obstructions
which are hard to remove.
Cliffs
Small in size with a history of

relative stability and no history as a
run-off area.
Large in size, with a history of erosion

and recession from the water's edge,
and a known run-off point for upland
storm, flood and waste waters.
Areas in which no bottom-disruptive

fishing techniques are employed or
foreseen to be, and areas which are
not controlled by private lease,
licence or the like.
Areas in which dredged, bottom

trawling, tongs and the like are used
in harvesting fishery products, areas
that are privately leased or granted.
Areas which contain no wreckage.
Areas which have wrecks requiring

circumvention.
Submarine Topography
Submarine Sediment
Submarine
Waves
SHORE LINE
Onshore
Erosion/ Dunes
SPECIAL
USES
Commercial
Areas
Wrecks
Sand
Sand
COASTAL
Fishing

Module 8B
CONSIDERATIONS
Ship Channels and
Anchorages
MOST PREFERRED FEATURES

No major or minor channels which
require periodic redredging of route,
no anchorage area harbouring large
commercial vessels in the route.
LEAST PREFERRED FEATURES

Periodically
dredged
channels;
commercially
utilised
heavy
anchorage areas.
Areas of Unexploded
Ordinance
No designated explosives dumping

grounds or live ammunition practice
firing areas in the area, no record of
accidental ordinance release.
Nearby areas of past unexploded

ordinance disposal or live ammunition
practice firing area; records indicating
possible presence of accidentally
released live ordinance.
Recreational Areas
Little or no recreational uses.
Frequent highly
recreation.
Defence Testing Areas

or dumping grounds
No Defence testing area to be

traversed.
One or more MoD testing areas to be

traversed.
Areas of Surface and

Bottom
Activity
Restrictions
No prohibited areas to be traversed.
One or more prohibited areas to be

traversed.
Cable Areas
No cable areas to be traversed.
One or more cable areas to be

traversed.
Rights of Way
Pre-existing or easy to obtain,

inexpensive and not likely to
generated public opposition.
OTHER
USES
used
areas
of
SPECIAL
"Frontier" area devoid of existing

utility rights-of-way, hard to obtain,
expensive and likely to generate
public opposition.

Module 8B
SITE INVESTIGATIONS
4.0
The key to a successful design is ensuring that adequate information is

available to enable reliable conclusions to be drawn about:
design levels of pipeline, water and beach surfaces
sediment movement trends
environmental forces
effect on the environment of construction activities
other users of the beach and shore approach area
archeological and heritage impacts
soil and seabed characteristics
construction hazards (boulders, UXO, debris, fish traps, cables etc)
Where site selection must be carried out, preliminary survey will often precede
more detailed survey and data collection. This Section contains discussion
about survey requisites and techniques. The sequence of investigations is:
4.1
Desktop Study
Preliminary Survey and Data Gathering
Engineering Geophysical and Geotechnical Survey
Construction Pre-survey
Preliminary Investigation
Before any field survey of a shore approach is undertaken, a desk top study
should be performed. Data may come from a variety of sources such as
Ordinance Survey Charts, the Hydrography Department of the Navy, the
DOIR, Dept of Fisheries etc. Previous civil work performed in the area should
also be reviewed. Research studies on the site may have been carried out in
allied fields, such as sedimentology, coastal engineering or oceanography.
It is very important to be able to predict the long term stability of the shore and
the best indicator of trends are beach profiles which can either be obtained
from previous surveys or from successive historical aerial photographs,
preferably stereoscopic.

Module 8B
The use of aerial photographs or satellite imagery may be considered for
shore approach selection in uncharted regions, particularly in shallow regions
where reefs exist since the waters are relatively clear. It is possible to gain not
only knowledge of the locations of reefs but also the water depth using
sophisticated image processing systems.
Remote sensing can also be used as an aid to select the associated land
route. It possible to get an indication of the land use and the local topography
and vegetation.
Using the information gained from the desk top study, the extent of the survey
required can be defined and aspects which will need detailed studies or
programs of work can be identified. In particular, it is recommended that prior
to specification of soil sampling sites, available information is reviewed.
Once the preliminary routes have been identified, it is worth visiting the site to
walk the land route and landfall section, as this may bring to light matters
which will require detailed inspection during the survey or cause an alternative
route to be selected before the expense of a detailed survey.
4.2
Survey Zones
The survey for a shore approach can be divided into three regions:
Offshore Survey.
Shallow Water Survey
Land Survey
Broadly speaking, the information required from each is the same, but the
techniques of acquiring the information differ. Whilst the land and offshore
sections are relatively straightforward, the intermediate section is more
complex and will use a combination of techniques.
The three regions of survey must be tied into a datum both vertically and
horizontally, especially as they may be performed by different contractors
and/or at different times.
The timing of the land-intermediate zone survey should be considered in
relation to seasonal variations in topography and tide levels. These variations
should be identified during the preliminary investigations.
4.3
Equipment

Module 8B
Side Scan Sonar
Side scan sonar provides a wide coverage of the surface of the seabed, but
little penetration. Side scan sonar is a sector scan radial acoustic imaging
system normally deployed horizontally in a towed fish so that tracts either side
of the fish can be surveyed, the width of which depends on the setting of the
sonar and the height off the seabed. The results of a side scan survey will
provide information on bedforms, boulders, channels, and obstacles and allow
information to be deduced on fishing and shipping activities from trawl board
and anchor scars.
Surface sediment distribution and type can be inferred from the reflectivity of
the seabed especially if correlated against seabed samples.
Seabed mapping systems which rectify the radial distortion of the sonar are
available and after post-processing can be presented with superimposed
bathymetric contours to form an ideal decision making tool.
Echo Sounder
The echo sounder will provide relative levels of the seabed along the track of
the vessel. A high resolution echo sounder should be equipped with a heave
compensator and regularly subjected to bar checks.
When the individual digital spot depth information has been analysed,
isobaths are derived that can be used in conjunction with side scan
information to form seabed maps.
Sub-Bottom Profiler
A variety of equipment can be grouped under this heading. Each can be used
to obtain a high resolution, shallow seismic survey of the area. The main
equipment types are as follows:
a)
Pinger:
high frequency
low penetration
good resolution
b)
Boomer:
lower frequency
better penetration
lower resolution
c)
Sparker:
similar performance to the boomer but can be used with

a lower frequency leading to improved penetration.
The sub-bottom profiler will give information on seabed strata generally to a

depth of 10 - 20 metres, and will also pick up buried obstructions directly
under the track of the fish.

Module 8B
From the sub-bottom profiles, isopach maps showing the thickness of the
surface sediments can be compiled - a necessary tool for scour studies and
construction method and route selection.
Care should be taken in specification of sub-bottom profiling method in areas
of known variegated sedimentation or interbedding that sufficient resolution
and depth of record are achieved, to enable multiple and often intermittent
reflectors to be traced and related to boreholes. Areas of glacial till exhibiting
these characteristics fill occur along the British coast and interbedded
sands/gravels and calcarenite are common in Pacific/SE Asian region.
Acoustic methods of data collection in the shore approach may be highly
influenced by noise from waves and vessel motion. Calm weather is
desirable.
Seismic Refraction Survey
The seismic systems described above are reflection methods, which are
capable of identifying the interface between major geological boundaries. The
seismic reflection system is an extremely valuable tool for seabed surveys, but
it has a number of limitations, such as seabed multiples, scattering of signal
on coarse granular seabeds, absorption of the signal in organic sediments and
its inability to differentiate between bedrock and boulders in shallow water. A
penetration of up to 10 m in loose sediments is achievable but in solid rock the
penetration is limited to less than 2 m.
A relatively new system is seismic refraction. This system uses different data
acquisition procedures from the reflection system and analyses refracted
seismic energy waves. From the analysis of the recorded signals, it is
possible to determine depths to refracting interfaces (major geological
boundaries) as well as seismic velocities. It can be employed from dragged
array and is used to produce a three dimensional model of the soils in the
surface layers, down to around 10m. By using a sound source and an array of
sensors, features such as rock pinnacle, buried ridges, folding, faulting and
other geological anomalies can be defined. This program is particularly
important in planning for dredging works, where single line coverage can miss
important (and expensive) three dimensional features due to the grid spacing.
Major advantages of this system are that depth to shallow bedrock and rock
conditions can be determined. Penetrations to 10 m and more in solid rock
are achievable.
Execution of a seismic refraction survey in the shore approach area will
provide very useful data for dredging/post-trenching operations.
The
geotechnical coring program can be determined effectively upon completion of
this seismic refraction survey.

Module 8B
Swathe Survey
Swathe survey is carried out using a multi-sensor fish comprising side-scan
and high resolution echo-sounder so that a band of seabed is surveyed for
seabed features and bathymetry in a single pass. The technique is routinely
used in offshore survey to provide high resolution digital imagery of the
seabed.
An example is shown below, courtesy of
UK Environmental Agency.
Magnetometer
The magnetometer is used to record
magnetic anomalies such as live cables, buried pipelines, wrecks, UXO and
debris. The system requires very low vessel speeds and is generally used
only if cables or pipelines are known to be in the area or to investigate
contacts found during the survey. It is recommended that a magnetometer line
be run on the route centreline.
Soil Sampling
Samples can be collected by grab or by coring. Grab samples are rapidly
obtained and useful for identifying surface and classifying sediments, and as
calibration for side scan records, but recovery can be limited.
Core samples provide a cylinder of "undisturbed" soil. Two types of corer are
generally used, the drop corer and the vibro corer. The vibro core has a better
penetration but tends to produce more disturbed samples. Recovery of the
surface sediment is not guaranteed by any of these methods and single
samples should be corroborated by other results.
Rotary cores are available for use on hard materials or for deep holes, but are
not ideal for shallow water use due to difficulties of deployment and recovery.
Ideally, the location of the boreholes and soil samples should be decided after
interpretation of the seismic data so that representative sites can be selected.
Core spacing in the shore zone should be not greater than 100 m to ensure
that variability in soil layering and other features is well defined even if the
survey records are poor quality.
Tests to be performed vary according to the aim of the sampling.
Requirements for individual design activities are shown elsewhere in the
documents. Field shear testing, core logging, moisture content determination,
grading, density analysis and classification should always be performed.

Module 8B
Strength test of various types, liquid and plasticity limits, compaction and
consolidation testing can be carried out according to need.
Another useful method to examine soil conditions in the shore approach is by
taking Cone Penetration Tests (CPTs). A CPT measures the resistance of the
soil by pushing a cone down vertically into the ground using a rig (onshore).
Offshore, either a subsea rig can be used or the operations can be performed
from a small jack-up barge.
With a CPT, the local side friction between the soil and the tubing can also be
measures. The ration between this friction and the cone end resistance
(Friction Ratio) assists in identifying the soil type.
When applied offshore in areas of sediment, the CPT values can also assist in
identifying the depth of seabed instability due to scour.
4.4
Shallow Water Survey

This region classified as intermediate survey extends from the mean low water
mark, offshore to a water depth sufficient to allow for the use of offshore
survey techniques. It is the most difficult region to obtain accurate information
on bathymetry and soils, since the region is generally hostile with steep
crested waves and surf and strong currents.
It is vital if dredging or
directional drilling are planned to have comprehensive soils information for the
site to avoid contractual pit falls with dredging contractors and allow the work
to adequately planned and costed.
The inter-tidal zone bathymetry can be surveyed using land based techniques
at low tide. Depending on the steepness of the beach and wave climate,
overlap can be established between the land based and offshore surveys
using small vessels or if necessary divers.
In the nearshore zone, it is possible to use modified offshore survey
techniques by employing small inshore survey vessels. Dinghies and shallow
water craft are of limited use in this function since they do not have the
requisite stability of provide reliable survey records. These survey vessels
generally only operate during daylight hours. The equipment used is similar if
not identical to the offshore survey. The positioning system employed would
be the same as used for the offshore survey.
Since the seismic data gathering systems are towed close to the surface in
shallow water they tend to be more weather sensitive and the records of a
poorer quality due to the surface noise and multipath effects, than are those
for deeper water.
Cores can be obtained in this region although it may require the use of jackup
rig or spud stabilised barge to allow work in small wave heights.

Module 8B
The bathymetry through the surf zone can be obtained using divers and a
levelling staff. The position of the diver's staff can be obtained with a laser
range technique. The accuracy of this is low and a calm sea state is required.
Divers may also be employed to assess the sub-bottom soil conditions by
using jet probing techniques. A hydraulic lance which is pushed into the
sediment until refusal (or the limit of the probe), thereby identifying any stiff
underlying strata. The make up of the strata can only be inferred from
information obtained from core samples taken in the area, but jet probing is a
quick method of obtaining sediment depths in waters unsuitable for seismic
investigation.
It is always difficult to get a comprehensive picture of the seabed features
since large area techniques cannot be used. Where there are expected to be
features that will cause construction problems (such as boulders, bombies,
debris, fish traps) a diver grid survey can be carried out. Visual, video, still
cameras, grid mapping by divers can be carried out.
4.5
Offshore Survey
The offshore survey will extend shorewards until limited by water depth.
These days, survey vessel are normally equipped with a Differential Global
Positioning System (DGPS) which provides a positioning accuracy to within a
few metres. Dedicated microwave positioning trains are therefore not
necessary.
A landbased survey system would be required if small craft were used in the
shallow water of the shore crossing.
Again if trenching is planned offshore, it is vital to have comprehensive soils
information and vibracores every kilometre with appropriate soils analysis are
a good investment.
4.6
Land Survey
Standard land survey techniques are employed to obtain the topography of the
route from the mean low water mark across the beach/shore line to the shore
point.
The positioning control should be tied into a local datum. This is generally the
Ordinance Survey National Grid in the UK. In remote regions, a local datum
may be required and which can often be established using satellite positioning

Module 8B
to set up a base station bench mark. The satellite system can usually be used
to derive both a vertical and horizontal datum.
In the UK, all Ordinance Survey maps show the OSGB 1936 grid. This grid
was updated in 1977 at which time some errors in the 1936 grid were found.
An algorithm is available to convert universal transverse Mercator coordinates to OSGB 1977. However, to convert co-ordinates to the OSGB
1936, and hence plot them on an Ordinance Survey map, requires
supplementary information available from the Ordinance Survey.
During the topographical survey, the proposed route should be pegged out
and local survey monuments erected for future reference.
As well as obtaining the route topography, the location of obstacles should be
given. Typical obstacles include roads, drainage channels and power cables.
The vegetation along the route should also be identified and logged.
The information obtained from the topographical survey can then be used to
identify the requirements for the soil survey.
The objective of the soil survey is to obtain accurate soils data along the
proposed route to provide the geotechnical parameters necessary to design
the pipeline either by the proposed installation technique or to be used in
assessing a suitable installation method. It is particularly important to get
good quality, deep soil samples from the beach, to provide measurements of
ground water levels along the route and to interpret ground water tables in
relation to soil stratigraphy.
The techniques employed to obtain this information should include:
sample borings or tidal pits
in-situ core penetration tests
installation of standpipes or piezometers and subsequent measurement of

groundwater levels. These should be performed over a reasonable period
of time to assess any tidal variations.
The soil resistivity along the route should be assessed to provide information
on the geo-electrical stratification and changes in the lateral resistivity.
This can be achieved using a constant electrode separation technique.
4.7
Survey Output Data

The surveys should allow the following to be produced:

Module 8B
o bathymetric plan (necessary)
o sidescan mosaic/seabed features map (necessary)
o longitudinal profile (1:5,000) (necessary)
o beach profiles (1:2,500) (preferred)
o photographs of beach (necessary)
o aerial photographs (optional)
o sub-bottom profile (necessary)
o core analysis (necessary)
o grab samples analysis (necessary)
o isopach map (optional)
o water analysis: salinity and density (necessary)
o current velocity/direction/frequency relationships (necessary)
o wave height/period/return period for nearshore and just outside the
surf zone (necessary).
The scale and extent of coverage of survey documentation is frequently
covered by legislation or Governmental guidelines. In the UK, the Department
of Energy Guidelines specify information to be presented with a Works
Authorisation Application. In Australia, the requirements are generally set by
the operator.
4.8
Environmental Data Collection

In order to design the shore crossing, it is necessary to have a knowledge of
the environmental climate. This is particularly important in the shallow
nearshore zone and the surf zone.
The wave climate need not be measured at the shore approach site but must
be known for an offshore site, either from hindcasting studies or from analysis
of long term measurements. The wave climate can then be predicted at the
shore approach side from the bathymetry and using refraction and diffraction
techniques to transfer the waves inshore.

Module 8B
This last step is very important since refraction can modify the waves strongly
in wave depths less than d/l =0.25. Hence the worst wave direction at the
shore might not be the worst offshore. Also when propagating over long
shallow water approaches, much energy can be lost from frictional attenuation
of the wave, so this analysis should be performed using an integrated model.
Penetration of long period waves from oblique angles to the beach will also be
affected by refraction effects due to water depth variation. Often the most
oblique waves will generate the worst cross pipeline water flow and hence
must be used for stability design, but waves approaching the beach
orthogonally will be higher and hence must be used for liquefaction design.
See Section 6 for modelling techniques.
The current climate is more difficult to assess since it is produced from four
different sources:
wind
wave
tide
residual sources (such as longshore drift, circulation currents, and storm
driven currents)
Knowing the wind and wave climate, it is possible but generally inaccurate to
predict velocities/frequency relationships for the first two components but the
last two will need direct measurements. These will preferably be taken over a
long period of time or at least over the spring tide cycle ideally at one of the
equinoxes.
The extreme still water levels (tidal and surge) will be required. Tidal
predictions may be available for a nearby site, but because tidal flow will be
highly influenced by coastal features, direct measurements should preferably
be used to determine tidal constants. The reference datum used should be
LAT or ISLW and it should be tied into the survey datum.
Archaeological, Sociological, Flora and Fauna Survey
4.9
Many shore crossing studies will require an environmental impact assessment

to be carried out. Aspects to be addressed include:
potential disruption of activities for other beach/water users
disruption of archaeological and heritage sites

Module 8B
destruction and long term effects on flora
destruction and long term effects on fauna (especially on fish breeding

from sediment plumes from dredging)
long term effects on the beach.
Refer to applicable environmental legislation for the area.

4.10
Land Use/Land Ownership

Onshore pipeline routing needs to be performed with knowledge off onshore
land ownership and land use along the easement. Protracted negotiations
over onshore easement rights can be a major schedule risk and may drive the
selection of the landfall if all technical issues are comparible.

Module 8B
DESIGN ISSUES
5.0
A pipeline is normally buried in the shore approach to protect it from potential

mechanical damage, to maintain the aesthetic appeal of the site and minimise
disruption to the environment.
Often, burial is required by regulatory
authorities, under statute, as part of easement conditions or licence conditions
of the administering country. Mechanical damage to the pipeline can occur
from a wide variety of causes but usually starts with the exposure of the buried
pipeline, from:
Erosion of the cover associated with beach processes or longshore

sediment movement can be extensive. The pipeline must be buried deep
enough to ensure that it will survive seasonal and extreme sediment
movements
Scour or Instability of Backfill: where engineering backfill is used, the

material must be stable under design wave and current attack to avoid
degradation of the backfill
Liquefaction: cyclic loading of the soil from wave action can reduce the
strength of the soil to a stage where the pipeline will sink, possibly over
stressing the pipeline, or float to the surface.
Once exposed, the pipeline will be subjected to full wave and current attack,
mechanical damage, accelerated corrosion and in the extreme could fail from
fatigue.
The Australian Oil and Gas Pipeline Code AS2885 allows the decision on
burial to be made on based on an assessment of the risks to the pipeline. A
landfall on the mainland will normally buried for a combination or reasons, not
just risk. However, some landfalls in remote sites on islands and outfalls have
been built as exposed pipelines.
The design needs to address:
Wave and current loads on the pipeline during construction

Beach level change and shoreline recession during the life of the pipeline
Liquefaction potential of the backfill
Corrosion design and mitigation
Backfill stability over the life of the pipeline
These issues are covered in the following sections.

Module 8B
More general issues that need to be addressed when determining pipe size,
routing, weight coating, depths of cover, etc are throughput requirements, both
present and projected. Design pressure and flow rate will normally control
selection of pipe diameter, pipe wall thickness and steel grade. Wall thickness
and grade of steel may be modified subsequently due to physical or
mechanical restraints. These more general issues are presented in other
sections of the lecture notes and so are not repeated here.

Module 8B
6.0
DEFINITION OF THE SURF ZONE AND PREDICTION OF

WAVE INDUCED CURRENT VELOCITIES
6.1
Definition of the Surf Zone

The surf zone is defined for design purposes to extend from the limit of wave
uprush at the highest water level to the outermost point of regularly breaking
waves at the lowest storm water level. For a particular event, the region
shorewards of the breaker limit will consist of steep unbroken small waves and
broken large waves. At the shore all waves will break and rush up the shore.
The largest individual waves will break seawards of the breaker limit. Thus
defined, the design surf zone is a notion and represents the envelope of
significant wave action between extreme water depths.
To determine the breaker limit, the progression of deepwater waves into
shallow water must be analysed allowing for:
refraction
shoaling
energy dissipation
diffraction
reflection.
The ratio of water depth to wave height at which the wave becomes unstable
and breaks must be quantified.
The limit of wave run up the shore is easier to quantify because the beach
profile may be measured but the incident wave height must be reliably known.
Ideally, these aspects will be discussed and the analysis performed by the
environmental specialists who compile the offshore data. The general process
is:
a. establish a bathymetric profile along the route;
b. establish the unbroken and shoaled wave parameters at required
points up the beach, for maximum and minimum water depths and all
required approach directions;

Module 8B
c. select points along the profile working outwards from the beach and
determine the limiting wave height which will be stable at the water
depth;
d. find the outermost location (normally corresponding to beach aligned
wave crests at the minimum water depth where limiting wave height
and predicted wave height coincide), which represents the outer limit
of the surf zone;
e. determine the limit of wave uprush (normally corresponding to beach
aligned crests -maximum water level) which represents the shorewards
limit of the surf zone;
f. select the worst combination of wave height and period from steps (b)
and (c) for intermediate points for each design criterion.
Refraction
6.1.1
Bending of the wave crest due to changes in bathymetry is well documented in

Ref 1. It should be noted that the method contained in guidelines assumes
that:
the velocity of the wave crest depends only on the wave length and still
water depth under the crest at each point;
the elements of the wave crest advance in a direction perpendicular to the

crest line;
the wave energy is confined between orthogonals;
the wave is long crested;
the period is constant.
At the beach, some of these assumptions will not be true, as discussed below.
Wind shear opposing the breaker travel direction causes the waves to
steepen earlier and thus to move the breakpoint offshore. Opposing wind
shear can be neglected for most lifetime design events, since at the arrival of
the extreme waves at the shore, the wind direction will probably be following.
The direction of the water particle travel will be predominantly in the direction
of wave travel except for along-crest motion due to short crestedness of the
wave and currents. Long crestedness will increase toward the shore as

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shoaling influences become stronger, so the long crested assumption will be
adequate for shore approach design purposes in most situations.
The assumption that energy is confined between the wave orthogonals will not
be true as the waves pass into shallow water nor that the period is constant for
swell which has travelled significant distances from the storm origin. Energy
dissipation is discussed in Section 6.1.3.
6.1.2
Shoaling
Shoaling analysis, as described in Ref 1 is essentially a linear phenomenon.
At the point of break and immediately prior to it, shoaling is not linear. Shallow
water waves are most readily modelled using Solitary Wave Theory and are
not oscillatory but rather translational waves, therefore, highly non-linear
phenomena. Since the true solitary wave is displaced water entirely above the
still water level, it is effectively independent of the preceding and following
wave in the train.
6.1.3
Energy Dissipation
As waves travel from one site to another, energy is lost through friction,
deformation of and percolation through the seafloor. If no energy is
transferred to the wave through wind shear, then the losses can be
considerable for travel across long fetches in shallow water.
Both wave height and wave period are modified. Estimation of losses from
attenuation is complex and if warranted should be referred to environmental
specialists.
As a rule, where the refraction analysis must be carried out over an extensive
region of seabed less than 20 m, frictional attenuation should be addressed.
6.1.4
Diffraction
For a landfall on an open beach, diffraction need not be considered. For a
landfall near a breakwater, in a bay or adjacent to a barrier island, diffraction
will affect the direction, long crestedness and height of the incident waves in
shore approach. Diffraction can be predicted in accordance with Ref 1.
6.1.5
Reflection

Module 8B
The combination of a reflected wave from a beach with an incident one can be
sufficient to cause early breaking. Except for very steep beaches, this
influence can be ignored. For steep beaches, the method outlined in Ref 1,
Section 4.5 can be used, but if the accuracy of the initial wave height
predictions is low and the nearshore slope is shallow, this additional analysis
may not contribute greatly to the overall definition of the surf zone limits.
6.1.6
Breaker Height/Water Depth Ratio

This ratio is the means of estimating the breaking point of the wave and is
based on limiting steepness at which an individual wave becomes unstable.
As a first pass estimate of the breaking point for a given wave height assume
that:
Hb 0.79 d b
(6.1)
Where:
Hb
db
=
=
height breaking wave (m);

depth of water (m).
This limit is derived from the theoretical and empirical work and is a mid-range
value. In fact, Hb may range from 0.65db to 1.7db (Ref 1, Figure 4.18),
depending on wave period and beach slope.
6.1.7
Wave Run-Up Limit

Unless the shoreworks are bluff and overtopping is an issue, the exact limit of
wave uprush is of less concern than the breaking limit in the overall design of
the shore approach but must of course be considered for prediction of levels
of beach erosion, for siting of equipment, and for design of shore protection
works if necessary.
The limit of wave run up can be established by observation of the location and
local records. Alternatively, analytical models can be found in Ref 1 and 2 for
beaches, as well as permeable and impermeable coastal structures, such as
seawalls and revetments.
Equipment should be sited above the limit of wash uprush, and provision
made for collection and disposal of water from spay and overtopping in a
controlled fashion.
For long term works, adequate protection against
undermining must be provided. Consideration of the effect of storm surge and
storm wave run-up also should be made when planning the works through the
barrier dunes if these exist.

Module 8B
Water Level
6.2
Water level variations are important in defining:
worst extent of wave run-up
highest wave height expected at a site
sediment movement on the beach.
The highest water levels occur during storm tides. Storm tide levels consist of
tidal variation, storm surge and set up. Storm surge is caused by the wind
stress on the sea surface and by the raising of the water level immediately
under a low pressure centre. Set up is super-elevation of the water surface
due to onshore mass transport of water by the wave action. Storm surge can
be either super-elevation or depression of the water surface.
When a high water level is combined with attack from large waves,
overtopping of beach protection structures or barrier dunes can occur, causing
flooding of low lying areas inland of the beach. It is particularly important to
establish the levels of likely run-up when breaching such dunes for tie-in
works; and contingency measures should be taken where flooding may result
from a severe storm occurrence.
Wave height is dependent on water depth and hence the worst wave forces
near the beach will generally be experienced at the highest water level.
Further offshore, the converse will be true.
The point of wave break is also affected by the slope of the beach berm which
will be modified during a large storm. At the highest water level, the beach will
normally be steeper initially, than the average slope.
6.3
Liquefaction
6.3.1
Introduction
Cyclic loading, due to the passage of waves or to seismic activity, may cause
liquefaction of seabed sediments.
Most pipeline problems involving
liquefaction occur in shallow water such as in shore approaches but
liquefaction has also been predicted at touchdown points of spans, during pile
driving, during blasting and at the base of structures experiencing wave
loading. Loose cohesionless soils are most susceptible to this phenomenon,
but the large number of loading cycles associated with storms can lead to
liquefaction in a wide range of soil conditions. Static loading can induce

Module 8B
liquefaction in soils with a metastable grain structure, but this type of situation
is normally resolved by nature before a pipeline is installed. The stability of
pipelines is therefore usually only threatened by liquefaction due to cyclic
loading.
In a situation where a pipeline is buried in soil that undergoes liquefaction, the
liquefied soil behaves as a dense liquid. If the specific gravity of this liquid is
greater than that of the pipe, the pipe will rise to the surface of the soil. If it is
less, the pipe will sink until the soil gravity approaches that of the pipe.
Movement of the pipeline becomes a problem only when the line becomes
overstressed or unacceptably exposed to hydrodynamic or potential impact
damage.
Each situation must be considered on an individual basis to
establish the potential effects of liquefaction on both the short term and long
term safety of the pipeline system.
The purpose of this Section is to provide the engineer with a suitable means of
assessing the risk and associated hazards of liquefaction in a specific area.
Three methods of determining whether liquefaction is likely are set out. Each
requires a different level of accuracy in input data and provides a
corresponding degree of accuracy of results. Since they are based on
empirical results all are not relevant to the full spectrum of soils encountered.
6.3.2
Data Requirements
The specific data requirements depend on the method used for determining
liquefaction potential.
o Pore Pressure Drainage Path Length: For a pipeline, this value can
be realistically estimated as the distance below the seabed of the soil
layer being investigated.
o Volume of Soil/Area of Drainage Surface: for a pipeline placed on a
locally uniform seabed, this ratio can be approximated as the distance
below the seabed of the soil layer being investigated.
o Coefficient of Volume Compressibility:
Refer to soils specialist.
Relative density has been correlated with in-situ cone penetrometer test
results as follows.
DR 98 66 log
Where:
DR
soil relative density
qc
(6.2)

Module 8B
qc
cone penetrometer resistance in kN/m2
effective overburden pressure, also in
kN/m2.
The above relationship is valid only for normally consolidated, uniform, fine to
medium grained, completely dry or saturated sand, consisting mainly of a noncrushable material such as quartz.
Relative density can also be calculated from standard penetration test data,
nuclear density test results, electrical resistivity tests, or dilatometer test.
The dilatometer is a relatively new field testing device, wherein a blade is
driven into the soil to the desired testing depth by means of a drill rig or other
device. Gas pressure is then used to inflate and deflate a stainless steel
membrane. Several data readings are taken while the membrane is extended
horizontally into the soil.
Testing for soil relative density may also be performed in the laboratory.
The coefficient of permeability can be estimated from soil grain size data as:
K 77 D20
2 .32
(6.3)
Where:
k
D20
=
=
coefficient of permeability (cm/sec)

grain size such that 20% by weight of the soil
particles are finer (cm).
More accurate values for soil permeability may be obtained by means of

standard field and laboratory tests.
Wave Period: The design wave period, in seconds, must be specified.
Unit Weight of Soil the in-situ unit weight in N/m2.
Coefficient of Earth Pressure at Rest, Ko, typically ranging from 0.4

for dense sands to 0.5 for loose sands. This value can be estimated
analytically as:
K o 1 sin
Where:
soil angle of internal friction (degrees)
Wave Height in metres.
(6.4)

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Wave Length in metres.
For descriptions of the soil testing procedures mentioned in this Section, refer
to any standard, geotechnical engineering text or to the American Standard
Testing Manual (ASTM) for Soils.
6.3.3
Analytical Methods
Gravesen and Fredsoe Semi Empirical Method
This method as described herein is applicable for determining the liquefaction
potential of cohesionless seabed sediment in shallow water (ie. the surf zone).
The first step is to determine the effective number of wave cycles:
neff
Where:
neff
l
l'
Mv
w
T
k
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
3.04. l.l' Mv . w
T. k
(6.5)
effective number of wave cycles

average drainage path length
volume of soil/area of drainage
coefficient of volume compressibility
unit weight of seawater
design wave period
coefficient of soil permeability
Next, the ratio of pore water pressure at the depth of interest to the pressure
at the seabed must be calculated. For pipelines, this ratio can be considered
to be unity since the depth of interest is very close to the seabed and the
design wave length is relatively long for ocean waves.
The ratio of design wave height to significant wave height is determined from
Fig 6.1(a).
The actual stress ratio is calculated as follows:
H n neff Pd
i
.
.
o
Hs
Po
'n neff
Where:
actual cyclic stress ratio

neff
'
n
(6.6)

Module 8B
io reference cyclic stress ratio
H n neff
Hs
ratio of wave height to significant wave height
Pd =
ratio of porewater pressure at the depth of interest to the

pressure Po at the seabed.
The reference cyclic stress ratio is expressed as:

io
H . .
L. cosh 2 d / L
(6.7)
Where:
H
L
d
=
=
=
wave height
wave length
water depth
For shallow water with breaking waves, H = 0.5d, L/d = 7, yielding:

io
0.5 d
0.16
. d 1.43
(6.8)
so that:
n neff
016
.
H n neff
Hs
(6.9)
The actual cyclic stress ratio is converted to an equivalent cyclic stress ratio
by means of Fig 6.1(b). The final step in the analysis is to determine whether
the soil falls within the range of liquefiable soils shown on Fig 6.2.
6.3.4
Design for Mitigation of Liquefaction

In areas where preliminary analyses indicate that liquefaction of the soil may
occur, one of the following procedures is commonly recommended.
Gravesen and Fredsoe (1983) (Ref. 4) indicate that a pipe buried in sand will
be safe against liquefaction if the pipe specific gravity is between 1.9 and 2.0.
If the surrounding soil liquefies, its specific gravity should not exceed this
value, and the hazards of pipe 'flotation' will not occur.
A second means of preventing pipeline damage due to liquefaction is to lay
the pipe in free draining, coarse sand or gravel. Gravesen and Fredsoe

Module 8B
recommend that all shore approaches in areas regionally susceptible to
liquefaction be backfilled with one to two metres (three to six feet) of such
material.
Seed and Rahman (Ref. 3) illustrate the effectiveness of placing a free
draining cover layer on top of a liquefiable deposit in their parametric studies.
Fig 6.3 is extracted from Ref 3. Liquefaction occurs when the pore pressure
ratio becomes greater than 1.0.
Pipelines can be protected from damage caused by liquefaction induced
flotation by means of soil anchors which straddle the pipe and tie in to the soil
below to a penetration depth greater than the anticipated depth of liquefaction.
Simple remedies such as grout bags or mattresses placed over the pipeline
prior to backfilling may be adequate.

Module 8B
7.0
SCOUR AND BEACH PROCESSES
7.1
Introduction
Scour and erosion occur as a result of sediment transport. For sediment
transport to occur, the threshold velocity for mobilisation must first be
exceeded by the bottom current velocity (or wind velocity) acting in shear on
the bed, then, a sufficiently high velocity to transport the mobilised sediment
must be maintained. Sediment thrown into suspension by wave action will
settle out once the velocity of the current reduces below a predictable
minimum.
Both scour and erosion are the result of an imbalance in the sediment budget
at a site, and the two terms are loosely interchangeable. In the context of the
beach, erosion is used in this guideline to describe depletion of sediment in
the berm and cutting back of the shoreline. Scour is used to describe the
underwater removal of material by waves and currents, particularly localised
removal such as in scour holes.
The following sediment transport mechanisms are discussed below, broadly
described as scour and beach processes:
7.2
aeolian transport of beach sediment
onshore-offshore beach sediment transport
long shore transport of coastal sediments
scour underneath the pipelines
offshore bed movement.
Wind Induced Erosion

Sand movement on a beach must be quantified to establish the required level
of burial of the pipeline and the potential for scour around rock fill berms and
solid structures.
Windborne sediment transport on the beach is analogous to that offshore. A
threshold velocity must be exceeded to mobilise the sediment and maintained
at a sufficiently high level to transport the sediment. Also, as for offshore
transport, moving bedforms such as dunes will occur.

Module 8B
Once the wind speed distribution is known, the frequency of sediment
movement can be established. The following factors are considered:
erosion around rock berms and solid structures
moving bedforms and dunes
sediment budget
problems of hard stand
stabilisation.
Onshore - Offshore Sediment Transport
7.3
The following topics are to be addressed:
summer - winter cycle
differentiation between longshore and onshore-offshore transport
steepness of beach and dependency on sediment characteristics
prediction of volumes
factors which can be estimated and accuracy of prediction
measurement vs prediction vs modelling
effect of offshore bar on the beach and wave climate
surf cells and rip currents
depth of burial and backfill type.
Longshore Transport
7.4
The following topics are to be addressed:
causes of longshore transport
effects of embayments

Module 8B
interception by groynes and breakwaters
interception by backfill mounds
prediction of longshore transport rate
sensitivity to beach slope and sediment type
sand pumping.

Module 8B
8.0
MECHANICAL PROTECTION AND BACKFILL DESIGN
8.1
Introduction
It is usual, and in most locations required by statute, that a pipeline be buried
in the shore approach and shore crossing. Burial affords mechanical
protection to the pipeline, reduces the disruption to the sediment movement
patterns and improves the useability of the site as an amenity.
The pipeline should be trenched as deeply as is practical in view of the soil
conditions and backfilled using material which will either conform to the
changing beach profile or be resistant to scour under the worst expected
storm attack. This section discusses the requirements for trench depth and
selection and design of backfill material.
8.2
Protection Methods
The type and extent of protection depends on the adversity of the environment
and ease of construction amongst other factors. For instance, for an isolated
calm estuarine environment in clay material it may be acceptable to simply
trench the pipeline and provide dumped sand backfill over the pipeline in the
crossing itself. On the other hand, for the crossing of rocky shore, subject to
breaking wave attack, it may not be possible or may be prohibitively costly to
trench deeply; and a structure similar to a rock breakwater or provision to
secure the pipeline by clamps drilled into the rock may be acceptable as a
method to protect the pipeline.
These measures are site specific, it may be that protrusive rock beams are
visibly unacceptable, detrimental to longshore sediment drift, or dangerous to
marine activities. Protection method is integrally linked to construction method
that is discussed in detail in Section Eleven. A summary of protection methods
is shown in Fig 8.1. Primary protection will usually be by trenching.
8.3
Trench Depth
The trench must always provide an adequate depth of cover to act as a buffer
for mechanical loads in the beach zone and in depths where vessels may
ground on the pipeline. The depth must include allowance for lowering of the
beach level either due to long term trends or short term storm damage. The
vertical profile of the pipeline is influenced by the required onshore, offshore
elevations and extent which the pipeline will conform to the surface
topography within code permitted curvatures. To achieve an acceptable
profile, the trench may need to be deeper than required for offset scour.

Module 8B
Generally, a minimum cover of 600 mm below the maximum depth of scour will
be required for safety purposes, at the highest point in the pipeline.
8.4
Backfill
8.4.1
Considerations
The following are considered during backfill design:
8.4.2
different design criteria such as environmental conditions, pipeline self

weight etc.;
materials available, ie. engineered versus rubble mound.
Offshore Rock Backfill

In the following text, the terms D15, D50, D85, etc. mean the 'sieve' diameter of
the material of which 15%, 50%, 85%, etc of the material (by weight) is finer.
The following formulae are considered to yield sufficiently conservative results
to cater for all conditions to be experienced by the backfill.
D50 can be calculated from the following formula:
a)
Isbash Formula
Y - Yw
U = C 2g s
Yw
1
2
D2
(8.1)
Where:
U
C
g
Ys
Yw
=
=
=
=
flow velocity at which a particle of diameter D starts to

move (m/s)
a coefficient of 1.2 is recommended by Ref 1.
acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
specific mass of stone (kg/m3)
specific mass of seawater (kg/m3)
Substituting the weight W, for the diameter D, with:

Module 8B
6W
D =
. Ys
1
3
(8.2)
and using Ys = 2660 kg/m3, we obtain:

D50 = 0.0222 U2
(8.3)
Where D50 = average diameter of rock (m).
Nearshore Rock Backfill
8.4.3
In the case of nearshore rock backfill, the following should be considered:
8.4.4
velocity acceleration through 'damming'
submerged breakwater approach.
Shore Crossing and Surf Zone

Engineered backfill is composed of one or more layers of random-shaped and
random-placed stones, protected with a cover layer of selected armour units of
either quarry stones or specially shaped concrete units. These armour units
may be placed in an orderly manner to obtain good wedging or interlocking
action between individual units, or they may be placed at random.
A series of basic decisions must be made in designing rubble structure. These
decisions are discussed in succeeding sections.
Hydraulics of Cover Layer Design
Design of rubble structures are generally expressed in terms of the stone
weight required to withstand the design wave condition.
A formula has been developed by Hudson (from Ref 1) to determine the
stability of armour units on rubble structures, viz:
W=
wr . H 3
K D ( S r - 1) 3 cot
(8.4)

Module 8B
Where:
W
wr
H
Sr
=
=
=
=
ww =
=
KD =
weight of an individual armour unit in the primary cover layer (kg)

unit weight (saturated surface dry) of armour unit, (kg/m 3)
design wave height at the structure site (m) (see previous section)
specific gravity of armour unit, relative to the water at the structure
(Sr = W r/W w)
unit weight of water (kg/m3)
angle of structure slope measured from horizontally (deg)
stability coefficient that varies primarily with the slope of the armour
units, roughness of the armour unit surface, sharpness of edges
and degree of interlocking obtained in placement.
Equation 8.4 is intended for conditions when the cost of the structure is high
enough to prevent major overtopping.
Importance of Unit Weight of Armour Units
The basic equation used for design of armour units for rubble structures
indicates that the unit weight W r of quarrystone or concrete is important.
Designers should carefully evaluate the advantages of increasing unit weight
of concrete armour units to affect savings in the structure cost.
Concrete Armour Units
Many different concrete shapes have been developed as armour units for
rubble structures. The major advantage of concrete armour units is that they
usually have a higher stability coefficient value, thus permitting the use of
steeper structure side slopes or a lighter weight of armour unit. This has
particular value when quarry stone of the required size is not available.
The major concrete armour units are tetrapods, tribars, quadripods, and
dolosse - as shown in Fig 8.1.
Design of Structure Cross-Section
A rubble structure is normally comprised of a bedding layer and a core of
quarry-run stone covered by one or more layers of larger stone and an exterior
layer(s) of large quarrystone or concrete armour units. Typical rubble mound
cross sections for non-breaking and breaking waves are shown in Fig 8.2 and
8.3. The right hand column of the table in these figures gives the rock size
gradation of each layer as a percent of the average layer rock size given in
the left hand column. To prevent smaller rocks in an underlayer from being
pulled through an overlayer by wave action, the criteria for filter design may be
used to check the rock-size gradation given in Figs 8.2 and 8.3. This is given
by Sowers and Sowers as:

Module 8B
D15 (cover) < 5 D85 (under)
D85 (under) is the diameter exceeded by the coarsest 15% of the underlayer
and D15 (cover) is the diameter exceeded by the coarsest 85% of the layer
immediately above the underlayer. A logic diagram for the preliminary design
of a rubble structure is shown in Fig 8.4. The design can be considered in
three phases:
1)
2)
3)
structure geometry;
evaluation of construction technique; and
evaluation of design materials.
As part of the design analysis indicated in Fig 8.4, the following structure
geometry should be investigated:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
crest evaluation and width;

concrete cap for rubble-mound structures;
thickness of armour layer and underlayers, and number of
armour units;
bottom elevation of primary cover layer;
structure head and lee side cover layer;
secondary cover layer;
underlayers; and
bedding layer and filter blanket layer.
A more detailed description of the above points is given in Ref 1.

Other Areas of Consideration
The following areas also need to be borne in mind when designing engineered
backfill:
Pipeline integrity when rocks fall on pipeline during dumping operation.
The first filter layer that is dumped has the advantages of ease of installation,
and the certainty that this material will fill the gap between pipeline and
seabed. This ensures safe weight distribution when the subsequent layers are
installed.
As a Rule of Thumb, the impact load of a rock on a pipeline underwater
corresponds to the impact load that this rock exerts in air, for a free fall height
roughly equal to its diameter. For fall pipe vessels, the dynamics of the rock
fall in the centre of the drop can result in increased velocities over a free fall.
If steel slag is used for backfill, and it contains a significant amount of
electrical conductive pieces, then it can have the following effects:

Module 8B
1)
when not in direct contract with the pipeline steel, it may pick up
strong currents which will lead to corrosion of the slag pieces;
2)
when interconnected, some shielding of the base pipeline steel

from the protective current may take place;
3)
when in direct contact with bare pipe steel, the cathode surface
is increased which may lead to increased current demand.
A material wastage and contingency to account for dumping inaccuracies

should be allowed for. Say 10%; however, it may well be as high as 25%, but
will always need investigating.
The backfill has to be sufficient to allow protection of the pipeline against
fishing activities, vessel grounding and interference on the beach by humans.

Module 8B
9.0
CORROSION PREVENTION
9.1
Introduction
Corrosion prevention for subsea and buried land pipelines is achieved by the
use of a high quality anti-corrosion coating in conjunction with a cathodic
protection system. The extent of the cathodic protection system required will
depend largely on the standard of coating achieved.
This section provides an overview of the criteria important in the protection of
shore approach pipelines from external corrosion. The corrosion prevention
design guidelines provide a comprehensive discussion of all factors involved.
Coatings
9.2
A pipeline crossing the shore approach zone passes through three separate
(distinct) environmental regions:
the surf zone - permanently submerged
the beach - alternately submerged and dry
the back beach - landline conditions.
The region of intermittent wetting and drying tends to be the most problematic,
more so in the surf zone because the water is rich in oxygen. Therefore, the
coating chosen must be suitable for service.
Cathodic Protection
9.3
Cathodic protection of subsea pipeline or buried landlines is required to

protect the lines in the event of anti-corrosion coating damage or deterioration.
There are two basic methods of cathodic protection:
by impressed current
by using sacrificial anodes.
Cathodic protection by impressed current or by anodes is suited to buried

landlines whereas sacrificial anodes are more beneficial on subsea lines.

Module 8B
Therefore, the design of the protection system must account for the transition
of two systems.
Above ground sections of buried landlines should be electrically insulated
from the buried sections, and the potential across the joint should be
controlled to ensure adequate protection is provided to the offshore section.
Insulating joints, used to isolate any sections of pipelines, should not be
located where dangerous atmospheres may occur (ie. enclosed spaces such
as valve pits) as the joints are possible spark hazards.
9.4
Monitoring and Maintenance

The design of the monitoring system is important. Consideration should be
given to the location and accessibility of monitoring facilities with particular
attention to:
a)
areas least likely to receive full protection in terms of either potential or

current density;
b)
items requiring high operational integrity;
c)
highly stressed regions;
d)
areas on high strength steel structures most likely to suffer from

hydrogen damage if over-protected;
e)
sufficient representative locations to indicate general trends of levels

of cathodic protection throughout the structures.

Module 8B
10.0
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
Once the size, weight, length, routing and burial depth have been determined,
the designer and constructor can select the most suitable construction method
for the installation of the shore approach.
Timing and contractual constraints may dictate the stage of a project in which
the shore approach is installed, ie. ahead of the main offshore lay or as a part
of the main offshore lay (usually lay initiation). These considerations can also
have a bearing on the chosen method and have a commercial impact on the
project. Installing the shore approach and leaving the pipeline capped off may
be more expensive than using a laybarge.
10.1
Installation without the Use of a Laybarge
10.1.1 Offshore Pull Using a Barge Mounted Winch

The following activities are must be performed:
site preparation including forming a launch way and office set up
installation of pipe plinths and pipe conveyors
preparation of pipe trench
welding up of pipe strings including NDT and joint completion. Note

that the string length is determined by size of available site
hydrotest of pipe strings
set up a pulling barge including the laying of an adequate anchoring

spread
laying from barge to shore of pulling wires
pull out of pipeline
backfill and reinstatement.
It may be necessary to add buoyancy to the pipeline during pull out to reduce
the negative buoyancy of the line and hence the pull loads.

Module 8B
One advantages of this installation method is that the shore approach can be
carried out ahead of the main laybarge spread mobilisation.
One disadvantages is that land is required for string construction and hence
the disruption to the environment may be considerable.
Fabrication of Pipeline at a Nearby Location and Tow into

Position
10.2
By this method of installation, known as the float and lower method, the
pipeline may be installed in one length or in sections which are subsequently
tied-in underwater. The pipeline is constructed in strings as in 4.1.1 above,
but at a location removed from the landfall position. The strings are
progressively pulled into the water and either buoyancy tanks, or double
pontoons are attached to the pipeline. Each string is welded to the string
previously pulled out. When the entire length of pipeline to be installed is
floating, the pipeline is towed by a leading tug, with a trailing tug attached for
control, to the landfall location. A small winch onshore pulls the pipeline
ashore, preferably into a pre-dredged trench, and the offshore portion of the
line is aligned and then progressively lowered into its position on the seabed
or into a trench. To assist in alignment of the pipeline, it is common to pre-lay
anchors for the pontoons to set themselves on station.
The following activities are required:
preparation of stringing site
welding up of pipe strings
hydrotest of pipe strings
pre-dredging of trench at landfall location
preparation of flotation units (buoys or pontoons)
tow out of line
alignment on location, pull ashore, and lower into position.
The advantage of this method of installation is apparent when the area of land
at the landfall site is limited in size and not large enough to accommodate a
stringing site.
In addition, the shore approach can be carried out ahead of the mobilisation
of the main lay spread.

Module 8B
Disadvantages include the following:
10.3
more risk due to weather conditions
additional diving work, hence more cost.
Directional Drilling with the Drill Rig Onshore and the Pipe
String Towed Offshore for Subsequent Pullback by the Rig
By this method of shore approach installation, using land based purpose-built
drill rig, a pilot hole is drilled. This consists of a 2 7/8-inch diameter drill string
and a downhole mud motor powered by high pressure bentonite pumped from
the rig site. Steering of a pilot string is achieved by a bend (0.5 - 1.5) in the
casing behind the mud motor which can be rotated alter the direction of the
string.
Information on the heading and angle of drill string is relayed via a hard wire
to the control panel, thus enabling the operator constantly to update the
position of the drill bid. A 5-inch OD wash over pipe follows closely behind the
pilot string and is washed over the pilot string. This wash over pipe provides
rigidity to the pilot string, and once the pilot string punches out and is
withdrawn, is used to pull back a reamer and thereafter the pipeline.
The work required to carry out installation by this method is as follows:
mobilise rig plus ancillary equipment to site and set up
drill pilot string and install washover string
fabricate pipe string and tow out to punch out location
remove pilot string, attach reamer and swivel to pull back pipe and pull
back pipeline
demobilise drilling spread.
The advantages of this method of installation are as follows;
less disruption to the environment
increased cover and hence safety to the pipeline.
The disadvantages are as follows:

Module 8B
this method is only suitable if satisfactory ground conditions exist
there are limits on what pipe diameter and what lengths can be drilled.
10.3.1 Directional Drilling with Rig on Offshore Jack-Up Platform and
Pipe String Fabricated Onshore
This is an alternative to 10.3 above but the installation method is essentially

the same.
This method would be employed where, because of ground conditions, it is not
feasible to tow a pipe string out to the drill exit point.
The main disadvantage is the relatively high cost of mobilising the drill rig onto
a jack-up platform and the high cost of the jack-up. This method is also
susceptible to bad weather conditions as it may not be possible for vessels to
service the jack-up platform at some times.
10.3.2 Construction of Shore Approach by Installation in a Tunnel
This method of installation has been successfully employed on a number of
locations, notably on some large North Sea pipelines which landfall into
Norway.
The tunnel is constructed by conventional civil engineering techniques, and
the pipeline installed in the tunnel.
The advantages of this method are as follows:
less disturbance to the environment
the pipeline can be installed in virtually any ground conditions, and

hard rock is an advantage rather than a disadvantage.
The major disadvantage can be the relatively high cost of constructing a

tunnel.
10.4
Installation by Laybarge

Module 8B
10.4.1 Pull Ashore using Shore Based Winches
This method is probably the most commonly used method of installing shore
approaches and is particularly useful for long, heavy pipelines. Pulling
spreads of up to 1200 tonnes have been successfully deployed. The most
common type of winches used are constant tension linear winches and may be
used either singly or in pairs. A number of years ago, it was more normal for
the sheaves which are required to increase the mechanical advantage of the
winches, to be incorporated into the pulling head. Due to problems with the
number of wires required to be laid, and the close proximity of moving wire
ropes, the method was amended such that the sheaves are onshore and
hence accessible. Between the travelling sheave unit, and the pipe pull head,
normally two wires of large diameter are laid (up to 108 mm diameter) . In
order to allow these large diameters to equalise, a sheave is installed into the
pullhead.
The following work activities are required to be carried out:
installation of winch anchorages (these may vary from drilled rock anchors,
marine anchors, sheet piled walls to purpose designed ground anchors)
and sheave anchor sizes
installation of winch set up including travelling sheave unit
preparation of sheave track
optional installation of cofferdam or excavated onshore trench
optional pre-dredging of nearshore trench (or post lay trenching)
wire laying
pull ashore
demobilisation of equipment and reinstatement.

Module 8B
Advantages are as follows:
high pull loads are achievable
a relatively small amount of onshore preparation is required
short time taken for pull ashore.
Disadvantages are:
danger of wire ropes being buried and the possibility of not being able to
move the wires and hence pipeline between pulls.
10.4.2 Pull Ashore using Barge Mounted Winch and Onshore Sheaves
This method of shore approach installation is generally used where access to
the landfall site at the time of carrying out the shore approach is limited and
where the pull loads are relatively low. Normally, a single winch is used and
this may be in some cases one of the laybarge anchor winches. Winches of
up to 250 tonne capacity and 75 mm diameter are not uncommon for anchor
winches on 3rd generation lay barges. It is common to anchor the onshore
return sheave using ground anchors. Care must be taken in the selection of
the sheave so that the wire rope is not over stressed by excessive bending
around a sheave of too small a diameter.
Advantages of this method are as follows:
limited onshore preparation required
all operations controlled from the laybarge.
The main disadvantage is that only limited pull loads are normally possible,
although these may be as high as 400 T if this size winch is installed on board
the laybarge.
10.4.3 Directional Drilling with Rig Onshore
See Sketch 9.2
This method of installation is very similar to that described in Item 4.1.3,
except that the pipe string is pulled directly from the laybarge. This method
has been used using conventional lay barges and reel barges. The
advantage of a reel barge for this application is that no stops are necessary

Module 8B
between welding of pie joints on the total length of the shore approach can be
accommodated on the reel.
The main advantage of this method of installation is the lack of environmental
and 3rd party disturbances.
The disadvantages are that not all soil conditions are suitable for successful
directional drilling, and the diameter and length of pipeline, it is possible to
install by this method of limited.
Dredging/Trenching
10.5
There are a number of methods of achieving pipe burial in the nearshore area
- namely pre-dredging or post trenching.
Whichever method is employed, thought needs to be given as to how the
interface between the onshore burial and the nearshore burial is to be
achieved. The following types of dredger are commonly employed for
nearshore pre-dredging:
cutter suction dredger
grab dredger
bucket dredger
backhoe dredger.
A useful directory of dredgers can be found at http://www.dredgers.nl/.

These types of dredger are capable of operating in shallow water and in intertidal areas. It is important to select the equipment to be used carefully for
capacity to deal with the hardest of the soils/rocks, sensitivity to wave height
and mechanical reliability.
There have been several outfalls successfully trenched near Perth using diver
operated subsea excavator.
The distance from shore that a dredger can approach is limited by its draught.
In water depths shallower than its draught (plus margin), it must dredge a
floatage channel to allow it to progress towards the shore. For large modern
cutter suction dredges, it can be very wide (in the order of 60 m or upwards).
This floatage channel represents a major portion of the shore approach
material to be dredged and can present significant environmental issues.

Module 8B
If the trench is to extend further offshore, a suction dredger and/or a trailer
suction dredger may also be used.
The location of interface between the onshore and the offshore trenches is a
matter of cost, risk and practicality. The shore based trench can be made by
a wide range of methods such as:
sheet piled cofferdam
rock causeway
sand berm
open cut.
The method chosen depends on ground conditions, predicted environmental

conditions, required depth of cover, etc. All the shore based works need to be
protected against the occurrence of storms and so selection of the cofferdam
type and design needs to recognise this environmental risk. There have
been some notable losses of shore works through inadequate design of coffer
dams.

Module 8B
REFERENCES
11.0
1.
US Corps of Engineers, Shore Protection Manual
2.
Netherlands Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water

Management, Centre for Civil Engineering Research and Codes,
Manual on the Use of Rock in Hydraulic Engineering, 1995
3.
Seed, H Bolton and Rahman, M S (1977). "Analysis for Wave-Induced

Liquefaction in Relation to Ocean Floor Stability", Report No. UCB/TE77/02, Department of Civil Engineering, University of California,
Berkeley.
4.
Gravesen, H and Fredsoe, J, "Modelling of Liquefaction, Scour and

Natural Backfilling in Relation to Marine Pipelines", Offshore Oil and
Gas Pipeline Technology, European Seminar, February 1983,
Copenhagen.

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OIL & GAS TRANSMISSION 605

SHORE APPROACH DESIGN

Shore Approach Design and Construction

Purpose of these Notes

These notes supplement the presentation materials to provide a summary of

Shore Approach Design and Construction

Beach Profile-Related Terms

Logic Diagram for Evaluation of Marine Environment

Design Features for Predicting Liquefaction

Design Figures for Predicting Liquefaction (Gravesen and Fredsoe,

Relationship between Initial Liquefaction and Cyclic Stress Ratio

Influence of Cover Depth in Pore Pressure Response

Concrete Armour Units

Rubble-Mound Section for Non-Breaking Condition (Zero to Moderate

Rubble-Mount Section for Breaking Condition (Moderate Overtopping)

Logic Diagram for Preliminary Design of Rubble Structure

Logic Diagram for Evaluation of Preliminary Design

Protection and Stabilisation Methods Chart

Shore Approach Design and Construction

that section of pipeline near the shore

Shore Point (SP):

an arbitrary location which represents the

the extent of breaking waves used for

depth of water below the Still Water Level;

Still Water Level (SWL):

water level when wave height = 0;

underwater removal of material by waves

depletion of sediment from the berm and

an indefinite zone extending seaward from

the zone of unconsolidated material that

Shore Approach Design and Construction

a nearly horizontal part of the beach formed

the zone of the beach comprising the berm

Maximum Wave Height (Hm):

the maximum height of all the waves

Significant Wave Height (Hs):

the average height of the one-third highest

the loss of shear strength in saturated

the measurement of depths of water in

an occurrence due to the flow of air;

parallel to and near the shore;

the process by which the direction of a wave

becoming shallow gradually;

wave speed, C = L/T. Where L = wave

the phenomenon by which energy is

ribbons of sand with little or no profile

Shore Approach Design and Construction

large sand ripples as streamers but have a

a large dune like sediment feature

Mean Grain Size (D50):

mean grain size, D50, is the diameter of the

Shore Approach Design and Construction

Shore Approach Design and Construction

wave and current climate

topography and bathymetry

environment sensitivity of the area

local coastal policy.

Shore Approach Design and Construction

MOST PREFERRED FEATURES

LEAST PREFERRED FEATURES

Level of gradually sloping grade,

Continual, drastic up and down grade

Easily removed light sediments

Heavy sediments, not easily removed