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April29,2016

MEMORANDUM

To:
EnvironmentalManagementCommission

From:
DepartmentofEnvironmentalQuality

Subject: StudyofInSituStrategiestoMitigateWaterQualityImpairmentspursuanttoSL
2015246

SessionLaw2015241Section14.5.(d)directedtheDepartmentandtheCommissionto
conductasurveyofinsitustrategiesfortheirpotentialtomitigatewaterqualityimpairments
towaterbodiesofthestate.

AttachedisthefinalreportfromtheDepartmentofEnvironmentalQualitythatwillbe
submittedtoEnvironmentalManagementCommissionforreviewandapproval.Thereportwill
beupdatedwiththecommissionsrecommendationsandsubmittedtotheEnvironmental
ReviewCommissionoftheNorthCarolinaGeneralAssembly.

SurveyofInSituStrategiesforMitigationofWater
QualityImpairmentsinNorthCarolina

PresentedforapprovaloftheEnvironmentalManagementCommission

May11,2016

Contents

ExecutiveSummary..................................................................................................................................3
Introduction..............................................................................................................................................4
SolarPoweredEpilimneticMixing............................................................................................................5
HypolimneticWithdrawal.........................................................................................................................7
Dilution.....................................................................................................................................................8
PhosphorusInactivation(AlumInjection)................................................................................................9
Dredging.................................................................................................................................................10
FoodWebManipulation.........................................................................................................................11
FloatingWetlandIslands(FWI)...............................................................................................................13
AlgalTurfScrubber...............................................................................................................................14
AlgaeWheel..........................................................................................................................................16
AquaFiberAquaLutions......................................................................................................................17
Conclusions.............................................................................................................................................18
References..............................................................................................................................................19
AppendixI:S.L.201524114.5(d).........................................................................................................21

ExecutiveSummary
Thisdocumentprovidesasurveyandpreliminaryevaluationofinsitustrategiesfortheirabilityto
mitigatenutrientdrivenwaterqualityimpairmentsinwaterbodiesofthestate.Thisreportisprovided
bytheDepartmentofEnvironmentalQualityforapprovalbytheEnvironmentalManagement
CommissionandsubmittaltotheEnvironmentalReviewCommissionasdirectedbyS.L.2015241
Section14.5(d).Strategiesreviewedinvolveactivitiesconductedeitherdirectlyinimpairedwaterbodies
oradjacenttothem,interceptingandtreatingtheirinflows.Theintentofthesestrategiesiseitherto
removenutrientsfromawaterbodyortoreduceawaterbodyssensitivitytoexistingnutrientinputs.
Excessivenutrientsinwaterbodiescancauseundesirableconditionsincludingalgalblooms,reduced
oxygen,andfishkills.Staffidentifiedthesetofmeasuresreviewedhereasthosewithsomerecordof
effectivenessunderindependentreviewtowardaddressingproblemsassociatedwithwaterbody
nutrientoverenrichment.
Ingeneral,thepotentialutilityofthesemeasurestotreatthetypesoflargewaterbodiesthathavebeen
thesubjectofnutrientstrategiestodateinNorthCarolinaappearseitherpresentlyuncertain(including
oneunderevaluation)orunlikely,dependingonthemeasure.Probablythemostsignificantfindingis
that,withtheexceptionofthestudyunderwayontheepilimneticmixerSolarBeeinJordanLake,none
ofthesemeasureshasbeentestedatthescaleorundertheconditionsprevailinginournutrient
impairedwaters.Ofthesetofpracticesreviewed,perhapsthemostpromisingbasedontrialsatsmaller
scalesisaproprietarypumpandtreatprocess,AlgalTurfScrubber,whichcouldbelocatedlakeside.
However,scaleislikelytobeakeylimitingfactorinapplicabilityofthisandcertainotherstrategiessuch
asdredging,dilution,foodwebmanipulationandotherlakesidepumpandtreatoptions.Asecond
findingisthatmostoftheinlakestrategiespresentedherehavebeentested,andincertainapplications
foundsuccessful,onlyinsmaller,deeper,usuallynaturalnorthernlakes.Theveryshallow,poorly
stratifying,highflow,highsedimentloadcharacterofourPiedmontreservoirswouldpresentinherent
challengestostrategiessuchasphosphorusinactivation,hypolimneticwithdrawal,andfloatingwetland
islands.Finally,certainmeasuressuchasepilimneticmixers,floatingwetlandsandlakesideoptionshave
beentestedonorinsouthernwaterswithmixedresults,andtheirutilityatthescaleandconditions
describedhereremainsuncertain.Epilimneticmixersarecurrentlyunderevaluationwithanongoing
trialinJordanReservoirthatmayconcludeinlate2018.
Someinsituandlakesidetechnologiesshowreasonablygoodpotentialutilityforsmaller,sitespecific
applicationstoameliorateeutrophicationresponsesorreduceupstreamnutrientinputs.Where
sufficientindependentevidenceexists,technologiessuchasAlgalTurfScrubbersandfloatingwetland
islandsarelikelytomeritnutrientreductioncreditscontributingtowardnutrientstrategyloadreduction
goals.TheDivisionwillcontinuetoinvestigatepromisingapplicationsofthesetechnologiesaspartofits
broadernutrientmanagementapproach.
Itshouldberecognizedthatcertaintechniqueslikefoodwebmanipulation,dredging,oraluminjection
mayresultinunintendedorunforeseenenvironmentalconsequenceseitherinsituordownstream.
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Dilutionwouldrequirelargequantitiesoffreshwaterthatarenotpracticallyavailableorwouldcreate
useconflicts.Lastly,technologiesthatdonotresultinactualnutrientreductionsnecessarilytransfer
nutrientloadstodownstreamwaters.
Wheresitespecificapplicationsofthesetechnologiesarecontemplated,waterbodyspecificevaluations
arerecommendedbeforedeployment.Notablefactorsgoverninghowwaterbodiesrespondtonutrients
includetheirsize,depth,physiographiclocation,configuration,drainageareatowaterbodysizeratio,
andwhetherornotthewaterbodyisnaturalorconstructed.Assessingtotalsystemassimilative
capacityfornutrientsandscaledcapabilitiesofinsitumeasuresiscriticaltoestimatingthepotential
benefitsoftheseapproachesformitigatingwaterqualityimpairments.

Introduction
TheDivisionofWaterResourceshaspreparedthisstudyinconsultationwiththeDepartmentof
EnvironmentalQualityfortheEnvironmentalReviewCommissionoftheN.C.GeneralAssemblyin
accordancewithS.L.2015241.Thefulltextofsection14.5(d),whichdetailsthescopeofthestudy,can
befoundinAppendixI.Generally,thisstudyisintendedtoprovideanoverviewoftheefficacyofinsitu
andlakesidetreatmenttechnologiesandtheirpotentialroleinNorthCarolinasnutrientmanagement
efforts.
Thedefinitiveguidancedocumentonthistopicisa2005publicationentitledRestorationand
ManagementofLakesandReservoirsbyagroupofemeritusprofessorsrecognizedasleadersinlake
managementresearch(Cookeetal.).Staffcontactedtheleadauthor,Dr.DennisCooke,Professor
EmeritusatKentStateUniversity,whosharedthattherearenonewtechniquesreviewedinscientific
literaturesincethebookspublication.Asaresult,morerecentsupplementalinformationwasgleaned
fromothersourcesincludingtheEPACleanLakesProgram;NorthAmericanLakeManagementSociety,
N.C.LakeManagementSociety,onlinesearches,andpersonalcommunications.
Thetechniquesincludedarethoserecognizedbyexperts,basedonindependentreview,forinlake
controlofplanktonicalgae,whichisthemostcommonproblemwithlakesandestuariesinNorth
Carolina.Inaddition,emerginglandbased,pumpandtreattypenutrientremovaltechnologieswith
potentiallakesideapplicabilityareincluded.Thisreportdoesnotincludeevaluationofthesestrategies
forapplicabilitytoestuarinewaters.Estuariesinvolvedifferentdynamicsinanumberofrespects,and
thesetofpotentiallyapplicablemeasureswouldlikelydifferingoodpartfromthosepresentedhere.
ReservoirsinNorthCarolina,includingFallsoftheNeuse,HighRockandJordanLakes,are
impoundmentsofstreamsandrivers.Thewatershedareasdrainingtotheseimpoundmentsare
typicallysignificantlygreaterperunitareaoflakethanisthisratiofornatural,glaciallyformedlakes
thathavebeenthefocusofmostofthestrategiesidentifiedhere.Forthethreenamedreservoirs,that
ratiorangesfrom41:1toapproximately170:1.Bycomparison,thisratiofornatural,glaciallakesis
typicallymuchsmaller,ofteninthe5:1to20:1range.Inaddition,soilsinthewatershedsofour
reservoirsaregenerallyconsideredfertileanderodiblecomparedtosoilsinnorthernsettings,and
precipitationhereisgenerallymoreyearroundthaninnorthernsettings.Asaresult,NorthCarolina
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impoundmentsreceiveandcollectsignificantlygreaterandmorecontinuousinfluxesofsedimentand
nutrientsfromtheirwatershedsperacreofimpoundmentthandothenaturallakesstudied.These
nutrientinputscreatesignificantlymorechallenginglongtermrequirementsforinsitumeasuresthat
weredesignedforuseandtestedinsmaller,naturallakesettings.
Depthisanotherparameterthatsignificantlyinfluencesalakesresponsetonutrients.Depths
shallowerthan20generallystratifypoorlyornotatall.Stratificationisaprerequisiteconditionfor
severalofthestrategiesdiscussed.Meandepthsofstudiednorthernlakesgenerallyrangedfrom20to
over100.Bycontrast,71%oflakesassessedbytheDivisionacrossNorthCarolinahaveameanoverall
depthoflessthan20feet.Moreimportant,averagedepthsfornutrientimpairedarmsofourreservoirs
areevenshallower;forexample,JordanLake(7.5inMorganCreekArm),FallsoftheNeuseReservoir
(8.2upstreamofRollingViewRecreationArea),andHighRockLake(7.0upstreamofCraneCreek).
Thesearmsexperiencelimitedstratification,andaremuchmorepronetobottomsedimentwater
columnphysicalandchemicalinteractions,whichwouldmakesomestrategiesdifficultornot
applicable.
Apartfromthesecharacteristics,thesheersizeofourimpoundmentsalsocreateschallenges.Falls,High
RockandJordanLakeshavesurfaceareasofapproximately12,000,15,000,and14,000acres,
respectively.Bycontrast,lakesonwhichinsitustrategiesdiscussedhereprovedsuccessfulgenerally
rangedinthe10sto100sofacressize,whilelargerlakesreliedheavilyonwatershedcontrols.Clearly
thescalingofinsitumeasurestomeetthelargescalenutrientreductionneedsofNCreservoirswould
bepotentiallyquiteexpensive.Costsoutsideofinitialsetuporinstallation,suchasprovidingsupplyof
akeyresource,operation,repairandmaintenancemayscaleupdisproportionately,especiallywith
ongoingorincreasingwatershednutrientinputs.
Onthefollowingpages,anoverviewandevaluationofallinlakeandlakesidetechnologiesisprovided.

SolarPoweredEpilimneticMixing
Ataglance

Description:Floatingsolarpoweredwatercirculators,includingSolarBeesdeployedatJordan
Lake,aretypicallyusedtodestratifylakewaters.Theirintendedfunctionistoreducetheeffects
ofalgalgrowthatthesurfaceandincreaseoxygenconditionsnearthelakebottom.
Stateofscience:Mostevaluationsandcasestudieshavebeenconductedonsmallwaterbodies,
with a small number of large reservoir applications. Deployments in larger waterbodies to
mitigatenutrientimpairmentshavenotresultedinimprovedwaterqualityconditions.
Designedprimarilyfor:Drinkingwaterholdingbasins,smallwatersupplyreservoirs,wastewater
ponds.

TechnologicalOverview
Epilimneticmixershavebeenutilizedacrossthecountrytooffsetissuesrelatedtowastewaterponds
anddrinkingwatersintakesites.TheJordanLakeSolarBeeapplicationofthistechnologyinvolves
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mixingoftheupperzoneofthewaterbody,theepilimnion,byasolarpoweredpumpthatdrawswater
upfromseveralmetersdeepanddistributesitlaterallyacrossthesurface,disruptingquiescent
conditionsandcirculatingflowsvertically.Thistechnologywasoriginallydevelopedforuseinsmaller
scalebasinssuchaswatersupplyholdingpondsandtanks,buthasbeenappliedinembaymentsof
largerwaterbodiesaswell.Thetechnologycanenhancethecompetitivenessofgreenalgaeversusless
desirablebluegreenalgae,providingabetterfoodsourceforotherorganisms.Itcanalsobedesigned
todisruptthermalstratificationbypullingupdeeperwater,thehypolimnion,andmixingitintothe
upperlayer.
Whencoupledwithnutrientinflowreductions,SolarBeeshaveproveneffectiveatcontrollingtaste
andodorproblemsinsmallwaterbodies.Further,insmalltomoderatelysizedwaterbodiestheyhave
effectivelyshiftedalgalcommunitiesawayfromharmfulalgaebloomsandtowardsmorebeneficial
typesofalgae.TheLakeHoustonSolarBeecasestudydemonstratedeffectivetreatmentofa
hypolimneticlowoxygensituationinalargereservoir.Treatmentalleviateddrinkingwaterproblems
notassociatedwithnutrientreductionormitigation(Bleth,2007).

TechnicalChallengesforLargeScaleApplication
Theimpactofepilimneticmixersislimitedbytheirabilitytomoveagivenamountofwaterperhour.
Thephysicalcirculationofthesemachinesisrelativelyslowastheyaresolarpowered,andmaytake
considerabletimetomixthesystemtheyareusedin.Thetechnologyrequiresthatwatersarecalm
enoughandstaticwithrespecttoincomingnutrientloads.Thisisespeciallytruewhentheyareapplied
tomixonlythesurfaceofshallowwatersthatarenotheavilystratified.Thisistheapplicationdesignof
theJordanLakePilotProject.ForthefirstyearofmonitoringundertheJordanLakepilotstudy,from
July2014throughSeptember2015,monitoringdataindicatesnosignificantchangeinwaterquality
fromareaswherethemachinesareplacedinimpairedareasversuscontrolsites,orfromhistorical
versusprojectareadata(DivisionofWaterResources,2015).In2015,theGeneralAssemblyextended
thepilotstudyuntilatleastOctober2018toprovideadequatetimeforafullerevaluationofthe
SolarBeesperformance.

CostConsiderations
TheJordanLakePilotProjectcanbeusedasanexampleformitigationofnutrientsinlargescale
applications.TheinitialtwoyearPilotProjectonJordanLakecost$1.3milliontodeployandmonitora
totalof36units.Theextensionoftheprojectisfundedat$1.5milliontocontinuethroughOctober
2018.

PermittingConsiderations
TheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers(hereafterUSACOE)requiredanenvironmentalassessmentpriorto
permittingoftheactivityandsubsequentleasingofthe36individualanchorpointsforallmachines
locatedofJordanLake.Theassessmentresultedinapproximately1,500commentsfrompublicand
governmentagenciescreatingadelayinprojectimplementationby3months.Stagingareasfor
shipmentofmaterialstoNorthCarolinaandpermissiontoutilizeaccesspointsalongthelakewerealso
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requiredfortheamountofequipmentandspaceneededforonsiteconstructionandmachine
deployment.

HypolimneticWithdrawal
Ataglance

Description:Pumpingoutofbottomwatersordamdischargefromthelowerportionofthe
watercolumn.
Stateofscience:Fewdocumentedcasehistories.
Designedprimarilyfor:Deeper,naturalstratifiedlakeswhereexternalnutrientloadinghas
alreadybeenreduced.

TechnologicalOverview
Hypolimneticwater(wateratalakebottom)istypicallyhigherinnutrientsandlowerinoxygenthan
surfacewaters.Siphoningoffthesewatersanddischargingthemdownstreamremovesphosphorusrich
bottomwaterfromthelakesystem,whichcanpreventalgalbloomsdrivenbyphosphorusbeing
resuspendedintheupperwatercolumn.AccordingtotheUSEPA(1990),asmallSwisslakereported
successwiththistechniqueandafewdocumentedcasehistorieswerereportedelsewhere.Though
waterfromthehypolimnionisoftendischargedfromdamsforpowergeneration,theprocedurehas
largelynotbeenevaluatedforbenefitstowaterquality.

TechnicalChallengesforLargeScaleApplication
Dischargewatermayrequireaeration(additionofoxygen)orothertreatment,dependingonchemical
analysisofwaterwithdrawnandqualityofreceivingwaters.Nutrientproblemscanbeshifted
downstreamwithdischargescontaininghighnutrients,lowdissolvedoxygenwater,andpossiblyhigh
ammonia,hydrogensulfideandreducedmetals.Withdrawalcouldcausethermalinstability,leadingto
destratification(ormixing)ofcoldernutrientrichandlowoxygenbottomwaterswithwarmersurface
waters,inadvertentlytriggeringanalgalbloomorotherproblemssuchasfishkills.

CostConsiderations
Thestrategyhasrelativelylowannualoperationalcosts,butthereareanumberofunknowncosts
includingwhetherwaterwithdrawnmustbetreatedbeforebeingdischargedtoreceivingwaters,and
whetherdamupgradesareneededifwithdrawalratesareincreased.Theeffectivenessofthisstrategy
isuncertain.Multiplewithdrawalpointsaroundalakewouldlikelybeneeded,notjustatadamoutlet
inordertohaveasignificanteffectonlakeimpairments.

PermittingConsiderations
Anyintakestructurewouldrequirea404permit/401certificationfromUSACOEandDWR.NPDES
permitswouldberequiredfordischargetodownstreamreceivingwaters.Dischargewaterswouldlikely
haveverylowdissolvedoxygenconcentrations,belowstandard,andwouldhavetomeetstandard.This
wouldbeexpensivetotreatandoptionscurrentlyusedtomitigatethisscenarioinexistinghydroelectric
facilitiesarenotalwayssuccessful.Temperatureandotherpollutantissuesalsoneedtobeconsidered
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inthepermittingprocess.Thisapproachwouldalsorequireawaterallocationpermittolocal
governmentsbyEMC,anuntestedarearelativetostatute.Inthiscase,thepermitteemaybethestate.

Dilution
Ataglance
Description:Additionoflownutrientwatertoalake.
Stateofscience:Veryfewdocumentedcases.
Designedprimarilyfor:Whereexternalsourcesofnutrientsarecontrolled/divertedandthereis
closeproximitytoareliablesupplyoflownutrientwater.
TechnologicalOverview
Theapproachwithdilutionistoaddlargevolumesoflownutrientwatertoreduceoverallnutrient
concentrationsinthewaterbodyandtoflushoutalgalcells.Thereareveryfewdocumentedcasesof
dilutionorflushingasaninlaketreatment,mostlybecauselargevolumesoflownutrientwaterarenot
oftenavailable.
Dilutionhasshowntobeaneffectivestrategyinreducingnutrientsandalgae,aswellasincreasing
transparency,aslongasanabundantsupplyoflownutrientwaterisavailablenearbyenoughto
minimizethecostoftreatmentandtransportofthedilutionwater.InaprojectinvolvingLakeMosesin
theStateofWashington,thenearbyabundantandlownutrientColumbiaRiverwassuccessfullyutilized
asadilutionsource.70%reductionsoftotalphosphorousandchlorophyllawereobserved10years
afterdilutionwasinitiated.Thisprojectisdescribedasthelargestintheworldatthetimeandinvolved
a5.8%/dayflushingratefortheimpairedarea,and0.46%/dayforthewholelake.Improvementsfrom
dilutionwereduelargelytothereductionofnutrientconcentrationandbywashoutofalgalbiomass
resultingfromtheincreasedexchangeratepresentduringdilution/flushingevents(Welchetal.,1992).

TechnicalChallengesforLargeScaleApplication
Inadditiontotheprimarylimitingfactorofanamplesupplyoflownutrientwater,thereareanumber
ofotherlimitations.Itisrecommendedtohaveawaterandnutrientbudgetcalculatedforthelake,as
wellasastudyofbasinvolume,ifconsideringthisoption.Flushingratesof1015%ofthelakevolume
perdayarebelievedtobesufficient,butasanexamplethiswouldbeapproximately1,5002,200MGD
forJordanLake.Damoutletstructuresmaynotbecapableofhandlingaddeddischargevolume;an
engineeringupgrademayberequired.Increaseddischargevolumecouldhavenegativeimpactson
habitatandaquaticlifedownstream,scouranderosionimmediatelybelowthedamandsediment
depositionfurtherdownstream.Also,thiscouldcreatepotentialconflictswithcurrentusersofthe
dilutionwater.
IntheNorthCarolinapiedmont,wellsgenerallyarenotdrilledforpublicwatersuppliesforseveral
reasons.Thefracturedbedrockhaspoorwateryield,andithasunconfinedaquiferswithpotentialfor
contamination.Alargenumberofwellswouldberequiredtosourcesufficientwater.
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CostConsiderations
Feasibilitydependsonaccessibilityanddistancetowatersource,needforpumps,pipes,andwhether
extensiveengineeringisrequiredfordamoutletstructureupgradeorrepair.

PermittingConsiderations
DilutionwaterwouldneedtobetestedandmayneedanNPDESdischargepermit.Inlakestructures
wouldneeda401/404permit.

PhosphorusInactivation(AlumInjection)
Ataglance
Description:Aluminumsaltsareaddedtoawaterbodytocapture,sinkandisolatephosphorus.
Stateofscience:Therehasbeenalmostnoexperienceusingthisprocedureinreservoirs.
Designedprimarilyfor:Showneffectiveinthermallystratifiednaturallakesupto750acres
wherenutrientdiversionhasoccurred.
TechnologicalOverview
Phosphorusinactivationinvolvestheapplicationofaluminumsaltstothewatercolumnandlake
bottom.Watercolumnapplicationresultsinanaluminumhydroxidefloc(phosphorousprecipitation)
thatsettlestothebottomofthelake.Heavierdosesareusuallyappliedtothebottomofthelakein
ordertotreatthesedimentsurface,whichformsabarriertopreventfurtherphosphorusrelease(P
inactivation).Therehasbeenalmostnoexperienceusingthisprocedureinreservoirs;ithasprimarily
beenusedinnaturallakes.Additionally,thismeasurehasonlybeendocumentedtoperform
successfullyinsmalllakesupto750acres,includinginLongLake,WA,LakeMorey,VT,andKezarLake,
NH(USEPA,1990).Forcomparison,JordanLakeisapproximately14,000acres.Ithasshowntobe
effectiveinthermallystratifiednaturallakeswheresufficientnutrientdiversionhasoccurred,wherethe
lakeflushingrateisrelativelyfast,andwherenutrientrecyclingfromsedimentsisnegligible.

TechnicalChallengesforLargeScaleApplication
Somephosphorousfractions,particularlythedissolvedorganicfraction,maybeincompletelyremoved,
enablingcontinuedalgalgrowth.Thisapproachismorecommonlyusedtocreateachemicalbarrieron
thelakebottomtopreventphosphorusfrombeingresuspendedandremixedintothewatercolumn.
Aluminjectionsaremosteffectivewhenappliedonceexternalnutrientloadingtothelakehasbeen
divertedorsuppressed.Thealuminumsaltsaddedcanbetoxictofishandotheraquaticspecies.
Specificchemistryofthelake(suchasthepH)canleadtochemicalreactionsthatresultintoxicformsof
aluminumbeingcreated.Dosageisthereforelakespecific.Additionally,sharpincreasesinwater
transparencyfollowingtreatmentmayallowanexistingweedinfestationtospreadintodeeperwater.
ConstructedreservoirslikeJordan,FallsandHighRockLakesareusuallynotgoodcandidatesforthis
approachbecauseofthedifficultyinlimitingtheinflowofnutrients.Additionally,highflowsinthese

relativelyshallowlakesmaywashawaythealuminumhydroxideflocthatformsatthebottomofthe
lakeorquicklycoveritwithanotherlayerofnutrientrichsediment.

CostConsiderations
Thereisahighinitialcostfortreatmentrequiringbothchemicalsandequipment.Repeatedapplications
willbenecessaryatanunknownfrequencydeterminedbysedimentationrateorrateatwhichthe
aluminumhydroxidefloclayeriscoveredorwashedaway.

PermittingConsiderations
Thisscenario,likeothers,wouldhavetobefurtherexploredbecauseitisuntestedinNorthCarolina.
Studieswouldberequiredtoassurethatthealuminumwouldnotbeharmfultoaquaticsystem.It
wouldalsolikelyrequireaNPDESwastewaterpermit,sincealuminumsaltwouldbeinjectedintothe
lake.USACOEcouldrequireanenvironmentalassessmentstudyinadditiontoanevaluationofpurpose
andneed.

Dredging
Ataglance
Description:Scooporpumpoutuppersedimentlayerfromalakebottom.
Stateofscience:Mixedresultswithsomesuccesses.
Designedprimarilyfor:Unclear;rarelydonefornutrientcontrolinreservoirs.
TechnologicalOverview
Uppersedimentlayershavethehighestconcentrationofnutrients.Dredgingismostoftenperformedto
maintainorrestorelakevolumeandnavigationchannelsorremovenuisancemacrophyte(non
microscopicplant)growth,nottolimittheeffectsofexcessnutrients.Dredgingtocontrolalgaeand
nutrientcyclinghasshownmixedresults.Dredgingcouldincreasedepthinshallowareas,resultingin
increasedcirculationandlessalgaegrowth.Accrualratesofincomingsedimentneedtobeevaluatedto
determineapplicability.Anybeneficialeffectsofdredgingcanbereversedinrelativelyshorttimein
reservoirsduetothecontinualinputofsediment.Thisapproachisbetterforlakeswithrelativelysmall
watershedtolakesurfaceratios(e.g.10:1).JordanLakesratiois77:1.

TechnicalChallengesforLargeScaleApplication
Dredgingdisturbsordestroysbottomhabitat.Thismeasureeliminatespartofthefoodwebbasesuch
asbenthosandmussels,includingfoodforbottomfeedersandothers.Itcanalsoeliminatebottom
dwellingfishhabitat.Dredgingactivitycanresuspendnutrients,potentiallycausingalgalblooms,oxygen
depletion,andfishkills.
Sedimentdredgingrepresentsamajorinterventiontothelakeecosystemwithpossiblenegative
aspects,themostobviousbeingthedestructionofbenthicorganisms.Ifthelakebasinisdredged
completely,twotothreeyearsmaybenecessarytoreestablishbenthicfauna(Cookeetal.2005)
Sedimentremovalmaynotnecessarilybringthedesiredeffects,especiallyiftheexternalnutrientload
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tothelakeorreservoirremainssufficientlyhighforcyanobacterialbiomassgrowth.Forexample,
dredgingofathicksedimentlayerfroma99acrefishpondintheCzechRepublicresultedinanegative
phosphorusbudget(morephosphoruswastrappedthanreleasedbythesediments)andanabsenceof
cyanobacterialblooms.However,duetotheunchangedexternalnutrientload,thischangewas
temporaryandcyanobacterialbloomsreappearedwithinfiveyearsafterdredging(PokornyandHauser,
2002).

CostConsiderations
Thismeasureisveryexpensiveandequipmentintensive.Itinvolvesdredging,storage,transport&
disposalofspoil,aslurryof8090%water.Thefrequencyofperiodicredredgingshouldbeevaluated
carefullyconsideringtheoftenlargewatershedscaleofimpairedwaterbodies.NorthCarolinareservoirs
assimilatealargeamountofsedimentfromtheirrespectivewatersheds.Noeffectivenessnumbersare
availablefornitrogenandphosphorus.Thisapproachisrarelytakenfornutrientmanagementandhas
notbeenstudied.
Besidesnutrients,spoilmaterialsmaycontainheavymetals,PCBs,volatiles,orotherpollutants.
Chemicalanalysiswilldictatesuitabletypesofstorageanddisposalsites.Siteavailability,proximityto
lake,andrequiredhandlinggreatlyaffectsstorageandhaulingcost.

PermittingConsiderations
Dredgingwouldpotentiallywarrantanenvironmentalassessment.Requiredpermittingwouldincludea
USACOE404permit.Demonstrationofnopracticalalternativewouldbenecessary.Mitigationcouldbe
requiredaspartofthepermitprocess.Impactstothebottomhabitatwouldneedtobeinvestigated.A
potentialmoratoriummaybeneededduringfishspawningseason.Duringthedisposal/storagephase,
chemicalanalysiswoulddictaterequirementsforsitespecificstorageoptions.DEQwouldneedtoseek
approvalviaDivisionofWasteManagement.Ifspoilmaterialisdeemedtobeclean,itcouldpotentially
beusedatafillsite,ifnot,linedpermittedlandfillswouldneedtobeused,ormaybelandfarm
application.

FoodWebManipulation
Ataglance
Description:Alterationofexistingfoodwebstoincreasealgaeconsumption.
Stateofscience:Poorlyunderstood,sitespecificdataareneededtounderstand.
Designedprimarilyfor:Small,shallownaturallakes.
TechnologicalOverview
Thismeasuremostoftenattemptstoincreasealgaeeatingzooplankton(drifting,microscopicaquatic
animals)byeliminatingsmallpanfishthateatzooplankton.Optionsforremovaloffishare:poison,
physicalremovalofplanktoneatingfish,orstockingpiscivorous(fisheating)predatorfishtoeatsmall
planktoneatingfish.ThisoptionispoorlyunderstoodinhighlyproductivesystemssuchasJordanand
HighRockLakes,sincealmostallexamplesareinnaturallakes.Therearefewsustainedsuccesses.This
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approachismorelikelysuccessfulinsmall,shallow(<10feet)lakeswherepopulationsaremoreeasily
managed.

TechnicalChallengesforLargeScaleApplication
Foodwebmanipulationischallengingtocarryoutinwellstudiedsystemsandisunstudiedinreservoirs.
Thereareinherentdifficultiesincontrollingecologicalsystems.Populationscycleateverylevel,and
timingisasignificantissuethatisdifficulttomanageeffectively.Asuccessfullyincreasedalgaeeater
populationmayaddsignificantnutrientsformorealgalgrowthasitdiesoff,resultinginadestabilization
ofthesystem.Addingtoppredatorfishalonemaynotsignificantlyimpactanalgaepopulationand
zooplanktonpopulationsmustbelargeenoughandavailableyearroundtosustainpredators.Where
algalassemblagesaredominatedbyundesirablebluegreens,increasingalgaeeatersmaynotbe
successful.
Apotentialmethodtoreducecyanobacterialbloomsisenhancementofdirectgrazingbyherbivorous
fishes.However,anumberofstudiesreportthatthemetabolicactivityofphytoplanktonaftergut
passageremainsunaffectedorevenincreases(DrabkovaandMarsalek,2007).Cyanobacterialgrowth
mayevenbesupportedbythepresenceofherbivorousfishesduetoincreasednutrientreleasefrom
digestedmacrophytesaneffecttermedicthioeutrophication(Opuszynski,1978).
Falls,JordanandHighRockLakesallhavesignificantbluegreenalgaepopulations.Inlargelyunstudied
reservoirs,unanticipatedconsequencestothelakesecologyarelikely.Continuousmanagementwould
benecessaryduetocontinuedhighnutrientinputs,inherentenvironmentalandbiologicalvariability,
andcontinuouslargemanagementeffortsfromyeartoyear.Resistancefromanglerscouldbeexpected
ifrestrictionsareimposedtohelpensuresuccessofstocked"predatory"fish.
Biomanipulationisusuallynotveryeffectiveinhighlyeutrophicreservoirsandlakeswheretotal
phosphorusconcentrationsexceed100ug/L.Effectiveexamplesofbiomanipulationapplytorelatively
smallwaterbodiesduetothegreatdifficultyofcontinuouslymanipulatingfishpopulations.Thisis
impracticalinlargelakesandreservoirs(DrabkovaandMarsalek.2007).
Foodwebmanipulationmaybeeffectiveinenhancingthereductionofinternalnutrientloadingina
reservoir,providedexternalloadingfrompointandnonpointsourcesinthewatershedarereducedand
stabilized(Benndorfetal.2002).

CostConsiderations
Costislargelyunknownandspecifictoeachlake.Allapproachesfishremoval,poisoninganddisposal,
andpredatorstockingarelikelyexpensiveandwouldincurannualmanagementcosts.

PermittingConsiderations
Permittingissueswouldneedtobefurtherexplored.Iffisheswereintroducedtoanysystem,the
requestwouldneedtogothroughWildlifeResourceCommission.Recommendationsforindividuallakes
wouldneedreviewbyWRCstaffbiologists.

12

FloatingWetlandIslands(FWI)
Ataglance
Description:Manmadefloatingmatsthatuseplantsandmicrobestouptakenutrients.
Stateofscience:Emergingtechnology
Designedprimarilyfor:InNorthCarolina,therehavebeenlabtestsforusingfloatingwetlands
totreatcapturedrunoffandfieldtestsonrawwastewaterandwastewaterlagoons.Field
testinginstormwaterpondshasalsobeenconducted.

TechnologicalOverview
Floatingwetlandislandsareartificialmatsonwhichplantsrootsgrowinthewaterbelowthematsand
uptakenutrients.Microbeslivingontherootsalsouptakenutrients.Hangingrootscanalsoserveasa
curtainthatslowsdownwaterflowandallowssolidstofallout.Thesearemarketedasmultifunctional
forseveralpurposes,includingdenitrifyingsurroundwaters(rootandmicrobeuptake),channeling
nutrientsintofishpopulationsforincreasedfishgrowthandpopulation,creatingaquatichabitat,and
improvingaesthetics.
Floatingwetlandislandshavebeenlaunchedinseverallakesaroundthecountry,butnoneaslargeas
FallsorJordanLakes.NorthCarolinaStateUniversity(NCSU)recentlycompletedastudyonretrofitting
twostormwaterpondswithFWIs,~1acreand~0.1acre.NCSUshowedaslidingscaleofnitrogen
removalforwetlandsthatcovered20%to50%ofpond.Minimalphosphorusremovaloccurred.These
havebeenshowntobeeffectiveforwastewatertreatment.Wewerealsotoldthatbenefitsarebeing
showninstormwaterpondsandevensmallerscalelakes.
Floatingwetlandislandshavebeendeployedaspartofamultifacetedapproachtoreducingnutrient
pollutionimpacts.Forexample,inPennsylvanias633acreHarveyLake,fourfloatingwetlandswere
includedaspartofcomprehensivestormwaterimplementationplanthatalsocalledforstream
restorationand38urbanBMPs.Theplanwassuccessful,resultingintheremovalofHarveysLakefrom
Pennsylvaniaslistofimpairedwaters(EPA,2015).
Itisestimatedthata250ft2floatingwetlandislandhasthesurfaceareaofapproximatelyoneacreof
naturalwetland(Lubnow,2014).Onceinstalledandpositioned,theislandsserveasnutrientsinks,
particularlyforphosphorus.Microbialcommunitiesinandbeneaththeislandsassimilatephosphorus,
whereitisthensequesteredintolivingbiomass(Lubnow,2014).Studieshaveestimatedthatthe
amountofphosphorusremovedbyone,250ft2islandisapproximately10poundsoftotalphosphorus
peryear(NewJerseyDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtection,2014).Sinceonepoundofphosphorus
hasthepotentialtogenerateupto1,100poundsofwetalgaebiomass,one250ft2islandhasthe
potentialtopreventupto11,000poundsofwetalgaebiomass(Lubnow,2014).
Floatingwetlandislandstendtobemostcosteffectiveforlakesthathavewatercolumntotal
phosphorusconcentrationsatorgreaterthan0.1mg/L(Lubnow,2014).Costestimatesforfloating
wetlandislandsmayrangefrom$3to$46perft2.Assumingthat10%ofthesurfaceofa20acrelake
covewouldbeinstalledwithfloatingislands,approximately2acres(or87,120ft2)offloatingislands
13

wouldbeneeded.Thiscoverageequatestoaninstallationcostofapproximately$260,000to$4million.
Operationandmaintenancecostswouldbeapproximately$13,000to$200,000peryearatanassumed
5%ofinstallationcost(Lyon,S.etal.,2009).

TechnicalChallengesforLargeScaleApplication
AccordingtotheNCSUstudy,largeportionsofthewaterbody,upto50%,mayneedtobecoveredby
FWItorealizesignificantnutrientuptakebenefits.Wetlandscouldprovidehabitatforbirdsandother
aquaticanimalsthatcouldcontributenutrients(feces),althoughanecdotalevidencesuggeststhatafter
vegetationgetshighenough,geeseavoidwetlandsduetothreatofpredators.InNCSUexamples,
wetlandscreatedafootholdforvegetationthatcanovertakethepond.Onlargerscales,FWIscould
requiresignificantupkeepinopenwaterbodyapplicationswheretheymaybedislodgedduringhigh
windorflowevents.Onceestablished,vegetationcanbeselfsustaining.However,periodic
maintenancewouldberequiredtoremovetreesthatcangrowfromseedsbroughtinbybirdsorother
vectors,astheirmasswouldeventuallysinktheisland.

CostConsiderations
NCSUsprojectsspentabout$100,000toinstallfloatingwetlandsonthetwoponds.Thiswastoinstall
FWIsthatcover9%ofa1acrepondand18%ofa.1acrepond.Minimalbenefitsresultedfromthese
installations,andNCSUsuggestedthatmoreofthesurfaceareabecovered,upto50%toseesignificant
results.
Thisisaveryyoungtechnology.CoststorestorealakethesizeofJordanorFallsareunknownand
wouldneedfurtherresearchandinvestigation.JordanLakeapplicationsutilizing2030acresofFWI
wouldbeestimatedtorequireof$1520millionincapitalcostsandapproximately$500,000peryearin
O&Mcosts.

PermittingConsiderations
TheUSACEwouldrequireanEnvironmentalAssessmentsimilartotheJordanLakeSolarBeeproject.

AlgalTurfScrubber
Ataglance
Description:Lakesidetechnologywherewaterisdivertedtemporarilyintoaraisedflowway
wherealgaearecultivatedtoremovenutrients.
Stateofscience:Thereareanumberofplaceswhereitsbeingused,butlikeotherpumpand
treatoptions,itseemstobeafairlyyoungtechnologywhenitcomestotreatingstreamsand
largerwaterbodies.SeveralcasesexistinFlorida.TheCityofDurhamhadafeasibilitystudy
doneforitsusetohelpmeetloadreductionrequirementsoftheFallsnutrientstrategyand,
basedonitscomparativelygoodcosteffectiveness,inlate2015initiatedoperationofa
pilotscaleprojectthattreatslakewaterfromFallsLake.

Designedprimarilyfor:Watertemperaturebetween60and90degreesFahrenheitareoptimal.
14

Thesemeasuresaresomewhatscalable,soareaswithlargerflowsmoremaybemoreeffective.

TechnologicalOverview
Waterispumpedfromthestreamorlakeanddischargedontoaslightlyinclinedrectilinearflowway
withanimperviouslinersubstrate.Thesubstrateculturesadiverse,naturalandlocalassemblageof
attachedbenthicalgae,bacteriaandphytoplankton.Afterwaterpassesoverthesubstratewhere
nutrientsandbacteriaareremoved,thewaterisreleasedbackintothestream/lake.Algaeis
periodicallyharvestedandusedforfertilizer,energy,ordisposedof.TheCityofDurhamiscurrently
evaluatingthistechnologyinlightofitsFallsLakeandJordanLakenutrientreductionefforts.

TechnicalChallengesforLargeScaleApplication
Thismeasureisscalableandafacilitycanpotentiallytreatupto30MGD.Toachievelargescalenutrient
removal,AlgalTurfScrubbersrequirecommensuratelandareaforfacilities.Forexample,accordingto
thefeasibilitystudyprovidedtoDurhambythemanufacturer(Durham,2013),afacilitythataccepts25
MGDcanremoveapproximately10,00023,000lbsnitrogenperyearusingalandareaof10acres.A
scaledupexamplecouldbeJordanLake.AsdescribedinthePurposeandScoperuleoftheJordan
nutrientstrategy,Jordansnitrogenreductionrequirementsin2001werearound500,000lbsN.
ApplyingthemanufacturersmodeledremovalraterangeabovetoJordanLakesreductionneedwould
requirea220500acrefacility(facilities)totreattheentirelake.Disposalofharvestedalgaeisalsoa
consideration,thoughitmaybegivenawayorsoldforfertilizerorenergy.Forlargescaleinstallations,
roadaccess,powersupply,andpipingwouldberequiredtogetwatertoandfromthefacility.
Temperaturemustbeconsideredwiththisoption,asthesefacilitiesaremoreeffectiveinwarmer
weather.Operationalshutdownsmayberequiredincolderweather,particularlybelowfreezing.
Topographymustalsobeappropriate,asthesystemsneedafairlyflatsurfaceforalargefacilitythat
providesaverygentlyslopingsurfaceforwatertoflowacross.

CostConsiderations
Thetechnologyseemstobeeffectivefornutrientremovalatsmallscales,andwhileitisscalablethere
arelikelypracticallimitsthatwouldmaketreatingtheentiretyofJordanLakeinfeasible.Lackingthat
evaluation,basedonDurhamsFeasibilityStudyof10potentialsitesintheFallsLakewatershed,costs
forthefiveFallslakesidesites,eachprocessingflowsof1025MGDoflakewater,areprojectedfrom
$19to$79perpoundofnitrogenremoved,basedona20yearpresentworthcost(Durham,2013).
ApplyingthissmallerscalecosteffectivenessratetoJordanLake,basedonanassumed500,000pound
peryearnitrogenreductionneed,annualcostscouldbe$9millionto$40milliontomeetthefull
nitrogenreductionneedforJordanLake.Comparatively,theaveragecosteffectivenessofconventional
stormwaterBMPsonnewdevelopmentwasestimatedat$264perpoundofnitrogenforwetpondsand
$573perpoundforlargebioretentionarea(RTI,2007).Stormwaterretrofitsonexistingdevelopment
couldbeseveraltimesmorethanthis.Forexample,thecostofretrofittingbioretentioninurbanareas
ofthePiedmontcanbe$2,078perpound(JamesRiverAssociation,2013).

15

PermittingConsiderations
TheN.C.WildlifeResourcesCommissionhasreservationsaboutallowingthesefacilitiesonlakefront
landdevotedtowildlifeandrecreation,whichmayrequirefacilitiestobelocatedfurtherawayfromthe
lake.AnenvironmentalassessmentwasrequiredforDurhamsFallslakesidepilotproject.Asimilar
assessmentwouldberequiredforafullscalefacilitytoevaluatepotentialenvironmentalimpacts,
impactavoidance,andmitigationoptions.
DiscussionswithDWRpermittingstaffindicatethat404permitsmayberequiredfortheintakeand
outletstructures.AnNPDESpermitfordischargemayalsobenecessary,butcouldpotentiallybe
coveredwithastormwaterpermitinsteadofwastewater.
Dependingonhowthealgalproduct/wasteisdisposed,thismeasuremayrequireapermitfromthe
DivisionofWasteManagement.

AlgaeWheel
Ataglance

Description:Potentiallakesidetechnologywhereawheelispartiallysubmergedinnutrient
richwater,rotatedbyairbubblestopromotealgaegrowthwithoxygen,bacteriaand
sunlight.

ExtentofScience:Availableinformationisspecifictowastewatertreatment,noneinNorth
Carolina.Likeallofthesepumpandtreatsystems,itappearstobeafairlyyoung
technology.
Designedprimarilyfor:Currentlythistechnologyseemstobelimitedtowastewater
treatment.

TechnologicalOverview
Thesesystemsaremarketedforsmalldecentralizedwastewatertreatmentneedstoreplace
conventionalbiologicalaerationsystemsorforpolishingoftreatedwastewatertohigherstandards.The
systemusesairbubblestorotatefloatingplasticwheelsuponwhichalgaegrows.TheAlgaeWheelis
marketedwithamodulargreenhousesystemtomoreconsistentlygrowthealgae,whichisharvested
andeitherdiscardedorusedforfertilizerorenergy.

TechnicalChallengesforLargeScaleApplication
Nutrientconcentrationsinlakesaremuchlowerthaninwastewaterstreamsandmaynotbesufficiently
highforthistechnologytobeeffective.Thesesystemsaredesignedtotreatlowflows,withlowsurface
loadingrates,somultipleunitswouldbeneededtomeaningfullyimpactlargereservoirs.Projectswould
requirelandareaadjacenttowaterbodiesforafacility,roadaccess,powersupply,andpipingtoand
fromfacility.Theresultingalgaemustbeeitherdisposedoforotherwiseremovedfromthesitefor
beneficialuse.
16

TheCityofDurhamapproachedthemanufacturertoexploretheAlgaeWheelspotentialfortreating
streamsandlakes,butthecompanydidnotshowmuchinterest,possiblybecauseitwasnota
wastewaterapplication.

CostConsiderations
Financialscalabilityisaconcern.Inonewastewatertreatmentplantexample,$650,000wasspentfor1
unittotreat100,000gallonsperday(JordanLakehasabout15billiongallons).Treatingallthewaterin
thelakeappearstobemuchmoreexpensivethanwatersupplymanagement.However,notknowing
howeffectiveitwouldbeinalake,itisnotcertainhowmuchofthelakewouldneedtobetreated.

PermittingConsiderations
PermittingconsiderationsaresimilartothosedescribedforAlgalTurfScrubber.

AquaFiberAquaLutions
Ataglance

Description:Patentedproprietarynutrientremovalthatuseschemicalsanddissolved
airflotationtogrowalgae;alakesidetechnology.

Stateofscience:Emergingtechnology

Designedprimarilyfor:Potentiallyanywhere
TechnologicalOverview
AquaFiberAquaLutionsisaproprietarydeviceaboutwhichtheDivisionwasunabletoobtainmuch
information.Generally,thetechnologyinvolvespumpingandtreatingwaterwithchemicaladditions
anddissolvedairflotationtogrowandremovealgae.Thisisarelativelynewtechnology.Ithasbeen
usedinoneFloridacasefor5yearsandshowsstrongphosphorusremovalpotential.Nitrogen
reductionsmaybelesssignificant.TheCityofDurhamhadafeasibilitystudydoneforthistechnology,
theresultsofwhichindicatedexcellentphosphorusremovalsaround90%butpoornitrogenremovals.
TheCityultimatelychosetodevelopapilotscaleoperationoftheAlgalTurfScrubber.
Detailsoftheprocessarenotclear,butthesystemsappeartobeavailableforuseanywhere,with
considerationforlandareaandfacilities.

TechnicalChallengesforLargeScaleApplication
TheAquaLutionssystemwouldrequirelandareanearthelake,thoughlikelylessthanthatrequired
fortheAlgalTurfScrubber.Theprocesswouldrequireuseordisposalofthealgalproduct,whichmay
beaviablefertilizerorenergysource.Roadaccess,powersupply,andpipingtoandfromafacilityareall
considerationsforinstallationnearthewaterbodyinquestion.Also,thisapproachappearstodowell
withphosphorusremovalbutnotsowellfornitrogenremoval.
17

CostConsiderations
Itisascalableprocesswithinpracticallimitations.Itcouldbeeffectiveforphosphorusremovalon
relativelysmallscales(upto30MGD).Thismeasurecouldbeextremelyexpensiveandinfeasiblefor
treatmentoftheentirelake.

PermittingConsiderations
Becausethislakesidepumpandtreatoptionwouldinvolveaddingchemicals,toxicitytestswouldhave
tobeconductedbeforeanNPDESdischargepermitcouldbeissued.Otherpermittingissuesaresimilar
tothosedescribedfortheAlgalTurfScrubber.

Conclusions
Thisreportoffersahighleveloverviewofindependentlyevaluatedinsitulakeandlakesidetechniques
forpotentialuseinNorthCarolinasimpairedreservoirs.Theintentofthesepracticesiseitherto
removenutrientsfromawaterbodyortoreduceawaterbodyssensitivitytoexistingnutrientinputs.
RecognizingthechallengesoutlinedintheIntroductionregardingapplicationofthesetofpractices
reviewedtoNorthCarolinareservoirs,themostpromisingpracticebasedonsmallerscaletrialsmaybe
aproprietarypumpandtreatprocess,AlgalTurfScrubber,whichcouldbelocatedlakeside.Scaleis
likelytobeakeylimitingfactorinapplicabilityofthisandcertainotherstrategiessuchasdredging,
dilution,foodwebmanipulationandotherlakesidepumpandtreatoptions.Floatingwetlandislands
areaninlakepracticethatmayprovidenutrientbenefitalongwithhabitattosupportanimprovedfood
web,withperhapstheleastpotentialamongthepracticesforunintendednegativeconsequences.In
termsofscaleevaluations,aproprietaryepilimneticmixingdevice,SolarBee,iscurrentlyunder
evaluationinJordanLake.ItisbeingmonitoredbyboththeDivisionandresearchersatNorthCarolina
StateUniversity,andresultsmaybeavailableinlate2018.Otherpracticesreviewedwouldappearto
faceprohibitivechallengesinthisstatesreservoirs.
Lakespecificevaluationsarerecommendedpriortoinitiatinganymitigationmeasures.Individual
characteristicsofwaterbodiesdictatespecificneedsthatmustbeconsidered.Assessingtotalsystem
assimilativecapacityfornutrientsandcapabilitiesofinsitumeasuresiscriticaltoestimatingthe
potentialoftheseapproaches.Thiswillprovideamorefeasibilitydrivenapproachtowardsidentifying
themassbalanceofwaterbodynutrientsandtheamountofmitigationneededinrelationtothe
potentialreductionsortreatmentavailablefrominsitumeasures.

18

References
Benndorf,J.,Boing,W.,Koop,J.andNeubauer,I.,2002.Topdowncontrolofphytoplankton:theroleof
timescale,lakedepthandtrophicstate.FreshwaterBiology.47:22822295.
Bleth,J.,2007.LakeHoustonSolarBeeProjectReport.SolarBeeInc.
Cooke,DennisG.,EugeneB.Welch,SpencerPeterson,StanleyA.Nichols.RestorationandManagement
ofLakesandReservoirs,ThirdEdition.2005.
Drabkova,M.andMarsalek,B.,2007.Areviewofinlakemethodsofcyanobacterialbloomscontroland
management.CyanoDataTheGlobalDatabaseofMethodsforCyanobacterialBloomsManagement,
CentreforCyanobacteriaandtheirtoxins.2007.
Durham,Cityof,2013.AlgalTurfScrubberFeasibilityStudy:EllerbeandLittleLickCreek.October11,
2013.BiohabitatsandHydroMentia.
Durham,Cityof,2010.EllerbeCreekWatershedImprovementPlan.May2010.
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA),2015.RestoringTributariesandShorelineAreasWhile
ManagingUrbanRunoffImprovesHarveysLake.July2015.
JamesRiverAssociation,2013.CostEffectivenessStudyofUrbanStormwaterBMPsintheJamesRiver
Basin.June2013.
Lubnow,F.S.,2014.Usingfloatingwetlandislandstoreducenutrientconcentrationsinlakeecosystems.
NationalWetlandsNewsletter.36;6:1417.2014.
Lyon,S.Horne,A.,Jordahl,J.,Emond,H.andCarlson,K.,2009.Preliminaryfeasibilityassessmentof
constructedwetlandsinthevicinityoftheKlamathHydroelectricProject.CH2MHILL.Portland,OR.
2009.
N.C.DivisionofWaterResources.PreliminaryAssessmentofInLakeMechanicalCirculationandTheir
EffectsRelatedtoWaterQualityStandardsintheMorganCreekandHawRiverArmsofJordanLake.
September30,2015.
NewJerseyDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtection,2014.NewJerseystormwaterbestmanagement
practices,rev.2.DivisionofWatershedManagement.Trenton,NJ.2014.
Opuszynski,K.1978.Theinfluenceofsilvercarp(HypohthalmichthysmolitrixVal.)oneutrophicationof
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19

U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.LakeandReservoirRestorationGuidanceManual.1990.
Welch,E.B.,Barbiero,R.P.,Bouchard,D.,Jones,A.C.,1992.LakeTrophicStateChangeandConstant
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20

AppendixI:S.L.201524114.5(d)
TheDepartmentandCommissionshallstudyinsitustrategiesbeyondtraditionalwatershedcontrols
thathavethepotentialtomitigatewaterqualityimpairmentsresultingfromaquaticflora,sediment,
nutrients,orotherwaterqualityvariablesthatimpairorhavethepotentialtoimpairwaterbodiesof
theState.Inadditiontoasurveyandevaluationofcurrentlyavailableinsitustrategies,theDepartment
andCommissionshallassessthepotentialefficacyofinsitustrategiesinotherwaterbodiesoftheState,
andconsidertheutilizationofinsitustrategiesintheirdevelopment,review,andmodificationsof
basinwidewaterqualitymanagementplansorrelatedwaterqualitymitigationmodeling.The
DepartmentandCommissionshallprovideareportontheirstudytotheEnvironmentalReview
Commission,theFiscalResearchDivision,andthechairsoftheSenateAppropriationsCommitteeon
NaturalandEconomicResourcesandtheHouseAppropriationsCommitteeonAgricultureandNatural
andEconomicResourcesnolaterthanApril1,2016.

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