Running Head: POWER AND INFLUENCE

Power and Influence in Teams

Ruben DePea & Kaley Klaus
Fort Hays State University

LDRS 807
Leadership in Teams and Collaborative Environments
Dr. Brent Goertzen

POWER AND INFLUENCE

An individual can have lots of power but very little influence. On the other hand, an individual
can have a great deal of influence but very little power
(Dilenschneider, 2007, p. 175)
Introduction
Power bases and influence are two popular topics among leadership, psychology, and
sociology scholars. Understanding how these components are at play within teams can help any
student better identify when and where to use various forms of power and influence. This chapter
will introduce students to a variety of concepts regarding power and influence. It will provide
perspectives on how power is acquired in organizational hierarchies as well as how influence
may be applied differently within virtual teams versus face-to-face teams. More importantly, this
text will help the student understand the difference between power and influence, and provide a
context in which students will be able to become a person of influence, based on popular
literature.
Learning Objectives
As a result of studying this chapter, readers will:
Distinguish between being a person of power versus a person of influence within a team
Understand various types and uses of power within teams, and how power bases are
active within group and organizational hierarchies
Understand various influence tactics
Understand the positive and negative impact of using influence tactics in teams
Determine how a person of power can become a person of influence
Apply the appropriate power and influence tactics when working in teams
Person of Power vs. Person of Influence
Power in itself is not enough to influence or persuade others. The literature abounds
with different types of power that leaders exercise upon their followers with an attempt to
influence them for better or for worse.
Typical frequent questions on this topic would include, Why power is so appealing? or
What are the implications of using it? But one question that is of utmost importance both
anecdotally and empirically, which is the focus of this chapter is: Does having power
automatically guarantee effective influence? There is enough evidence that support the notion
that people tend to pursue power because not only it feels good, but because the use of it is
exhilarating and produces an incredible sense of accomplishment. Moreover, there the literature
supports the notion that people in power have egocentric motives to the extent they see
themselves as more trustworthy and even fairer than what others think of them. For this reason,
they tend to see the world differently to the point that, when attempting to connect with others,
they focus more on themselves and usually they neglect paying attention to negative situations
and feelings that other less powerful individual have about them. In other words, they at times
appear to be overoptimistic in certain situations. As a result, powerful individuals do not care
about how risky the path adopted, provided they obtain their objectives (Thompson, 2011).

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As inferred earlier, just because someone has one or more types of powers, which we will
cover in more detail further, that does not necessarily translate into effective influence on
followers. Therefore, this document explores the concept of power as a vehicle with specific,
universal laws that, if properly and systematically applied, should conduce to persuasion,
according to renowned author Mortensen (2004).
In contrast to power, persuasion refers to the process of changing or reforming
attitudes, beliefs, or opinions (p. 9). More specifically, drawn from his own experience and by
researching the outcomes of successful, persuasive leaders around the world, Mortensen
contends that in order for a leader to have lasting influence over his or her followers, it is vital
for them to take into consideration the following laws:
The Law of Dissonance, which says that people will naturally act in a manner that is
consistent with their cognitions (beliefs, attitudes, and values). Therefore, when people
behave in a manner that is inconsistent with these cognitions, they find themselves in a
state of discomfort (p. 23).
The Law of Obligation, also known as reciprocity, states that when others do
something for us, we feel a strong need, even a push, to return the favor. Returning the
favor rids us of the obligation created by the first good deed (p.38).
The Law of Connectivity refers to the notion that the more we feel connected to, part
of, liked by, or attracted to someone, the more persuasive they become (p. 45).
The Law of Social Validation, which refers to our innate desire to be part of the main
groupEven if we dont admit it, or maybe even realize it, we care about what others
think (p. 62)
The Law of Scarcity, which plays a large role in the persuasion process. Opportunities
are always more valuable and exciting when they are scarce and less available...The more
the scarcity of an item increases, the more the item increases in value, and the greater the
urge to own it (p. 75).
The Law of Verbal Package. This law is extremely valuable as well toward persuasive
leadership. It states that the more skillful a person is in the use of language, the more
persuasive they will beWords affect our perceptions, our attitudes, our beliefs, our
emotions. (p. 84).
The Law of Contrast is also of utmost importance in the power and influence
continuum. [It] explains how we are affected when we are introduced to two vastly
different alternatives in successionAs a Master Persuader, you can use this contrast to
steer your audience toward the object of your persuasion. (p. 105).
The Law of Expectations. This is a very powerful principle because it uses
expectations to influence reality and create results. Individuals tend to make decisions
based on how others expect them to perform. As a result, people will fulfill those
expectations whether positive or negative (p. 119).
The Law of Involvement. People who effectively apply this principle should expect to
produce persuasive influence because it suggests that the more you engage someones
five senses, involve them mentally and physically, and create the right atmosphere for
persuasion, the more effective and persuasive [theyll] be (p. 132).

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The Law of Esteem. This one is huge. Leaders in groups cannot expect to create a
cohesive, motivating environment toward expected outcomes without it. This law
recognizes that all humans need and want praise, recognition and acceptance.
Acceptance and praise are two of our deepest cravings; we can never get enough. In
the persuasion processto use [this law] effectively, you must clearly understand the
relationships between self-esteem, pride, and ego (p. 158).
The Law of Association. Understanding the power of our brains to associate different
experiences such as feelings and memories, to name a few, is essential to succeed in the
application of this principle. So what do master persuaders typically do? Simply put,
[They] take advantage of association to evoke positive feelings and thoughts that
correspond with the message they are trying to convey. [The persuader] can actually
arouse a certain feeling in [their] audience by finding the right association key to unlock
the door (p. 170).
The Law of Balance between emotions and logic. This is significant. Effective
persuaders ought to understand emotions and their impact on people in almost every
aspect of life. However, it is very important to recognize that in order for this law to
work, leaders should also consider logic for the perfect equilibrium. What is the basis for
that conclusion? The challenge with relying exclusively on emotion to persuade your
prospect is that after she has left the persuasive situation, her emotions fadeLogic plays
the role of creating a foundation for emotion. This balance between logic and emotion
could be called the twin engines of persuasion and influence (p. 183).
Obviously, while the above laws seem to be very provocative and supporting the notion
that persuasive leadership skills can be learned, this chapter does not prescribe them as an
exclusive Sine Qua Non for success. There are many other approaches in the literature about
power and influence. Nonetheless, what we can safely conclude, is that no leader, regardless of
his or her power type or team size, can claim to be such if he or she is not capable of influencing
others. Consequently, in order to effectively influence others, it has been clearly demonstrated
that a healthy combination of logic and emotions will do the trick.
Let us dissect for a moment the previously listed Law of Balance and focus exclusively
on emotions. Given the abundant anecdotal and empirical evidence about capability of
controlling but not excluding our emotions in our interactions with others, effective persuaders
ought to have the necessary emotional intelligence conducive to expected outcomes. More
specifically, Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize emotions in ourselves and others
and to use emotional knowledge in a productive fashion. Emotional intelligence in teams is
positively linked to team performance (Thompson, 2011, p. 105). Moreover, according to
Mosley, Mosley, & Pietri (2011),
An important foundation of successful leaders isEmotional intelligence (EI) [which]
refers to an assortment of skills and characteristics that influence a persons ability to
succeed as a leaderGoleman and others are proponents of what is referred to as a
mixed model of EI that includes the following dimensions: self-awareness, selfregulation, motivation, empathy, and social skill. Goleman suggests that EI not only
pinpoints outstanding leaders, but also can be linked to strong performance (p. 249)

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The bottom line: emotions are the main catalyst for winning peoples hearts. Mortensen
(2004) could not be more conclusive about this when he states that:
Whereas logic is the language of the conscious mind, emotion is the language of the
unconscious mind. We know that emotions are reactions to perceived and imagined
stimuli, not based on logic, but on ones own personal experiences. Emotions often
outweigh our logicIn his book, Emotional Intelligence, Daniel Goleman asserts that
understanding emotions is more pertinent to leading a successful life than having a high
intelligence. Often people of high IQ struggle at work because of their weaknesses in
fundamental human relation skills. Goleman calls this skill emotional intelligence. He
emphasizes that emotional intelligence largely determines our success in relationships,
work, and even physical wellnessWhen you are persuading someone, emotions provide
the springboard for a successful execution of your argument. In fact, I would even say
emotions are the energy and very fuel of the persuasion process. Without tapping into
your audiences emotions, there is no strength or energy in your message. Emotion is a
power you can harness and use in practically every aspect of persuasion. Remember,
logic is important, but emotion helps you catapult an otherwise dull or flat exchange to
the next level. (p. 189-190).
Furthermore, there is a growing evidence that supports the notion that influence does not happen
by chance:
So far weve claimed that influencers dont randomly succeed at creating impressive and
lasting changes in human behavior. The good news is that if they did rely on chance, we
wouldnt have a clue how to replicate their efforts. But they dont rely on chance. Instead,
they count on three keys to successkeys that all influencers adhere to adhere to and that
you can use to your own benefit: 1. Focus and measure. Influencers are crystal clear
about the result they are trying to achieve and are zealous about measuring it. 2. Find
vital behaviors. Influencers focus on high-leverage behaviors that drive results. More
specifically, they focus on the two or three vital actions that produce the greatest amount
of change. 3. Engage all six sources of influenceAccording to our research, by getting
six different sources of influence to work in their favor, influencers increase their odds of
success tenfold. [These sources are] 1. Personal Motivation [,] [which is linked to the
question:] Do they enjoy it? 2 Personal Ability [or] Can they do it? 3. Social Motivation
[or] Do others encourage them to enact the wrong behavior? 4. Social Ability [or] Do
others enable them? 5. Structural Motivation [or] Do rewards and sanctions encourage
them? 6. Structural Ability [or] Does their environment enable them? (Grenny, Patterson,
Maxfield, McMillan, & Switzler, 2013, p. 13-14, 29-33).
Lastly, we should discuss the significance of power and influence within the context of a
current and future generation of young leaders living in a warp-speed world that is being
transformed by technology (Dilenschneider, 2007, p. 1). What do we mean by that? These
people are usually very young, typically between 18 to 25 years old, who use technology as the
main tool to gain and bestow power and influence. The explosion of Facebook, Instagram,
FaceTime, WhatsApp, Messenger, and similar communication technologies, have revolutionized
the way we interact with others across the globe. They also have very particular opinion in

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regards to power and influence. It is worth mentioning the following perspective on the matter by
one of those prominent young, techno-savvy visionaries. His name is A.J. Goodman, of
Washington, DC. Among other things, he states:
When I think of power and influence, I immediately think about the word respect. I
have learned that power and influence are not mutually exclusive. On the one hand, an
individual can have lots of power but very little influence. On the other hand, an
individual can have a great deal of influence but very little power. What ties it all
together is respect (Dilenschneider, 2007, pp. 175).
He continues to say that through his own experience he has seen leaders whose approach
to leadership is based on fear while others lead with respect. The first groups preferred arsenal
to achieve their objectives is intimidation. People only comply because they know they can
easily be crushed. There is no mutual respect and we contend that the expected pristine picture of
influence is murky at best. Conversely, leaders who influence others through respect achieve
incredible influencing results. A total different picture. Individuals who feel respected will
consciously be persuaded into action because not only they feel respected, but also because they
intrinsically know that they are being part of a fair leader-follower continuum that can translate
into something transformational for their organization or team. In other words, the followers feel
both encouraged and empowered to become achievers, without coercion (2007).
Lastly, he summarizes the above with the following powerful statement that substantiates
our theory that power in itself does not automatically convey influence: For some people, power
and influence may go hand in hand. For me, however, power has very little influence as long as I
cannot and will not respect that power (Dilenschneider, 2007, p. 177). Other theorists support
this notion as well: The ability to persuade is power, for good or for badMost of us are not
born persuadersthe arts of persuasion and influence are not gifts we inherently possess
(Mortensen, 2004, p. 7).
Power in Teams
Defining the word, power, has proven to be a difficult task, as many scholars have
defined the word in multiple ways (Jarvis, 2012). For example, Weber (1947) defines power as
the ability to carry out his own will despite resistance (p. 152). A more recent definition,
congruent with Webers, by Galinsky, Magee, Inesi, and Gruenfeld (2006) define power as the
capacity to influence other people (p. 1068); however, this is not to be confused with the
definition of influence, that will be discussed later in the chapter. To define power, many
scholars look to French and Raven (1959). The two believed that power could not be traced back
to only one source; therefore, they identified five forms of power--referent, coercive, reward,
legitimate, and expert. Moreover, scholars have divided French and Ravens forms of power into
two categories: 1) position power, and 2) personal power.

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Table 1
Forms of Power Bases
Position Power
Coercive
one using his/her position to
bestow negative outcomes
(Bruins, 1999); using
influences based on fear
(Jarvis, 2012)

Personal Power
Referent
comes from someone admiring
another and wishing to please
them (Overbeck, 2010; Jarvis,
2012)

Reward

one using his/her position to

bestow positive outcomes
(Bruins, 1999)

Expert

Legitimate

power that is acquired as the

result of a particular role
(Jarvis, 2012)

Informational

having control over

information and its
distribution (Raven, 2008;
Yukl, 2013)

having knowledge about how to

perform a task or solve an
important problem, creating
dependence on the agent (Yukl,
2013, p. 191)

When French and Raven sought to define power, they described power as potential
influence, (1959, p. 261), and the level of influence was reliant on the followers dependence of
the perceived leader. Referent power comes from someone admiring another and wishing to
please them (Overbeck, 2010; Jarvis, 2012). For example, should a subordinate greatly admire
her supervisor, it is more likely she will perform favors for her supervisor in order gain their
approval or acceptance (Yukl, 2013). Expert power, on the other hand, is having knowledge
about how to perform a task or solve an important problem, creating dependence on the agent
(2013, p. 191). An example of expert power would be a computer repairman being the only
person to remove viruses from a machine; the repairmans expertise has power over a customer
because the customer cannot fix his computer without the repairman's assistance. The concept is
similar in teams. For example, say you are a part of a new product marketing committee at a
software company. The team member with the most graphic design experience would design the
brochure, while the person with the most writing experience would right the copy that goes
inside the brochure. At the same time, the person with the most statistical expertise would study
the market and attempt to determine the target population for the advertisements. Each person
has expertise in a particular area, and therefore, holds power over that portion of the project.
Yukl (2013) categorizes referent power and expert power as forms of personal power,
which is a type of power obtained through relationships. We can also consider referent and
expert power as consensual power, which is power that requires participation and commitment
from followers (Jarvis, 2012). Without follower participation, the supervisor or repairman would
not have the power they hold over their subordinates and customers, respectively. Moreover,
Overbeck (2010) discussed what is considered power by consent. Power by consent is when a

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leader has power over a follower, but only at the consent of the follower. Should the follower
withdraw his/her consent, power over them no longer exists. This view is in line with the idea of
personal power, as it relies on a relationship being formed between leader and follower and the
follower agreeing to accept the leaders power over them. The remaining forms of power defined
by French and Raven (1959) include coercive, reward, and legitimate. These forms are power are
considered types of position power, and position power is inherent as a result of a persons
position (Yukl, 2013).
Coercive power is when one uses his/her position to bestow negative outcomes or
punishment such as employee dismissal, or if in the military, 20 extra push ups (Bruins, 1999;
Yukl, 2013), or one using threat and the control of resources to force someone to do something
(Jarvis, 2012, p. 482). Reward power is the opposite of coercive in that one uses his/her position
to bestow positive outcomes, or rewards such as monetary bonuses or promotions (French &
Raven, 1959; Bruins, 1999). Finally, legitimate power is power that is acquired as the result of a
particular role (Jarvis, 2012). Following the direction of a committee chair in regard to a
marketing plan is an example of working with a person who has legitimate power. Because the
chair is the highest level of position in a committee, he/she has legitimate power.
Expanding on his and his partners original work, Raven added a sixth form of power in
1965--informational. Informational power is when one has access and control of vital
information and its distribution to others (Raven, 2008; Yukl, 2013). This form of power would
also be considered position power as those in leadership positions, such as managers,
supervisors, or group leaders, are often given information that is not directly given to others in
the organization (Yukl, 2013). Continuing with the example of a committee chair, the chair may
receive information from the department head about new branding regulations, but it is at the
discretion of the chair whether to share that information with his/her committee members.
French and Raven, however, are not the only scholars that have identified forms of
power. Ng (1980) looked at power as a social construct, defining social power as, power that is
embedded in and works through the social structure and norms of a community (p. 3). For
example, an accountant knows budgets and tax laws; therefore, you go to the accountant only to
discuss expenses and prepare tax forms for a business rather than visiting the graphic designer
for those purposes. Ecological power, coined by Cartwright in 1965, is when one controls the
physical environment such as office space, technology use, etc. An example of using ecological
power would be when a leader places two colleagues in separate room; he is using his ecological
power in an attempt to control the amount of communication they may have (Yukl, 2013). The
use of power is seen a plethora of situations. Organizations are often riddled with various forms
of power bases, and many of those bases are inherited as the result of an organizational
hierarchy.
Hierarchies and Power Bases
Diefenbach and Sillince (2011) noted that there is a shared understanding that
organizations are structured as group-based social hierarchies (p. 1516), but what is a
hierarchy, and how does it come to fruition? Hierarchies have been in play within organizations
for centuries. Defined by Halevy, Chou, and Galinsky (2011) as an implicit or explicit rank

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order of individuals or groups with respect to a valued social dimension (p. 33), there are many
forms of hierarchies. Organizations may use formal authority structures to create a top-down
hierarchy; or, you may see a bottom-up hierarchy, as a result of informal interactions. At the
same time, you will find both steep and moderate hierarchies, in which the latter has less levels
than the former (Halevy et al., 2011). Although more modern organizations are transforming into
lateral organizational structures, top-down hierarchies are still prominent in organizational
systems (Diefenbach & Sillince, 2011). Informal hierarchies, defined as person-dependent
social relationships of dominance and subordination which emerge from social interaction and
become persistent over time through repeated social processes (2011, p. 1517), have also been
found in organizations. With the idea of both formal and informal hierarchies in mind, it is no
wonder that some scholars have looked at how power bases may be a part of these structures.
When looking at a formal hierarchy, Halevy et al. (2011) examined how a hierarchy can
be beneficial for teams and organizations. The scholars posit that an organizational hierarchy
allows groups to achieve high levels of coordination and cooperation necessary to ensure
survival and success (p. 33). According to their study, a team or organization is more likely to
succeed if the hierarchy is legitimate. Legitimacy is defined as the belief that authorities,
institutions, and social arrangements are appropriate, proper, and just (Tyler, 2006, p. 376). By
having a legitimate hierarchy, leaders of the group or organization are able to use legitimate
power in order to direct the group toward completion of a goal; followers are also more likely to
obey commands because the position is fair (Halevy et al., 2011). In addition, because a
legitimate hierarchy has an apparent fairness, followers are more motivated and overall group
performance is enhanced.
Seeing one of French and Ravens power bases at play in a formal hierarchy may be more
obvious than seeing any power base at play within an informal hierarchy. According to
Diefenbach and Sillince (2011), informal hierarchies are seen primarily in network
organizations, whose members have equal status and represent a community (p. 1528).
Collaboration in these organizations is built primarily on trust and shared understanding. It is a
self-managing organization in which the members decide upon the goals and the process in
which to attain them. Although not necessarily intended, a formal hierarchy can sometimes form
as a result of the use of power bases.
Say an active member of a scholarly biology organization is considered an expert in the
biology field. Utilizing his/her expert power about that topic can certainly propel him/her to a
respected leadership position within the organizations board of directors. At the same time,
someones expert power may just offer them the recognition of respected scholar, which could
also be considered this persons referent power. Regardless, both the member of the board of
directors and the recognized scholar are presumed to be equally accountable for the network
organizations success.
Although power seems like a powerful concept, there is little one can do without the
assistance of others. For example, even if a person may have legitimate power, followers will not
gather to a person in a high position if there is no reason or motivation to do so. In order to gain
that assistance or followership, one must employ influence tactics in an effort to change the
behavior of a potential follower.

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10

Influence Tactics
In 1959, French and Raven defined influence as a force one person (the agent) exerts on
someone else (the target) to induce a change in the target, including changes in behaviors,
opinions, attitudes, goals, needs, and values (Bruins, 1999, p. 8). This definition laid the
groundwork for decades of research on the subject of influence in groups and organizations.
How one influences another is through the use of proactive behaviors called tactics (Barbuto,
Fritz, & Marx, 2002). Yukl, Falbe, and Youn (1993) identified 11 proactive influence tactics,
which we will discuss further in this chapter. These influence tactics that can be used in teams in
an attempt to alter other team member points of view. Moreover, they can be divided into two
categories--positive tactics and negative tactics.
Positive influence tactics are those that are less likely to harm relationships when you
use them (Barbuto & Scholl, 1999). These include rational persuasion, apprising, inspirational
appeal, consultation, exchange, and collaboration (Charbonneau, 2004). All of these influence
tactics can be used during a team decision-making process. Negative influence tactics are
behaviors that are more likely to strain relationships, hurt other team members, and/or damage
reputations. Tactics of this nature include legitimization, coalition, pressure, ingratiation, and
personal appeals (Barbuto & Scholl, 1999). When Yukl (2013) discusses proactive influence
tactics, he uses the concepts of agents and targets. Agents are the people who exert influence
targets, who are the people that experience the influence. Throughout our discussion on the
various influence tactics, you will see these terms being utilized often to further define the person
doing the influencing from the person who is receiving it.
Table 2
Proactive Influence Tactics
Proactive Influence Tactics
Positive Tactics
Rational
attempting to change another
persuasion
persons beliefs using
explanations, logical
arguments, and factual
evidence (Charbonneau,
2004)
Apprising

when one explains to another

how he/she will benefit from
complying (Wadsworth &
Blanchard, 2015)

Negative Tactics
Legitimization one referring to rules or
policies to establish his/her
authority in making a
request (Lewis-Duarte &
Bligh, 2012)
Coalition

require the agent to recruit

the assistance of others in
order to persuade or
influence the target into
agreement (Yukl & Falbe,
1990)

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11

Inspirational
appeals

to arouse an emotional
response in the target
(Charbonneau, 2004, p. 567)

Pressure

when an agent uses demands

or threats to influence the
target in his/her favor
(Lewis-Duarte & Bligh,
2012)

Consultation

when one seeks the targets

assistance in making a
decision or implementing a
task (Charbonneau, 2004)

Ingratiation

using flattery or praise, so

the target will be in a good
mood before the agent
requests anything from
him/her (Gravenhorst &
Boonstra, 1998)

Exchange

offering incentive or future

reciprocation in order to
receive the targets
commitment (Lewis-Duarte
& Bligh, 2012)

Personal
appeals

make a request of the target

out of friendship or loyalty
(Gravenhorst & Boonstra,
1998)

Collaboration

when one offers assistance to

another, and work is a joint
effort (Charbonneau, 2004)

Rational persuasion is attempting to change another persons beliefs using explanations,

logical arguments, and factual evidence (Charbonneau, 2004). For example, say you are working
in a team and writing a group paper, and you disagree with another team members belief on the
writing style for the paper. So, by using in-depth explanations and logical arguments, along with
any relevant facts, you have the opportunity to change the other team members thoughts on how
the paper should be written. A statement using rational persuasion could be, We should use
APA writing style because every paper we have submitted for this course has required that style;
therefore, this style is more likely to appease our professor. Charbonneau also states that
rational persuasion tends to achieve its goal whether or not the target is a peer, subordinate, or
superior. Apprising is when one explains to another how he/she will benefit from complying
(Wadsworth & Blanchard, 2015). When thinking about how this tactic is used in the scope of
teamwork, one can say to another, I am an expert in APA writing style, so you will not have to
worry about your citations. Ill format all of them! The disagreeing team member will now
benefit from his/her compliance by not having to do any formatting of citations for the paper.
Inspirational appeals are used when the agent wishes to arouse an emotional response
in the target by appealing to their values and beliefs (Charbonneau, 2004, p. 567). Inspirational
appeals have been said to inspire motivation for completing a task as well (2004). Using
inspirational appeals in just any situation may not be effective, however, so when one considers
using this form of influence, they should consider the project at hand and how it relates to the
target individual. For example, if the target is not passionate about planting trees to save the
environment, then inspirational appeals may not be effective when wanting to influence the
target to help with the cause. Consultation is used when you seek the targets assistance in

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12

making a decision. You may even be willing to modify a decision based on the targets concerns
and suggestions. Consultation can be used a lot in team situations. For example, although have
been assigned to write a portion of research paper on statistical analysis, you may seek feedback
from another team member to ensure the information you have written is clear to a third-party
reader.
When one uses exchange, they are offering an incentive to the target, or even promising
a return of favor for the targets work (Lewis-Duarte & Bligh, 2012). For example, the
statement, If you write the introduction for this paper, then I will pick up your dry cleaning, is
one that exemplifies the use of exchange and offering an incentive to the target. Another example
would be, If you turn in this assignment, I promise to turn in the next one. In this example, the
agent is offering reciprocity for completion of the task. Collaboration is similar to the idea of
consultation; however, using collaboration is when one offers assistance to a target, rather than
requesting assistance, and the work becomes a joint effort (Charbonneau, 2004). Collaboration
also comes with the elements of give and take, as it requires compromise in many situations.
There is, however, a con to collaboration, and that is the fact that it can take a lot of time, as both
agent and target typically try achieve consensus throughout the project, but it can also strengthen
a relationship between agent and target. On the other end, there are some influence tactics that
have potential negative impact on relationships, according to Barbuto & Scholl (1999); these
include: legitimization, coalition, pressure, ingratiation, and personal appeals.
Legitimization, or one referring to rules or policies to establish his/her authority in
making a request (Lewis-Duarte & Bligh, 2012), also encompasses using ones legitimate power
in order influence a target to comply with a request. When working in a team, it may or may not
be difficult to use legitimization depending on the teams organizational situation. For example,
should a group of students be aligned together to write a paper, it would be difficult for any of
the students to establish a legitimate role within the team, as all of the students are in the same
position--students. On the other hand, should a group be set in a professional organization, a
team may be comprised of many people from various levels in the organizational hierarchy; in
this situation, it may be easier to establish a legitimate role using this influence tactic.
Coalition tactics require the agent to recruit the assistance of others in order to persuade
or influence the target into agreement (Yukl & Falbe, 1990). As a result of using this tactic, the
target may feel ganged up on, which is why Barbuto and Scholl considered this strategy a
negative influence tactic. In a team situation, this tactic may be used more often than not, and
likely without agent awareness. Should, perhaps, only one team member disagrees, the agent,
along with remaining team members, may band together in order to persuade the disagreeing
member in their favor. Pressure is when an agent uses demands or threats to influence the target
in his/her favor (Lewis-Duarte & Bligh, 2012). An example statement of a student in a team
writing group using pressure would be, If you not finish the conclusion by tomorrow night, I
will give you the worst peer evaluation, ever. This statement pressures the target to get the
conclusion written in order to receive a positive peer evaluation from the agent.
When an agent uses ingratiation, he/she uses flattery or praise, so the target will be in a
good mood before the agent requests anything from him/her (Gravenhorst & Boonstra, 1998).
According to Lewis-Duarte and Bligh (2012), ingratiation is a tactic that would most likely be

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13

used in conjunction with at least one other tactic. An example of using ingratiation while
working in a team would be the agent offering the target positive comments on their writing
skills; flattery could be even more personal as the agent could mention good things about the
targets apparel. The last proactive influence tactic that was first introduced by Yukl, Falbe, and
Youn is personal appeals. Agents who use personal appeals make a request of the target out of
friendship or loyalty (Gravenhorst & Boonstra, 1998). Personal appeals are most often used
laterally, rather than in upward or downward directions in a hierarchy (Yukl, Falbe, & Youn,
1993; Gravenhorst & Boonstra, 1998), so for this tactic used in a team environment is not very
surprising, as work teams are often lateral.
Regardless of the influence tactic that one may use, there are three possible responses
from the target of influence--resistance, compliance, or commitment. Resistance is when the
responding person is opposed to the proposal or request and either refuses to carry it out;
attempts to explain why it is impossible to carry out; tries to influence the requester to change
his/her mind about the request; delays carrying out the request in hopes it will be forgotten; or
attempts to sabotage the task all together (Yukl, 2013, p. 188). There are some benefits to a
target resisting to carry out a request. For example, when a target attempts in explain why a
task is impossible, he/she may use positive influence tactics in order to do so, which may even
result in the discovery of flaws in the request or project. In addition, the person resisting is
creating a conflict within the team; however, not all conflict is bad. In fact, conflict can be key to
generating a more innovative or creative outcome (Thompson, 2011). In an effort to overcome
resistance, an agent could simply use additional influence tactics in an attempt to receive the
targets compliance or commitment in carrying out the request. When one is in compliance
with a request as a result of influence, he/she will carry out the request, but will do so with
minimal effort or enthusiasm; whereas commitment is when one makes a great effort to carry
out the request or implement the decision (Yukl, 2013, p. 188).
Using Influence in Virtual Teams
In recent years, technology has taken over organizations. Not only are computers now the
norm when it comes to operation a company, they are now a normal pathway to communicating
with team members. Virtual teams have become a new normal for many organizations,
especially those whose employees work across countries and oceans, or even from the comfort of
their own home (Thompson, 2011). The proactive influence tactics that we have discussed have
been primarily studied in face-to-face interactions. With the apparent rise in virtual teamwork,
how does influence play a role?
Wadsworth and Blanchard (2015) studied how influence was used in virtual teams by
interviewing people who work in virtual teams regularly. Members of virtual teams
communicate through a variety of tools such as: telephone, video and audio conferencing, instant
messaging, and file sharing. The scholars study first found that many of the same influence
tactics that are used in face-to-face teams are also used in virtual teams, but they also discovered
one additional form of influence tactic that was used--ambiguity reduction.
Ambiguity reduction is when team members clarify their request so that the target
better understands the request (2015, p. 389); as a result, the targets were more likely to comply

POWER AND INFLUENCE

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and follow through with completing the request. There were three techniques identified that
reduced ambiguity--sharing information, creating accountability, and providing examples.
Sharing information was noted as a challenge in virtual teams which is why it was considered a
necessary technique; this is the same for creating accountability and providing examples.
Although all three of these techniques are used in face-to-face teams, the use of them in virtual
teams was considered paramount to the teams success in this study.
Becoming a Person of Influence
As it was clearly demonstrated at the beginning of this chapter, influence, the ultimate
outcome of leadership, is not something inherent of the individual. Rather, it is something that
can be learned. Moreover, both anecdotal and evidence-based data demonstrate that there is not a
single approach for someone with power to become a true influencer. According to
Dilenschneider (2007), what ties it all together is respect (p. 175). In addition, we learned that
[the] balance between logic and emotion could be called the twin engines of persuasion and
influence (Mortensen, 2004, p. 183).
So, how can one attain respect through the persuasive power of both emotion and logic?
In other words, how can one become a person of influence all of the time? According to Maxwell
& Dornan (1997), one can easily identify a person with influence because, among other things,
he/she has integrity, is nurturing, has faith in others, listens to people, connect with people,
and empower others. This following discusses strategies on how you can become a person of
positive influence when working in teams.
The first strategy is to embrace integrity as all levels, all time. This moral compass
quality allows one to adhere to honesty as an unchanging standard in every circumstance of life.
Think of integrity as having benefits similar to that of a houses foundation during a huge
storm. If the foundation is sound, then it will hold up against the raging waters. But when
there are cracks in the foundation, the stress of the storm deepens the cracks until
eventually the foundationand then the whole housecrumbles under pressure
(Maxwell & Dornan, 1997, p. 20).
A team leader, or anyone aspiring to influence others for that matter, will only succeed if his or
her integrity foundation is devoid of cracks.
Secondly, another element toward becoming a person of influence is through nurturing.
What does it mean? We nurture others when meet certain fundamental needs in others. When we
do that, we can guarantee that we will have lasting influencing impact in the recipients.
If you look around, youll discover that there are people in your life who want to be
fedwith encouragement, recognition, security, and hope. That process is called
nurturing, and its a need of every human being. If you desire to become an influencer in
other peoples lives, start by nurturing them (Maxwell & Dornan, 1997, p. 38).

POWER AND INFLUENCE

15

Next, a key condition conducive to persuasive leadership in teams or any other setting is
through developing the art of active, engaging listening. By doing that, you show respect to the
person, and as a result, the persuasion is inevitable. In other words,
[If you really want to become a person of influence,] you would need one skill over all
others, more than talent, discernment, or charm. It is the one skill that all great leaders
recognize as indispensable to their ability to influence others and succeedIt is the
ability to listen [Listening is so crucial that whenever] you dont pay attention to what
others have to say, you send them the message that you dont value them. But when you
listen to others, you communicate that you respect them. [I]f you want to relate to well to
others, you have to be willing to focus on what they have to offer. Be impressed and
interested, not impressive and interesting (1997, p. 79, 81).
Furthermore, another key element in influencing others is through the power of connecting with
them.
When we think of connecting with people, we compare it to trains and what happens to
them in a train yard. The cars sitting on the tracks in a train yard have a lot of things
going for them. They have value because theyre loaded with cargo; they have a
destination; and they even have a route by which to get to that destination. But they dont
have a way of getting anywhere on their own. To do anything of value, they have to hook
up with a locomotive...A similar thing must happen before you can get people to go with
you on a journey. You have to find out where they are, move toward them to make
contact, and connect with them (1997, p. 161).
Lastly, a fundamental element for any aspiring influencer is his or her capability to
empowering others. Without doing this, it is both anecdotally and empirically unlikely to achieve
effective persuasion toward transformation. Why is this tool so essential?
When you become an empowered, you work with and through people, but you do much
more. You enable others to reach the highest levels in their personal and professional
development. Simply defined, empowering is giving your influence to others for the
purpose of personal and organizational growth. Its sharing yourselfyour influence,
position, power, and opportunitieswith others with the purpose of investing in their
lives so that they can function at their bestThe act of empowering others changes lives,
and its a win-win situation for you and the people you empower (1997, p. 178).
Conclusion
Based on all the evidence presented, it is safe to conclude that it takes more than power to
influence others. There seems to be a series of rules and other forms of persuasion beyond the
traditional assumption of automatic persuasion based on power alone. This presents an
opportunity for students of leadership to continue exploring the field for provocative theories as
the twenty-first century continues to unfold. This can be particularly true as we continue to see
unprecedented fast-paced technological advances available primarily to a younger generation
that is not as much impressed by traditional symbols of power as were our ancestors.

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Application
The two mini case studies presented in this section will help you apply your knowledge
of power and influence to real-world scenarios.
Mini Case #1
Dr. John Manor is the Superintendent for Dade-Davidson Unified School District, a large
urban school district in Ocana, Tennessee. Four years ago, Dr. Manor hired Dr. Marie Gonzalez
to oversee the districts curriculum and instruction. This past school year, the overall high school
graduation rate improved by 10%, out of the 20% benchmark. Moreover, the districts overall
test scores improved from a C to a B-, versus the projected A.
After receiving the report at the end of May this year, Dr. Manor became very agitated
and met with Dr. Gonzalez to address the issue. The first thing that came out of Dr. Manors
mouth at that meeting was that he was very disappointed in Dr. Gonzalez, and that he expected
the graduation rate to improve by 25% for 2016, and test scores to be an A. He added that he
should fire her. Dr. Gonzalez tried to explain that the district needed to invest more in family and
community outreach programs, but Dr. Manor interrupted her saying that was ludicrous and that
it was her responsibility to fix the issue some other way, perhaps firing inadequate teachers. Dr.
Gonzalez was frustrated but told her boss she would make sure to do exactly as he said.
Last week, Dr. Gonzalez resigned from the Dade-Davidson Unified School District to
work as the Executive Director for New Beginnings Charter School District, which has seen an
increase of student enrollment in recent years, and is Dade-Davidsons main competitor. Dr.
Gonzalez took with her 12 of the top-rated high school teachers in Dade-Davidson Unified
School District.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

What type of Leadership Power(s) do you think Dr. Manor has?

Why do you think Dr. Gonzalez resigned?
Who is more powerful but with little influence? Explain.
Who has little power, but more influence? Explain.
Can you identify one or more violations of the Laws of Persuasions learned in the chapter
that contributed to Dr. Gonzalezs resignation?

Mini Case #2
Mrs. Judith Stephan has been the owner and manager of Dollar Cellar Thrift Store for
more than thirty years. The community she serves is located in a suburban area in Dade County,
Florida. She has 12 employees of diverse ethnic backgrounds. Because the business is booming,
she thought she needed more time to plan the expansion into other areas over the next five years.
In order to do that, she hired Johnny Algeria, a recent community college graduate. His prior job
experience was as a part-time assistant manager at a gas station, which provided a great letter of
recommendation on his behalf.

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17

Mrs. Stephan decided to train Johnny from day one in every aspect of Dollar Cellar, and
the thrift industry in general, for that matter. She and her husband even invited him to their house
for dinner and ensured that he had his most fundamental needs covered. In fact, Mrs. Stephan, in
particular, became a mother figure for Johnny as his own mother had passed away three weeks
after he had been hired as a manager. Six years later, Johnny is the Regional Manager of fifteen
Dollar Cellar stores across the county, overseeing equal number of manager.
1. To what extent Mrs. Stephan became a person of influence?
2. Based on Maxwell & Dornans approach, what particular tools did Mrs. Stephen use
toward Johnnys successful career?
3. What type of power style(s) do you think Mrs. Stephan possesses?

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Chapter Glossary
(listed in order of appearance)

persuasion
process of changing or reforming attitudes, beliefs, or opinions (Mortensen, 2004, p.
9); The ability to persuade is power, for good or for badMost of us are not born
persuadersthe arts of persuasion and influence are not gifts we inherently possess
(2004, p. 7)
Laws of Persuasion
twelve universally accepted theories for persuasion that have proven to be fundamental in
the power-influence continuum. Understanding [these] Laws of Persuasion involves
understanding the human psyche (Mortensen, 2004, p. 19)
focus and measure
refers to the notion that influencers concentrate their efforts about the result they are
trying to achieve and are zealous about measuring it (Grenny et al, 2013, p. 13).
Vital behaviors
actions that produce the greatest amount of change. (Grenny et al, 2013).
sources of influence
all of the varied forces that are shaping the behavior [influencers] want to change and
then get them working for rather than against them (Grenny et al, 2013, p. 14)
Emotional Intelligence (EI)
Skills and characteristics that influence a persons ability to succeed as a leader
(Mosley et al, 2011, p. 249)
power
the capacity to influence other people (Galinsky, Magee, Inesi, & Gruenfeld, 2006)
position power
inherent as a result of a persons position (Yukl, 2013)
personal power
obtained through agent-target relationships (Yukl, 2013)
authority
that which determines the level of influence on another; springs from accepted influence
attempts (Jarvis, 2012)
consensual power
power that requires participation and commitment from followers (Jarvis, 2012)
power by consent
acceptance of a system and its embedded hierarchies (Overbeck, 2010);
legitimate power
power that is acquired as the result of a particular role (Jarvis, 2012)
reward power
one using his/her position to bestow positive outcomes (Bruins, 1999)
coercive power
one using his/her position to bestow negative outcomes (Bruins, 1999); using influences
based on fear (Jarvis, 2012)
referent power
comes from someone admiring another and wishing to please them (Overbeck, 2010;
Jarvis, 2012)

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19

expert power
having knowledge about how to perform a task or solve an important problem, creating
dependence on the agent (Yukl, 2013, p. 191)
informational power
having control over information and its distribution (Raven, 2008; Yukl, 2013)
ecological power
having control over the physical environment, technology, and organization of the
work (Yukl, 2013)
social power
power that is embedded in and works through the social structure and norms of a
community (Ng, 1980, p. 3); e.g. accountant works with numbers, salesperson works
with people, artist works with marketing, etc.
hierarchy
an implicit or explicit rank order of individuals or groups with respect to a valued
social dimension (Magee & Galinsky, 2008, p. 354)
informal hierarchy
person-dependent social relationships of dominance and subordination which emerge
from social interaction and become persistent over time through repeated social
processes (Diefenbach & Sillince, 2011, p. 1517)
tactics
proactive behaviors designed to change another persons attitudes, beliefs, values or
actions (Barbuto, Fritz, & Marx, 2002)
influence
a force one person (the agent) exerts on someone else (the target) to induce a change in
the target, including changes in behaviors, opinions, attitudes, goals, needs, and values
(Bruins, 1999, p. 8)
positive tactics
those that are less likely to harm relationships when you use them; rational persuasion,
apprising, inspirational appeal, consultation, exchange, and collaboration (Barbuto &
Scholl, 1999)
negative tactics
those that strain relationships, hurt others, and/or damage reputations; includes
legitimization, coalition, pressure, ingratiation, and personal appeals (Barbuto & Scholl,
1999)
proactive influence tactics
used in an attempt to alter anothers point of view
agents
the people who exert influence
targets
the people that experience the influence
ambiguity reduction
when team members clarify their request so that the target better understands the
request (Wadsworth & Blanchard, 2015, p. 389)
rational persuasion
attempting to change another persons beliefs using explanations, logical arguments, and
factual evidence (Charbonneau, 2004)

POWER AND INFLUENCE

20

apprising
when one explains to another how he/she will benefit from complying (Wadsworth &
Blanchard, 2014)
inspirational appeal
to arouse an emotional response in the target (Charbonneau, 2004, p. 567)
consultation
when one seeks the targets assistance in making a decision or implementing a task
(Charbonneau, 2004)
exchange
offering incentive or future reciprocation in order to receive the targets commitment
(Lewis-Duarte & Bligh, 2012)
collaboration
when one offers assistance to another, and work is a joint effort (Charbonneau, 2004)
legitimation
one referring to rules or policies to establish his/her authority in making a request (LewisDuarte & Bligh, 2012)
coalition
require the agent to recruit the assistance of others in order to persuade or influence the
target into agreement (Yukl & Falbe, 1990)
pressure
when an agent uses demands or threats to influence the target in his/her favor (LewisDuarte & Bligh, 2012)
ingratiation
uses flattery or praise, so the target will be in a good mood before the agent requests
anything from him/her (Gravenhorst & Boonstra, 1998)
personal appeals
make a request of the target out of friendship or loyalty (Gravenhorst & Boonstra, 1998)
Responses to influence attempts (Resistance, Compliance, or Commitment)
resistance
when the responding person is opposed to the proposal or request
compliance
when the responding person is willing to carry out the request but uses minimal
effort to do so
commitment
when the responding person makes a great effort to carry out the request or
implement the decision (Yukl, 2013, p. 188)
ambiguity reduction
when team members clarify their request so that the target better understands the
request (Wadsworth & Blanchard, 2015, p. 389)
leading with respect
the extent to which an influencer makes people voluntarily and willingly follow their
lead to fulfill the goals of the organization because they know they will be made to feel
part of something larger than themselves (Dilenscheneider, 2007, p. 175)
integrity

POWER AND INFLUENCE

21

the extent to which one can instill trust in others; Think of integrity as having benefits
similar to that of a houses foundation during a huge stormIntegrity is the quality most
needed to succeed in business (Maxwell & Dornan, 2006, p. 21)
nurturing
the action upon which influencers meet certain needs in others such as encouragement,
recognition, etc.; not to create a pattern on leadership dependency, rather, because they
want to free their followers to pursue their fullest potential (Maxwell & Dornan, 2006)
listening
the extent to which an influencer is impressed and interested, versus portraying
himself/herself as impressive and interesting (Maxwell & Dornan, 2006)
connecting with people
the notion that the influencer (leader) should always find ways to initiate connections
with others toward meaningful partnerships; especially important when the potential
followers are going through adverse times (Maxwell & Dornan, 2006)
empowering others
the extent to which influencers share their knowledge, influence, and delegate tasks with
their followers to help them be more confident and productive (Maxwell & Dornan,
2006)

POWER AND INFLUENCE

22
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