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Atmospheric Aeaf,(db
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The quantity of radiation from the Sun that strikes the

outer edge of Earth's atmosphcrc at any one place is
not constant but varies with thc scasons. This excrcisc
examines, stcp-by-step, what happens to solar radiation as it passes through the atmosphcrc, is absorbed
at Earth's surface, and is reradiated by land and watcr
back to the atmosphere (Figure 13.1). Investigating the
iournev of solar radiation and how it is influenced and
modified by ai1 land, and water will provide a better

understanding of one of the most basic weather ele-

rD

Objectives

{O

After you havc completed this cxcrcise, you should be

,b

ro

ments, atm()spheric temperaturc.

able to;

how Earth's atmosphere is heated.

2. Describe the effect that tlrc atmosphere has on
absorbing, scattering, and reflecting incoming
solar radiation.
List thc gases in the atmosphere that are rcsPonsible for absorbing long-wave radiation.
Explain how the heating of a surface is related to
1. Explain

its albedo.
Discuss thc differences in thc lreating and cooling

Mnl cria

of land and water.

Summarize the global pattern of surface temPer-

light source
black and silvcr

atures for January and July.

7. Descrlbc how the temperature of the atmosphere
changes with increasing altitude.
8.
9.

List the cause of a surface temPerature inversion.

Determine thc effect that wind speed has on the
windchill equivalent tcmperature.

Materials
calculator
colored pencils

Figure 13.1 Solar radiation and atmospheric heating. (Photo by

E..J. Tarbuck)

<S

tr

ppl

itd

br1

Your I nst r uctor

wood splints
beaker of sand
beaker of water

contalners

two thermometers

Terms
solar radiation
greenhouse
effect

albedo

isotherm

environmental

windchill

terrestrial

temperature
inversion

radiation

lapse rate

equivalent
temPeTature

190

Part Three

Meteorology

3. Explain thc reason why thc interrsity and duration of solar radiation receivcd at the outer eclgc

lntroduction
Temlrcraturc is an important element of weathcr and
clim.rtc, becausc it trr\ttl) in[luence: air pressurc,
wind, and tl.rc anrount of moisture in the air Thc unequal hcatirrg that takcs place over the surface of Earth
is what sets the. irtmosphere in motion, and the movement of air is what brings changes in our weathcr
Thc single greatest cause for temperaturc variations over thc strrfacc of Earth is differences in the rcce'ption of solar radiation. Sccondary factors such as
the c{iffcrcntial heating of land and watet ocean currents, ancl altitucie can modify local temperatures

The amount of solar energy (radiation) striking

Earth is not constant throughout the year at any particular place, nor is it uniform over the face of Earth at
any one timc. However, thc total amount of radiation
that thc irlanet intercePts from the Sun equals the krtal
radiation that it loses back to spacc. It is this balance
bctween incoming and outgoing radiation that kccps
Earth from bccoming continuously hotter or coldet

Solar Radiation at the Outer Edge

of the Atmosphere
The two factors that control the amount of solar radia-

tion that a square meter rcceives at the outer edge of

the atmosphere, and eventuallv Earth's surface, are thc
Sun's irfllsif-y ancl its duratiotl. These variables were
examined in dctail in Exercise 12, "Earth-Sun Relations." Answcr questions 1-3 after you have reviewed
Exercisc 12.

Briefly dcfinc'solar intensity arrd d

r.$\e+

cl"$r!,9tfr11r.9 [r."fuo,r*

the ansre that

thc noon Sun would strike the outer edgc of the

atmosphere at each of the indicated latitudes on
the specificd date. Horn' many hours of daylight

would each place experience on thesc

dates?

(Hirrt; Yru may find Tables 12.1 and 12.2 in Exercise l2 hclpful.)

ANGLE

+).
,$ef rD

een efn\s P

LENGTH

OF

DAY

NOON SUIi

LENGTH OF

ANGLE

DAY

e
o
o
o
o

Atmospheric Heating

Atmospheric hcating is a function of (1) thc' ability of

atmospheric gascs to absorb radiation, (2) thc amount

reaches Earth's surface', ancl

(3) the naturc of the surfacc material. Of the three, sclective absorption of radiation by the atmosphere prt>
vidcs an insight into the mechanism of atmospheric
hcating. The quantity of radiation that reachcs Earth's
surface and the ability of the surfacc to absorb and
rcradiatc thc radiation detcrmine the exterlt of atmospheric heating.
The atmosphere is rather sclcctive and cfficiently
absorbs lone-wave radiation tlrat we detect as hcat

of solar radiatton that

while allowins the transmission of most of thc short

wavelengths-a proccss called the greenhouse effect.
Thc short-wave radiation that reaches Earth's surface
and is absorbed ultimately returns to the atmosphere
in thc form of long-wave, terrestrial radiation. As the
radiation travels up from the surface thmugh the atmosphere, it is absorbed by atmospheric gascs, heating the atmosphere from below Sincc terrestrial
radiatiorr supplies most of thc long-wave radiation to
the atmosphere, it is the primary source of heat. The
fact that temperature typically dccrcascs with an incrcasc in altitude in thc lower atmosphere is clear evidence supporting this mechanism of atmospheric
heir tins,
Solar Radiation Received
at Earth's Surface
As solar radiation travels throuSh the atmosphere, it
may be reflected, scattered, or absorbed. The cffcct of
the atmosphere on incoming solar radiation and the
amount of radiation that ultimately reaches the surfarce
is primarily dependent upon the angle at which the
solar beam passes through the atmosphere and strikes
Earth's surface.

Noon Sun angle and length ot day

NOON SUN

of the atmosphere is not constant rrt any particular latitude throughout the ycar.

Figure 13.2 illustrates the atmospheric effects on

incoming solar radiation for an averagc noon Sun
anglc. Answer questions 4-7 by examining the figure
and supplying the conect rcsponse.
.'\ / 11
4. 3V/ A percent of thc incrrming strlar radiation
is reflected and scattered back to space.

5.

29!/4

o
o
o
O

Ia
o
o

ol

a
o
o

oi
o,

I
I
t

percent of the incoming solar racliation

is absorbed by gases in the atmosphere and clouds,

Exe.crse Th rteen / Atmospheric Heat ng

I
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D
D

t
t
t
,
t
t
,
,

I
tD
D

t
,

t
t
D

t
)
t

Figwe 13.2

Solar radration budget of the atmosphere and Earth.

5(J1 L

lterccnl tlt th('inc(,nrinA s,)l.rr radi,rti(,n

is absorbed at Earth's surface.

7.

dil, 'rfiTfrto ) lim('s as much inctrmin6

ilU-+i.*;-af-..rrt t'd by f arth s surlcce th,ur bv
rr r

the atmosphere arnd cloucls. Circle vour answer.

.E

.9

.!
!

Figure 13.3 illustratcs thc cffccts of the atmosphc'rc

on various wavelengths of ladiation. Use Figure 13.3 kr
answcr questions tl 11 by circling the correct resPonsc.

Uttra-

8. The incoming solar radiation that passes througlr

the rtmospht'rc.rr1'l : " 'l',.1 . i I- I' )\
fa. i nrimarilr :i. !llc l()rm ol {t'lrf.t' l.'lqt/. i
F|, i,ri, ,rei; wavclengihs.
9. -When the surface relcascs the solar radiation it
has ab:orbed, this terrestrial-r'ad ia tion i.' prim.l ri-

}jrltriolt']sible46Alq,avelengths.
Infrared) wrvelengths of ral0( llnrviolet.
1L

)Visiblt',

ilifian-f,Td1rb'r'rbed efficicntty b1 orygen and

ozone in the atmosphere.

11. Oxygen and ozone are (goo

Visibe

Longwave

r9Lq4qave
radiation

l,ayo'
o'%

1oo%

_-'-

__(r_..

lnfrared

$?

;ffi

a%

oa'a

o
o

<1 oo%

rbers of

Hzo

l
l
)

t
)
D

most of the terrestrial radiation in the atmosphere.

Assume Figure 13.2 represents the atmospheric effects on incoming solar radiation for an average noon
Sun angle of about 50". Answer questions 13-16 concerning other noon Sun angles by circling the aPpro-

prlate responses.

0.2 0.30.4

0.6 0.41

Wav6lensth(pn) atmospherc
inlEred rad ar on

Figure 13.3 The absorptivity of seLected gases of the atmosphere

and the atmosphere as a whole.

192

Part Three

Meteorology

13. lf thl norrrr 5rrn nltIl( i5(](l , sr rl.rLr.t!\i' litrr r nottltl

h,r\'(. t,) Irer'r('trJte .r (ArL.Jf('y'1(s:cr) tlr!*rrc:' of
,

l tn r(

trl r hc

rc

r.i l r

\\'

tI

r .l r't .l \'

r\gC-h-$n S

nA

('.

lhe rt.trlt $,1 { et) nootr Sutt arrgle rrrrttltl bt'tlr.tt

{m,'r1 {g::L[ra'nrirrF r,r,1i,]ti()n rr rrLrlr.l bL rcflt'ckr{,
scattcrcd, and absorbed by the- atmospherc ancl
7ffi1-J.)r1 r-,r,1i.th(,r'r w"uU be,throrl.t tl .rtr(l rer.r\iffil--l\ [:arth'. srrrf,tcr' to ltr'.rt tlrL ,ttmr'.P]tr'rr'.
15. lf tlre nrxrn Sun anglc is 20", solar racliation n oultl

I{.

havc. to l.renctratc ae@eEe

Albedo Experiment
To lrettcr rurdcrstiurd the effcct of color on albcdo, observe the equipnrcnt in the l.rborirbr\' (Figurc 13..1)
and then contlrrct thc follon'ing t'xpcrimcnt bv complcting each of the irdicalcd steps.
Step 1:

Wlite a brief hypotht'sis stating tlre heirting

ancl cooling of light versus clark colorccl surfa

ccs.

r) thickness of at-

mospherc tlran rvith-.rrrarera-llc rlootr Suu angle.

16, Th(' result of a 20' troon Srttr angle would be that
-.less) ircoming racliation wor-rtd bc r"c.@,
\-llctdl;sca tter('d, a nrl .r bsorbccl by thc' a tmos

wout,l l',.'
l)lr(,re .r'r(l {r',r"r,.7ffi]lJi.rti,,ir
\'.'' --.<.1
bv F.trtlt'. sur[.rtc to
ah.r'rbctl .lr't(l r'( f.r(fr.)t('d
heirt the atrl1osphcre.

17. I Ion, is thc auglc (intensity) at u'hich tht' solrrr

beam strikes Earth's surfarcc relatcd to thc quantity
of solar radiatiorr receivcd by cach scluart'

Step 2: PJace the black ancl silver cor.rtainers (n'ith lids

arncl tlrcrmonlcters) about six inclrt's trrsav
from tlre light sourcc. Mrkc'certain that both
containcrs are of t'qu.rl dist.rnce from thc light
ancl arc not touching ()ne.rn()thel.

o
o
o
o
o
o
a
o

o
o

O.

Step 3: Ilecord thc slrrlir.rg tcml.rcraturc of l.roth containcrs orl thc albedo experiment data tablc,
-l"able

18.

i?!nte.l k, th' q,,,r n,18,1,1li,..u,..9",t .Vi

tity of sola r radiatiol receivcri by cach square
meter at the surfilc('?

Step 5: Trrrn off the light ancl continue to recorc1 the

temperatrrres at 30-seconrl inttrr,als for anothc.r 5

ic 14."p

,n.fi ft

13.2.

Step 4: Turn orr the light trntl record the temper.rture

of botlr containe'rs on thc drta table at about
3O-secrxd intcr-\'als f()r 5 minutes.

-gllSgncueiue

responsible for hcating tlrc atmosphcre.

nism"0"\,,"r<,,?1"*g"ui9u,Lg,fr

minutcs.

u' l)lot thc tcmpcratures from the'ciata tal.rle otr

the albedo expc.riment gr.rph, Irigure 13.5. Use
tr diffi.rent color linc to conncct the points for
cach conta irrc

r.

I I
\
- --tlrt- et
f
t"n0 sPr\
The Nature of Earth's Surlace
Thc various mrteriitls tl'lat comprise Iartlr's surfarcr,'
play an important role in detcnnining atmosphl ri,l
heating. Two significant factors arc the albedo of the
surfacc and tlre cliffcrclrt abilitie's of land and water [o
absorb and rcradia tc racliatittn.
Albcdo is tl.rc rcflectivitv of a substance, ttsually
t'xpresscd as thc percentagc Of radiation that is rcflect('d from thc. surfacc. Since sttrfirccs with high albcdos
are rrot efficient absorbcrs of racliatit)n, they cannot return much long-*'ave radiatiotr to the atmosphcre for
ne.lnrllj.

Figure

13.4

A bedo experiment ab equrprnent

ol

Exercise Thirteen / Atmospher

Table

13"2

Albedo experiment data table

3.5

2.5 3

5,5

6.5

MIN MIN MIN MIN MIN IIIIN MIN MIN MIIi

(t

o
o
o
o
o
o
o

!D

a
o

100.

c!6

ghail ar", L dor)\ h.d-]:-Le

tft,\rnrp*,V k"r,Q,[nFJ"."o

eo"

qo"

30"

26"

24.

cr o

thes on a

sunny summer day?

*"i
,r2

80"

j.in t\tr;:i*-' *- '

q,:

winters;
If yoyliw!-,inn an area with long, colcl winters,

(ligh(.glqlj
20"

cobred roof n'ould be thc best choice

for vour housc. Circlc vttur anslr'er. Explain thc
reasons for your choice.

.-:!::=====F
rN(,Slr)(Ol-@O)O

Figure

13.5

Albedo experiment graph.

Write.l st,rtement lhat i,trmm.lrizqs and r.'rplains

the rc:rrlts o[ your,rlbedo c\pe rim('nt.

r
nt

)r

Land and Water Heating Experiment

Larrd and water influcnce the air temPeratures abovc
them in cliffcrcnt manncrs because thelr do not absorb
and rcradiatc cncrgy equally
Investig.rte thc cliffcrential hcating of lantl and
water by obscn,ing the equiPment in the laboratory
(Figurc 13.6) ancl conducting the following experiment
by comp)eting cach of the indicated steps.
Step 1:

Fill one bcaker three-c.luurtcrs full with dry

sa:rd and tr second bclker thrcc-quarters full
with watcr at room tcmPer.rture,

F
p

2
3
r?

/t

surface, '.h.. n rr ()\/cr a snow-covered surface lvill

air abo."e a dark-colored,
bc (warnrr
your answer. Then explain
vour choice fully in terms of what you have
lcarned about albedo.

a
a
lj

FI

l0
MIN

22. Civcn equal amounts of radiation reaching thc

b
a
a

3.5 9 9.5
MIN MIN MIII

t80 7q

7
MIN

,(,

a
o

c Heating 193

Step 2: Using a wood spJirrt, suspcnd a thermometer

irr each beaker so that the bulbs are ftisl Leioru
the surfaccs of thc sand and water
21.

What are some Earth surfaces that have high

albedos and

High albedos:
Low albedos:

that have

hw

Step 3: Hang a light from a stand so it is cqually as

closc as possible to the top of the two beakers.
Step 4: Ii.ecord the starting tcmperatures for both the

dry sand and water ttn the land and water

hcating data table, Tablc

13.3.

194

Part Three

l\4eteoro ogy

*l
ou'1
46.1

9rr'd

44.1

42ll
()

*"1

g- 38'l
E

*l

100'

32"

fr

E 34'l
E

o
o

30'l
28"

o
o

i.

261
24"

I
l

22'I
I

20" L

.E-

.E

Figure

13.7

.EEE .g
EE

70"

o
o

.E

Land and water heat ng graph.

different color linc to connect the points for

each material.

Figure

13.6

Land and water heat ng experiment lab equipment.

Questions 25a and 25b rcfcr to the land and

water heating experiment.

o
o

How do the abilities to change temperature

differ for dry sand and warter when they are

a.

cxposed to equal quantities of radiation?

for 10 minutes.
Step 5r Turn off the light for sevcral minutes. Dampen

o,

the sand with water and record the starting

temperature of the damp sand on the data
table. Turn on thc light and record the tempcrature of the darnp sand on the data table at
about onc-minute intcrvals for 10 minutes.
Step 7: Plot the temperatures for the water, dry sand,
and damp sand from the data table on the land
and water heating graph, Figure 13.7. Use a

Land and water heating data

2MIN

3MIN

MIN 5 MIN 6 MIN

slo,rt

table

STARTING I MIN

!(

are exposed to equal qutrntities of racliation?

['.enf s
13.3

J
O

Step 5: Turn on the light and record the temperature

on the data table at about one-minute intcrvals

Table

?
o

7 MIN

MIN

10 MIN

I
I

Exercrse Thrlteen / Almospheric Hcatrng

Suggest st'r t'rirl reirsons for thc

ing oi lancl itutl rvater.

lo

t:

u.,\ r a\ t\

\J\l

F'

b
,f
iro
1b

o
o
,a

Describt' tht' t'ffu t that thr' loc.rtion, akrng thc

or i|l the center of .l c(ntin('nt, lrirs rtn tltt'
tcn]p(,r.rtrlre of a c it\i

cliffelenlill hcat-

c()dst

e^\er

\t

\.-. b,ens.- Ul clev re[\*]s

t:
lo
lo
lo
lo
lo
to
lo
ro

195

Atmospheric Tem peratures

nir

tcmpcratulr,s .trc n()t c()nstnltt. Ihcv norntallv

( l) th|.(rugh tinre ,tt .tnv oll(' krc.ttion, (2) r.r'ith
la ti tucle Lrcc,luse of tlrt' charrging srrn .rrrgle' arrtl lt.ngth
oi davlight, ancl (3) riith inclc.rsirrs irltitudc in th('
lowt'r atmosl-rhr.rc bt'c,rttse the.rtntr.rsf-ht'r'e is l-r-irrarjlv
hcirtc.cl ilorl the bottorl trp.
clrangt'

curt'ts lor two citi('s, A.nd l], th.rt.lr(' krcutr,cl in Nortlr

nn]eric.l at approxirr,rtch 3T'N latituclc. (-)n anv 11.rtt'
b()th citi(.s lcccivt'thc sanre intensit\,,rrrtl tlrrrirtion ol'
sol.rl racliation. Ont'city is in the c(.nt('r of thc contit'tt'nt, rvhilc tl'rc othcr is on thc \\'cst coust. Usc Iiiglue
13.li to lnsu,t'r r.ltrr.stiorrs 27-3-1.

-T'\

27. lrr Figure 13.8, citv (n, Ll)h.rs the highest me.n
nl()nth lXonr p('r.ltu n.. ('irclt'yorrr arrsr.r,cr.
2$. Cit\' (Ai B) has thc lorvcst me.rn nrtrnthlv tcrrrpcr
.l t1l l-('-

fr). llr(' gr'('at('st

ntrrItnI

I Il)unItn'

mrr.qt'

(tliffert'ltcc

trctr.vt't'n higlrt'st .rncl lorvt'st rXcarr n'toltthly

tr('r.r trrr('s) occuls.rt citv (A,Q)

10.

iiv (4,(l))rcaclres its ln.rximuln rnc.rn montltlv

t('nrp('r'l

tiiif

at Jn oarlicr c{.rtr'.

3t. Citt, {A,)ll) rn.rint.rins .t rnort' unifornr tenrpcratLrrc' tMtrghotrt thc t,e.tr.
iti0s, citv A is most likc'lv locah:tl
'ceDt('r of n con trnent).
Ioc.rtion for city IJ is (coastal,

Daily Temperatures
Itr gcncral, the tlailV t('nr[](.rdtur('s tl't,tt ()ccLlr.tt,lnv
1r,trtierrl.rr 1'l.r. t' .r rr l h,.' r'q:ul I ol lL,rr$-rr,rr t, r.rJ r.rl r,'ir
be'ing rcleasetl .rt li.lrtlr's suriircc'. Hou e r-e r', secontlnrv
i.r( hlrs, \u( h ,r. il('uLl r'()\('r.llt(l (t,l(l ,l|| nl,r\ inA itltr)
tlre alr.a, can also carrse. sigliiic.rnt vJrinti()ns.
Qucstions 35 -12 rtfcr kr the claily t(.nrperitrrrc
graph, l:igLrr c l3.c).
35. Thc coolcst t('nrp('rilture

of thc clav ()ccurs,tt

. l-ill irt ,, r,rrr ,rr'rr

cr'.

36, Il're r\,irn]1('st tet)tp('TiltLt[(, ()ccuts,tt _.

37. Wh.rt is thc r/nilt7 /r'rti|r'rrifti rr'l.rr,{('(rliifelcnce b('t11 (\.rl nr.r\iltlL||l] .trt11 nt in i rtrrrrl] lr'rtrl'r'r.tllrr'r'. lirI
thc tlal,)?

I)irilytcnrpcr.rtu('rarsc:

rd-col'l

"I](-'(l).

Vernal Summer Autumnal Winter

equinox solstice equinox solstice
75.

24'

tr:

|o

t1\ -

18 9
P

60'

--5'

MJ

6AM

J ASOND

Figure 13.8 l\,4eaf monthly tenperatures for two North Amencan

crtres located at approx rnately 37'N lat tude

Noon

6PM

13',

Time

Figure

13.9

Typrca dar y temperature graph for a rtr d-latrtude c ty

0!fing Ine suntmer.