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B2 Basic Training

Course
TechnicalTraining
Manual
M 13
Aircraft Aerodinamics, structures and
systems

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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

ehnika

t-rgure J: Potenliometer
Linoar Potentiomet. ...

Angular Potentlomtot

Figure 4: Res i stor, Rheost<~t and P~tentiometer

Variable Resistor

Rheoatat

Potentiometer

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

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tehnika

Figure 6:.

Synchros

r-------,

Introduction

A typical synchro has a rotor and three stator coils. The coils in the stat.or are at
120 degrees with respect to each other. Thls unit acts like 3 control transformers

contained in one unit.


figure 5;

s,

R,

s,
Rl

Symbol

'Z

] c Lv
f l o

u~

~
Synchros use 26 VAC or 115 VAC for excitation of the. rotor. The excitation mal(as
a m&gnetic fteld in lhe rotOf' coil. This magnetic fiald lnducas a 11o1taga in lhe stator
coils. The 11oltages in lha stator coils are in-phase or 180 degrees out-ot-phase
with respect to each other. The \/Oitage in the staCor coils depends on the angle
betweeo the rotor coft and eadl stator co~. When we turn the rotoc, the magnetic
field In the stator also turns and the vottages In the staler coils change.

s,

Jc
t-

.Dry-

synchro
Princ:iplo

90

]c+
1 j 180'

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

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Direct Torquer Systems

Figure 7:

The output signal of a synchro Is M AC signal which has angular infomlation. The
synchro's whictl make these signals are synchro transmitters.
These transmitters are of the okl multi-eo~ type or of the latest solid-state type. The
multi-coil type makes froln a rnechanlcel input a synchro signal, the second from
an electrical input
In a synchro system we conned the three output signals of a synchro transmitter
to the Ulree inputs of a synchro (reoelvGf). The lleld that is made by the rotor of Ule
synchro transmitter is now repeated in the stator of the synchro receiver.

f: __

Syncflro

Transmlner

Synchro

Receit..,.

Before the rotor of the receiver takes the position of the field in the stator we have
to make a field in the rotor of the receiver. This field must be 1so out of phase with
the field made by the syochro transmitter. The rotor of tile synchro receiver now
goes to the same position as the rotor of the synchro transmitter. Any time we
change the position of the rotor of the synchro transmitter the rotor ot the receiver
follows this turn.

--G

'!'1-

TX =Torque Tran,.mlttr Sync:hro Transmitler


TA To.-que A.....,iter

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

=Syncnro Recelfer

ehnika

Servo Systems
The rotor of a synchro receiver gtves a llmlted torque for other systems. When thts
torque is not high enough we have to u~ e servo system.
In a sync:hro-servo system the rotor of the synchro receiver gi ves a signal to a servo amplifier. In this system the rotor of the receiver is not connected to a supply
source but it m akes a signal from the stator-field in the r eoeiver synehro. The output signal of the servo amplifier drives a motor. The motor drives. via a reducllon
gear, the rotor of the sync:hro receiver and a load.
When the output signal of the rotor or the synchro reoei ver i s not zero, the servo
amplifier drives the motor. The motor adjusts the position of the rotor of the synchro receiver and the lOad until the outpot signal of this rotor fs zero. This output
signal Is zero w hen the angle between the rotor and the stal er field is 90 degrees.

Figure 8: Servo System

l(

Sync;llro
Transmttler
Synchro
Control

z
Servo Amplifier

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Servomotor

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

ehnika

Resolvers

Flgura 11: Resolver as Angular Transmitter

The resolver has two stator coils and a rotor coil. Tho two rotor oolls and th8 two
stator coils are at 90 degrees with respect to each other. A resolver makes from
the signals in the stator coils sine and cosine signals.
Figure 9: Resolver

C~n.nei.A

'V
Exc.

Electronic
Engine

Sine

Control

Figure tO: Sinus and Cosinus Signal depending of existing Anglo


Amplitude

<" =01

-a.

Amplitude (0 "'180")

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

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Linear Variable Differential Transformer LVDTs


A transformer rnduoes an output voltage in the secoodary coil. According the direction of the windings, the phase angle Is In (zero degr.) or opposite phase (180

degr.) The phase angle can be determined with dots.

Fi gur e 12: LVDT

Po ]I[ Po Po J IC tp
s

linear Variable Oiffen!nlial Transducers (LVDT s) change llnear position fntormation into electrical signals.

An LVDT has:
one primary coli,
a linear moveable Iron core and
two io serial connected secondary coBs

The mechanical i nput Changes the position of the iron core. The position of the
core changes the magnetic coupling between the primary and the secondary coils.
When the Input moves the core in one dlraction. one of the secondary eo!ls re
ceives m ore magnetic flux; This induces a higher Voltage in the coi l.

~ctuJnical lnpul

~cat

Primar~
y ~
~--'~
Co ll...=.3

O u tpu t

Colla

I
Iron-eo.-.
(rno.,.able)

The other secondary colt receives less magnetic nux. This induces a lower voltage.
The difference between voltages induced In the secondary stator coils Is proportional to ltle mechanical position.

I
I

Pt; :J1[1 ~

A. The position of the iron core is centred. The m agnebc field Induced by prirnary
coft fs equally divided between the secondary coils. There fore the output voltage is
zero.

I
I

B. The Iron core has moved upward. Now there Is rnore coopl1ng to the upper coil
and less coupling to the lower coil. Th e output voltage increases and is in phase
w ith the excitation.

~ J1.[I
kP
1

C. The iron core has turned downward. Now there is more coupling to the lower
coil and less coupfing to the upper coil. The output voltage increases and is in op
posite phase with the excitation.

'

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

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Rotary Variable Differential Transformer RVDT

tehnika

Figure 14:

"'-' lTIBu
-4P

Figure 13:

INPUT

'B

---L
_. :;tm
-~..... L2
.

Zero Position: The position of the iron core Is zero. The


m agnetic field induced by primary coil L3 is equaDy divided between L1and Lz. Therefore the voltage R-T Is zero.

n"-'s
_____V"__ r

'V
Rotary Variable Differential Transducers (RVDTs) change angular position infor
mation into electrical signals.

L3

--

L
\'':i:::.--'Ll
. /m
. ~
.

An RVOT hes:

a primary stator coil

Ro tated cloclcwlse: The iron core has turned Clockwise.


Now there i s more couplin g between L 3 and L2, and tee;s
coupRng between L 3 and L 1 The voltage belwoon T and
S in creases and the voltage between R and S decreases.

an iron rotor core


two secondary stator coils.

R ...,..._ I

The mech anical Input changes the position of the iron core. The posltlon or the
core changes the magnetic coupling between the primary and the secondary stator COils. Wllen the Input rotates, one of the secondary coils receives more maQnetic flux. This induces a higher voltage i n the coil.
The o ther secondary coil rece.ves less magnetic flux. This induces a lower voltage.
The differ ence between voltages induced in the secondary stator coils Is proportional to the rotated angle. This is an AC Ratio Signal.
The difference between rotation direction Is that the output-voltage between R and
T is of opposite phase. The output measured between R and T is an AC.RATIO
sfgnal which represents the rotated angle of th e RVDT.

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] ..

v-

J"

Rotated counter clockwise: The iron core has turned


counter-<:lockwise. Now there Is more coupling b etween
L 3 and L1 and less coupling between L, and L2. The volt
age between T and S decreases and the voltage between R and S increases.

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

ehnika

Servo Motors and Tacho Rate Generators

Figure 15: Servoloop with DC- Motor

Servo Loops
The DC servomotor loop is called a loop because of the dosed nature of the system operation. The DC source i s connected to the variable control potentlometer
and to the foiiOW"\JP potentiometer.
A servo amplifier amplifies the ratio signal and drives a motOI' with lt. The motOI'
drives a feedback device and a load. The signal from the feedback device also
goes to the servo amplifier. The loi!(l Is In the oorrec1 position when the ditrerence
between the ratio and the feedback signal is zero.

Moto r

--r-G
'

Servo Loop with DC Motor


Any lime there Is a difference between the two signals, the motor drives the load
and feedback until both slgnals are equal. The polarity of the difference determines
the direction of rotation.
Figure 16: Servo Loop with AC Motor

Sorvo Loop with AC Motor


When we must have even more torque. it is better to use an AC motor. A chopper
circuit makes AC from the DC signal. To drive the AC motor with this signal we
need an extra amplifier. The rest of thi s system works like the DC servo system.

'

--- - --------- - --------~

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

ehnika

Pressure Measuring Instruments

Gage Press ure Ins truments

Pressure is the amount or rorce acting on a given unit or area, and all pressure
must be measured from somE! known rEiference. AbsOlute pressure Is measured
from zero pressure, or a vacuum. Gage pressure Is measured from lhe existing atmosphenc pressure, and differential pressu re is lhe difference between two pressures.

Gage presstJTe is measured rrom the existing barometric pressure and is actually
the pressure that has been added to a fluid.

Absolute Pressure Instruments


This instrument uses a sealed, evacuated, concentrically corrugated metal capsule as liS pressure-sensntve mecnanlsm. T he concenlllc corrugations provide a
degree of sponginess that opposes the pressure of the air. As the air pressure increases, the thickness of the capsule decreases, and as the pressure decreases,
the capsule expands. A rocking shaft, sector gear, a.nd pinion multiply the change
In dimension of the capsule and drive a pointer across a calltlrated drat.
Figure 17: Aneroid

Burdon Tube
A Bourdon tube is typically used to measure gage pressure. This tube Is a flattened thin-wall bronze tube formed into a curve. One end of the tube is sealed and
attached lhroogh a linkage loa sector gear. The other end Is connected to the instrument case through e fitting that allows the tlutd to be measured to enter.
When the pressure of the fluid Inside the tube Increases, it tries to change the
cross-sectional shape of the tube from Rat to round. As the cross sectlon changes,
the curved tube tends to straighten out. This in lum moves the sector geat, which
rotates the pinion gear on which the pointer is mounted.
Bourdon tuba instruments measure relatively high pressures like those in engme
lubricating systems and hydraulic systems.
Figure 18: Burdon Tube

AM<Oid
ChamiMir

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

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Bellows

Differential Pressure lnstrumonts

lower pressures sudl as insiJI.lment air pressure, deloer air pressure, and suction
ate often measured with a bellows mechanism much like en aneroid capsule. The

A differential pressure is simp!y the difference between two pressures. A differential bellows lil<e that in tile figure below is a popular instrument mechanism that can

pressure to be measured ls taken Into the bellows. As the pressure Increases, the

be use<! to measure absolute.- differential, or gage pressure.

bellows expands and its expansion rotates the rocking shaft and the sector gear.
Movement of !he sector gear rotates the pinion gear and the shaft oo \vtllch the

When used to measure differential pressure, as it is when used as a fuel pressure


gage, one bellows senses the air pressure al lhecatburetor inlet, and lhe other
bellows senses the fuel pressure at the carburetor fuellnlel A differential bellows
can be used to measure gage pressure by leaving one of the bellows open to the
atmosphere and the other connected to the pressure to be measured.

pointer is mounted.
Figure 19: Bellow Mechanism and Instrument

Fi gure 20 : Olfferentral Bellows wttn Indication Mecha.nlsm

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

11

EJO/?IEJ tehnika

Strain Gages

Piezo-Res/stl ve Sensors

This electric passive devices are used to detect forces. The resistance of straingages llaries with the fon;e applied to it. The metallic wire consists of a chromeni ckel alloy. The length and the diameter of the conductor changes as a fundion
of !he force. Expanding force increases, shortening force decreases the resistance.

P- or N- conducting elements are drffused into a pure silicon .oubslrate. This so


called piezo-resislive effect changes the resistance with a much high81' seos~Uvity
a metallic strain gage does.

This sensors are used for different appncalions. Structure monitoring, fon;e sensors, pressure transducers and weight measuring. Inside pressure sensors. the
pressure affects is changed into force.

Semiconductor based sensors in many different fonns. The substrata of the pres
sure sensor !i:hown below has a dimension of 3.5 x 3.5 mm Inside there is a bridge
with 4 elements.
Figure 23: Piazo Resistive Eleml!nt

Figure 21 : Strain Gaga

P ressure

Substrata

Measuring
Conductor

Figure 22: Prossure Indication using Strain Gage Sridge

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

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Variable Frequency Signals


A variable frequency sig nal has a frequency which is con!rotled by a certain pa
rameler. A device with a variable output frequency mal<es such a signaL The frequency varies, under oonlrol of the parameter, belweeo a high and a low
frequency. These limit frequencies are different from device to device and depend
on the design of the device ..
A control voltage, a variable capacitor, or a variable resistor are, for example, parameters that control the frequency.

This very sensitive and accurate pressure transducer is used inside afrdata computers. The oscillator coli assembly oscillates the diaphragm. Its resonant frequency Increases with the appfle<S pressure against the vacuum reference Inside the
transducer.
The output frequency, proportional to the pressure is easily changed Inside the
computer, info a digital signal. The temperature sensing resistor compensates influences of the ambient temperature.
Figure 25: Vibrating Di aphragm Transducer

Frequency countel'$, microprocessor system and special moving coli meters are
all devices that work with variable frequency signals.

Figure 24: Linea.r P11"'meter Output after Conve rsion

~uooncy t

Llnooair

'~,

1'.,

I
- ..., - - "+ - Non-Lint:8it

Ranp
V

Pararnele<

Figure 26: Pressure to D igital Conversion

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

13

ehnika

Temperature Indication
Temperature is one of the most lmpOfUint measurements In lhe aircraft operauon.
Opera~al ~emperatures range from welt below !reeling for outside air, fuel, oil,
a~r-condthonmg and pneumatic air 10 around 1oooc for exhaust gas temperatures.

Nonelectrfcal Temperature Measurements


Most solids , liquids, and gases change dimensions proportional to lheir temperature changes. These dimensional changes may be used to move pointers across
a dial to indicate changes in temperature.
Bimetallic
Most smau general aviation aircraft have an outside air temperature gage protrud
lng through the windshield. This simple thennometer is made of strips of two met
als having different coefficients ol expansion welded together, side by slde, and
twisted Into a helix, or spiral. When this bimetallic strip is heated, one strip expands
more lhan lhe other and the $plral tries to strai ghten out. A pointer is attached to
the metal strip in such a way that. as the temperature changes, the pointer moves
across a dial to indicate the temperature.

Gas Expansion
T emperatllre _is determined by measuring the pressure of the vapors abo\le a high
ly volatile hquid. The vapor pressure varies di~tly as the temperature of the liquid
Bourdon tube consi sts of a hollow brass or bronz.e enlptical-snaped tube formed
into a semi-drcle. One end of the tube Is open and connected to the fluid to be
r:neasured. lhe opposite end of the tube is sealed. As pressure Is applied, the e'6ptlcal tube ~nges shape and tends to straighten the semi-circle curve. The
bourdon tube nee4 to bee attache4 to a mechanical linkage and pointer to create
a usefulllnstrumenl

A thln-walt,llOnow metal bulb ls connected to BourdOfl tube by a ca,plllary tube, that


has a very small inside diameter. The bulb is filled with a volatile liquid such-as methyl chloride which has a high vapor pressure, and the entire bulb, capm;~ry, and
Bourdon tube are sealed as a unit. The bulb Is placed where the temperature is to
be measured and, as its temperature changes. the pressure of the vapors above
lhe liQuid changes. This pressure change is sensed by the Bourdon tube, wfllch
moves a pointer across a dial thal is calibrated In degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius.
Figure 28: Remote Temperature lndlcaUon with Bourdon Tube

Figure 27: Bimetallic Outside Air Temperature Indication

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

14

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The temperature sensing bulb consists ot a coil of f~~~e nicl<ektlronle wire encased

Temperature Dependant Resistors


The NTC (Negative Temperature Coet!ident) resistor. lrs resistance decreases at
increasing temperatures. So it is called: High temperature conductor. (Heissleiter)

The PTC (Posltlve Temperature Coefficient} resistor. it's resistance Increases with
Increasing temperature. So it is called: Low temperature conductor. (Kallleiter)

and sealed in a thin stainless steel tube. This bulb is immersed in the ftuid \vho$e
temperature is being measured. The resistance of the nid<ek:hrome wire varies
directly with its temperature. AI the low end temperature, the bulb resistance is approx inl<~tely 20 ohms, at Ita high end, its resi st;~nce is about 200 ohms.
Figure 30: Resis tance Temperature Bulb

Figure 29: Resllance varus Temperature

..

..,.

"'

""

....

t ...

1: \

..

...
i.

a:u

:.
!!

..."'.....

""'

"

.. . .. .. ..

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... ..

:-r_.c

'

I
I
I
I

m:

r-

11
+

Temperature
Depend ing
Resistor

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

15

ehnika

Ratio Meter Circuits

Bridge Circuits

The instrument uses two coUs mounted on the indicator needle. When the temperature is low and the bulb resistance is low. more current flows through the coil 1
and the bulb than flows lhrough coil 2 and resistor R1 . The resulting magne6c field
pulls the needle toward the low sidr;~ of the dial. When thr;~ temperature is high and
more current flows thn;~ugh w il 2 and R1 than ooll 1 and the bulb, the needle deflads toward the high side of the dial.

(Wheatstone) Bridge circuits are a special type of complex circuit often used in
electrical measuring and controlling devices. The figure below shows a typical
bridge circuit used to measure tr;~rllj)&ralure. Resistor R2 is a temperature probe. 11
resistance changes as Its temperature changes.

Figure 3f : Ratlometer with Moving Coil Instrument

Wheo the bridge Is eledrteally powered, electrons finds two path through which
they can flow. They can now lhrough resistors R 1 end R2 or they can now through
resistors R3 and R4 .

If the four resistors have values such that the ratio of the resistance R1 to R2 is the
same as the ratio or R3 to~ . then the voltage at point C will be the 11ame as the

voltage at point D. Because there is no vollage drop (no voltage difference) across
the indicator, no current will flow through it. In this condition, the bridge is satd to
be balanced.
Resistor R2 1s variable. and asH changes from the value that balanced the bridge,
a voltage drop will be developed across the indicator that causes C\JIT'lKII to flow
Permanent
Magnet

through it. As the resistance of R2 goes up, current flows C to D. If !he value of ~
goes down below the balance value. current flows from 0 to C.
Figure 32: Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

to Bulb

to Ground

28

through R 1

voc

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

16

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Thermocouples

Figure 34: Cylinder Head Temperature (Spark plug gasket)

Higher temperatures. like those found in the exhaust gases of both reciprocatiog
and turbine engines, are measured with thermocouples.
A thermocouple is a loop made of two different kinds of wire welded together at
one end to form a hot. or measuring junction. For example chrome! and atumel
wires. Tho coil of current-measuring instrument is connected between the wires at
the other end to form a cold, or reference junction.
The hot Junction is held O(lainst the cylinder head In the spark plug 9asket and a
voltage Is produced In the thermocouple whoa& amount is determined by the difference in tempetature between the hot and oold j unctions. This voltage di ffet'ente

causes a current to llow that is proportional to the temperature of the cylinder


head.
Figure 33: Thermo Couple Principle
Current measuring
indicator

Hot, or mea11urlng
junction

Connectors

Ho t Juncllon

Figure 35: Thermo Couple (Bayonet Type for Cylinder Head)

Chrome! lead

i
.'

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Alumet lead
Cold, or refere~
function

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

17

ehnika

Thermocouples for Jet Engi n es


The exhaust gas temperature EGT system for a lulbine engine is similar lo that fCM"
a reciprocating engine except that several thermocouples are used. These are arranged around the exhaust so they can sample the temperature in severalloca

tlons.
For accurate temperature lndlcallon, the reference junction temperature must be
held coostanL This Is not practical to do this In an aircraft Instrument. so the indi
ea tor needle is mounted on a bimetallic h.ain;pring in such a way that it moves bacll:
as the cockpit temperature incr eases. This compensates for reference junction
temperature changes.

SmaU indlcators operate s without any addilional electrical powlll' except for the illumination. fCM" more complex Indicators. In example non linear scales. electrical
power supply Is used for the amplrfiers and motors inside the indicator.
Chrome! (alloy of chromium and nickel)
Alumet (alloy of aluminium and nlet<el)
Fi gure 37: EGT Indicatio n (Chro m e! A lum et)

.........

(.

Temp1rawc
1Dd".Mor

Flguro 36: EG T In dicati on (Copper Con sta nt:an )

~-1\..I.Ji~~ ~nglne
T""rmoeotJple

Ugh ling

c-

Const ntan

=s:

~--~~<=~--~~

Pylon

Oollbrollng

Ot.~necr

AM-iiiOf

.
.

c
l

L<lf1 l!nglno
EXMUCl
Gas

Temperature

'

-:-J

Ol.aldlc:

T-

CO.rW~

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

18

ehnika

Quantity Indication System

This oil quantity transmitter is a variable reed switch type resistor. The reed switch
operates by a magnet in a float. The current to the indicator is depending of the
activated resistors in the probe.

DC Electrical Indicators
A common quantity indicating system for fuel and oil operates on direct current.
These systems consists of a variable resistor as a tank unrt or transmitter and a
current measuring Instrument as the indicator.
The tank unit consists of either a wire wound resistor or a segment of composition
resistance material and a wiper arm driven by float moves across this resistance
material to change t he resistance as a function of the fuel level in the tank.
The ratio metertype minimizes the error that wooId be caused by variations in sys
!em voltage. Current flows through both coils and both the fixed resistor and the
tank unit.

Figure 40: Probe with m agnetic Float and Reed Switehes

rd-=-on

cp~~~

-----a~~ U~ae

Figure 38: Variable Resisto r and Permanent Magnet Rot or Indicator

- o

oatank
Figure 39: Mechanical Float Type Gauge

.-..........-

Oil Quantity
T,..MmiUer

r.lagnet

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

19

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Capacitance Quantity System

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Figure 42: Capacitors Current depending on Liqui d Level

Capacitance type fuel quantity measuring system Ulat measures the mass of the
fuel, rather than just Its level in the tank. Thi s is en electrooic system that measures
the capacitance of the probe, or probes, wtlich serve as the tank sender units. A
capacitor, can store eloctrical charges, and it consists of two conductors called
plates separated by some form of dielectric or insulator. The capacity of a capacitor depends upon three vatlables: the area of the plates, the separat;on between
the plates, which is the thiCk-ness of the dielectric, and the dielectric constant of
the material between the plates. The probes In a capacitance fuel quantlly l ndica t~
ing system are made of two concentric .metal tubes which serve as the plates of
the capacitor. The area of the plates is fixed, as well as the seperation between
them, so the only vallable we have Is the material which separates them.
These probes are installed so they cross the tank from top to bottom, and when
the tank is empty, the plates are separated by air which has a dielectric constant
of one. When the tank is full, the dielectric Is fuel which has a constant of approximately two. In any condition between fuU and empty, part of the dielectric is air and
part is fuel, and so the capacity of the probe varies according to the level of fuel in
the tank.
One of the big advantages of this system Is that the probes can be tailored for
tanks of all sizes and shapes, and all probes in the aircraft can be connected so
the system integrates their output to show the total amount of fuel on bOard.

Figure 43: Quantity Probe without and w ith Compensator

The dielectric constant of the fuel is approximately two. but lt varies according to
its temperature and so a compensator Is built into the bottom of one of the tank
units. H is electrlcaUy in par<~net w ith the probes and cancels the chang&S in dielectric constant as the temperature of the fuel changes.

Inner
Plate

Figure 41 : Capacitors Current depending on Frequency and Capacitance

Plates of
CompenS<~tor

Capacitor

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Figure 45; Probes and Digital Indicator with integrated Processor

Digital Fuel Quantity Indicating Sys tem


Today the digita.llechnology Is also Incorporated Into quantity indicating system.
Basically tile system uses capacitance probes. The indicating system converts by
processors the capacity into fuel weight.

CTRTa n k

Figure 44: Analog and Digital Display

Analog Display

20.5 Gallo n s

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Digital Dis play


2.0.5 Gallons

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

21

ehnika

Digital Fuel Quantity Indication Circuit

Digital Fuel Quantity Indication System

The Indicator contains a power supply unit, a probe driver. a analog to digilal converter and a processor unit. A combined digital read-out with analog pointer and
scale eases a safe reading.

The fuel quantity Indication computer provides actual fuel quantity and temperature indication on the ECAM. The aetual quantity to tile Multi Tank Indicator and
Fuel Quantity Preselector located in, or outside of tile aircraft used for refuellng.

The probe drtver sends a drive signal to the tank probes and compensator. For example with an elCcilatloo frequency of 1 kHz. Fuel quantity information comes back
from the probes into the Indicator. The compensator senses tile dlelacttic constant
of the fuel used to calculate the fu el weighl

Refuel valves closes if actual fuel weight reaches Jl(eseleded value. The quanttty
preselector is used !Of automatic refuefing. from refuel panel.
Aircraft attitude signal compensates Influences of pitch and roll angles.
A set of capacitance probes in each tank provides fuel lever and temperature.

The analog signals coming from the probes and the compensator is converted to
digitel by the AID-Converter. The prooessor calculates the fuel weight in kg. or lbs.
to control tl1e pointer and read-oot.

Compensator senses dl.o lectrfc constant of lhe flJel.

Figure 46: Fool Quantity Indicator (Digital}

Fi gure 47; Fuel Quantity Indication System

Oensiometer senses dens1ty of the fuel, for fuel weight determiflalion.

Probe
Comp ..nulot

Fuel Quantity
Indi cator
Fuel
Quanltty

E:~Cait

lndlcatfon
Computer

Lott Main Tank

IMulli Tanl< lnelicolot

Fuel Quanlity PreseleciOr

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

22

ehnika

Figure 48: International Standard Atmosphere ISA

Air Data
The flight environment data system comprises the pilot static &ystem. This determines following data of the atmosphere:
Static pressure
Total- or Pilot- Pressure
Tote! or Ram- air tempe~ture

International
Standard
Atmosphere

.:.:1 :

~ :

. ..,

-o

800

1000 Hocto Pascal (hP->

OAT ("Cl

ZO

Out of those data instruments or computers derives:


Altitude
Vertical Speed
Velocity
Temperature

International Standard Atmosphere /SA


Altitude according Air-Pressure
The pressure decreases with Increasing altitude. The rate of pressure-change is

noc

linear wrth the change of the altitude. At sea level the pressure decreases
1 hPa trvery 28 feet. The altimeter senses the air pressure and shoWs the altitude
acoordlng !SA.

Temperature versus Altitude


According ISA the standard temperature at sea level is 15'C. Higher than 36'000
feel (tropopeose) the temperature stays constant at minus 56 5"C (Stratosphere).

I'
0

400

200

The temperature In the troposphere decreases linear with minus 2"C per 1000ft.

I I I

I
5

I I I I

II

I I i

600

II
~

l()

II

i I I

20

I I I

I
2!i

I i I I

IIN(M!SHG

STATlC f'IIE5SJRE

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

23

~oa1~

tehnika

Pitot Static Systems

Large A i rcraft

One of the most important instrument systems is tne pilot-static system. This system serves as the source of the pressures nee<led for the altimeter, airspeed indi>cator, ver1Jcef speed indicator and air data computer.

Large jet transport aifcran. have a more oomplex pitot-stafic system. The pilot tube
on the left side o f the aircraft supplies the caplaln's lnslruments. Static pressure
for all of the Instruments is obtained from the captain's static source. The allemate
s tatic source valve aiiOVIS this to be taken from the alternate static sources.

Light Aircraft

The rlgllthand pltot tube SUJ)plies pitot air pressure to the first office(s instruments
and Machllndicated Airspeed warning system. All the first officer's static instruments connect to the F/0 static source, and can also be oonnected to the alternate
static source.

The pilot tube ror light aira-aft is connected directly to the center opening of the airspeed indicator. The two flush static ports, one on either slde of the fuselage, are
connected together and supply pressure to tne airspeed indicator, altimeter, and
vertical speed indiC<ltor. An altemato static air valve Is coonoctod In to this lino to
supply ~tic air to the instruments If the outside static ports should ever cover over
vlith ice. The alternate air is taken direcUy from the oockpil of unpressurized aircraft, but pressurized aircraft pick it up from outside of the pressure vessel.

The auxiliary pilot tube piCks vp ram air for the auto pilot, yaw dampers, overspeed
111arnlng system, and flight recorder. The alternate slatic source supplies air to
these lnstrvments ptus the two flight directors and the re ference for cabin differential pressure.

Figure 49:

Figure 50:
Altimeter

Vertical speed
lndlcato{

Airspeed
Indicator

~AINS

~
AIRSI'EED

MACH

AlTtlUOf

IU.TI! Of

cu...

.....

AU'I!RNATE

Ul ..
SIO
STATH:

SELECTOft

VAlVIiS

~Clfll'S

~l==::!lt:=:t=~it

Flush
S1Btic port

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Flush
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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

24

ehnika

Air Data Sensors


Pltot Tube

A tube with an inside diameter of approximately 6 mm is installed on the outside


of an aircraft so, thalli points direccly into the relative airnow over the aircraft. This
tube, called a pilot tube, picks up ram a1r pressure and directs it into the cenler hole
ln an airspeed indicator. An eleclttcal heater in the head prevents building up ice.

Static Probe
Small holes on either side of the fuselage or vertical nn or small holes in the pilotstatic head sense the pressure or the stlH, or static air: This pressure Is taken into
the case of IM ammeter, airspeed Indicator, and vertical speed mdicator.
Figure 52:
Pitot Heads

Figure 51:

STBV

MaJn 2

~ AUX

F/0~

Captain

Static Ports
RH Side

Combined Pltot- Static Probe


Total pressure or impact air Is taken into the front of the head. Static air pressure
is taken in through holes or slots In the bottom and sides of the head.
Flgure 53:
ps Statlc Pressure

Total Pressure
p

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25

ehnika

Total Air Temperature Probe TAT/RAT


The outside temperature is sensed with a probe who contains a temperature de.
pendant resistor (Piatinium). Its positive temperature coefficient Is linear over the
existing temperature range. The probe is heated to Jl(event building up Ice.

Airdata modules converts pilot or static pressure in to digital output signal. The
modules are connected with a short piece of tlose to !M pilot- respective staticprobe. The output is transmitted In ARINC 429 format to the airdala computet.

Figure 54:

Figuro 55:

Air Data Module

Metered Orlllce
(very small)

Qulek Dis<:onnoct Coupling


Pltot - Ot Static Pressure
Pltot Probe

or

S~alio

Port

Prt$$Uf0

PressureTransducer

AAINC

Micro--

computer

>

1-::fO=u=tpu~l

t-

Diserat c lnpuu
(Pin Program)
P\VR Supply lrom
A$!1oclatad
AOIAU (1 .5 VOC)

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

26

ehnika

Altimeters

Figure 57:

All ammeter Is simpl)' a barometer that measures the absolute pressure of the air.
This pressure is caused by the weight of the air above the instrument and, naturally, this pressure constantly changes. Also, as the aircraft d imbs above the
earth's surface, there Is less air stacked on top of the aircraft and the absolute
pressure deeteases. By measuring this change of absolute pressure, the aircraft's
altitude can be detennined.
The altimeter is one of the oldest flight instruments, end some or the earty balloon
flights carried some fotm of pl'imillve barometer which served to indicate the
height. The standard altimeter used In many. of the early airplanes has a simple
evacuated bellows whose expansion and oonltaclion are measured by an arrangement of gears and levers that transmit the changes In dimensions Into movement of the pointer around the dial. The dial Is calibrated in feet, and since a
change In the barometric pressure changes the pointer position.
it is extremely Important that the altitude indication be acrurate. and that the piklt
be able to quickly read the altitude within a few feet. These requirements ere complicated by the feet that the pressure lapse rate, the decrease in pressure with altitude, is not linear: that is. the pressure for each thousand feet is greater i n the
lower albtudes than it is in the higher levels. The bellows are designed \llith corrugations that aliO\II the expansion to be linear with a change i n altitude.

Pointer

r- --/

Ane roid Chamber

Gear

~-- -- - ~ -- - 1 111 1!

Y
~---- - ---------l - - -- - -1 1111

Baro
Setting

Counter

Baro Scales

The barometric scale is calibrated in either inches of mercury, millibars or hek~


pascal. A knob on the outside of the instrum ent case, rotates the scale and,
through a gear arrangement. the mechanism inside the cas11. Th11 b:aro setting is
used for the correct altitude measurement. (Attitude, flight-level or height above
ground.
Figur e 56:

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

27

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Types of Altitude Measurement

tehnika

STD (Standard) or QNE (Normal Elevatlon) setting

QNH (Normal Height) setting

Forverticel separation between aircl'8fl flying


at higher allitudes, pressure aflttude or flight
leveJ is used. When the bammeiric pressure
scale Is adjusted to standard sea level pressure.
29.92 inches
of
mercury
or
101 32 mbar or hPa. the altimeter measures
the height above this standard p ressura
level. This Is not an actua l point, bUt Is a constantly changing reference. The reason Is
. that an aircratl in I ha uppet" level have their altirnetef'S set to the same reference.

An altimeter

can measure height above


atmost any convenient reference point,
and tor most ftying, it measures the alti(l,lde above the existing sea level pressure level. Th;s is called indicated
altitude and is read directly from the lndl
calor when the ahim eter ONH setting Is
placed In the barometric wlndoo.v.
Airport control towers give the pilot the al
umeter setUng wtllch ts ltlelr loca 1 llarometric pressure corrected to sea level.
When the pilot puts this barosetliog, ltle
altitude measurement starts at sea level
pressure. All elevations on aeronaulical
charts are measured from mean sea level (MSL), and lherefore with a bit of simple
arithmetic, the pilot can easily and accurately find the aircraft' s height above any
charted position. When the airplane Is on the gmund with the local altimeter setting
in the barometric window, the altimeter should indicate the surveyed elevation of
the airplane's parking space.

If an airptane flying at a constant 3000 feet


pressure altitude, for example, may vary its
height above lhe existing sea tevel pressure, all of the aircraft flying in this same
area will vary the same amount and the separation between the aircraft will remain
lhe same. When an aircraft is flying with the altimeter set to indicate pressure altl
lude, it is operaling at a night level. Flight level 320 is 32'000 feet, pressure alli
lude.
Figure 58:

Indicated altitude gives us a measure of terra~n clearance at low altitudes.

2000 11- - - - -

Low

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

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ehnika

QFE (Field Elevation) setting

Figure 59:
When the baroscale is set, that the altl
meter shows an altitude of zero. with the
aircraft oo ground, the baroscale shows
the local air-pressure of the pa!king field.

If the pilot gets via radio the Joca[ baro


pressure (QFE} o f the airfield. during ap proach the altimeter shows the height
above g round. Touching the gro\llld, the
e~ltimeter shows an altitude of zero.
This barosetting is seldom used and is
placed by radi o altimeters.

re-

Feet
6000

57

5000
Tran si tion JAvel
t

STD

ONE

4000
e

0<"

47

3000

Flight Level, Altitude, Height and Elevation

ONH

Altitude
The altitude i s the vertical distance between ai rcraft and sea-4evel.

2000

u
d

I QFe

37

V
h

The barosettiog therefore i s QNH.

Height

1000

17

The heigh t Is the vertical distaFlCB between !iircraft and the ter rain.

The barosettiog therefore is QFE.


0

Flight Level
The flight level is the vertical distance between aircrefl and the standard pressure
referen ce. This point can be above sea-level if high pressure exists or belOw sea
level if a low pressure exists. The barosetting therefore Is QNE.

Elevation
Th e e levation Is the vertical distance from sea level to the airport or obstacle
(mountains and hills).

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

29

EJO/?IEJ tehnika

Altimeter Indicators

Figure 60:

For many years, altimeterS had three pointerS, the long one making a complete
round each 1 ,000 feet. a short. fat pointer making a complete round for each
10,000 feet, and a third pointer gearoo so thalli would have made one trip around
the dial for 100,000 feet If the instrument were to go that high. The range of these
ahlmeters Is usually 20,000, 35,000, 50,000 or 80,000 feeL
Because of the ease of misreading these altimetei'S, the more modem Instruments
combine a drum scale with a single pointer. T he drum gives the thousands of feet
In digital form. and the pointer indicates the hundreds of feet as it makes one trip
around the dial for one thousand feel
Encoding altimeters are pneumatic altimeters. They have an electronic device to
them that sends a digital code to the radar beacon transponder. When the trans
pO!lder repr.es to the interrogation of the air traffic control radar on the ground, a
numerical read-out appears on the screen beside the return for the aircraft.
Position error Is inherent with s1at1c systems, and is caused by the static port not
always being in undisturbed air. This error varies With each aif'craft desJgn and it
changes with airspeed and altitude. The senro altimeter has a built-in compensation system tha t taJiors the instrument to the particular aircraft end minimizes this
error for the full range of night speeds and anltudes.
Instrument or med\anlcal error Is produced from the Instrument i tself and Is divided Into different aspects:

Figure 61 :

A!~:'1;rc~~:: "-

Scale error. The altimeter must indicate the same altitude shown on the milster indicator or manometer within a specified allowable tolerance.

fo 1000 fl

Hysteresis. The reading taken with the altltu<le increasing must agree with the
readings at the same pressure fevef when the altitude Is decreasing. A specified
tolerance is allowed for this test.

8aro reference

lnoex

After effect. The altimeter must return to the same indication, wilhln tolerance, after
the test as it had when the test began.
FriCtion. Two altllude readings are to be taken at each pressure level. one before
and on e after the lostrument is vlbc'ated. There should be no more than a speclOed
difference between the two readings.
Case feak. A low pressure Is trapped inside the case and it should not leak down
more than a specified amount in a given period of lime.
Barometric scale error. The correlation between the barometric scale and the lndl
cation of the altimeter pointers must be correct within the allowable tolerance.

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

Reference presw,.
readout

30

ehnika

Vertical Speed Indicator

Flgure 63: Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator

The rate-of-climb Indicator, more properly called the vertical speed indicator. Its
main funCtion Is that ol helping the pilot estabiJsh a rate of ascent or descent that
will allow them to reach a specified attitude at a given time.

The vertical speed Indicator has as Its operating mechanism a bellows, or pressure
capsule, Similar t.o that or an altimeter. except that rather than bemg evacuated and
sealed, it is vented to the inside or the Instrument case through a diffuser which is
en accurately calibrated leak. The principle of operation o f one type o f vertical
speed indicator. When the airctaft begins to d imb, the pressure Inside the capsule
b&gln& to deaease to a value belOw that Inside the Instrument case, and the cap
sule compresses, causing the levers and gears to move the p0111ter so it will indi
cate a climb. The pressure Inside the case now begins to decrease by leaklng
through the diffuser. This leak Is calibrated so that there win always be a differenoe
between the pressure inside the capsule and that Inside the case !hat is propOI"tional to the rale of change .of the outside air pressul'$. As soon as the aircran levels off, the pressure in side the case and !hat inside the capsule will equalize, and
the Indicator will show a zero rate of change.
Figure 62:

P r essure P 'H

Aro IVSI uses a mechanism similar to.a conventional VSI but it also has an accel
erometer-opereted air pump, across the capsule. When the aircraft noses over to
begin a descent, the inertia of, the eocelerometer piston causes it lo move upward,
Instantaneously incl'easing the pressure inside the capsule and lowering the pressure mside the case. This change in pressure gi ves an immediate ndcatlon of a
descent AI this tirne, thelag of the ordinary VSI has been 011ercome and it begins
to Indicate the descent. there is no more Inertia frorn the nos&-<lown rotation, and
tile accelerometer piston will be cantered so the instrument will be ready to indi
alia the leveling off frorn the desoent.
Flguro 64:

----------...

Diffuser w ith
calibrated leak

LJ-~:.--~.J--1 OFF flag


Red flag appears when ver tical
speed data is unusu able.

l Vertical s peed polntor


Static Pre"ure PH

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

31

ehnika

Airspeed Indicators

Figure 66:

An airspeed indicator Is a differential pressure gauge that measures the dirrereoce


between the Pttot and the static pressure. lt consists of an airtight case in which a
thin metal capsule is mounted. Pitot pressure (PI) is taken into the capsule and the
inside of the case is connected to the static pressure sou roe (Ps). The capsulo expends In proportion to the difference between the pilot and the static pressure, ilnd
this e)(pansion is m easured by a mechanical ~nkage and i s displayed as e pointer
moves over the dial which is graduated in miles per hour, knots or kilometers per
hour.

IAS Scale

- -~

Figure 65:

Pa

Static Press:ure

Total Pressure

L.H

Static Pressure

RH

The abov~ pilot tube shows that the Ram Air Pressure fs the difference between
Total Pressure end Static Pressure. If the airspeed is zero, Pt is equal Ps, so the
Ra~Air-Pressure is zero.

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

32

ehnika

Speeds

True Airspeed Indicators

IAS
The uncorrected reading of an airspeed Indicator Is called Indicated airspeed, and
while it relates to the stalling speed of the aircraft. ll Is of little use to lhe pilot for

There are true airspeed indicators that incorporate not only the airspeed c..psule,
but a temperature sensor end en sltltude bellows that modifies the indication o f the
airspeed indicator and produces a !rue airspeed indication.

navigational purposes.

CAS

Electrically driVen i ndicator showing the TAS calculated by the airdala computer.
The same Instrument will also show outside air temperatures.
Figure 67:

For navigation we m ust convert indicated airllpeed into true airspeed, but we usually go through an Intermediate step, callbnlted airspeed. lt Is almost Impossi ble to
find a location for the static pott that is entirely free from airflow distortion, and any
distortion produces an error. This error is so small that for pracllcal purposes it is
often ignored.

SAT Readout

TAS
Calibrated and true airspeed ere the same under standard see level atmospheric
condiUons, and to find the true airspeed under non- standard conditions we must
apply a correcllon for llle tempera ture and altitude to the calibrated airspeed. This
Is normally done \vtth a computer. or with one of the hand-held electronic calcula
tors. Ught airttafts airspeed indic..tocs have a movable dial that may be rotated to
align a set of temperature and altitude scales so the pointer will indicate the com
puted true airspeed.
No matter what type of airspeed indicator is used on the aircraft. its accuracy reli es
heavily on the correct operation of the pil ot-static system.

GS
Groundspeed represents the actual speed of the airplane over the ground. ll is ITue
airspeed a dj usted for wind. A headwind decreases groundspeed, whil& a tailwind
increases il

1 Knot (K t)

{360 d&grees a 60 minutes = 21'600 arcminutes 40"000 km)

= 1.852 km

Total A i r Temperatu re
The TAT Is the temperature of the air compressed by the Impact of the flyin g aircraft At higher airspeeds the temperature is increased.
This temperature is used for the power setting or the engines.

= 1 Nautical mile (NM) per hour

1 NM = 1 arcminute aloog the earthequetor or meridian (GreDI-Circla)


1 NM

Temperatures

Static Air Temperature


The SAT is the temperature of the real undisturbed air around the airplane. The
Nrdata computer reads the TAT from the temperature probe and needs the Mach
number to csloulate the SAT.
This temperature is used for navigational purposes and to In form the passengers
about outside air temperature.

B1/B2 Basic Training


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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

33

ehnika

Altitude versus IAS/Mach

Figure 69: Maximum allowabl e airspeed indicator

The chart illustrates the dlf1erence betwaen indicated airspeed. true airspeed, and
Mach. True airspeed and Indicated airspeed are the same at sea level: however,
as altitude lllCN!ases, holding a constant indicated airspeed results in continually
increasing true airspeed. For an example, 400 indicated airspeed at sea level becomes about 450 true at 10,000 feet, and about 550 true at 20,000 feet.
The Mach numbered Ones are drawn on the basis of a standard day air temperature chart; 0.9 time$ the speed of sound at sea level would be about 600 knoiS 11\.Je
airspeed, but from about 36,000 feet o n up, 0.90 Mach equals 011iy 525 knots Crue
ai rspeed.
If a partiCI.IIar 11irplane Is not supposed to fly faster that 390 knots Indicated, and
not more than 0.885 Mach, it could fly 390 knots indicated until it got to 21 ,000 feet.
Above that altitude, the indicated airspeed would have to decrease in order not to
exceed maximum Mach. Flying an Indicated airspeed as high as 390 knots above
21,000 feel would result In transonic or supersonic speeds ..
Figure 68: Mach varies as a result of tomporature and altitude.
tbc:h Number

.90

.os

.88$

1reo~tc~
Airpoea

............-1~50
20

- - -21,

_,.-

:;2-

'/"''

10

Airplanes that are not designed to fly at sonic airspeed must never be allowed to
rea ch their critical Mach number. That Is, ttley must never be nown at a speed that
will allow the lllrflow over any part of the aircraft to reach sonic velocity. When this
happens, shock waves form and serious aerodynamic problems can result. Airplanes whose maximum speed Is limiled by structural conslderatlons have their
never-exceed speed m arked by a fixed red line on the dial of the alrspaed indicelor. Bul If the m<lXimum speed Is limited by lhe critical Mach number, the fixed r ed
line Is replaced by a red pointer (Barter pole) that i s driven as a function of altitude

...-.oo

'/"'

0
2.50

1100

350 310

400

~50

500

TruoAir'q>oed

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

34

ehnika

Overspeed Warning

Figure 71 : VMO, MMO versus Fllghl Lev el

The maximum operating limit speeds Vmo I Mmo is a airspeed or mach number
who should not be excseded. Warning alerts the pilots, if the nmit is exceeded. For
example: Below 23'000 ft the airspeed is limited to 372 lds. Above this flight level
the speed is fimited to Mach 0.88.
The warning can be triggered from an overspeed wamlng switch, mach airspeed
indicator or alrdata computer.
Figure 70: Overspeed Warning Switch

FL

...... :,

'

400

.....

....

....

Mt.to - 0.88

--

300

1,_-s. --

200
I

--

~r- -VMo-frfl . r --

.....
4 Ov~L-~~~------------~-------l
Test

100

-!'
~

#
~
0

250

Statio PrGAUre

300

350

IAS
4 00

=:=:=::=

Pitot Pressure

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

35

ehnika

Mach Meter

Combination Airspeed Indicator

When alrplanos fly at or near lhe speed of sound, a measurement ls needed that
compares U1e speed of lhe ailplane w11h the speed of sound. This measurement
is calfed the Mach number. An indication of Mach one ocaJTS when the airplano is
Oylng at the speed of sound . Below the speed of sound, the Indication Is giVen a a
a decimal fraction. and above Mach one, the indication is an Integer with a decimal. For example, flight at Madl 1.25 Is nigh t at an ai rspeed of 1.25 times the
speed of sound at that altitude. Mach 0.75 is llight at an airspeed of 75% of the
speed of sound.

1lle inaeased value of instrument panel space aboard modem aircraft, and lhe
need to integrate as much of this information as possible has brought out one lnsttument that combines the elrspeed indicator with the Machmeter and also shows
the mal<.imum allowable operating aiiSpeed. This instrum ent also includes "bugs"
that are smalllndlcaiOI'S around the periphery of tl1e dial that may be manually set
to indicate the correct speed for certain flight conditions such as that needed during takeoff or an approach to landing.
Fi gure 73:

Figure 72:

Mach

Aeedoul

A ir speed
Pointer

Ai rspeed
Failure Fl119

Mach."; Aircraft-speed (TAS) I Speed of sound

The speed or sound decreaSe's at decreasing outside temperature (TAT).


The Machnumber increases if the aircraft climbs with constant TAS.

B1/B2 Basic Training


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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

36

~oa.1~

ehnika

Figure 74: Grap h Relationship IAS, TAS, MACH and SAT

....
150

200

IAS (kt )
250

300

350

400

IAS, TAS, Mach and SAT


versus Pressure Altitude
EXAMPLE :
1AS
PRESSURE: ALTlnJDE

rt

0.4

nr

SAT

320 KT
14' 000 FT

+10 'C

FIND :

TAS

MACH

406 KT
0.62

0.

~~
na

n,
Mach

150

200

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

250

IAS(kl)

300

350

400 200

300

400

TAS (kll

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

500

37

EJO/?IEJ tehnika

Air Data Computer

All results are send to the users like Instruments, dtsplays. Auto ftight and naviga-

The air data computer samples: discretes, total temperature, total and static pressures, baro seffing, angle or attack and total temperature.

tion systems.

Figure 75:

Dlscr~tes

Ottll.

rar

pt HAf0t

ADtltfA.TtR

ICDJ "11.1"

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

38

ehnika

Figuro 76: Air Data Computation Model

Baro Setting

.,.I

M:: Type

V
Sen' Cal

P0 Sonsoo
Conversion

"

s-ea~

TampCal

P1SonSOt

con-lon

BroALT

P. Alht* Computat.bn

Po.ltion

r~ . 145om!A f - (.;~J'1

ElfOI'

CorrOdion

f--<

BaroAt
Cornputa!lOR

,._.

T~CaJ

Bro
Cotrealon

L~ '"lr""'"'-+ Oc Po [0.2

8oro ws
IMPACT

(~} ]'-'-}

CAS

v-

Mmo
__J Coonpula!lon

NC Type

MACH Computallon

.-

ALT. Aate
Componiion

PRESS. fOe)

I
t..

P.ALT

~.(I.0.2W)"""

Vmo Mme~
OVEASPO

VIAAit

I.IACH

'
TOTAL
PRESS.

TAT Sensor
H~er ONIOFF---o

AICTypo

N A Sensor

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

f-t

TAT
Compaollon

SAT Cotnll<illllcn

SAT

~T -, ::~j.f

TAT

4-,

TIIS Compvlallon

----------ll

TAS

AlA
~--------------------------------~ AlA
Computa.rion

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

39

ehnika

Examples of Airdata Systems

Figure 76: ln51ruments g etting air data f rom Central Alrdata Computer

Figure 77: Physical Instruments, A irdata Computer and other Users.


Ram Ai r Temperat\ft

<A,....NI

TAS

loU

U.T

11\10
MACH

TAT

SW< .:.V
""""''

""""''

AIIISI'IID

All$1ff0

II'GUrr)l

I~TOt

()

"lOT

,...,.ttM

. fii:XJCI(

"TOT

jcDCW::JI' S'f'~TOol

SlAJK:

ICIU

CfNTl!Al
AlR OAT...
COMIUI~

AIJTOP1L0 f II'Cl cuw. ..on

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

~lOT

STACIC

40

ehnika

Figure 79: Central Airdata Computer with EIS and other Systems.

Figure 80: Pitot- and Static Pressure from Air Data Modulas.

To Electronic:
InStrum ent S~wro

~pby

Electronic Unit

8 oro

J~.,..~s,.._

f------ lllrdota .,cl_ oystems

CAPT
AOA

CAPT
TAT

OIM I'OSIIION
TAT - t -

Wt fUR. OU.U..J

CAD<:

+--- -To USor S~tems

Soiling

Alrdala
Computer

ZAT oC.<\10 ON
. lH

.....,..,..

A.QA.

S[Jrt6:01

lt.H AOA S!f\301:

..101

AU~~=

SYSTIM

1'1101

PITOT
CAPT

........

SVST(M

f-----+-1::::

-"""'-

sTATIC

):======~ L ,.....,.,......
CAITAIN

CAPT

b-~-

~l!.nc ======~==..,=,: . ,. .: :n
= ==l

:Unt

I'Otn

I'OUS

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

STATIC

CAPT

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

41

EJO/?IEJ tehnika

Gyros

Figure 81 ; Rotating Earth

A gyroscope is a small wheel with Its weight concentrated In its rim. When it spins
at a high speed, it exhibits two Interesting characteristics: rigidity i n space and precession. DirecUonal gyros and gyro hoOzons are attitude gyros, and they make use
of the CharacterisUc of rigidity in 5pace . Rate gyros suoh as rum and slip indicators
and tum coordinators use the characteristic of precession.

Ri gidity In Space
Let's assume that a gyro having no friction In its beartngs, but with a power source
to keep it spinning, positioned at a C811aln place on ttl& equator, at noon we would
see the tail of the aJTOW. By the time the earth rota ted 90 degrees, at sbc p.m. we
would see the side of the. wheel with the arrow pointing to the right. At midnight we
would again be in line w ith the arrow, only this lime it would be pointing at us. By
six a.m., we would again see the side of the wheel. Now, however, the arrow would
be pomling to the left. This characterislic makes the gyroscope (Greek = view the
eerlh rotation) valuable to us as a stable ref~enoe fordetennlnfng both the attitude
and the dlrection of the aircraft carrying the gyro.

Figure 82: Earth

as a Gyro

Also the earth represents as a very large gyro and will maintain Its dlrectioo in the
space.

\
th e Earth \

\
Huge Gyroscope '.

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

42

ehnika

Precession

Figure 84: A Mass In motion Is keeping its dirlldlon

If a force is applied to a spinning gyroscope, its effect will be felt, not at the point
of application, but at a point 90 degrees from the point of application in the direc-

tion of rotation of the wheel. If a gyro is spinning in the plane and a force is applied
to the top of the wheel. it wHI not topple over as a static body would; it will rather
rotate about Its vertical axis. This rotation is called the precession of the gyro. If
one of the bearings which supports the gyro shaft has friction, it will produce a
force that wll cause precession.
Precession Is not desired In a directional- or vertical gyro, but it may be used in a
rate gyro because the amount of precession is related to the amount of force that
caused it. We use rate gyros to measure the rate of rotatlon of the aircraft about
one or more of ils axes.

~sslon

Figure 83: Rotating Mass

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

43

EJO/?IEJ

Different Gyros

ehnika

Figure 85:

Vertical Gyro VG (2 degrees ot freedom)


Sensing the angular displacement from vertlcaDy direction (Roll and Pitch Attitude)
Artificial Horizons, AUitude Indication and Attitude re ference for autopilots ere.

Drrectlonal Gyro DG (2 degrees of freedom)


Sen sing the angular displacement of a horizontal diredian {Azimuth, Heading)
Compass stabdisation, Heading reference for autopilots etc.

Vartical Gyro VG

Directional Gyro DG

Rate Gyro RG

Rate Integrating Gyro RIG

Rate Gyro RG (1 degree of freedom)


Sensing of aii'CI'llft anguler rete around aU 3 axles (Yaw. Pitch and ROll)
Turn and Slip Indicator, Tum Coordina tor Indicator. Autopilot

Rnta Integrating Gyro RIG (1 degree of freedom)


Sensing lhe Integral of lhe aircraft angluar rate
Plattform stabilisatlon for Inertial Navigation Systems.
(High aCQJI'ancy and sensitivity)

Ring Lasar Gyro RLG


Sensing lhe angular rate
Inertial Retereoce System
(Very high accurancy and sensitivity)

Ring Laser Gyro RLG

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

44

~oa1~

Vertical Gyro

tehnika

Figure 87:

Figure 86:

Y- ---=~~
- ~- -'1'

,~"'-'"=~..._.::..._

Outer
Gimbal
Bearing

y-

1:

Pi tc h
Vort.

.I

.-

,.. x

.....\

\Pitct~e
Inner GimbDJ (Gyro Housing)

~!
x/
The vertical gyro senses the relationship between the pitch and roU axes of the aircraft and a vel1ical llne through the center of the earth, and it gives a stable refer
ence so the actual pitch- and bank angle Is knOwn to keep the wings level.

The vertical gyro has two degrees of freedom. The axle of the wtleells always vertlcaUy directed. Vertical gyros are located Inside horizon indicator or bllfld in sepa-

rate units as remote vertical gyros. Their Roll and pitCh signals are used for
artificial horizons, autopilots, flight directors and the weather radar antenna stabl
llsatlon.

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

45

EJO/?IEJ

Attitude Indicator

When the nose of the aircratl is pitched down. lhe horiz:on moves up. If the aircraft
banks to the right. the sphere moves toward left.The instrument shows the horizon
as it would appear if we could actual!)' see it.

The example shows the Indication the pilOt has when the airplane Is:
flying straight and descending, level or c:iimbing.
banking to the left and descending, level or cfimblng.
banking to the right and descending, level or climbing.

Fig ure 88: .

PIDn,..blanked left (nose down) .


.

7
on

Plane-flying t""el

HOti=n: k

P lane-noBGd up

-=-4b.t:::o:=---

Horizon

: - -

Plane-blanked

riglll

(nos" <k>wn) ._ ,

~ori&on

' .<r
' '

c-;=:-

'

foF'i

L -;

~~omo~l
H~
~ -=
~--~

'~

Horizon/ m~
~
~
(nose
~

Pl:lnbloonked left

!l.bove the horizon, the dial is light colored, usually blue, to represonl lhe sky. and
:>eJow the horizon, it is brown or black representing the ground. Shol1 hori%ontal
ines both above and below the horizon help the pilot to establish pitch angles. and

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

ehnika

JP)

up)~
~

Plan.-blill1kad rlg t\1 (noso

across the top of !he instrument, e pointer may be ellgned with index markS toestablish tho desired bank angle . These marks are located at 10, 20, 30, 60 and 90
degrees.

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

46

~oa1~

Erection of Vertical Gyros

tehnika

Figure 9():

The vertical direction to the earth center is sensed in unaccelerated flights with
pendulums or weights of two rotating balls. Any Wlbalance acts with force to the
gyro to erect its spin axis into the vertical.

Pendulum Position s

c11

By Air
The early artificial horizon uses a rotor with Its spin axis vertical. lt is spun by a jet
of air. The housing which holds the rotor Is mounted on two gimbals, aftowing the
aircraft to freely pitch and roil about the gyro. When the gyro Is erect, air leaving
the gyro houslng exits equally through four vertical slots in the bottom of the housIng. One-half of each of these slots is covered with a pendulUm valve, mounted in
such a way that any tilt of the rotor will open one valve and dose the valve on the
opposite side of the housing. Alr now leaving through the Slot in one S1de and not
in the other creates a precesslve force that will bring the gyro back to its upright,
or erect position.

Figure 89:

Alr Exit
Slot Open
Air ea<nlng from
rotor lloufng

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Air Exit
Closed

m:;:;_-~Siot

Reaction Forces

--t

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

-1

47

EJO/?IEJ tehnika

Erection o f electrically driven Gyros


Newer attitude gyros are driven by eleclric motors. For those gyros there is a need

Figure 91 : Horizon Indicator (Gyro ErTected with Pendulum)

of erection systems working with weights sensing the earth gravity.

Erectlon effect is caused when the unstable pendulum Is accelerated ahead of the
driving lug due to a significant horizontal acceleration. Ths creates a torque caus
lng the precession in the corrective direction.
If the aircraft accelerates. eroction suppression becomes operative, to prevent that
the vertical gyro gets In a wrong vertical diredlon.

Gyro Spin
Motor

Fest Et.etion

l..e>fer

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

48

~oa1~

Gyro Erection with Balls

tehnika

Figure 92: Gyro Errection with slowly rotating Balls

Two sman steel baUs mov10g on a circular track are driven by a alow moving transport arm. The eddy current drag reduces the speed from 16'000 rpm to 50 rpm .

If the gyro spin axis is vertical, the balltrack is situated horizontal. Both balls are
situated In opposite position and in balanoe. No force Is presented to lhe gyro.
If the gyro spin axi s is not vertical. assumed point A is downward.
Ball 1 has to be raised up,

rr=============::;, Outer Gimbal


Inner Gimbal

Ball 2 rons down toward the stop of the transport arm.


In this case, the f orce is no more In balanoe. A force acts to the gyro. The gyro's
precession raises point A upward until both bans are in balance.
During curve-flights the balls are mechanlcany block.ed, to prevent that the gyro Is
tilted in a wrong vertical.

Transport Arm (50 R PM)

(18'000 RPM)

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

49

EJO/?IEJ

Remote Artificial Horizon Indi cator


In larger alrplanes the vertical gyro Is a separate unit. The horizon i ndicator recalves bank and pitch signals via synchros from VG . Amplifiers for the motors inside the horizon Indicator are locate<! in a separate unit or also located inside the
Attitude Direction Indicator.

ehnika

The vertical gyro also serves other systems like autopifots and the weather radar
with roll and pitch signals.

Figure 93:

Bank Synchro

P itch Synchro

Vertical Gyro
(VG)

115V

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

50

ehnika

Electrical Erection of VG

Figure 95: Vertical Gyro w it h electrical Erection

In order to maintain the spin axis vertically, two erection systems must be used,
one in the roH axis and one In the pitch axis. The reaction of a gyro to an applied
force makes it necessary to use erection foroes at right angles to the desired direction of motion. This accounts for the pitch erectlon I()(Quer mounted in the ro~
axis and the roll erwtlon'I()(Quer mounted in the pitch axis.

A torquer is a frustrated motOf'. lt never gets 10 lum anything, not even Itself; but
\.tlon called upon to do so, win try. A gravity sensing liqufd switch, constructed on
the principle of a carpenter's level, provides power to the torquer when the switch
is not level. The torquer lhen provi(las the force to erect the spin axis vertically in
one axis.
Roll erection torqulng Is w t off when the bank llllQie exceeds a boutS degrees and
pilch erection Is cut off If the acceleration is more than 2 ktslsec in square, to eliminate the tendency to erect to false sense of vertical.

P itdl
To rque

Motor

The erection control appfies for the first 3 minutes of gyro operation a higher voltage to the torquer for fast erectlon at start up of the gyro.
Bank and pitch synchros transmitting the angle between the gimbals to their users.
Figure 94: Uquid Lovol Sonsor and Torque Motor

Gyro L eveled

"

~~t

I"

12

VMI F

@~
r

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

'

_!!._

~
~

115VAC

Gyro Tilted

'

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

51

ehnika

Directional Gyro

Directional Gyro Indicator

The most commonly used magnetic compass consists of a small permanent magnet ~ld~red to a me~ fto.at and suspended in a bowl of liquid. This primitive type
of d1redion lndlcator 1s qUite a<!equate for visual flight when it ls only occasionally
referred to, but since it osc~lates back and forth so much we cannot use it as a
heading indicator when we are flying on ins1ruments.
'

Early directional gyros resembled the magnetic compass with its gyro rotor suspended in a d01.1ble gimbal with its spjn aJCis In a horizontal p lane Inside the calibrated scal e, The rotor was spun by a jet o f air impinging on buckets cut into its
periphery Th e caging knob In the front of tha Instrument could be turned to rotate
the entire mechanism and bring the desired heading opposite the reference marll,
or lubber fine. The rotor remains rigid in space, as the aircraft turned about the
gyro, the pilot had a reference bel\~n the heading of the aircraft and the earth's
magnetic field.

If we hav~ a f~eely spjnnfng gyroscope set to allgn with the earth's magnetic field,
we can V1sualze our heading and lt does not oscillllte. The main problem Is that
this mstrument has no north seeking tendency, and so it must be sat to agree with
the magn etic compass every 15 minutes when it is not swinging beCk and forth.

Figure 97:

Figure 96:

N
I
0

~g

Lullber
Line

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

52

ehnika

Vertical Card Directional Gyro


The vertical card compass has instead of a simple lubber line io front of the card,
a symbol of an airplane on its face, in front of the dial. with Its nose pointing strai9ht
up, representing sttalght ahead. The drcular dial is connected to the gyro mechanism. so it remains rigid in space and, as the alrplane turns about it. the dial r~
tales. The knob In the lower lef\hand corner of the instrument may be pushed in
and ro tated, so the pUot can turn the mechanism to get the dial undl!f' the nose of
the symbolic airplane that corresponds to the heading shown on the magnetic
compass.

Figure 98:

Slaving of Directional Gyro


D1rectlonal gyro, must be set to agroo with the magnetic oompass, and it too must
be periodically checked to be sure that it has not drifted out of agreement with the
compass.
Figure 99:

Gyro Heading
Indicator
M~net

Compass

DGAIIgn
Mllgnetic Heading

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

53

ehnika

Drift of Gyros

Figure 100: Apparent Drift of Directional Gyro

A free running gyro will maintain Its direction in space. In relation to lhe earth, gyros
ap~e rS to rotate and looslng its direction. This beMviour Is called apparent drift
caused by the earth rotation.
The earth rotalion is 360' in one day this 15'/hour_

OG AT POLE

~ Dritt .. tsIH

Gyro

D irectional

Earth Rate Apparent Drift = 15'/h x sin Latitude


Latitude

Earth Rate ' /hour

Zul'!ch

47"

10.97

Po.le

90'

15

Equator

OG AT EQUATOR
Dri ft= 0'/H
Figure 101: Apparenl Drift of Vertical Gyro

Vertical

Gyro

Earth Rate Apparent Drift = 15'/h x cos Latitude


Latitude

VG AT POLE
Drift: 0'/H

Earth Rate ' /hour

Equator

15

Zurich

47"

10.23

Pole

90'

The apparent drift consists of:

VG AT EQUATOR
Drift a 15'/H

Earth Rate

Earth rotation

Transport Rate

Alroraft moves around the earth globe

Random Drift

Mechanical error

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

54

ehnika

Figure 102: Rate Gyro

Rate Gyro
Precession ls the primaty characteristic used for rate gyros. There are two basic
rate gyros used fOl' "lghl iostrumen~atlof'l , the tum and slip i ndicator and the turn
ooO!inator. Rate gyros are also lnoorporal ed into a number of autopilot systems.
The basic di fferenoe between a rate gyro end an aUitude gyro is in the mounting
of the gyro Itself. or in the number of degrees of freedom the gyro is given. M attitude gyro Is mounted in a double gimbal and has freedom about two e:xe5, while
a rate gyro is mounl.e d in a single gimbal and has freedom about only one axis.

Cantering
Spring
\

Qimbat Bearing

Figure 103: Courve Radius, Ground Spaad and Bankangle

= Curve Radius

~ Bankangle

Z "' Zentrifugal Force


N

= Normal Foroe

G =Weight Force
g =Earth gravity,. 9.81 m/seCl
v =velocity

tgp .. v2/R:xg

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

55

ehnika

Tum and S/fp lndicaton


Th~re are actually two Instruments in one housing. The simpler instrument is an
l~ltnometer set into the dial. This is a curved glass tube filled with a damping liqUid, and ridmg In it Is a black glass ball. When the a~rcrafl is perfectly level and
there are no othet foroes acting on it, the baJI will rest In the bottom center of the
tube between two marks, In fflghl, the ball indicates the relationship between the
pull of gravity G and centrifugal force Z caused by a wm. The pull of grevity is af
fect.ed by the bank angle: the steeper the bank, the more the ball wants to roll toward the Inside of the tum toward the low wing. Centrifugal force, on the other
hand, pulls the ball toward the outside of the turn. The greater the rete of tum, the
greatet the centrifugal fofce. A coordinated, or balanced. turn Is one in which the
bank angle is correct for the rate of wm. and the ball remains cantered.
Figure 104: Indication courve correct fl own

The gyroscopic par1 of the tum and slip Indicator is a rotor, spun eith81' by air or by
an electric motor. This rotor has ifs spin axis parallel to the lateral axis of the aircnsfl, and the axis of the silgfe glmbal is paralle-l 10 the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. A centering spring holds the glmbaJ level when there is no outside
adlng oo it When the rotor is spinning and the elrC1'81t rotates about its vertical or
yaw, axis, a force Is carried into the rotor shaft by the gimbal in such a way that
one side of the shat1 is moved forward while the Olher side is moved back. Precession causes the rotor to lilt, es lhe force Is felt. at 90 degrees to the point of application In me direction of rotor rotation.

ronce

ihis till is opposed by both a dashpot which smooths out the force, and by a calibrated spring which reslltcts the amount the gimbal can tilt. A pointer Is driven by
the glmbal In suCh e way that lt Indicates not only tile direction or yaw, but the
amount of its deflection IS proportlooal to the rate of yaw.
Figure 105: Rate Gyro Inside Indicator

WR

-f.

Centerlng
Spring

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

56

ehnika

Turn and Slip Indicator

Figure 107: EJtample of T urn and Bank I nd ication

The dial of a tum and slip indicalor is not graduated with numbers, but the amount
of lum is measured in needle widths, and there are two standard calibrations.
Some instruments are caae<l t\vo,minute turn indicators, and a standard rate turn
of three degrees per seoond (360 degrees In 120 seconds) is indicated by the
pointer leaning over one needle width. In a standard rate tum to the right, the left
edge of the pointer aligns with the right edge of the index marl<. Most of the newer
turn and slip indicators are calibrated as four-minute turn indicators. WH.h this calibration, the needle deHects one needle width for a turn of one-and-a-half degree
per second (half-standard rate). Inst ruments calibrated for four minute turns have
two small doghous011-shaped marts on top of the dial, one needle-width !!WilY from
either side of the center index mark.
Figure 106:

%#~

Ji

~~ ~
"""''""'"~ --~-~-4)=-~
conootaonk(OOOtdiM....,

Two-minute turn Ind icator dial


(A)

IDO llnt~&b8. . tsb:ld11"11Q}

100 1me111M (.t.-kllcU"')

11D"hninuu-.. tum

, . O"fl'llllinol.il* .&gl'llliUoM

Four-minut e turn Indi cator di21l


(B)

These instruments may also be mariled 'FOUR MINUTE TURN." When the alrcralt
Is rotating about Its vertical axis at 1,5 degrees per second, the needle of llle fourminute turn indicator aligns with the appropriate doghouse.

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

57

ehnika

Turn Coordinator Indicator

Figure 108:

A turn and slip indicator can show rotation about only the vertical axis of the alraatt
yaw. But since a turn Is started by banking the aircraft. that is, by rotating lt about
its longitudinal axis. a turn indicator would be of more value if it sensed this rotation
also. The mechanism of a tum coordinator Is similar to that used in a turn and slip
indicator, except that its gimbal axis is titled, usually about thirty degrees, so the
gyro will preaess when the aircraft rolls, as well as when it yaws. This is especially
handy since a turn and slip Indicator is affected by adverse yaw at the beginning
of a turn, but a turn coordinator senses enough roll to cancel any deflection caused
by adverse yaw.
Rather than using a needle for Its indicator, the tum coordinator uses a small symbolic alrplane with markS on the dial opposite it s wing tips. When the aircraft Is
turned at a standard rate to the leli, the wings of the symbolic alrplane align with
!he martt on the left side of the instrument dial, the one mat1<ed "l.". When the rate
of yaw Is correct for the bank angle, the ball wm be cantered between the two lines
across the inclinometer.

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

58

~oa.1~

Gyro Instrument Power System

ehnika

Figure 109:

Electric Motors
In today commercial Alrcrafl:s all gyros are driven by electric motOI'S.
Their speed is between 6'000 and 20'000 RPM.

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

59

ehnika

Pneumatic System

Figure 111 : Vac uum System with Pump

For $8fely, the attitude gyros may be e ledlicalty dt1ven and the rate gyro Is driven
by air, or the attitude instruments may be driven by air and the rate gyro electsically
driven. Some gyroscopic instrumen ts are dual powered .
Gyrowheets In pneumatic instruments are made of brass and have notches, or
buckel$ in their periphery. Ail' blows through a speCial nozzle Into the buckets and
spins the gyro at a high speed.

H<Nding
lndic.alor

rr==ffE::l__jjd

Most there Is used a vacuum system with ventury or a engine driven vacuum
pump. f'or aircrafls flying higher than 18'000 1'1 there is a compressor system who
provides enough airmass through the gyro.

. -- - - f t - , Anltud e
Indicator

Figure 110: Vacuum System with Ventury

Needle YaiYe

Figure 112: Engine driven Vacuum Pump

Heading
Indicator

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Attltuda
Indicator

Turn and S lip


Indica tor

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

60

ehnika

Compass

In clination

Earth Magnetic Field


The earlh is a great sphere spinning in space. but it is also a huge pennanent magnet with a magnetic north and a magnetic south pole. A freely suspended permanent magnet on the surface of the earth w!R a~gn Itself with the lines of flux linking
the two magnetic poles, and it will maintain this a~gnment anywhere on the surface
of the earth. aecause olthls afignment. navlgatloo should be simple, but there are
two problems with this alignment we must understand before we can use a magnetic compass for navigation. The geographic and the magnetic poles are not located together. T he m agnetic poles are located somewhere around 74N 101w
2000 km from the geographic poles and, to further complicate the situation, they
move around continually. not enough to cause a big problem, but enough that our
aeronautical charts must be periodically updated to give us the correction we need
to compensate for this difference in location.

When the compass is pulled by the earth's rnagoetic field, the compass' s magnet
tends to point Nott/'i and the magnet also tends to pull toward the earth' s surface.
Near the poles this tilting force is the greates~ so the compass is no more useable.
lt diminishes as you approach the equator. To compensate for this tilling foc'oe. the
compass float Is weighted on the side nearest the equator. For aircraft which ny In
UlE! northern hemisphere, the weight is oo the sou1h end of the floal
Figure 114:

Figure 113:
Geographic
Nonh Pole

Magnetic South Pole

"
MISSLEADING NORT H - -

Geographic
....---- North Pol

....-.;p,o~._.

Earth Magnetic
Fi eld Unes

E.a rtto Magnetic


Fklld Lines Magnetic North Pole
MISSL EADING SOUTH

......,..,:1.~
--

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

61

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Variation

Figure 116:

Sinoe all of our charts are lald out according to the geographic poles, and the mag
netlc compass points to the magnetic poles, we have an error called variation. To
simplify the correction for this error. aeronautical charts are marked with llnes of
equal variation, called Isogonic Unes. Anywhere along an Isogonic ' ne, there Is a
constant angle between the magnetic and geographic north poles. The variation
error is the same on any heading we fly, and is determined only by the position on
the surfaoe of the earth. The correction required for variation error Is found on aeronautical Charts.
Figure 115:

Magnetic
Pole

TN

.....
_,.

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

"""""'
.....

62

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Magnet Compass

tehnika

Figure 117:

The magnotic compass is one of our simpler instruments. Its main body is a cast
aluminlum hOusing, and one end 1$ covered with a gla.ss len$. Across this Is avertical reference ma111: called a rubber ~ne. Inside the housing and riding on a steel
pivot in a j8\vel post is a small brass float sur rounded by a graduated dial which is
part o f a cone. Around the full 360 degrees of the dial are 36 m ar1<s, representing
the ten s of degrees. Above evfMY third mark is eithef' a on e- or a lwo-<ligit number
representing the number or degrees with the last zero left off. Zero is the same as
360 degrees and is norfh: Nine is east, or 90 degrees, 18 is south (1 80 degrees).
and 27 is Z70 degrees. or west Two smaD bar-typ o permanent magnets are soldered to the bottom of the float, aligned wi th the zero and 18 marks, north and
south. The hOusing Is filled wflh compass flUid, whidl iS a hydrocarbon product
very similar to kerosen e, but with certain additives that keep it dear. The housing
must be completely full, with no bubbles, and to prevent damage to the housing
when the fluid expands due to h eat. an e)(.J)anslon diaphragm or bellows is mounted inside the housing. A set of compensa tor magnets is located In a slot In the
housing outside o f the compass bowl, and a smaD instrument lamp screws Into the
front of the housing and shines inside the bowl to Uluminate the lubber line and the
numbers on the card.

Instrument
Lamp

Expansion
Unit

Contact end
Socket

The compass heading Is correct if:


The aircraft is horizontal.
There is no aeceleratiol'l.
The readi ng is corrected with the deviation-chard.

Outc
Case

Compensating
Mechanism

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

63

EJO/?IEJ tehnika

Slaved Gyro Compass


The modem directional gyro, like the gyro horizon, has been combined witn other
instruments to maim it tha velSatile flight instrument it IS today. One of the most
useful combinations has been that of slaving the gyro to a magnetic compass. A
flux gate, or nux valve, pickS up an induced voHage from the ~arth' ~ magnetic field
and after processing it, directs it to a slaving torque motor m the Instrument that
precess the gyro and rotates the dial until the airplane s magnetic head!ng is under the nose of the symbolic aitplane on the faoe of the lostn.rnent. ThlS slav1ng
gives the directional gyro aU of the advantages of a magnetic compass without its
most dlsturlllng faults. In the more exollc direction-indicating Instruments, the
slaved directional gyro Is combined with tadio navigation systems so it will display
information from the VOR,, ILS, ADF or Area-Navigation system.

The dltection-seel<ing portion of the system consists of a flux valve that picks up is
dl~ional signal from the earth's magnetic field. This signal is amplified and sent
into a slaving torque motor in the remotely-mounted directional gyro. This motor
causes the DG to precess until it indicates the relationship between the nose of the
aircrefl and the earth's magnetic field. When the gyro precesses, it drives the rotor
of an synchro transmitter which is etectricaUy connected to a synchro motor Inside
the compass indicator named; Radio Magnetic JndicatorRMI, Radio Directloo Indicator RDI or Horizontal Srtuation Indicator HSI. That dnves the headlng d1al. By
using thts mechanism, the actual magnetfc heading of th~ aircraft at any time is
shown by the posrtloo of the heading dial against the lubber line.
Figure 119:

Figure 118:

Radio Direction lndleato r


( RDI)

400il

!iL.J

Synchronizing
Knob

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Flux
Valve

Flux
Valva

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

64

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Flux Valve

Fig ure 121: Spider

The flux valve is mounted In a wing tip or other location on lhe aircraft that has a
minimum of magne tic interference caused by various electrical circuits. it has a
highly permeable iron frame, or spider, made In the form of a segmented circle with
three legs radiating out from its center. An excitation coil is wound around the center of the spider, and pic~-up coils are wound around e8Ch of the three legs.
The excitation coli ls excited with 400 Hertz w11ose lletd periodically saturates the
arms of the spider and towers its permeability. When no corrent nows, the anr~s
are unsaturated and are able to aocepllines of flux from the earth' s; magnetic field,
but when they are saturated. !hey will not.
The position of the flux vatve ison a heading of magnetic north. The earth's magnetic field enters the arm of the spider during that portion of the cycle when it can
accept this flux and. as the field ls alternately accepted and rejected, it cuts across
the windings of the pick-up co~s and generates a voltage In them. This voltage is
amplified a.nd used to drive the slaving torque motor. As the aircraft turns to anolh
er magnetic heading, the relationship between the llux lines In each of the tJvee
B.mls ot the- spider changes, and for every head1ng there is a different phase rela
tionship generated in the pick-up co~s.

The varying three-phase AC voltage in the pick-up coils Is carried Into !he staved

Figure 12 2 : Spider an d Earth Magnetic Field

gyro control has where Its output controls the variable phase voltage !hat is sent

into a tw~phase slaving torque motor in the directional gyro. This staving torque
motor applies a precise force on the directional gyro that causes 1t to turn until it
satisfies the signal being sent from the nux valve. The synchro system rotates the
dial of the RMI until it agrees with the signal from !he ftux valve.
Figure 120: Cut VIew

the aircr aft is headed north


(A)

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

t he airc ra ft is headed w est


(B )

65

ehnika

Compass Systems

Figure 123:

Light Aircraft
The llux valve is locale<! in the aircraft tail or wing lip to prevent any influence ol
magnetic field induced by elecltic currents. The flux valVe senses the direction
(heading) of the earth magnetic field.
The heading is routed to a syndlro. If the directionat gyro Is not coindding with the
earth magnetic field, a synchro output voltage is applied to slaving amplifier. The
gyro torque motor produces a force to the gyro gimbal. The DG moves by preces.
sion to the actual magnetic heading direction.
As long the compass Is not synChronized with the earth magnebc field, the synchronisation indicator is deftected toward +or . For quick synchronisation the pilot
rotates the DG direction by SYN knob In + or direction until the syoc/vonisation
indicator is centred. Then the heading dial cofncides with the flux valve angle Information.

~ Syn.

- - - - v Knob

--

Air to Suction Syst.

Gyro
Torque
Motor

A ir fr om Air Filter

Flux Valve

12VDC

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

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MD-80 Compass System

tehnika

Figure 125: Gyro stablllzod Co mpass

For redundancy two independent compass systems are installed.


Captains ROt and first offiCerS RMI is provided from compass 1
Captains RMI and first officers RDI is provided from compass 2
If one of both system fails, each crew member has shll one compass read-out.
11 both system failed both pilots has to read the heading from a rnagnetlc staod-by
compass.

The Instrument amplifier gets the Rux valve heading and slaves the directional
gyro as long the mastershaft does not coincide. The direction of the directional
gyro Is repea ted to the mastershaft. Foor heading synchros feeding lhe heading to
the display and other systems.

::. ---
.
:
I

Figure 124: Lay Out

.. ~

SUlVIt4'

TOIIO\K OIOltlll

'

... I

"1:1
~
Mf

CAPTAIN'S

FIRST OFFICER'S

I
I

RADIO MAGNET IC
~ATOR

L---

--r---

'

I
I

~~~~~t +-----H-0;-w~
TJW'tS I

-..........
-

O&TA OUT

t t-----t

OillCl'IOti

.....,
........

I10C OAJ4 ~T l

~----..9

..o.t:Al'Ca

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

67

E;OfliE;

Manual synchronisation of compass system


In the previous example has a disadvantage.

tehnika

Figure 127: Compass w ith Synchronisation

The slaving rate of the directional gyro is very slow (2" 5" per mi nute). Thls caus
as a very long synchronisation time after applying eleelrical power. Lets assume
the position or mastershaft is 170" apart from flux valve signal. The synchronisation will take more than one hour.
To fast synchronizing the compass, the user may manually rotete the DG output
signal. After this is done the gyro Is not direc!Bd to magnetic north but together with
the rotation angle of the differential synchro it represents the heading reference.

~---

The synchronisetion annundator shows a plus or dot if lhe compass is not synchronized. Rotating the knob located on the RDI in the same direction will synchronize to the correct direction. If the knob is rotated opposite the annunciated + or
dot, the compass will show 180" wrong because of the second (wrong) nun position of a synchro control transformer.

'

I
I
.. I

.'"'~ .

N5W'C

Figure 126: Indicator with Synchronizing Knob and Annunciator

I
I

I
L---

--r--'

OIRECTIOI-IAL
GYRO

~~~t-----~~~
TIUHS I

......
oucoa

..OOOATAOUT2t----~

SYHCH
ANHUNCATOR

---......
rQ;

COlA OUT > t---~""i

INSTRUMEHT AMPI.JFIER

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

AAOIO DIRECTION
INOICATIOR

68

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New Technology
The IRS part of the ADIRU provides ai rcraft heading to the E~IS end ODRMI. T~e
magnetic heading is derived from true heading. Megnelic vanattons are stored anside IRS memory. No flux valves are used any more. The DDRMI Dual Distance
Redio Magnetic Indicator shows magnetic heading from ADIRU 1 or ADIRU 3.

tehnika

PFD and NO showing the magnetic or dependi ng of aircraft and operation mode
the true (directed to geographic north) or magnetic heading. If the NO operates in
PLAN- mode, the horizontal situaliorlls directed true north upward.
Figure 129: Glass Cockpit

PFO

Figure 128: Layout

NO ROSEMOOE
G$ Ul$ TAS 1$0

..$ APP

'tl

"'
'"'.

IIAAOOol7

1:1.0111.1
1U5

.
NO ARC MODE

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

,,_
NO PLAN MODE

69

ehnika

Compass Errors

Figure 130:

Deviation and its Compensation


The error inherent in magnetic compasses is called deviation, and it is caused by
the magnetic fields in the aircraft interfering with those of the earth. A magnetic
field surrounds any wire canying electricity, and almost all of the steel parts of an
aircraft and the engine have some magnetism in them. Magnetos and both alternators and generaiOr$ have strong magnets in them. and these are all so dose to
the compass that they influence it.

OeHOQting

Magnt Field

E:!l-

-----CONPEHSAl'lOtf
f ..a.o

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70

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Figure 132: Compass Error Chart, Deviation and Variation

Error Compensation and Error Chart


Alrcrnft compasses are equipped with two or more small compensator magnets in
the housing. They may be adjusted to cancel lhe effect of all of the local magnetic
fields In tl'le airctaft. Any uncorrected error caused by this local magnetism Is called
the deviation error, a.nd it is different for each heading we fly, but it does not change
with the location of the aircraft. The magnetic compass must be compensated to
reduce the etrOrs. After the error has been m inimized , a chart Is made of lhe error
that remains, and il ls slipped into a holder mounted on lhe compass bracket or on
the Instrument panel adjacent to lhe compass so the pilot wilt be able to apply the
correction In flight.
Figure 131 : local Compass Compensator with M agnets

e-

tiKIDy-1

'in!JL--t

[ -W

H~ral

STEER

357

fat

STEER

1 81
211

30
60

26

210

58

240

89

120
150

1 20
152

300
330

241
272
302
331

Poltlon

11-S

COmpe-nsatfng Potlt1on

B1/B2 Basic Training


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f()l.

M- S

~(!

[-1'1

TN

Deviation is the difference between:


Direction to Magnetic North Pole MN(2000 kKm. away from TN) and
Indicated compass heading CN
The deviation can be compensated and/or with an error chart corrected .
Variation is lhe direction difference between:
True North TN (Geographic Nor1hpole) and
Magnetic North Pole MN(2000 km. away from TN)
The variation depends from aircraft posHion and Is not compensable.

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

71

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Compass Errors Overview

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... ,..

Figure 133: Index, One Cycle and Two Cycle Error

lnde.x error
Causing:

Misaligned installation of compass or flu x valve.

Correction:

Alignment of compass or nux vallie.


Remote compensators with special adjuslmeni (INDEX)

...

One cycle error


Causing:

Magnetic fields induced by electric wires or magneti:ted steel parts.

Correction:

Compensating magnets or calibrated currents thi\J the ftux valve.


Re mote compensa!OfS with spedat adjustment (fiiSIE-W)

Two cycle error


O<!!fledioo of the earth magnetic field lines by !it eel parts like screws.
Asymmetric impedance of the cable from flux valve to the system.
Correction: Using of messing screws and non ferro-magnetic materials around.

Causing:

Remote compensators ~~~~th special adjustment (TRANSMISSION)


Corlolis
Causing:
Correction:

Rotation of the earth deflecting the compass of a N-S moving


aircraft's compass or flux valve.

..~ +--~---1---l\---i-

HEADING

Fi gure 134: Remote Compensator

None. This small influence can not be compensated.

Remote compensator
Installed In commercial aircraft makes compensation of compass errors easier.

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

72

EJO/?IEJ tehnika

Flight Data Recording


The night date recorder is crash proof in oo!er to withstand an accident, records

Oust
Cover

the mandatory paramet8l'S. Early reoorders etched the vertical acceleration, altitude, speed, heading and lime in a heal resistant and impact protected metal! foil.
Today the digital recorder gets about 50 mandatory parameter via flight data interface unit and the parameter are stored for 25 - 50 hours on a magnetic tape or solid
state memory.
The underwater locator beacon will transmit a 37kHz tone if it Is Immersed in water
lo locate the recorder after an accident.

I
I

Timc(U TC)

Event
Button

System
P:~rameter

Navlgatlon
Para meter
rations Land in g
Gear

~ Flight Data

Recorder

I
E.l octronlc
Clrquit Boards

Flight Data Interface Unit


Under Wa ter Loeator Bcon

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

73

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Typical Flight Data Recordi ng System

Figure 135: System

The purpose of the Digital Flight Data Recorder Sysiem (DFDRS) is to record vat
ious cr'ifical flight parameters in a solid state memory to fulfil lhe mandatory re
quiremenls of crash recording .
The DFDRS basically includes a FUght Data Acquisition Unit, a Flight Date Recorder (FOR), a Linear Accelerometer, an Event push button and a control panel
to meet the minimum requirements.

~ Lino~r

A ceelcromata r

The Aighi Data Acquisition Unit Is a computer which collects various basic Aircraft
System parameters and converls lhem by internal processing.
The ftight data recorder Is located in the rear part of the alrcraft. lt &tares, In a solid
state memory the data of the last 25 hours collected by the FDAU. The memory
board is located in a mechanical protected box. The front taoe of the FOR includes
an Underwater Locator Beacon.

!<light Data

Aqulaltlon Unit

...___

Alran~n

SySTems

The ain:raft systems send basic parameters to the Right Data Acquisltlon U n~
(FOAU) via various system computers. The informatlon about the aircraft is given
to the FDAU directly by pin programming.
The Linear Aocelerometer is installed at the aircraft oenter of gravity to provide lhe
three axes acceleration data
When pushed, the EVENT push button is used to record an event mar'k in the
Flight Data Recorder (FOR) memory. The EVENT push button is located on lhe
pedestal.

OFOR
Eve.nt

Power lnterlod<. The Alght Data Recorder Is automatically supplied wilh power
when one engine Is started and will stop five minutes after the fast engine shut
down.
For test and maintenance purposes on ground as wen as for preflight checK it is
possible to supply power to the FOR by pressing the ground control push button
on the overhead panel.

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Parameter
The Flight Data Acquisition Unit collects many different mandatory parameters for
recording. Today about 300 parameteiS are recorded. In earfler versions between
6 and 50.
Here some example:
21: Temperatures, Pressures, Airflows
22: Engagement and Operational Modes
23: HF VHF Transmission Activities (PTI)
24 : Power Distribution Configuration, SWitching
26: Rre and Smoke Warnings
27: Various Flight Controls
28: Configuration, Quantities
29: Pressure, Quantity, Temperatures
30: Configuration, Pressure, Temperatures
31: Wamings. T1me
32: Configuration, Brake
34: Airdata. Position. Heading, ILS, Wamings
36: Configuration, Pressure, Temperature
70: EGT. EPR, N1, N2, 0~ Temp, Thrust

Figure 136: Data Source

The parameter input is in following format:


analog

digital
discrete

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75

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Three Axis Accelerometer

Underwater Locator Beacon

The tht'ee axes accelerometer detects acceleration along the longitudinal, the lateral and the vertical axes. The unit is atlhe cent er of gravity of the aircraft.

You lind the undetWater locator beacon on the front panel or the ftight data recorder. The beacon has a hi gh rmpact case which contains: - a mercury battery a water sensitive switch an electr onic Umer module . a piezo - electric transducer.

The unit has for each axes a sensor. The sensor has a bar. 1'1'1\lch bends, when
there is en acceleration. The resistance value of the strain gauge changes when
the bar bends. The strain gauge is a part of a resistance bridge ~nd results in a
change In the ou1put voltage.
Or tha acceleration force moves a pendulum in lho sensing mechanlsm. The detector forces the sensing-mass always to center position. The current from the ampiifler is proportional with the acceleration.

Alter water entry it transmits every second a 37,5 kH~ pulse. The range of the beacon is 2 miles in any direction and the system operates for about 30 days. At one
side or the beacon i s an end cap with the name BATIERY ACCES, the other eod
cap contains the water switch. Keep the switch end of the beacon clean and replace ltle bettary when the label "REPLACE BAITERY BY:" tells you to do so.

Figure 138:

Figure 137:

Watu
Switch

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

76

ehnika

Figure 139: Flight Data Recorder and Tape Cassette (mechanical)

Figure 140: Functional Principle o f ancient Flight Data Recorder

Vertical

-~-o.j

Acceleromc tor

HFNHF'

COMM -~---~

Push to Talk

M agnetic
Heading --6---~

Pltot

Air Speed

SUilic:

Clrco.lt

Ftight data recorders are developed since world war U. In the 1960ties the reoorder
scratdled the most parameters with diamond needles in to a heat resistant metal
foil. The metal folll'las to be replaced when it was mted up with data.
For accident research, it was a tlme oonsumlng wt)lj( to find ell missing tape fragments and reading out the cause.

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Figuro 141: Digital Flight Data Recorder OFOR (with Tape)

Figure 142: Solid State Digital Flight Data Recorder SSOFDR

~l Sol~~M-emory
lnpot/OutpUl ~
lntert;ace

~-+~roprocenor'

FOR

Recording capacity: 25 Hour


Heat resistant: 11ooc !of 30 minutes
Shock resistance: Tape: 100 G Solid State: 3400 G fOf 6 ms
Saltwater proof: 6000 mater fOf 1 month
Mean Time Between Faflure MTBF: Tape 7000 hrs. Solid Slate 15'000 hrs.

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tehnika

ADAS AIDS ACMS


The AIDS A ircraft Integrat e~ Data System
or ADAS Aircraft Data Acquisition Syst em

or

ACMS Aircraft Condition and Monitoring System

accepting a large amount of engine and aircraft system data for lhe analysis for
trouble shooting, system engineering, procedure evaluation and flight crew sec-

Digital data recorder


with opticl disk

tions by ground computer.


The data are stored on magnetlc laj:les or optical disks. A printer prints the aircraft
dala. On request data may be transmitted to the homebase via ACARS. The
MCDU 's are used to operate lhe syStem and for data reading.
from Flight D a ta

Recording System

Print o r

I
- 1

M CDU 1

MCDU2

Air Cond
A ut0 Flight
Fligh!Cont
Fue I
LOG Gear
Nav ig11tion

Poe umatlc
EngIna

I
I

P rint
Order

..

Data Man agement Unit

~
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Recorder

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ehnika

11.5.2 Avionics Systems (ATA 22/23 I 34)

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Automatic Flight Fundamentals

Figure 1: Various Types of Aircrafts with Autofllght Systems

Introduc tion
Early automatic pllols were primarily pilot relief devices. which did bllle more than
hold the aircraft. straight and level. The introduction of transistorized electronics
permitted dramatic changes in the size. weight, and power requirements of automatic pilots. The automatic pilot has grown to become a system that is utilized in
aU phases of night and has, as sudl, acquired its more modem Identification as an
Autom allc Flight Control System.
Commercial Aircrafts
The Automatic Flight Control Systems or AFCS. in modem jet transporls, are all
uniquely tailored to the specific aircraft, but all share common features. For example, the Right aerodynamics of a MD-1 1 are different from those of a A380; however, both a rcraft would most likely require an "attitude hold" mode of operabon.
In this case, the attitude hold feature is common to both autopilot designs. but
gains in the two autopilots wiD differ to accommodate the differences in the aerodynamics of each aircrafl. Each AFCS receives attitude and heading signals from
a vertical and directional gyro end has its own rate gyro/accelerometer system t.o
develop attitude and flrght path stabiliz.atlon signals. The AFCS computers comprise an electronic "brain" that receives signals from ils "senses to compute the
proper responses and provides outputs to electric and/or hydraulic actuators that
are then "muscles" whid't move the aircraft's control surfaces.

Cl"""""""''tf"""''"""'""'"' -"'D'"-"\J
0 ' """'" '" "" 0 """" ' "'"""0"'-" " '""'"""0 - ..--.. Q

S malle r Aircraft
The need for Automatic Flight Control in smaller aircraft has produced autopilots
with varying degrees of com plexity; from simple slngl~s "wing levelers in smau
single engine aircraft, aU the v1ay up to three-axis systems for corporate jet ai~raft
that have as many fe atures and functions as those syslems found on jet transport
aircraft. Au!opllols, from !he slmple to the complex, have undoubtedly reduced pilOt workload and mental fatigue throughout all areas of the Might envelope.
Helicopters
Helicopters are relatively unslable ai~raft requiring con$1anl attention of the pilot
even under smooth flight conditions. Helicopters must be conllolled from :~:ero forward speed to speeds approaching 200 mlle.s per hour. Additionally, since they
can fly sideways and backwards as well, a completely new design approach was
required.

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Figure 2: Integrator and Olfferentlator wlth Opefl!lion-Amplifier


R

1o---f~-;-Out

ln---

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

82

ehnika

Figure 3: Contr ol Loop

Feedback Controls
Feedback controls are widely used in modem automated sysl.e ms. A feedback
conb"OI system cooststs of five basic components:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

input
process being cootroUed
output
sensing elements

Contro ller and A ctuating Device

r --- -- 1

controller and actuating devices

!nput -~---<.t

The Input to the system Is ttle reference val ue, or set point, for the system output.
This represents the desired operating value oflhe outpllt. Using in example a heating system. tne input is the desired temperature setting for a room. The process
being controned is the h eater. In other feedback systems, the process might be a
steering system or lhe engines of a aircraft. Also the automobile engine i n cruise
contra~ 01' any of a variety of other processes to which power is applied. The output
Is the variable of the prooess that is being measured and compared to the input;
In the above example, it is room temperature.

:J
Feedback

Sensing elements
The sensing elemen\3 ere the measuring devloes used In the feedback loop to
monitor the value of the output variable. In the heating system example, this function Is nocmally accompliShed using a temperature sensor. There are many dlfferent kinds of sensors used in feedback control systems for automation

Controller and actuat i ng d ev i c e

(i. e. airspeed, allitude. track, intarsception of r adio beam etc..)

The purpose of the Controller and actuabng device in the feedback system Is to
compare the measured output value wi th the reference input value and to reduce
the difference between them. In general, !he controller and aauator or the system
are the mechanisms by which changes in the pc-ocess are accomplished to influence the output 'larlable. These mechanisms are usually designed specifically for
1he system and consist of devices such as motors, valves. solenoid switches, piston cylinders, gears, power screws, pulley systems, chain drives, and other mechanical and electrical components. When the output (room temperature) is below
the set point, the controller toms on the heater. When the temperature exceeds the
set point, the heater is t urned off.

B1/B2 Basic Training


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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

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ehnika

Synchronisation

Figure 4: Loop, Autopilot d isengaged and engaged

A utopilot not e n gaged

During the time, when the human pilot steers manually the aircraft, the attitude reference provides the actual attitude infonnat!on {2) to the autopilot computer. The
outpul of the internal summing point is feeded back instead of input (1) to wash out
any builded up signal to the serve.
This mode iS called synchronisation. Tile synchronisation is necessary to prevent any jerks of the flight controls at lhe moment of autopilot engagement.
A disengaged autopilot synchronizes with the actual aircraft attitude, therefore
the autopilot must be always electricaUy powered and tunctlonal operative.

S.rw

Autopilot e ngag e d
The navigation system and sensors provides a steering command (1) to the autopilot computer. The summing point feeds the steering order (3) to the servo. The
alraan reactlon is sensed by the attitude reference and acts as feedback (2) to the
summing point.

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

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ehnika

Terms and Definitions


The following explanation s covering the autoftight system are held in a general level coverfng mainly commeftial airplanes. Detai led lnstructlons are covered In aircraft type courses.

The therm .Automatic Flight Control SyStem (AFCS) is to understand as a complex system, with the purpose to Increase the comfort for the passengers, to relief
the pilots roullne workload and to increase the stability of the airplane.
Depending of the aircraft model, different devices or Integrated Into one computer
unit will perform following functions:
Take-off
Today there is n o aJrcrafl certificated for an au tomadc take-off certllle<l. Some
function s like ytJW damper, pitch trim, auto trust etc. must or may be activated.
Crulso
The AFCS controls the aircraft around and along all three axes.

Center o r gravity co nt rol


Controls th e center of gravity (CG) within the allowable limits by transfening fuel
from-to regularfueltanks and tanks located in tail or inside the horizontal stabilizer.
Mac h pitch trim
With Increasing alrctaft speed, !he outer wing produces more lift. This results In a
nose-down e ffect. The mach pitch trim counteracts this effect.
Fligh t director FO
The AFCS calculates .How to fly" th at means the BJieron, elevator and ruddi!N' command. This commands are shown at e flight director horizon instrument or EFIS
display. Pilots has to follow the steering orders to reach and maintain the COrTect
tlfght path. The FO can be u sed to monitor AP reactions.
Mode annunciation
Armed (preselected but momentary not active) and active AFCS operation modes
are displayed at the PFO or e separate flight mode annunciator.
Flight arrvelope protection

L anding
The AFCS fandsthe aircraft automatically, including align, Hare, nose towering and
roll out.

attack) the AFCS calculates and displays the minimum and maximum operating
airspeeds.

Roll out
The AFCS steers and mai ntains the alrplane along the runway centertlne.

Depending of the environment condition (temperature and air pressure) end the

Yaw damp er YD
The YD is damping dutch rolling, assisting the lateral steering by turn coordination
and eliminates gusty wind effects dose the ground. The electronic controlled acllve ruddet" comp ensates every srnaU distortion around the alrcrafts yew axis.
Control wheel s teer ing CWS
With no autopilot engaged, aneroos and elevators are deflected via electro-hydraunc servos manually controlled by force sensors installed at the control wheel
and column.
A utomatic p itch trim APT
If lhe elevator is dellected over a longer time, the AFCS trims the horizontal stabil izer to eliminate the elevator defleclloo load.
l ongitudi nal sblbility augmentation syst em l.SAS
Large alrctalts wi th redu ced size o f horizontal stabilizers needing an electronic
controlled ecuve elevator compensating every small dlst0111on around the aircratt.s
pUch axis.

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

According tile aircraft contlguratioo (landing gear, ftap, slat, weight and angle of

Engine thrust limit (N1/EPR)


selected mode of operation, the AFCS calculates the maximum thrust hmit. The
limits are displayed and applied to the engine thrust control system.
Auto Throttle AT
The AFCS thrust control circuit mov!l$ the power levers with a servo motor to get
the desired engine thrust or a signal is dlrecUy applied to the electronic engine control (EEC) without moving lhe thrust levers. The AT operates in speed or thrust
mode.
Stall warning
The AFCS Criggers the warning i f the aerodynamic lift get lost (increasing angle o f
attack)
The engine thrust is increased and a safe atlftude (afrcraft nose down) win beestablished)
Failure m onitoring and l ogging
The AFCS stores failure conditions for analysis and troubleshooting. Tests can be
initiated for maintenance purposes.

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85

~oa1~

Definitions of System Layouts

Fail Safe System

Fail safe
The crew Is part of the monitoring.

The

R11dundan t

Figure 5: Single Channel System

etf111

tehnika

is part of 1he monitoring.

W he11 only one sensor of one kind Is available (one RA, one ILS)

To have extra equipmenl:


flight oonltol computers
calculations
sensol'$
SBlVOS

Redundant modes
In these modes the extra equlpmeot is really-In use:
Take Off
Land
Go Around

An other modes are non redundant

Fail Passive System


The system mon~orwill disconnect a system before a dangerous situation occurs.
A system becomes fall passive by using:
2 different computers for monitoring
multiple channels
multiple feedback
Figu re 6: Dual Channel System

- -- -------- -------- --- ---~

I
I
I

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~oa1~

Fail Operational System

tehnika

Figure 7: Fall saf e Tripple Cha nnel System

After a single failure the system continues Its operation but degrades to fail passive.
When you give more redundancy by adding a third or a fourth channel, the auto-

flight system becomes a fail operational status. This is used in critical modes like
Take-<lff, Land and Go-around.

Triple configuration
Example: Boeing 747, Fokker-100

Figure B: Fallsafo Quadruple Channel System

Quadruple configuration
Example: M0-11, Airbus A320. A330. A340

r - ---- ------ ---- - ----- ---~

r------

I
--c;=I
I
I
I

-- -c:::::=-

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

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ehnika

Example MDBO

Figur e 9: Flight Guidance Syst em (MD..SO)

The Digital Flfght Guidance Computer is a dual channel unil lt receives all neces
sary inputs to calculate outputs wtlich afe send to eU ~ers .
Flight Guidance Control Panel: Engagement and mode selection of Autopllot,
Flight Diredor and Auto throttle.
Flight Mode Annunciator. Displays the preselected and active operational
mode.
Attitude Direction Indicator (ADI) shows deviation of the actual speed against
optimum or presetecte<l speed and Flight Director commands.
Automatic Reserve Trust increases engine power if one engine falls during
take off.
EPR Synchronisation controls both engines to keep Identical trusL
Auto ltvottle Servo moves both power levers to reach and maintain the desired trust or speed.
Engine Pressure (EPR) Limit Is the limiting parameter for the engine. The limit
depends from outside temperature, blee<l air consumption, a1r pressure and
flight phase.
Speed Bug shows the selected speed at the airspeed indicator. lt also represents the auto throttle desired speed.
Altitude Alert Light and sound reminding the crew to maintain the correct flight
level.
Aileron Servo steers the airgaft around roll (x) axis With ailerons.
Elevator Servo steers the aircraft around pflch (y) a><ls with elevators.
Auto Pitch Trim controls stabilizer to eliminate a durable elevator deflection.
Mach Trim counteracts lhe nose do'vn tendency of the aircraft when flying a
high Mach number.
Rudder Servo s teers around yaw (z) axis at low airspeed with great ruddardenectlons. For roll out guidance. the nose wheel steering system Is driven by
rudder servo.
Yaw Damper counteracts dutch rolling and performs the tum coordination
function.

......-~161

~--~~~~~~~~~~~~

~or~

1. a. 1111 N4ll Cf'l


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..0 LZl
\oQR~

t\.1

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t&I

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lfiiJ'it~' ''
~Rt!D1&1:

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QCNil <!ltrdOAJ
WAM GEAR 1819tfti
.....U:LII\JIIUII

hCGC

~ITIOWCH

IQ MOtOC1ION ...
~-q(QQKN

E!oiCtr&E MID CE Of
AUtO M!iJiflt'E n.AL.aT0..
...Sl...,...,tuT 0..

'
I

I
I
I
I
I

..._

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

88

ehnika

Figure 10: Flight Guidance System (A320)

Example A320
The interactive Flight Management and Guidance System (FMGS) provides predictions of flight time, mileage, speed, economy profiles and altitude. lt reduces

cockpit workload, improves effidency and eliminates many routine operations nocmally performed by the pilots.
During cockpit preparation, the pilot inserts a planned route from origin to destination via the Multifunction Control and Display Unrts (MCOUs). This route Includes
the departure, enroute waypoints, arrival, approach. missed approach and allernata routes as selected from the NAV data b~se . The system generates optimum
vertical and lateral flight profiles and predicted progress along the entire flight path.
Either FMGC performs all operations If one FMGC fails.
The pilot may modify any Pight parameter on a short term basis (SPD. VIS,
HOG...and the FMGS will guide the aircraft to the manuaUy selected target.

NavJg:..Uon

Pwformenc:e
Opllmb:_.;on

The PM part provides following functions:


Navigation.
Performance prediction and optimization.
Right planning management
Managed guidance computation.
Information display.

FPLN MIUI!I-81\1
tAa~ Oo.okl..,..

The FG part provides following functions:


Autopilot command (AP).
Flight director command (FO).
Auto thrust command (AfTHR}.

. F~ht Direc:tor Commnd


AutOChtust Com_mand

Computation
tnlo<matlon lx.ptav

AulOpifol C<>.....,.,nd

-Y-~lno

The Flight Augmentation part provides following functions:


Yaw functions.
Flight envelope functions.
Wlndshear protection.
Low energy warning.

RuddWTrim

Rudde< Umlllng

- Fllthl a.w.ropo
6peod Compul-ation
Wln-Prot-fl
Lov< l!ne'll\' \Von>lrl!l

B1/B2 Basic Training


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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

89

ehnika

Example MD-11 Automatic Flight System

Figure 11 : Flight Guidance System (MD11)

The aircraft is equipped with an automatic flight system (AFS). The AFS supplies
automatic lllght control and flight cl"9w guidance during the full night envelope
(from takeoff above 100 feet through ground roll out after landing).
The AFS Provides the fOllowing functions:
Automatic ILS approach.
Longitudinal stability augmentatloo system (LSAS ).
Speoo envelope limiting (Auto throttle alld LSAS).
Dual autopilot (AP), flight director (FD).
Auto throttle system (ATS) I engine trim control.
Automatic pitch trim in AP and LSAS.
Full-t~.,e parallel actuation ro[l cootrol wheel steering {CWS) with roll attitude
hold when the AP is not engaged.
Windshear warning with AP FO, and A TS compensation.
Yaw damping I tum coordination.
Elevator load feel (ELF} control end flap limiling (FL).
Automatic ground spo~er (AGS).
Stall warning with stick shaker and auto slat extend.
Altitude alerting with visual and aural warnings.

B1/B2 Basic Training


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ehnika

Figure 12: Function Hierarchy (MD-11)

Automatic
Fligttt
System

l
Autopil01

Fllghl
Dlr6Clor

Stab ility
Au gm entation

Manual

l nd~odCif'lt

Augmentation

Flight Systems

Automa tlo
ThrotUe/

Engine Trim

w:><nlng
SyatAima

l'~ ght

Conll'<ll

Cornputcl'
Maint~u!lnce

Flight M Annund..tion

Plleb C0<1ttoj
(LSAS)

- Roll Control
Ylrw Control
Combine:d
Pll<:ll and Roll

Pitch Conln>l
(I.SASI
- Roll Control
~YMConliO I

- Cj>inhln<O<I

Piteh and l'lolt

Automalic

Automadc

P ltci>Tflm
Wlnda.l"'cJtr
Compen:mtion

-Winda....,

-Sillgle, O..al

-Single, Oua l

Land

CatiU!I
Auto Land

Pitcf\ Trim

Comptneatfon
La1,d
Cot !I

Landing

-Longitudinal
Stablllly
Augrnentalion
System (LSAS)
Pitc"- Cont..rot
L.aton~riAoiJ
Control Wheel

StHring(CWSI

Pitch
COntrol

~ !1ovaf0f

R<>N

-Flop Umlting

control
_,_
Control

-U!t
Cotnpet1.satfo n

LM<IF. .I
A1,1Iomatio
Q.found
Sflallltr
AolloSiit

l.xtenel

-'IllControl

-staJ

-Thrust
Control

Aulomadc

li1>e6d

Comrot

- AYtomatlc
Spwd

Trllls.l tfon

Yl;unlng

Slat Extonslon
Wind!:homr

De4ec:Uon
Altitude
AIWI
... AP Dl.sc.

-Cune.nt
Faullol

Fault Aovi..
- Return to
S c ndc:'!O T85"t
Sf!M'OI"

- t:raee

...

Utl.N enne.

Y.aw D ztmplng
- T urn

-l!ngi.fte. Trim

Coor<ltnatlon

-ovo"'Pfi'l

M cmo<y
Autotn.3_tio
F ul1

Protetion

~opordng

Lift
C4mpen~ation

Un elerspnd

TatQ ol SP"'d
- Lallrw l o att
AII/IU-tJcaf Of tAl
- Conlfol rAodes

AuntWwnln g

.. Armed r.Aoetll!!il

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

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~oa1~

Autopilot

tehnika

Figure 13: A utopilot oper a.tional loop

General
The autopilot represents a closed control loop. The aulopaot controls the aircraft
via the associated sefVQs In the ri ght order to ny.
If the autopllol is not engaged, clutches are open so the pnot llas to control the
plane. Then the autopllot Is synchronizing during thts lime lhe output of the servos
lo zero, so the autopilot can be engaged at any tune with no jesldng aircraft movements.

The aircraft response is sensed by different sensors and applied as response i nformation back to the autopilot.
The pilot ta$k are:
Mode selection and switching
Setting of different navigation parameter nke spee<ls, altitude,
radio frequencies.
Selection of aircraft configurations such as Raps, slats. landing gear, trim .

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Attltu<to
Htidir>IJ
AJiiludtt

S!>"d
LOCIOP

VOR
Rcfio Aldtua

AJC Acspon:.c
tnftM'tl'lation

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

92

~oa.1~

Control Panel

ehnika

Figure 14: Various Autopilot Control Panels 112

are used to engage the autopilot, presetting the parameters and mode selection.

General aviation aircraft

G;J
[25]

ELEV

0
T...

Aoll'f.tm

OH

li
u

DC9
Analog

M0-80
Digital flight guidance system

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

93

ehnika

figure 15: Various Autopilot Control Panels 212

Soeln.g 747
nple autopilot system

IAI( . )14.. CN

m-11
ual autopilot system

:acn autopilot has two channels

HOG(. )Ill

Em

..~.

..~. I "''IUiro' ....


,
_ ,')!

@
@!]

1UM1j

MD-11

MMageoWDtUIJChDOT

"CU

,CU

lllanllgcd

wiftdo-.

HNcllng(Trac:ll;
Wlncfow

Lateral
DOT

$P~

.lr bus A320, 330, 340


i.IBI autop~ot system
ach autopilot has two channels

lfl'Dor Mtcf'

...K_

K.nob HOQ Of fr\J(


$010COO<

""00

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

AP El'lfOSIIMIM
IUTHAActiv.allan

....

SWCI:Qt

'-+--ec.u
Mr

__..:.;"""="---'

'~:::u~:..

AIK1CW
P'Uib&lf*l

94

~oa1~

Flight Mode Annunciation

tehnika

Figure 17: Primary Flight Display

The autothrottleJautolhi\ISt, autopilot and flight director operational modes are displayed at t he :opecified fligtJt mode annunciator or integrated in the primary flight

rl 1 . Colum"' Au1othru&t Operation

display.

rl 2. Column: APIFDVertical modu

Figure 16: Flight Mode Anunc:i ator

..-f 3 . Column: APIFO

~teraJ

J
m0<1""

4. CollA mn: Approac:Jl

Thmnle

SPD

250

Ron

I'P R

VOil

EPR

VOFI
ALT

G/A
MACH

SPD
" U'A

EPII
tACT

ALT

EPR
Cl.

t i,A.V

EPII

LOC

SPD

CR

F LAP

~R

I.IM
SlAT

u!

SPD

LOW

~-~

VMO

Atl.

LIM

~V.CH

"''10

ATL

Ut.l

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

~PEEO I ~

I ALT I HDG I VERT


SEL SPD
Mo<le { S)

TIO

~
AP

Armed

Cl..l AP

AP

Hor ~on

Throttl@o l.kxfe

~I;!

11

Hc!ading
APTrlm M<lnllor

ILS
NOAuloland

LND

TAX

SP II

OFF

GO

ALT

GO

A LT

TRIC

FIUD

HLII

RND

VOA
CRS

HDO

A LT

CAP

FLAR

HLD

HOO

MACH

110
FLR

IAS

AUT
LND

AUT
G/A

SilL

F/0

AUT

G/A

LND
ALN

LOC

ROL
OUT

GS

NAV

TUI'B

TA K

Vlt<Q
LVL

2.+'J. l.W '

ln:P,gaO"'<<CCH . . CfetNi'lt.

._AJOMOd MGdH 6 ; Pidrit

........ 11-NI~

'*M CokH ~raOol loeie

atun(OI
at~CDJ

1101QCd aGltYa 1no0H..


-~~

- rntpJtorilj' C=HitiOA ....e!)!M.


cawdon ..._.g.M.
-Af'J1'0i~.. tt'19agtl iQW~
ltpPfOI.ChA~

ALT 1110C11 WMI'I .,.._tor ~Ut

GS

LOC

CAP

t.Un.

111tudc CIONMI'alnt on I

V I!RT

OFF

GIA

ALT

TAlC

\lOA

MAH

n >'~'< IT~

r-

u-aentl ~

CAP

Al.T

1'-S

I AP~ tr-

flad(A}
..,_(AJ
W.tlfli(W)

ulo

l.OC
ILS

AP
2

rx- MDA

HOG CA{ 3
LOC Singlo 1~
DH100 AITHR

Pitch Mo~e

IAode

VOR

I I

C<IP8bil~ie&' OH

ri.6. Column: AP, FD A/THA Eng;r,g....,.ot S(3IU$

CAP

CAP
NAV
T RK

TRIC

OUT

SPD
L OW

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

95

EJO/?IEJ tehnika

Flight Director

Figure 18: Functional Block Diagram FD

lntroductlon
In 1950, an entirely new Idea in flight instrumentation, ltle original flight director or
Zero Reader, was introduced.
This system took information from the cockpit instrl.lments and gyros, processed it
through an electronic computer, end presllflted it as How to Fly Information on a
single Indicator. Thus, Inst ead of having to calculate for himself from flve or six dif
ferent instruments. a pilot could navigate and make landing approaches simply by
zeroing or centering two cross-pointers on the Indicator.
A flight director (FD) system In simple form is designed to provide computed steerIng commands to the command bars of the ADI andlor to an autopilot system. The
syslem uses various signal Inputs such as:
Air data
Radio
Course rnformation
Heading Informat ion
Vertlca I gyro
to generate the computed steering commands. A typical flight o:llrector system, like
an autopilot system, can be di vided Into four parts:
SensOI'S
Computer
Controls
Loads
rhe sef\SOI"S provide the raw data to be processed by the computer. The High! dt
ector mode &elector tells the computer which raw data to use, depending on pilot
node preference. 11le computer processes the raw data and gain scales the Infernation to be di splayed on the ADI command bars andlor to the autopilot computer.

RWA Data

Air O..ta

Computer

Loads
AO t
Command
B ars

~
~

Nav/Redios
~
and OME

' 1J.

Course

!----<

Heading

!----<

r---

Flight
Director
Computer

Flight
Director

____,

Autopilot
Comput er

Mode

Sei8Ctor
Radio
Altitude

:----

Vertical

Gyro

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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

96

~oa1~

Flight Director

tehnika

Figure 20: Var ious Displays

One advance In fllghl instrumentation is the flight director. This instrvment functions lil<e an attitude indicator with the addition of the steering bars. The triangular

delta or wings symbol represents the alrpfane, and the steering bars are controlled
by the autop~ot command and error-sensing systems.
Rather than sending tfle signals to the appropriate servos to actually control the
aircraft, the signets are sent to the steering bars that tell the pllot what to do. For
example, the flight dlrector is temng the pilot to pitch the nose up and turn to the
right. The flight director shows the pilot the changes tomal<e in pitch and roll ifl the
same way lha honz:ontal situation Indicator {HSI} shows the pilot the proper changes to make io directional flight.

Steering
Bars
D elta

Symbol

Figure 19: Principle

Aerodyn;:omio Response
,-----------------------------------------------

'

FID Command B are


Compulad
Commands

Xaw or Rudder
Comand Bar

FOf landing approach or tal<eoff Climb also a flight Pa th Director can be used. The
director shows the commanded night path angle and track. The vector shows the
actual flight path angle and track.

B1/B2 Basic Training


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EJO/?IEJ tehnika

Principle of FD Indication

Figure 21; Heading Change Maneuvre with FD

Heading select manoeuvre w ith fllght director

Example
1. Aircraft flies heading 090. Preselected heading is 150.
2. Roll command bar orders right bank.
3.
4.

5.

Aircraft has correct right bank. FD.tlar is centred.


Aircraft is reaching the selected heading.
Roll-bar orders left control-wheel dellecllon for establishing wings level to terminate the manoeuvre.
Aircraft heading is 150 FD-bars are centred.

B1/B2 Basic Training


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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

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Actuators

tehnika

Fig ure 22: Vacuum driven servo

S81Vos vary in complexity with the size ot the aircraft in whic!l they are installed.
and with the aerodynamic forces they must control.

Sue lion
from

Pneumatic Servo
The simplest servo is pneumatic and uses a diaphragm moved by either suction
or a positive air pressure from the gyro pi<:llff. Th;s d iaphragm is auached to the
control cable by a clamp and it pulls on the cable at the command of the autopilol

Figure 23 : .Electric motor driven servo


Manual Control
I

I'

I
. - - - - - - - - Clutch e11ga~ L

rA,nc:;le:.f:.::.:e:.::d:..:B::::.:c:::i<: .._;.l-- - - - - , "'"""- "!!og""

Electric Servo Actuators


Electric servos may use either a reversible DC or AC molOf driving a capstan
through a reduction gear. 1f !he autopilot Is engaged, the servo motor gear team is
mechanically ctutdled to the control cable!> which connec:t the cod:pit conltol to
lhe control surface actuator. The clutch is operated by an electric solenoid. The
servomotor drives a tachometer generator to provide inverse feedback to the arrr
p!ifier for speed limiting and smoothing.
A sine winding follow-up synchro is driven by the servomotor to a null prior to engagiog the autopilot. The null results because there Is no command signal to the
amplifier while the autopilot is disengaged .

.....----J
- =:1
I
~
compu~~'
m"""'

Command

L- ___ _

:::=J

AlP Comp u1e

Position Feed Back!


L____

"' --

r-+-~
!

G __ 1!!!!:.f
[G;;l_ r, ]JJ
;< !

!.;~

_____A
_c

--......__---

Conb'OI SIKfoce

Servo Motor

If the au top~ot computer determines that the c~n trol surface should be moved up,
the computed command ca!ls for control surface movement up. The signal from
the follow-up synchro is of a phase opposite to !hat of the computed command.
Tlleraf()I'EI, control sutface movement will stop when the follow-up signal equals
the computed command.

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EJO/?IEJ

Rudder Servo

Yaw Damper Servo

This actuator rotates the cable drum. For system redundancy motors are used.
The actuator operates fn parallel mode. The rudder pedals are moving with rudder
movements. The deftection of the rudder is +/- 25".

This acwator moves the oulput rod in ~near direction. The input to the rudder system is on serie mode. No movements at the rudder pedals are existent The ruoder
deflection Is +/- 3-6.

Figure 24: Servo rotary type

Follow~
Up T~ - - - - ---..
DriVe

. .,

I A_--:------,
Rate ~l

t-~

1$1![$1

$ir' J~
I

o u al Rud der

SIINO Drive

-1

,b.: :
f4!.11
,;

Rate~l

Drive

r~- -- -------J : :

0-J

) rt>.

Follow~

EngA~ge CIUteh 'Jl :,

~ngag e

511
Rudder

[J Cl . ..,.,

"

~-~~~:iii
.

Servo Drum

Rud der

r--- -- -""~ab

"-,

kfl

.1"

~-------J ~

Up

Pedals

I
1

Dllm.p&;~ -,

I A 01Uiil10f'

r1:.

'L- -L---~f~J

R\lddor

Ser
Rud <klr
Rudder c = : : : ?AB
c;::y-

Peel~$

(j[J
\.

~....._---r- -

L - - - - - - - - .J

r--E3=-

H~tf.o\ci\uiilon ro'Ctcsfab

HYD Act\lol io n l ocks..Tab

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~oa1~

Serie - Parallel Mode

tehnika

Figure 26: Seri& Mode

The mechanical output of autopilot servos are applied in two different manners to
tile ftlght control system:
Serie Mode
Parell!ll Mode.

Sl.lmmlng

Lin"
Input
from Pedal s

Following example is shown for the rudder ruooion.

Serle Mode
The Yaw Damper $ervo movement Is added (in serie) to lhe input from the pedals .
There is no feedback to the pedals feelable. The rudder deflections are small.
(up to -+I- 6')
This mode is used fOf' yaw damper function during cruise.

Flgl.lre 27: Parallel Mode

Parallel Mode
In critical modes like Taxe-otf, Land, Go-around and Engine-failure, the serve
movement is <liredly (parallel) applied to lhe pedal input. The pedals win move a~
cordingly . The rudder deflection authority can be large. (up to 25')
This mode is active during take-<>lf, approach, landing and go-around.

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Input
to Pedals

Fix.ed
Lin k

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Operational Modes

Figure 34: Take Off situation

Take Off

Thruat Reduction Al tttude

This is the mode In which the system powers-up on the ground. In the tak&-off
mode the auto flight system gives steeling signals for the ground roll, rotation,
lift-off and climb-out segments of tile take-off.
Aircraft on the ground and up to 35 - 100 fttet of radio aHltude:
The AFS glves ffight director commands only.
Above 35- 100 feet
it Is allowed to engage the autopilot.

AlP Engagod

' ... ,

...

Figuro 33: Take Off Run

Powor LoYal$ with TOJGA TriggiH"a


Activated on the ground:
- Take-on m O<Ie "9109"d
- ATS engag~ when ann ed
and aelectaloke- ollt t.rust.
- A P dl 51!ngaged.

v, Decision Speed

VR Rotation Speed
V2 Take Off Safety Speed

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Landing

Figure 36: Before Touch Down

This mode provides the capture ~md !reek of the ILS beam (LOC and GLIDE) and
ensures the following fUnctions: alignment, flare and roUout.
This mode is ava~able for AP and FD. it enables landings lo be performed in
CAT2/ CAT3 operation. Therefore, the selection of the LAND mode authorizes the
engagement of a second AP.
Tho arming of the LAND mode enables the LOC and GUDE modes to be armed
on the lateral and longitudinal axes. When the aircraff is stabmzed on the LOC and
GLIDE beams: the AP/ FD guides the aircraft a!ong the ILS beam to 30 ft. At this
altitude, the lAND mode provides the alignment on the runway center line on the
yaw axis and ftare on the pitch axis.
The ROLLOUT submode is engaged at touch doWn and provides guidance on the
runway centtlf" line. As the lAND mode is latched below 400 11, it can be deactivated only by engaging the GO AROUND mode . Actions on the FCU are no longer
taken into account.

Figure 35:

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Approach and Landing

Figu re 37: Automatic Landing Sequence

CAPTURE PHASE -This phase is w hen the aircraft captures t he localizer or


glideslope beams fOf guidance during an automatic landtng. The locallzer and
glideslope beams supply the guldanoe references to keep the aircraft on an
optimum ftlght path.
LOCAUZER CAPTURE is smooth and stable at ranges from four nautical
miles op to 40 nautical miles from the runway threshold and at airspeeds op
to 1.5 Vs (Minimum steady Oight speed). The localizer beam Is captured at
any intercept angle up to 90 degrees from the selected runway heading. This
is done lrom either side of the beam.
GLJDESLOPE CAPTURE is done within the performance limits from above or
below the gfldeslope center~ne. This is don e at any intercept angle up to plus
or minus three degrees. The capture is smoolh and does not overshoot the
beam canter.
ALIGN PHASE- The align mode is engaged automatlcafly a t 150 feet radio
altitude. The autopflot comman ds an align manuev~ to bring the aircraft
heading to the runway heading.
FLARE PHASE The flare mode Is engaged automatically a t about 50 feet
radio altitude. The autopilot commands a flare path and the auto UlrottJas control to reduce thrust to the idle stop. Autothrottle retard is engaged at approxi!TI<IIely the same point as autopilot flare, but is independent o f the autopilot
engage status. All changes in the rate of descent are smooth. When the flare
mode is engaged a noSe-up control oolumn modon Is supplied by the autopilot
NOSE LOWERING - Nose lowering is lnrtiated Immediately after touchdown
of the main landing gear. The autopilot decreases the current nose up attitude
at main landing gear tOU<:hdown to a minimum pitch rate of two degrees per
sacond. After the nose gear has touched down the autopilot ooo~nuously
sends a nose down command (to make sure there is always firm oontact with
the runway) during the landing rolloul phase.
ROLLOUT The AFS supplies a ground rollout mode which controls the aircraft to stay on the runway ceoter11ne.

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ILS ~am center

Land !.lode

Ann

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Automatic Landing Categories


Landing in low visibility is pemaps one or the most exerting ways to operate an aircraft but is certainly the most demanding. Such progress In clvtl aVIation was made
possible by huge improvements in aircraft oontrol systems over the last ~ y~ars
ooupled with stringent requirements for airlie!d equipment and CffiW qualification.
In Category lll. pilots see the runway lights only a few seconds (about 5 seoonds)
before touch down, therefore there Is no margin for error. The basis for Category
111111 operations, s1.1ch as aircraft cartlflcalion or airline operational demonstration,
ensures a high level of safety. Moreover, approach success rate in actual in-line
services Is now nearly 100%.

A Brief History
The 9th or January, 1969, an Air lnterCaraveUe became the first aircraft In the history of civil aviation to land in actual Category Ill A conditions during a commercial
ftight (Lyon-Pans). This approval was the direct result ot successful flight tests
made since 1962.

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Sinoe then, many aircraft were granted approval for Category Ill A, su<:h as the Tri
dent, the 8747 (1971) or lhe Concorde (1975). In 1974, lheA300 was certified for
Category 111 B, followed by the A310 (1983) and also the A300-600 (1984): FaRoperational automatic landing was firat u&ed for these type ol operations, but 1! was
found useful to develop fa~passive capability in order to satisfy airline requests.
Currently, Airbus lndustrie Aircraft are oertified both wi th rail-passive (Umited to OH
=5{) ft..) and fail-operatlonal1anding SY'Iems.
Economic As p ects
CAT 11/111 equipment represents a slgnif~eanl cost for an airline. However: lt Is .the
only way to keep in-line services during the wnole year wthout any dvers1on
Weather conditions ma1nly depend on the airlield location, nevertheless actual
CAT 11 or CAT Ill conditions may occur at any alrfleld during some periods of !he
year. Diversions are expensive ror an airline: directly by passenger_ compen~llon
costs but also by the resulting bad 'image'. For these reasons, gett1ng operatiOnal
approval for CAT 11 and CAT Ill approaches may be considered as a necessary
step in the evolution or a modern airline.

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Control Wheel Steering

Figure 29: Force Tranducer (E Pick-off Transformer Type)

:orce $ensors are Installed in the mechanical steering links or directly inside the
:ontrol wheel hub. If the pilot is manually steering. sensors takes the applied force
rom ltle control wheel to ltle autopilot computer. The output is electrlcally send to
he serve actuator. The movement of ltle control suriaoe is mechanically feed back
o the control column and w heel.
"he cootrol wheel steering Pf'Ovide, lateral and vertical stability through eleclronic
:ontrol of ailerons and elevators when the AP is not engaged.
'Vith no foroe on the control wheel the aircrafl holds the CtJrrent al titude. Forces on
he conlrOI wheel command an aircraft roll and p~ch rate proportiooal to the aplled force so that when the force Is removed from the control wtleel the aircraft
oolds ltle new attitude. This simplifies the steering of the airplane and is also a pro3Ction against excessive steering commands by the pilots.

':INS is available when the ftlghl control computer is operational but not engaged.
Forcs

lgure 28: System layout

Fi gure 30: Force Transd ucer (Piezo-Roslstlve Type)

~c~ w""''

Ple~Aealallve

Force Setl$or

iff!

1~1

Force
Transducer

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Figure 32: Aircraft Con tr o l Characteristic

Fly By Wire
Sidesticks are used to fty the eircrnft in pitch end roll. The pilot i nputs are interpreted by the computers and move the flight controls as necessaJ)' to achieve the de
sired flight p ath. However. regardless of the paors input the computers will prevent
excessnre manoeuvres and exceeding of the safe flight envelope. The flight con trol surfaces are all electrically controlled and hydrauticany 21ctuaterl. One of the
advantages of 1ty by wire 11; that the aircraft is slmpler to fly than a conventfonal
aircraft

Side$tlcl< released

Sldestick pushed

If the sldestlck Is cantered the aircraft will maintain l ts etlitude. oenection of lhe
sidestick represents a pitch or roll attitude change with a predetermined rate.
The autop~ot will provide the commands directly in to the night control computers
of the fty by wire system instead o f the side stick signal.
Figure 31 : System Layout

FMdback

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+~1~.0g
0~9~--------~~~--------------,~~--------------

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Go-A round

Figure 39: Missed Appr oach Go Around

In the go-around mode the autoflight system gives pitch, roll, and thrust steering
signal s to control the aircraft on a safe climb-<>ut from an unsuccessful approach.
There are switches on the thrust levers to select the go-around mode. The GA selection automatlcaWy engages the ATS, selects HOG hold mode on, and a safe
speed In the speed display.
On other aircraft types the throttles must be manually moved to fully rorward position. The Go-around lhrosl will be demanded from the engillB and automatically a
positive safe climb is Initiated. Tile wings are leveled and at a safe altitude heading
hold or heading select mode is initiated.

Power Levers with TOJGA

Trl~

Activated in flight :
- g o-around m o d e eng<~gcd
- ATS selects go-around thrust
- AP r emai ns engaged

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Heading Hold

Figure 40: Heading Hold and Heading Select Mode

In the heading hold mode the autopilot makes steeling signals to hold the aircraft's eXIsting heading. When the crew selects the HOG hold mode wnlle tne aircraft Is io a roll. lhe AFCS first levels the aircraft off. The heading hold mode is lhe
basic ron mode.

Heading

HOG Hold Select

Heading Select
In the heading select mode the AFCS controls the a1rcraft to capture and hold the
heading which the crew selects on the flight mode panol.

tum ; (Pre) 5819C:t value

tnt.'til"dOWII

Intercept New Heading

Selected
Heading

---;r--~--- -Heading Preselec1

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Altitude Hold

Figure 41 : Altitude Hold and Attitude Select Mode

In the altitude hold mode the auto flight system makes steering signats to levelltle
aircrafl off and it !hen holds the altitude at which the airaaft was nying when the
altitude hold mode was ini!Jated by pressing the selector knob momentary in.

Hold Attitude

Altitude Select
The auto flight system makes steering signals to level the aircraft off at a preselected altitude and then 1t holds the altitude. The alraafl was climbing or descending wtth a preselected vertical speed or in the level change mode.

PUSH : Altitude hold enga,ge


TURN : Presetect Alti tude
PULl. : Altitude select engage

' , '\..
Level change or vortical
'~Speed mode

Altitude Track

> - - - - -- - Preselect ed Altitude


Level c hange or vertical
speed mode

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Figure 42: L.evel Change and Vertical Speed Select Mode

Level Change
The level change mode is a combination o f en speed mode end a thiUst mode
(when AT Is engaged). With this combination AFCS lties the airaal't from an old
flight level to a new preselecled al~tude. in the level change mode lhe AFCS
makes steering signals to control the speed or the airaaft with the elevator (IAS or
M sated mode). Auto ltvottle controls the et~glnes to lhe upper limit In level change
climb or lhe lower limit in descanl The vertical speed in this mode depends on air
crtltl weight etc. The AFCS stays In the level change mode until the aircr aft Is at
the preselected altitude and then it goes to altitude capture/hold.

------i~ -- ---------- Old Flight L evel

P re Selected Altitude

Vertical Speed Select


You sated the vertical speed mode with the VS selector. The read-out shows the
current vertical speed on the display and selects the VS mode. Rotating the knob
update the display and the AFCAS adjusts the vertlcal speed of the aircraft to the
dl splayed value.

Flight Path

~~
~orlzontat

Ve r1lcaf Speed

Speed

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Lateral Navigation

Figure 43: Lateral

In the navigation mode the ffight management computer gives st~Mring signals to
the flight control computers to control the heading of the aircraft.

vvv

Figure 44: Profile

Profile Navigation
Profile mode. In the profile mode the FMS gives vertical steering and thrust commands to lhe mght control computers. The fflght management system does all the
altitude changes, sllitude captures, and sltltude holds when the AFCS Is in the profile mode.

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Thrust and vertical steering


from flight manage ment system

112

ehnika

Figure 45: Lift, Weight and Center Of Gravity

Pitch Trim
Function

The horizontal stabilizer is automatically positioned to off-load any steady state elevator deflections of more than 3 seCO!lds. The trim rate is varied with airspeed
and altitude to provide best perlormaoce for all flight oonditions.
Autometic pitch trim (APD function Is coniained in auto flight system.
Out-of-trim oonditions that could result in unacceptable trim funcflon causes lo disengage and are annunciated to the flight crew.

Aircraft flies In stable condition

The lift A + the Weight G + the negative Lift S = Zero

A x iA S xIs

Lift attachment rnoved backward


Induced by i ncreased till of the wing tips at hlgh speed fiight.
The aircraft lowers the nose.
Correction with horizontal stabilizer towatd aircraft nose up direction (ANU).

Center of gravity moved backward


Due of fuel usage of the inner tanks.
The aircraft rises the nose.

Correction with horizontal stabilizer toward aircraft nose down direction


(AND).

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Automatic Stabilizer Trim System

Figure 46: Syst.e m

The motor on the right drives a jaeksaew whose nut is attached to the forward spar
of the stabilizer. The stabilizer Is pivoted on the aft spar. Turning lhe jackscrew one
way or the other rai ses or lowers the nose of the stabiriZer. The motor itself could
be hydraulically operated and electrically controlled. or 1t could be a threephase
electric motor. Shown is 11 DC 11lectrlc motor.
TherB are always at least two stabilizer motors, and usually, both can drive into the
same differential gear box. If both are driving, the rate of operation is greater than
that of only one motor. If there are two electric motors . one is typically smaller and
dt'lves through a lower ra ~o gear train for slow speed operation. There might be
one hydraulic motor used for the fast operation, and an electric motor used for the
slow operation. Fast is used durlng takeoff and approadl, and slow Is used for
cruise. The slow opefatlon Is used by the autopHot system.

CAl>C

~
~,~~----~~

On the outboard horns or the cockpit control wheels are two swltclles mounted
close together whidl can be operated by one thumb.
Generally, the man ual operation of the stabiliZer trim system by tl'le pilot disconnects his autopilot. T he reasoning behind this arrangement is that. if the pilot
needs to trim the stabilizer. the autopilot is not doing its job correctly. Operation of
either the caplain's or first officer's wheel trim switches operates a priority relay
which disconnects from the motor any signals that might be generated by the automatic slabilizer trim coupler. The trim coupler is part of the automatic flight guidance system.
The baslc control signal for automatic stabili~er trim is the elevator posJIIOn. If the
level detectors see an elevator too far away from the falred position tor several
seconds, one of them wiU operate the servo motor to trim the stabi~zer up or down
as needed. When the elevators get close enough to the faired posibon, the level
detectors stop their operation of the servomotor.

An airspeed functlon usually controls the sensitivity of the level detectors. AI cruise
speeds, if the elevator is held pemaps as little as 1/4'away from the faired position,
the stabilizer trim system operates. AI approacll or tal(eotf speeds, automatic sta
bilizer trimming is not lnltlated unless the elevator is held much farther away from
the falred position.

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Yaw Damping

Figure 47: Dutch Rolling

Introduction

~ --

Many of the high-speed jet airaaft with swept-back wings have the undesirable
problem of Dutch Roll fhght d'laracterlslics. This Is an oscillataty night condition
lhat can be vefY uncomfortable for the passengers and, to counteract it. these arccraft are equipped with yaw dampers.

- 4 S&C.

~
~

A rate gyro senses the rate of yaw of the aircraft and sends <1 signal to the rudder
servo that provides ii!St exactly the correct amount of rudder deflection to cancel
the Ou1ch Roll before it gets enough amplitude to be disturbing.

The yaw damper system provides the following funclions:


Du1ch roll darnping
Torn coordination in low speed manual flight to-reduce the sideslip induced by
the turn.
Engine failure compensation. A command is generated to the rudder to counteract sideslip during the transient Induced by a engine failure.

-=ie-

Oust -..~

The block diagram shows a 'yaw damper. The complete rudder channel may or
may not perfoml other funcbons, bu1 this is its most Important one. The dutch roll
is only dampened, it is not eliminated.
In the signal source on the left of the block diagram, yaw rate or yaw acceleration
Is caned uut. This signal is typically supplied by the inertial reference system, a
yew rare gyro or yaw accelerometers.
The shaper/Pfocessor accomplishes whaCever Is necessary in the way of conver
slon, smoothing, dampening, limiting, and gain control. Its output goes to the dutch
roll fitter.

~ --Figure 48: Block Dfagramm

~----------------------------------1A~~aMI

The dutch roll filter attenuates an signals which are not at the frequency of the
dutch roll. Its output Is a continuously changing command foc left rudder. then right
rudder, then back to left rudder and so on.

The servo amplifier amplifies thlS signal as required

to control the servo and oper-

Sorw

Sisnl So...-co

B1/B2 Basic Training


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4Ru~der I

Dutct1 Roll

ffltM

ate lhe rudder 1t1e correct am011nt to eliminate most of the dutch roll.
The small am011nt or dutch roll that Is not eliminated Is represented with a dashed
line coupling the alrplane to the signal source.

-0 SOC.

Shaper!Proceuer

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Auto ThrottlefThrust

Fi gure 49: A uto Throttle Principle

Introduction
The auto throttle system controls the power setting of the engines to reach and
maintain a presetected speed or thrust limit. A SeNO moves the thrust levers or an
electronic signal (;9mmands the engine power v1a the engine control unit
s~ ~~--------~
S.IK:t

The ATS operates in the following modes :


IAS HOLD Provides control of throttles to hold the current a1rspeed.

Tl'VU.!l Limit

IAS SELECT Provides control of throttles to capture and hold the selected reference airspeed.

Engine

Fuel Control

MACH HOLD Provides control of throttles to hold the current MACH number.
MACH SELECT Provides control of throttles to capture and hold the selected reference MACH number.
THRUST LIMIT/TARGET Provides control of throttles to capture and hold thrust at
the thrust limilltarget.

Thndt

Throttle Servo

Auto throttlel
SpiiOdcommand

Co mp u ter

RETARD Provides control of throttles to reduce thi\ISI at the appropriate radio altitude during the landing nare mode.
CLAMP Inhibits ATS control during takeoff at approximately 80 knots without causing disengagement of the ATS. Full manual ~ttle Is ava~able during this mode.

Engine Thrust Trim


The engine thrust lrim system is available during both, manual and automatic
throttle operation. 11Is engaged any time, when two or more engines are operabng
above an EPR/1111 threshold. llle engine thrust trim system will maintain the engines at a common thrust setting to eliminate the need for throttle adjustments. Automatic engine trim Is independent of air/ground operations.

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Figure 50; MO 80 Thrust Rating

Thrust Umit
The maximum allowable engine thrust is a function of:
Selected Flight mode like:
Take off
Take-off flexible for a derated take off
Go around
Maximum continuous thrust
Climb thrust
Cruise thrust
Ambient condition like:
Ram air temperature RAT or TAT
Airspeed CAS
Altitude
Bleed-alr demand from engine for.
Anti Ice and airconditioning.

EPR CMD Limit (BUG)

The thrust limit Is shown as EPR-Limit or N1 Umlt depending of the engine model.
The limit Is shown at a dedicated indicator. Thrust rating indicator, EPR Indicator.
The auto throttle serve oontrols the engfne thrust to the Umil
The assumed temperature is used for a derated take off thrust limit computation.
This temperature is assumed to be higher than the actual oulside air temperatura.
TAT= T otal Air Temperature, RAT= Ram Air Temperature.
TO. Flexible Is used for noise abatement, environment and engine protection.

Alrdata:
RAT/CASIALT

Bleed Air Demand

Figure 51: Thrust Rating Computation


MODE

T HRUST L IMIT

AMBIENT TEMP ER~ RE


STATIC P RESSURE

THRUST
RATING
CO MPUTATION

lt.IPACTPRESSURE

THRUST
LIMIT
INDICATION
N1 or EPR

AUTO THROTTLE
SYSTEM

BLEED AIR DEUAND

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Fault Isolation and Test

Figure 52: DFGC's and Maint enance Panel

Build In Test
In advanced technology aircrafts with di gi tal flight guidance computers, test and
maintenance devices are Integrated to assist maintenance engineers for trouble
shooting. Some aircraft types are equipped with a dedicated auto tlight system status/test or maintenance panel, others use the multipurpose control and display
units (MCDU) to access the integrated fault isolation and detection system.

Dlgitlll Flight Oui<Sance


Compul:et' No. 1

Digital Flight Guidance


Computer No. 2

AFS Maintenance Panel


A very useful, the STATUS.'TEST panel, Is installed In the flight compartment. The
panel allows two way communication with the built-In test system (BIT). lt provides
the operator upon request with a display of memorized failures. test instructions
respedively test results and autoland availability.
The Status Test Panel (STP) is the primary Digital Flight Guidance System
(DFGS) troubleshooting toot There are three functions the STP provides:
Flight Fault Review
Return To Service Test
Maintenance Test

Figure 53: Maintenance Status/Test Panel


Status/Test

Fllghl Fault Review?

The DFGC runs continuous Internal self-tests and controls a vahd light (CMPVLD)
:>n the StatusfTesl Panel. Failures deteded by these self-tests and other automat

oe tests are logged in Flight Fault Review. ihe Maintenance/Return to Service


rests are to be used primarily to test DFGS sensors and input.s ror oorrect operaj on,

Fault Isolation Detection System


The Auto ftight maimenance system comprises a maintenance card and several
BITEs. A Fault lsolatoon Detection System (FIOS) card is physically located Inside
of each Flight Manegement Guidance and Envelope Computet' (FMGEC). 'The
BITEs are located in the various AFS computers.

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The FIDS is connec1ed to O'le BITEs of lhe various AFS computers an d serves as

tehnika

Figure 54: Build In Test access

!he SYSTEM BITE. The FIDS is linked in acquisitloo and rncoption to the Centralized Maintenance Computers (CMC's).

11 receives commands from the C MC, interprets these commands and transfers
them to the various BITEs concerned. lt can also request the BITE to give complementary information.
lt receives malfunction reports from BIT Es. manages these r eports and. If applicable, consolidates the BITE diagnosis and g&nerates a fault messag& which i s sent
to the CMC.
The AFS system BITE has two fault detection and isolation modes.
In NORMAL MODE, the system stores the failure data relevant to the AFS in
noovolatile memories and transmils thls data to the CMC.
In MENU MODE, th e FIOS transmits different menus and submenus accord
ing to the operator selection on the MCOU. This is only ava~able on the
ground when the CMC itself allows access to System Report Test. The AFS
maintenance system always operates in NORMAL MODE as long as ltis not
interrupted by a CMC request (System Report Test).

The BITE tests performed by the FMGC or FMGEC are:


Power up l est
MCOUtest
In Operatioo test.

The power up test starts EJutomatically at power up provided that !!le aircraft Is on
the ground wilh engines stopped. lt will be Initiated too if the computer power supply has been cut off for more than four seconds under the same conditions.

BUILD IN TEST

tt the power up test is not Ok. yoo have to dialogue with the FMGC through the
CFDS in order to get more information about the failure.
The reading o f the BITE cootents of the FMGC through the GROUND REPORT
function gives the faulty component.

B1/B2 Basic Training


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POWER UP TEST

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

IN OPERAnoN TEST

MCOUTEST

119

EJO/?IEJ tehnika

MCDU T est

Figure 55: Auto Flight System Report and Test Ini tiation

Each test request made from the MCDU Is aocepted only If the aircraft Is on the
QI'OI.Ind with engines stopped. The vali<!ity of all components can be Cflecked. All
the MCDU test reQuests to the FM are send through the FIDS
These tests are Initiated from the MCOU.
AFS Test used for.
Confirmation of an AFS l.RU faiJU19 before removal.
Chedl. of a correct Installation and operation of a new AFS lRU.
Exlnlctlon of the status of AFS computer peripheral dlscrntes from ARINC Input messages
lAND TEST:
This test enables to check avaRabirtty of LAND MODE. equipment and wiring
required to obtain CAT Ill.

,_cov

~ '"u

ill

El <...._c

9
Ei
i3
!
e

"utU

tAl

Gl
=

<A lOS

Gi

\. A.ST L C.a
~

...........

~~~..

-.c;p qA r

CC .... flC:.POAT

"' klll:'ltiO:UJ .......

1\CPO~'Y

AYfO"rc;-a 6 T A'r US

TCJ'f .. coa'f"' TC.rr


P"LUL.. 1' lllC '
t
.,q ~ T

Uil

00
~

liil

GROUND SCAN:
Simulates that the aircraft is flying. Exls~ng failures are logged In the BITE
memory

IN OPERATION TEST
The In Operation test is a cyclic test automatically perlonned when the system
operates. During In operation test. the va6dity of all components are checked.

A. .
MA l"'

-.c.""

...- LCG. ,.._.oT

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Figure 56: Radio Frequency Bands

Communication (ATA 23)


Radio frequencies up to 300GHz are divided into decadlc ranges. Each decade Is
designated as a frequency band. Radar frequencies are dMded into special radar
bands.

Optical Emission
(Infrared}

300GHz
Designation and abbreviations of ra dio frequencies:
RF Radio Frequency (Carrier)
IF Intermediate Frequency
OF Oscillator Frequency
AF Audio Frequency

"'
1mm

EHF
Extremely High Frequency
30GHz

1c m

3GHz

1dm

SHF
Super High Frequency

UHF
Ultra High Frequency
Table 1: Radar Bands
Band

Frequency f

Wavelength "-

225-390 MHz

133.3 76.9 an

390 1550 MHz

n.9- 19.3cm

s
c

1.55 5.2 GH%

19.3 - 5.7 an

5.3-5.8 GHz

5.7. 5.2 an

5.2 10.9 GH:Z

5.8 2.8 cm

Ku

10.9-36 GHz

2.6 -0.8cm

36 -46 GHz

8.3 - 6.3 mm

300MHz

1m

30MH;:

10m

VHF
Very High Frequency
HF
High Frequency
Sli.!Hz

100m

MF
Medium Frequency
300KHz

Hem

LF
Low Frequency
30KHz
VLF
Very Low Frequency

3KHz

10km

100km

AF
Audio Frequency

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Figure 57: A ircraft with Antennas

Antenna Installation
VOR

Regardless of the excellence of the equipment, no radio installation is better than


its antenna. Each piece of equipment must have e specific antenna, and this antenna must be mounted In a specific location for the mosi efficient operation. Most
antennas are used for both reception and transmitting.

Tlle length, polarltation, and location of an antenna Is of extreme importance In


~etting the most efficient transmission end receptlon from the installed equipment.
The types of antennas used with several pieces or avionic equipment ere exam
ned here.

The shown antennas arc used for:


Radar Redlo detectlon and ranging. Shows the weather in ahead of the flight
route.
Loealizer Receives lateral guidance for landing.
Glldeslope Receives vertical guidance for landing.
VHF Very high frequency communication within a range up to about 300 NM.
ATC Air traffic control transponder. Receives and sends signals for air traffic
surveillance.
OME Distance measuring equipment Detecting the distance to ground statJons.
TCAS Traffic collision avoidance system. Alerts pilOt if odler alrcrafts are
around.
Marker Receives signal from a beacon et ground, for po,ition determination
during approach Of enroute.
GPS Glob<tl positioning system. Satellite navigation
ADF Automatic direction finder. Navigation fOf shoo and medium range.
Radio Altimeter Detects the eira-aft height above ground.
SATCOM SateJrile communication for voice and data.
ELT Emergency location transmi tter. Sending signals tor searching and rescuing the victims of an accident.
HF High frequency (short wave) communication over whole wortd.
VOR VHF omnidirectional range. Accurate navigation within 300 NM.

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Slope

DM E 2

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Installation of aircraft antenna systems

Figure 58: Antenna Types

There are a variety of radio antennas, each designed for a specific radio and installation. Typically the radio antenna must be located on the exterior of the aircraft
or located near the exterior protected by a plastic or nooconductlve cover. Antennas which are mounted on the exterior or the aircraft are either the blade (rigid) or
Whip (ftexible) type. Flush mounted antennas are located wlthln the aircraft outer
cover and produce less drag than an e)((ernaJiy mounted anteMa.

Maintenance procedures
Antennas and their associated cables shoukl be visually inspected for security and
integrity. The leadiog edge .of blade-type antennas often deteriorate rapidly on
higho$peed aircraft. This area should be given particular attention. If the antenna
leading edge is deteriorated beyond Hmlts, the antenna should be removed and replaced. In some cases, the antenna may be repaired; however this typically requires a special repair facility.
All antennas or antanna covers should be inspected for a proper seal OR GASKET
to the aircraft. If the seal has deteriorated, molswre may enter the antenna or aircraft and create corrosion problems. Remove and reseal any antenna or antenna
cover which may admit moisbKe. Pressurized airaafl also require that special attention be given to the antenna-w-alrcrafl seal in order that vapors do not leak form
the pressumed siJ\Icture .
Radar antennas are typically housed in the nose-section of the aircraft and are
protected form the environment by a non-conductive cover called a redome. The
radome should be inspected for cracb and to ensure a proper seal to the airtrama.
Proper radome repair is a itlcal to the operatiOfl of the radar equipmMt. Always fol
low the manufacturers recommendations for the repair and/or painting of the re
dome.

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Flush Mount Type

Blade Type

Whi p Type

Crystal resonators are small chips or sticks cut in a special way from a crystal.
Pressure or pull on the crystal surlace cause electrical charge displacement and
thus electrical vollages (Piazo-effect).
Conversely, if a eltemating voltage is applied to the crystal, it begins to OSCillate
meChanically. Tne resonant frequency of the OSCillations Is highly stable end depends upon the mechanical dimensions of the crystal.

Figure 59:

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Dynamics of the Static Electricity


One of me problems we must deal with In mdio communication. is predpitalion
static or ebbrevlated to p-static. This hi ssing and buzzing noise ks causecs by an
uncontrolled discharge to the sWTOUnding air of the hlgh potential difference accumulating on the airctaft under certain conelitions. Such electrical discharges (also:
corona discharge) are accompanied by Ionisation of the air and therefore look Uke
St. Ermos fire. The installation or si alic dischargers ensures controned remove! of
the electrical charge, solving the problem . One condition is that a sufficient number
of dischargers m ust be present. Since this Clepends on the lype of aircraft 11 is
therefore a problem that must be solved during the desfgn phase.
However, the etliltlc dischargers cannot do the job elone. An unintetrupted transport of charge over the fuselage is just as importenl. Synthebc pans al so bttng their
own specific problems. In this article we spotlight these problems. while at the
same time explaining !he principles of the static discharger.

Electrical charge

as at airfoll lralling edges, these fields become high enough to cause lonil.lltfon or
lhe air and short bursts or charge. or current, will leave the alrcran (corona pulses).
lt Is the energy released by the corona pulses. coupled into the radio antennas,

that causes the precipitation sialic (or shortly p-static). In the radio receivers this
wHI become evident. in the form of irregular popping sounels. As the degree of
dlarging increases so does the frequency of the popping, unta it becomes a continuous bu:tzlng which increases in intensily. Eventually, it becomes a steady roar
which mlilsks all but the very strongest rad lo signals.

Thunder Clouds
Particles strildng !he aircraft are not the only cause for high electric field s. They cen
also develop when flying near or between electncally charged clouds or dunng
el ectrical storms. In thss instance we refer to Induced charging rather than tribo&lectric charging. The resulting corona pulses, however, will generate the same kind
ofp~fatlc.

Fi gure 60: Corona discharge at aircraft extremities and thundercloud

When flying through lee panicles for example cirrus clouds a large number or partides will strike the aifCI'Sft and bounce away. Electric charge is transferred at eadJ
Impact. ~e know this phenomenon as triboelectncity). Typically, the aircraft is left
with a negative charge white the rebounclng particle lilcquires 11 positive charge.
Each impact adds to the electrical charge or potentiel on the aircraft The developed potential difference can reach high values. Under normal charging conCI1tlons
lhls potential can readJ values of 100'000 to 200'000 volts In a fraction of a second.
Tabla 2: Causes of alectrical c hargo
Dust end Sand

ScUd particles produces the most violent forms


of p-static, especlelly when there aro dry.

lee Cfystals
Dry Snow

Tha coldar and drier they are, the more p-static.


Found in high cirrus clouds and In cold arctic masses

Rain

Large rain drops also producing p-stalic

Corona discharge
When the potential of the aircraft reaches these high values, some interesting
things take place. The eledJic fields around the aircraft become high, particularly
at its extremities (wing tips, tal, etc.). AI the sharper edges In these locations, such

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ehnika

Figure 62: Static Dischargers

Figure 61:

Static Dischargers

One major source of radio Interference comes from the discharge cif staUc elect(ic.
lty which Is produced on the aircraft due to friction. When ever an aircratl travels
through rain, dust or even airborne pol!utants. a s tatic charge is produced on the
sl<ln of the ain:rnft.
This statlc charge is more prevalent on aircraft capable of spee<ls o f 200 lds or
greater. T he static charge fanned on the aircraft skin will not produce radio 11\lerference If the charge remain s stationary. Hovtever, If the charge builds up etld be
comes great enough, it will discharge from the aircraft back Into the a tmosphere.
This discharge produces a magnetic field which is received by the radio as static
interference.
Static dischargers help to elimina.te radio interference by lowering the amount or
static electrical current which discharges from the aircraft back into the air. Without
static <fiSchargers, static electricity would bu ~d up on the aircraft to a certain level
end then rapidly discharge back into the air. This periodic discharge would continue as long as the static charge continued to build on the aircraft surface.

Flat Retainer
(3t tho Trailing Edges)
Figure 63: Loc.a tlons

If the aircraft is equipped with static dischargers. the static discharge occurs at a
lower current level and much more frequently. The lower level of discharge current
produces an extremely we&!< magnetic field which Is not picked up by radio receiv-

ers.
Static dischargers are m ounted to the trailing adges and tips ofwtngs, vertical and
horizontal stablllu!rs. and con1to1 surfaces. The layout of static dischargers can be
different, but welt< according to the same principle.

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Bonding

Figure 65: Radome d iverter strip and static discharger bonding failure

As already stated in the Introduction, the p-static problem can easily be solved by
installing static dischargers. There are, however, some additional lsauea that re.
quire attention. First of all it must be assured that all moving a4rframe surfaces, detachable panels, etc. are bonded to the main mass of the alrframe. This Is done to
prevent arcing which might create a fuel storage Ignition problem. 1t is also true
that, when moving parts of the aircraft like flaps and ailerons. are not bonded lcr
gether, then a difference In voltage level can exist between the two surfaces. (Ois
tribution of the static charges through the bearings only is absolutely insufficient).
As a result of this dllferentlal potential, spal'klng can be Induced across the unbonded portions of the aircraft We now in effect have a spark transmitter, that couples the energy of the spal'k into the aircraft antennas and can create crackling
noises into the head phones. Similarly, Inspection panels can become Isolated
from the main structure of the aircraft and have the same resuJL

Insulating Fiberglass
Aadomo
Charge deposited o n radome
surface flows lo isotaled
port ion of di verter strip and
charges lt to a tlfgh voltage

Charge flows to
afrframe via sparks
gap In divertor strip

Figure 64: Charging due of Incorrect bonding

Fibo<-glass Trailing
Edge

o-----~

/ "e /"/

Impinging preclphatlon particles


charge Isolated inspection panel

Charge flows to al.r frame via


sparks 11cross insulated gap

Streamering
Synltle!lc materials form a different problem. As an aircraft flies through precipitation static conditions these parts will accumulate a static charge (static electricity).
Because they are not conductive, they cannot easily lose this charge without fur
ther steps. Upon reaching a certain potential difference, the acctJmulated charge
will then discharge all at once. This discharge can couple Into the antenna system
and create static noise. This phenomenon has boen named 'streamering'.

Static
Discharger
Current fl ows
from a irframe t o
dischargor via
spark$ across
break in bond

The solution Is the application of special paint that allows the charge to leak away.
Furthelmore the radome is ~ipped with metal stops to drain the static charge
without disturbing lhe radar operation. The strips may not be damaged.

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VHF Communication

Figure 67: Transceiver

Introduction
The VHF Is used for short range voice and data communications. The VHF system
allows short distance voioe communications between different alrcrafts (in flight or
on ground) or between the alraaft and a ground station.
Frequency:

Very High Frequency 118.000 136.975 MHzAM


In 25 kH% channel spaclng/760 Channel
in 8.33 kHz channel spacing /2280 Channel

Power.

5 - 25Watt

Ffguro 66: Propagation VHF

Pressing fhe Push To Tatk switch (PTT) located at handmicrophone. audio control
panel. control wheel or side-stick changes from reception (Rx) mode to transml ~
sion (Tx} mode.
Figure 68: System simplified
Antenna
Lino of alght

VHF '
Transcolfer

Frequency
Selection

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Controls

Figurct 71 : Audio Control

P;~ncl

TUlle the desired frequency

8~~

Figure 69: VHF COMM Control Panel

VHF1

VHF2

VHF3

HFI

~lEl~e
HF2

INT

CAB

~@0000
lifT

~
RAO

VOR t

~~
VOR2

~A

ILS

0-f'A-DJ
MLS

AOF1

AOF2

0000000

Figure 70: Radio Management Panel tunes 3 VHF and 2 HF Systems


Rocaptlon:
open the respective VHF po1entiometer.
Transmit:
press the desired Microfone (CALL) button and
hold the RAO/INT switch in RADio position at ACP or Control Column/StiCk, or
press the PTT button at handmicrofone

Some u seful Frequencies


121 .70 MHz.
Dispatch Ground (SELCAL)
Dispatch Flight (SELCAL)
131.70 MHz
127.20 MHz
VOLMET
Meleo Region
128.525 MHz
ATIS
Meteo Zurich Aifport
121.95 MH%
Maintenance Control Center SRTecnnics
122.90 MHz
Maintenance test or worKing channel (I ERA)
121.75 MHz
Geneva Ground Control

Never transmit at these frequencies:


118.00 MH% Arrival
118.10
121.90
121.75
125.95
121 .80

MHz
MHz
MHz
MH2
MHz

Tower
Ground
Apron
Departure
Delivery

121 .50MHz EMERGENCY

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HF Communication

tehnika

Figure 73: HF - COM B lock Diagram simplified

lntroducUon
The HF system allows long distance voice communications between different aircrafts (in flight or on ground) or between the aircraft and a groond station.

Table 3:
Frequency:

Shortwave 2 - 29.999 MHz AM


in 1 kHz channel spacing/28000 Cannel

Power:

100 w - 400 w

The ionosphere refl ects lha mdiowavas back to tha a3J'th_This helps to reach depending of the solar activity to reach any point of the world.

Figure 72: Signal Radiation on Short Wave

--------

........

.......

...............

......

......

Figure 74: HF Control Panel

'

I
I

........... ___ _... ---~,----

',

Earth

Figuro 75:

R~dio

Management Panel

'
I

'
The antenna must be matched to the transmlsskln frequency. This Is done with antenna-coupler near the antenna. Before transmission the antenna is automatically
tuned within few seconds.
Pressing the Push To Tall< swilef\ (PTT) located at haoomicrofone, audio contrOl
panel, control wheel or side-stlck changes from reception (Rx) mode to transmission (Tx) mode.

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System

Figure 76: HF System

This is for communication between the aircraft and ground stations. The ionosphere reflects the frequencies in the HF band, so the line of sight does not limit
the reception range of the system.. That is why the HF COMM is suitable for long
range, wolfd wide communication.

The frequency range of the system is 2 to 29.999 MHz. You can make the frequency selection In 1kH z steps, so there are 28000 channels available. There are two
modes or operation, these modes are:
AM amptitude modulation
SSB - upper side band

In the AM mode the system transmits a carrier with amplitude modulation. In the
SSB mode you remove the carrier and the lower Side band. The system only transmits the USB.

Antenna
Tuning
Rx Signal

Mode

Transmitter
Recalle r
TAx

The System has the following components:


a transceiver, an antenna coupler, an antenna and a control panel.

Frequency Solection
Mod e

On the control panel you make the mode and frequency selections. The Information goes from the control panel to the transceiver through an ARINC 429 data bus.
The control panel also shows the frequency selection. The received audiO signals
go from the transceiver directly to the audio management system. A data output of
the transceiver supplies the SELCAL decoder. The push to transmit (PTT) and microphone signals go directly from the audio management system to the transceiver. The PTT signals also go to the coupler. The antenna coupler adjusts the
antenna ompedance to get the correct load for the transmrtter. To do a tunlH:ycle
after e frequency change the coupler gels a re-channel pulse from the transceiver.
The transceiver gets a Tune-In-Progress (TIP} signal from the coupler. To monitor
the coupler condition interlock signals come and go from the coupler to the transceiver.

Mic

Hoadsot

Figure 77: HF Transceiver Unit

0_. . . .
o"""'
o"',.._'"

4bran~'o

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Antenna

Figure 78: Vario us HF Antenna Types

Aircraft that fly over lhe water for long distances rely on high-frequency COIT1munlcations. The lower frequeru:ies used by this e-quJpment require long antenna. The

horizontally polarized radiation used by HF communications aHows long wires to


be used.

Antenna Wire

In the pa.st, long-wire trelllng antennas were u sed for HFoommunication. These
ere o ften installed between a polnt above the coc~pll and lhe tip of !he vertical fin.
The wire Is o ften a copper-plated steel wire, but the more efficient systems use an
antenna wire encased i n a pl01stic sheelh lo minimize precipitation staUc.
Some modem hlgh..speed aircraft have the HF oommunicationll entennas built into
some part of the structure, such as the leading edge of the vertical fin.

;J;.~""

Antenna
DC-9/ MD.SO

PrOb
Antenna

~
~

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SELCAL

Figure 80; Decoder

Introduction
The SELCAL (Selective Calfiog) system provides aural and visual indications of
lhe caUs received from groond stations equipped with a oodmg device. The communloelioo sysiems used for SELCAL reception, are VHF and HF systems.
The ground station transmits a selective call code, via VHF or HF transmit1ers. The
SELCAL code panel is used to provide the decoder wilh the SELCAL code dedi
cated to the aircrafl The transmitter and recolvar must be tuned to the same operation frequency.

The SELCAI. decoder compares the code selected on the SELCAL code panel
with the received code. Once detected, the information is send to the aural wam
lng, whN:tlgenerales a buzzer sound and lhe "CALL" legend flashes AMBER in
the eo<:kpit.
When the RESET key is pressed, the aural and visual indications are cancelled.

Channel 2
-VHF-2
HF-2)

1---t--ca.

Channel 1
VHF1
- HF-1")

Figure 79: Pr'lneiple


Figure 81: Control Panel

Blinking on to alert pilot of Incoming


call. Chime also sounds.

RESET button

When pushed, the alert lights will go


out and lha equipment will be reset.

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Satellite Communication
Introduction
The Muftichannel Aviation Sateflite Communication System (MCS SATCOM) is a
worldwide mobile communications system providing continuous voice and data
communications services to and from the aircraft. In addition to the Airborne Avlonics (referred to as an Aircraft Earth Station), the total MCS SATCOM system
coMtsts of the Space Segment (Satellite), Ground Earth Station (GES) and Public
as well as Private Voice and Oat<! terrestrial telecommunlcatloM networks.

The Space Segment comprises Satellite in geosynchrooous omit, providing atrgroond packet- swilctled data servioe5 and voice communications using conven..
lions and capabilities which are standard~ worldwide. The Satetrrtes function as
communication transponders to support L- band links to and from the Aircraft and
provide ~nks to and from Ground Earth Stations (GES). Th8f'6 arelwo space segment providers for Air11ne Aeronautical SateUite CQmm1.1nica1ioO$. The fir5t IS the
International Maritime Satellite Organisation (INMARSAT}, whose system Is In
place today to provide wor1dwide coverage. The other Is American Mobile Satellite
Consortium (AMSC) system.
Figure 83: Four Satellites and ten Ground Earth Stat ions

Figure 82:

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Ground Earth Station (GES)

Aircraft Earth Station (AES)

Each Ground earth station has the necessary equipment to communicete with terrestrial nelworl<s and communicate through satellites with the Aircraft. ihe GESs
are designed to provide the Airline customer with a divers routing of national and
infamatlonal Voice and Dafa communications via submarine cable , satemte and
microwave links to all destinations. Automatic traffic managemenl5y$tems ensure
efficient routing of communications usi11g optimum 6nks Into Publlc SWitched Telephone Networks (PSTN) and avoiding multiple satellite connections whenever
possible. The GESs are strntegically placed globally io provide redundancy and
diversil't in the terrestrial extension of communications. The aircraft will be con
nected to aGES vta a "in- view" seteiJite depending on the service prererenoe tabte
settlngs In tl'le AES Satellite Data Unit.

The aircraft earth station comprises the AVIONICS and ANTENNA subsystems,
whQ!1e primary function Is to Interlace with the S PACE SEGMENT fOt communications \vith the GES. The AES accepts DATA and VOICE messages from various
sources, encodes and modulate this Information onto appropriate Radio Frequency carrieo; to be relayed by satellite to GES. Standard interface include the
ACARS, IRS, MCDUs and Cabin Teleoommunications System, for Passenger telephone. Channels are also provided for voice and dafa communications with Air
Traffic Control (ATC).
Figure 85: AES

Figure 84: SATCOM


lnmarsat/
AMSCITMI

Satellite

==

L-Band ~
1.5/1.6 GHz

'%
~

Aircraft Earth

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A CARS

Figure 87: Gro und Network w it h Aircra ft

Introduction
ConltOt

The Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS} is an air/


ground communication data link network that enables the aircraft to functJon as a
mobile terminal associated with modern air1ine command, control and management systems.

Unn

Management ...,..;n
Unit
I!SilU'

The ACARS Is used to trsllsmit or receive automaticalfy or manua~y generated reports or messages to or from a ground station. The ACARS is ded1cated to Maintenance, O~tion end Commercial purposes. The ACARS can manage both
transmission or reception of da1a. Ground- to- air and air- to- ground digi1al messages are transmitted or received via VHF transceiver or the SATCOM system
when the VHF link is not available.

The transmitted information is relayed via the ground stations to a central computer (Singapore for SITA or Ctlicago fo4- ARINC) wh8!e data Is converted into ajrline
message:..
A ground networt (SITA for EUROPE, ARINC for the USA), transmits the data
from the ground receiver to the airline main base.
Figure 86: A ir craft Syst em

Wire lina

ARINC Aeronautlcal Radlo Incorporated operates ACARS.


SITA Soclllllllntematlonal de Telecommunication Allrlenne operates AIRCOM.
The most part of the world Is covered

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------

by StTAA IRCOM operated at 131 .725 MHz.

In USA ts ARINC-ACARS domtnant at 131.550 MHz.


Canada operates the own AirCanada at131 475 MHz.
Japan uses AVICOM at 131.450 MHZ.

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If there is to much oommunlcatlon traffic at a certafn frequency channel. the ground

At uncovered areas of the wor1d, If there is no link to a ground station, the ACARS

station initiates an automatie frequency ehange to an other channel. (Remote Tuning)

uses the Satellite Communication.

Figure SS: Worldwide Coverage of VHF Network

Alr Canada ACARS


131. 475

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ARINC ACARS
131.500

SITA AIRCOM

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Operations, Requests and Communications with A CARS:

Data Format

The Aircr aft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) is a two
way digital data link between the aira'aft and grOIJJld stations through the VHF-3
communication system or to Ground Earth Stations (GES) Ilia satellrte through the
satellite communication system (SATCOM). ACARS prollides tile means to aufo.
matically report vital flight and routine Information. In addition the system enables
manual routing of pre-canoed or free text messages to and from the aircraft.

The data IS transmitted vis VHF with frequency shift keying in analog formal or via
SATCOM i n dlgital formal. Each alphabetic character Is represented with 7 B1t.
Each packet is divided l n 3 groups:
Preamble 34 Characters: Address and System Protokoll
Message 220 Characters of data
Trailer:

System in[llalisation (must be done before the nighL Fit. Nr. and From-To)
Mission Status (0001, Block Time end ~;'light Time, UTC)
Out:Aircraft out gale {Doors closed, Engines Runni ng, Parkbrake released)
Off: Aircraft lift off
On: Aircraft touched down
tn: Aircraft in gate
S!lflding and Receiving of free messages via telex
Standard Text (Sending of preprogrammed text)
Flight Data entering (Fuel, Time and Weight)
Fuefiog (Uplift, Fuel on board, svppfier. station)
Automa ted Terminallnformatlon System (ATIS)
Destination Weather
Weather (Actvat and Forec<~st)
Delay Message {Reason)
Estimated Arrlval Time ETA
Load Sheet request
Operation lnfo
Operation Flightplan
Diversion (New Destination, Ccmment and ETA)
Parking Position Requ est
Passenger Connection Request

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7 Characters Parity and Verification

Figure 89: Data packet ACARS

Prumble

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Lleuaga

Trailer

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Audio Integrating

tehnika

Figure 91 : Audi o Integrating System


Captain

Introduction

First Officer

Modern airliners have a compte)( interphone system that allows ftight crew member.> to communica te with each other and ground crew-m embefs. The pilots and
flight attendants can make announcements to the passengers, and the conversaIIOIIS in the oocJ<plt are recoroed for investigative 11se In the event of an air crash.
Each of the subsystems of the Audio Integrating System of a large jet transport air
craft ara considered below.
All communications trom the night deck, both Internal and external, are directed
through audio selection panels at each one of the crew stations. By usi ng switches
on these panels, the crew members can receive and lransmit on any of the VHF
or HF ttsnsceiver s, can listen to any of the navigation receivers, and can talk over
the Interphone or the Pllbtlc address sysiem.
Figure 90: 0verview
Cockpit

Warning Syst..m
GPWS

Volc:o

ACPs

R""ordr

FWC
TCAS

Corn. Syo;tomo:;
\/HF 1-2-3
HF 1 2
Sat com

t4v. Sv>14m
VOR 1-2
DI\IE 1-2
ILS 12
ADF 1-2
MKR

Figurn 92 : Audio Control Panol ACP

]~~~~~
Communlcatlon
Sys tems
Navigation
Systems

oe>ooooo

MD

FHght!CabiniService
l'nterphone

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Accoustic Equipment

Hand M icrophone

Headsets, boomsets. cockpit speakers, hand microphones and oxygen masks are
used tor the communication. Push To T alk switches provides discrete signals fo
enable the lransmission.

The hand mic contains the preamplifler 9nd the Push To Talk (PTT) &witch.
The DC power for the preamplifier is provided through the same fine as the output

audio signal AC.


The Push To Talk (PTT) or Key signal is used to chaoge

Microphone (Mike or Mic)

trom reception mode to

transm1t mode.

A microphOne Is a transducer that converts sound waves Into eledrical signals.


For $peech, its frequency re.spon$e should be as flat a s possible from below 200
to above 3500 Hz. Most microphones pick up a tot ol background ambient oolses
because the speech amplincaHon. A "noise cancelflng" microphone ls recom
mended to reduce this background pick-up. Microphone output levels vary, d&pending on the microphone type. Typical mics produce about 10 to 100 mV.

Ffguro 94: Microphones

Dynam ic

~-----------------,

:
I

A dynamic microphone resembles a sman loudspeaker, with an impedance of


about 680 nand an output of about 12 mV on voice peaks, In meny cases a
preamplifier (ponibly built-m) transfOITTls the Impedance to 100 k.n or more and
delivers 9bout 100 mV on voice peaks. Dyn9mic mics are widely used .

[>

:Ring S upply/
I
_ ....

t -f !

KtryiPTT

I
j;S!o!Ye Ground
I
I
~--- ------- ------~

Electret
"Electrar mlcs use a piece of special Insulator material that contains a "trapped"
polarization charge (Q) at Its surfaces and a capacitance (C). Sound waves modulate the capacitance of the material and cause a voltage change. A polarizing
voltage o f about 4 V ls required to maintain the charge. The mic output level is fair1y
low, and a preamplitier is sometimes required.
Figure 93:
TauchlpUie
Ill em bran

Luftspatt

Membran

l<ri&tall

Piezo Microphone

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Electrodynamic Microphone

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Headset
The headset converts electrical energy into the motioo of air molecules we call
sound. For reception and understanding of bad, dist.ort.ed signals, il is better to use
a headset instead the loudspeaker.

Boomset
The combination of a headset with a microphone is called boomset. "The pilots or
maintenance personal does not need to hold the mic, so both !lands are free to

figure95:

Figure 96:

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Oxygen Mask Microphone

Cock pit Loudspeaker

If the crew wears oxygen masks, fOf communication it is important that a microphone changes the voice in a signal to make spoken words In the mask under-

If the incoming re<ll!j)tion signal is clear and understandable the cockpit speaker is

standable for radio or interphone communication.


This microphone Is active as soon the p~ot has taken the mask from the stowage
container.
Figure 97:

mont COfnfortable then to wear the headsets. Ampllf.er Increases the slgnallevel
to operate the speaker.
Volume potentia meter Is used to select a convenient sound level.
The muUng of speaker during radio transmission Of interphone operation prevents
acoustical feedback (whistling noise).
Flgure98;

Microphone

Microphone Plug

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Connections

Push To Talk Switches

The microphones and headsets are connected via jacks located in the cockpit with
the audio Integrating system. Build in preamplifJefS gains the low output level Of the
dynamic microphones lo a appropriate level.

To change transceivers from the reception mode to transmission mode, PTT or


RADIO-INTERPHONE swttches are used. Push To Talk switches for using han<l
microphones are located at the hand miccophones.

Figure 99: Jack Panel

For the usage of boom or mask microphones, those switches are located et the
steering wheel (Yoke) or at the side sticks in advanced tedlnology aircrafts.
Figure 100: Yocke Switch and Si de Stick Sw itch

00
Yoke Switch

all > f\ad io


ctr >oft
lwd> lnt<KJ>hon

Sld Stick.Radlo Switch


Normal > Boom & MaskmJcrophone a re
disconnected f or transmf:osion
Radio , TraMmlsslon ace. ACf' Mleetlon
pulled aft

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Interphone

Fi gure 102: Flight Interphone Sc hemati c

Allows communication between people lnsid_e or outslde of the eirplane. The oonnec:tions are made vie the wiring in the airplane. Three interphone :SY$1ems can be
distinguished: Fllgh t-, Cabin- and Service or Maintenance Interphone system .

Flight Interphone
Takes care of the oommunicalion between the flight deck crew among themseJ'Ies
and between the flight deck crew and the ground engi neer when the engines are
started and <Jurt.n g a test run. The audio distribution or Integrating &yslem is used
for the amplification and distribution of the audio signals. This means that the fligh t
dad< crew can use lho boomset. hand microphone headset and speaker. T he flight
Interphone system can be selected on the eudio control panel. The ground engineer can plug in his headset in the flight JOterphone jack located in the nose wheel
area. Older types of airplanes have a separate flight in terphone amplifier.
Flgure101 : Communl catlon Inside Cockpit and Ground Crew

ru~!}
~~~ ---+----1
AIAPUFIEJl

~
"'!."'

0
.,.....,..

-COli

&er~le

.......
!lriight

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Figure 104: Gabln Interphone ::ichematrc

Cabin Interphone
Cabin crew can communicate among themsetves and with the flight deck crew via
the cabin iot6(phone system_The cabin interphone system consislt! of ttvee oom-

ponents.
Cabin interphone handsets
Cootrol drOJKs inside Cabin intercommunlcaUon Data System CIDS
or a separate amplifier.
Can panels or call buttons at handset s.
Figure 103: Communic ation Between Cockpi t and Cabin

4l

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Service or Maintenance lnterp/)one

Figure 106: Service Interphone Schematic

The seNice i nterphone system takes care of the communication among maintenance personnel during maintenance actiVities. The service Interphone system
consists of a number of plug in jacks can be found at various places In and on the
airplane. The service interphone system uses the audio distribution system for amplification and distl'fbubon of the audio signals. Older types of airplanes have a
separate service interphone ampUfier.

400CIIIl JUXJo.UTIJWt(.l

unuhOIIf
.....:.u 2

t.IJ JfloOC:

Figure 105: Communication between various Locations Cabin and Cockpit

ftiiiNTCM'-tKf

U11UittOHI",
1: A1. .1(1.

._,

1 FO<Ward electronic compartment


2 Beculo oompartm,.nt
3 Avlotllcs compartment
" Engine (l. & RI

, ,... JA.Ql-

l'U.UIU ....a< l
I Mfft,__

'00011J1 JlfKM l lllrtfi,Ut<l

UtJUPMDW:
[lll l lril 1

lJIJ Jt.O:

"'l N"rtU~CCI

lMrC.,Ull

1-'lt, JA.U
""' ~rC'iAMl

l tflU,ttOftl

5 Hydralllc c:ompa_rt"*''l
7SAAs~n
APUbay

--~------------------------~~--~~

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Cabin -Service Interphone Handsets

tehnika

Interconnections between interphone systems

One handset is located in the ox:t<plt and several handsets are installed rn the cabin at the attendant stations.. The handsets are also used as a microphone for public
announcements via the public address system.
Dial buttons mak.es possible to communicate with a dedicated partner station or
cockpit, so other crew members are not able listening prlvate communications. So
a digital central switching system (Cabin Intercommunication Data System CIDS)

The mght interphone mal<es it possible tor lhe flight deck crew to communicate with each olher and with lhe ground engineer.
The cabin interphone is used by the cabin crew to ccmmunlcate among !hemselves a nd to corrununicate with the flight deck crew.
The service- or maintenance interphone Is used by the marntenance personnel to communicate with each other.

rs used.
Figure 107: Various Handsets

om om
BBD
~~B
~~D

ro"'i:..r

Dependin g of aircraft type. it i s poss4ble to interconnect this lhlee interphone systems in the following way:
Cabin interphone with service- or maintenance interphone.
Flight interphone with cabin interphone
Flight interphone with maintenance interphone
Therefore dedicated switches are used or it is done automatically after landing.

To interconnect the service ln\erpho !'le of older aircrarts, it Is !'lessecary to instaH


an external jumper cable between llle flight interphone jacl< and service interphone
jacll.

EJEJ
I

PUSH

lO TM.K

om om
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Passenger Address

ehnika

Fi gure 108: Announcomcn ts to Passengers

Overview
Passengers are informed about a variety of me1ter.1 on board via the PA System .
In addition, the PA System supplies the boarding music. The system oonsists of
an amplifier, a loudspeaker system and a number of mletophones. The PA System
Is used by cockpit and cabin etew.
ll18 passenger address system enables announcements to the passengers via
cabin loudspeakers. Announcements can be m ade from the cockpit or cabin attendant's stations.
A tape reproducer enables recorded announcements and boarding muslc to be
broadcast through the PA system.
Loudspeakers are distributad in the cabin overhead of the passenger seals, toilets
and for the !light attendants et their working stations.
ll18re are several levels of priority enigned to the pas5enger address system.

1.

Cockpit

2.

Cabin attendants

3.

Prerecorded announcements

4.

Boarding music

CAlllli AIUIOONC~

~ -,.~

PRERECORDED
ANNOUNCE
Oll i~USIC

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Cabin Intercommunication Data System

Figure 109: CIDS FuncUons

lntoduction
The CIDS Integrates most of the Cabin systems for communicatioos, indications
and calls. The systems integrated/controlled by the cros are:
passenger adress
cabin and flight crew interphone
cab!n fllvmination

evacuation signalling
lavatory smoke indication
passenger lighted signs
passenger call
service interphone
emergency fightning test
passenger reading lightslaltendent work light test
prerecorded a11110uncement and boarding music control
passenger entertainment system
air conditioning system controls

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CIDS Architecture

Figure 11 0: Architecture

Functions
The CJDS provides control, monitortng and dala processing of various cabin systems through DATA BUS lines.

Director
The DIRECTORS are the major com ponents of tile CIDS.They act as an interlace
between U\e aircraft and cabin systems and the cockpit controls and Indicating in
order to process the controls of the cabin systems.

Director 1

Forward Attendant Panel


T he Forward Attendant Panel (FAP) is in$1alled <1! the FOfWard Attendant Statioo.
From the FAP, the various cabin systems can be oootroUed and monitored.

The Cabin Assignment Module (CAM) Is part of the FOIWard Attendant Panel
(FAP). The CAM Is plugged into the FAP. 1\ stores all the cabin layout and programmable Information used by tile DIRECTORS.

Decoder Encoder Unit A (DEU A)


Decoder Encoder Unit A (OEU A) Is a component of the CIDS. 1t provides an interfa<:e between the DIRECTORS and the cabin systems dedicated to passenger
use. The DEUs A are connected to the DIRECTORS through DATA BUS lines.

Decoder Encoder Unit B (DEU B)


Deooder Encoder Unit B (DEU B) Is a component of the CIOS. lt provides an interface between the DIRECTORS and the cabin systems dedlcated to Cabin At
tendant use. The DEUs Bare connected to the DIRECTORS thtough DATA BUS

lines.

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Passenger Entertainment and Service System

Figure 111: Passengers to be entertained

Passengers like to be entertained during the whole night. Following entertainment


and seNioes are available:

Table 4:
Kind of cntcrtainmont

Performed by:

Food and Beverages


Special Attention

Flight Atcendatlts

Music

PES Audlotapes or CO's

VIdeo Films and Games

PES Video Tape Reproducers

VKieo Games interactive

PES Prooessors

or OVD's

Maps and lnfos

Passenger Visual lnfo!mation System

Telephone

Handset via SATCOM

Reading Light Control


AUerKiarKI Call

PSS Passe1lger Service System

PES Passenger Entertainment Sys tem


Video, Muslc, Interactive VIdeo Games and lnseat Telephone System
PSS Passenger Service System
Attendant Call, Individual Reading Ught Control and No Smoking Ught on/off

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Video Entertainment System

Figure 11 2: Video Entertainment and lnfonnatlon Syst em

Installed in short and medium range alrplanes, the purpose is:


Passenger vi$uel emergency instruction {Oxygen Mask, Live-vest)
Advertising tor tax free shopping
Flight infonnaUon Maps (Passenger Vlsuallnfonnation System)
Information about arrival at destlru~tlon
Short movies
The Passenger Entertainment Video Syslem provides prerecordBd video programs through thB LCD-monitors which are installed in the cebin as headrack
mounted display units. The video sound can be heard from the cabin loudspeak-

ers.

V10EOTAPE REPAOOUCER

Video Tape R eproducer VTR


The video tape reproducer plays video cassettes. Beside regular controls of the
reproducer there are controls for advanced presentation options like repeat and
ratldom access mode.

VIdeo System C ontrol Unit


Different controls allowing the management and distribution of video end sound to
the cabin. Following controls are possible:
Power switching
Signal source selection VTR or Information System
Monrtor selection {Display Units) in various cabin areas
Previewing of a video

SYSTEJ.t CONTROl. UNrr

HEAPfli\CK IAOUNTED

t--------~ DISPLAY UNrrB

Headrack Mounted Display Units


Retractable TFT screen (about 20pcs.) are located in the headrack overhead the
passenger. They ere stowed if the system is not in use, or an unexpected force is
applied I.e. passengers head touches lhe screen.

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Passenger Visual Information System

tehnika

Figure 114: PVIS

The Passenger Visual Information System supplies the Passengers with lnform&tlon on ambient aircraft flight data, times and aircraft posillon In the flight plan. The
information Is displayed oo the monitors of the Passenger Entertainment System.

The system receives data from various Nalligatlon Systems and the Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS).
The RCU ls the Input unit on which the shown information is selected by the use
of menus. Its front plate 1\as four switches In line under an LCO for control.

SELECT OOWNLIHK

A >SET DISPLAY HOOE


I
SET TI ME TO DEST
N se t

down Up

The D IU computer processes data foc use With the stored menus, transforms 1he
digital data Into vkleo signals and sends them to the monitors. The available lnfor
mation menus and the data used from the differenl input buses (e.g. aiUtude, static
air temperature, heading & drift angle, ground speed & present position).

The subsequent lnformatlon can be selected and shown to the passengers:


Airline logo or other symbols
Present air craft g round speed
Time required to reach the destination
Present fligh t altitude
Outside alr temperature
Local time et the destina\ion alrport
Flight route already completed on differently scaled maps
Present alrcrart position on differently scaled maps
Special points of ln tel'e$t along the flight path on e map.

;po;;sm;;Ot4'SPEE:;::::;=.~:;DIHEADI==-~NG
:::;::=>
AlTITUO!/TeMPEAATVAE

Flgure1 13: lnfo and Map Display

f' ASS NGER


ENTEU A( NMEifT
Ground Speed

452 mph

Time to
Oestlna1Jon

3 : 20

A ltitude

3 5000 FT

(\! I DEO)

Outside A ir
Temperatur e

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Passenger Entertainment System PES

Figure 116: Passenger Control Unit (PES Controls)

Longhaul aircrafls will be equipped with more complex systems, This systems may
comprises l.otal entertainmenl fealures.

Mode Selec t
(Audio, Video, Into, AulC)

Video on individual screens


Music and film trad< sound

Ch;~nne l

up & down

Interactive Games
lnseat Telephone
Passenger Control Unlts and/or Passenger Handsets is used to control the PES/
PSS. For the satellite telephone system the reverse side of the handset is used.
A very important function. the Passenger Address system must intem.tpt all other
inputs to the loudspeakers and to the displays and earphones in the seal in order
to get all the passengers attenllOn.

Figure 115: PES Audio and Interface to PSS slmpliflod


Volu me up & down

Channel Display
{12 Vidoo 96 Audio)

Fi gure 117: Panenger Handset (PES and PSS Controls)


CROSS KEY

START

LED

G.A~lE

SELECT

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RESET

GIV~E

FUNCTION

MODE

153

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Figure 119: Passenger Control Unit (PSS Con1rols)

Passenger Service System


Reading Ught control and attendant call is controlled via this subsystam. In compare with conventional wiring, a reduction of wiring wiU result.

CALL
RESET

NO SMOKING

A passenger reading lighl command for example, coming from \he handset in \he
seal passenger control unft, lakes its way through the passenger entertainment
system controller and further on to the CIDS system where \he correct passenger
seNice unit above a seat must be edressed and \he correct reading light must be

Illuminated.
Both systems, the C IDS and \he Passenger Entertainment System must wofk correctly together to make sure \hat all liJnctJons are available.

Flgure 118: Passanger Service Unit

READING llGffT
FRESCH AIR OUTLET PANEL

CALL
LIGHT

CALL

SWITCH PANEL
Figure 120: Passang er Handset

READING LIGHT PANEL

CROSS KEY

START

LEO

t;iA.ME FUNCTIOII

LOUDSPEAKER

SELECT

SELECT

RESET

GA~IE

MODE
OIIGAfdE

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Matsushfta System 2000E

tehnika

Figure 121:

The design of passenger entertainment and service systems is cootinlousty develo ping. On following pages the MAS.2000 is shortly explained.
System 2000E is an interactive, fully integf<!ted passenger entertainment system.
Tlwt system is designed with a mcxlular approach lo support both Ovelhead and
In-seat VIdeo, Audio, Telephone, and Interactive Services.
Audio Up t.o 96 Channels of Hi-Fi Audio
Up to 48 Digital Audio Inputs
Up to 72 Analog A udio Inputs
Up lo 6 Passenger Address (PA) Inputs
Vidao Up to 24 Video Channels.. Supporting a wide variety of inputs:
Video Cassette Players
TV Tuners
Passenger Video Information Systems
Video Cameras
Video On Demand (VOD)
Telephone Telephone services can be made avaaable at each seat:
Air-lo-G round calls
Seat to seat calling
Fax and Data transmission
Interactive A variety of interactive opllons to customl%e the cabin environment
and passenger experience:
VIdeo Games
Nintendo
Windows-based
Shopping Servloes
Business Services
Passenger Information Services
Program Information
AudioNideo

Passenger Service System provides the passenger with an interface to:


Reading lights
Attendant Call Lights

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Figure 123: Location in AircraH

Cockpit Voice Recorder


Introduction
The cockpit voioe recorder, or CVR, is an i mportant device fof determini ng the
cause of an aircraft accident An endl ess tape or a solid state meiTIOI)' allows for
minimum 30 minutes of recording. and then it [$ automatically erased and reoorded
over. There are four inputs to the recording heads: the mia'Ophones of the captain.
the first officer, the observer, and a microphone tha t pioks up received audio .and
cod<pit c onversations. Thes.e mlcropnones are always "hot" and do not requi re any
type of Keying. The pick-up s are all in the oookpit. but the actual tape recorder is
in a lire resis tant box usually located near the tall of the aircraft, and is painted
bright orange s o that it is easily identified amoog the wreckage.
Figure 122: CVR System Block Diagram

lr>

e(?)@ CI

I!>

Flight
Cornpartment
Microphone

E rase

c.dl,IIY.tc.A_.,.,

Parkin g
Brake
Mechanism

;:;

1.2 .2

..=

a;~

Get
'iiio

<7

c 0
Cftl 't)

.J! ~

14
Cl

c:

w o

o=

Ground/
Flight
Retais

c!

:'i l-s"c

>u
0 ..

i :I:: iO

O< .-, ...

<'>UI

Volco Rocordor

Audio

Chann~l .
Captain

Figure 124: Recorder, Shelf and ULB

i 31
1

First Offocor

Observer

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Function

Figure 125:

A voioe recorder records in formation on an endless magnetic tape or In to a soUd


state memory. This recording is kept of the last 30 minutes of fligl11 crew communication and conversation. This information Is esseniial for accident investigation,
therefore tho voice recorder is en airworthines!l requirement. For atddent lnve!ltigatlon the voice recorder is used in combination with the Oight data recorder.

Does a ayatem test:


1 600Kl. tone:

The voice recorder has a protective using whlch gives the recorder a bigger
chance to SU(IIive a crash . Also the location of the recorder. in the tail of tlle air-

craft, increases the survival chances. The casing has a bright orange color with
white fluorscenr tape stripes. This makes the recorder eas.ler to find. On the front
panel of the voice recorder Is an underwater locator beacon. Under waw the underwater locator beacon transmits ultrasonic pulse signals. which makes it easier
to find the recorder.
The voice recor der system gets audio slgr~als end records them on 4 separate
!racks. On the tracks ere the rouowing audio signals:
Cnanne11: all selected audio from the captain's audio station
Channel 2: - all selected audio from the first otfl(;e(s audio station
Channel 3: -all selected audio from the obsG(IIer's audio station.
Time reference signals from the flight data recording system.
Channel 4: aU area-sound-signals from the ~ight compartment microphone.
The voice recorder control panel has the controls for a TEST and ERASE function
of the recon:ler. The erase function goes through interlock conditions. The control
panel has straps for the setting of an inlernal ampUfier.

CVIWDA
G NOCon t

~~~

The voice reoorder gets lhe electrical pow er automatically when one of the engine
is slarted (fuel levers open) or ttle airoral'l is in flight. A lime delay relay removes
the power from Ihe voice recorder 5 minutes after lhe aircral'lls on the ground and
all fuel levers are dosed.
Manuatly you apply power to the voice reoorder w ith the CVRIFDR GND CONT
push switch on the alllonles switdl panel. The automatic power switching overrides
the manual switching.

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Solid State Cockpit Voice Recorder CVR

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Figure 127: CVR Solid State

Todays technology Is lhe possibility to store the recording in digital format. There
are no moving part, which can be worn. (solid state)

Flas h Crash Survi vable Store Unlt FCSSU


The non volatile Hash memory Is encase<! in a crash hardened titan alloy unit.
Storage capacity: 4 Channels for 30 minutes high fidelity
all channels up to 4 hours low fidelity
Accel eration surviving: 3400 g's
Force to with5tand: 5000 lbs (2.27 metric lOllS)
Deep sea pressure: 20'000 ft (6096 m )
Tempera ture tosurvtve: 1100 'C

Figure 126: Analog Magnetic Tape and FCSSU (Memory Module)

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Underwater Locator Beacon ULB

Figure 129: ULB

The Beacon is a battery operated underwater acoustic pulse generator that is activated when lhe switch end Is immersed in either fresh or salt water.

The water switch is part of a low-wrrent triggering ciJt:uit, which when closed by a
resistan<;e of less than a few thousand ohms, such as Immersion In water. wit! initiate normal pulsing of the Beacon oscillator circuit. The output voltage of the oscillator is impressed upon the ptezoceramic transducer ring. The resultant
mechanical motlon Is coupled to the metal case of the Beacon, which in turn, radiates it Into the surrounding water as 37.5 kHz acoustic energy.
The pulses generated are of 1()-mllnseoond nominal duration, and they occur onoe
per second. The Beacons operate continuously for at least 30 days after being immersed. The Beacons will withstand depths to 20,000 teat 01nd they can be detected at a range of 2000 to 4000 yards, depending upon sea state, nearby boats,
marine animals. gas or oil tines, and other factors contributing to the ambient noise
level in the 35 to 40 kHz frequency range. The internal battery must be replaced
every 2 - 6 years.

A (@Ml))) ~

... W------ --- - --~


Figure 130: Locating an A ircraft in Water or Swamp

Figure 128: ULB Schematic

1 S.o

.,

37.S kHz Pulses

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Emergency Locator Transmitter ELT

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Figure 131: Transmitter and ex1omal Antenna Location

Introduction
An emergency focatortransmitter (ELT) is a small, self-oontaJned radio transmitter
mounted i n a location w here it is least likely to be damaged In a ctash. lt has an
lne!1la SVI!Itch that closes in the event of a crash and starts lhe transmitter emitting

two eme~gency frequencies,


121 .5 MHz in the VHF band and 243.0 MHz in the UHF band. Tha batrery Ill an
ELT has a design life long enough to operate the transmitter CClrltinuously for 48
hours.

a series of down-sweeping !ones simultaneously on

ELTs are lnslaUed as far aft in the fuselage as.it is practical to place them, and they
are connected to a flexible whi p~r external antenna. The installation must be such
that orients fhe inertia switch so that it is sensitive io a force o f approximately 5G
along the longitudinal axis or the airctaft.
When an ELT i s property installed, il requires little mamlenance other than ensuring that it remains securely mounted and connected to l!s antenna. There must be
no evidence of corrosion, and the battery must be repl aced according to a speclfiC
SCfledule. Non rechargeable batteries must b~ replaced when it has reached its
u sable life. The d ate required for its replacement must be legibly merked on the
outside or the transmitter case and recorded in the aircraft maintenance records.

An ELT can be tested by removing it and taking it into a shiel ded or screened room
to prevent its radiation from causing a false alert. An op erational check may be
made with the ELT In the aircraft for no more than thr&e audible sweeps.
Thil~

test must be conducted within the firs t five minutes after any full hour.

Orbiting satellites of the COSPAS and SARSAT (Search and Rescue Satellrte}
system can locate the positi011 of the signa l by doppler effect to approximately 14
l<m. The mission control centar then initiates the reswe which rs done with cooventlonal radio direction finding equipment on 121.5 MHz.
The transmi tter is installed in the ceiling of the cabin. To make the unit sensitive
for the shOCk-detection the unit needs to be installed in the correct way . Therefor
an arrow on top of the unit sh ows hDVI to Install [he untt with respecl to the direction
of flight.
The ELT antenna installed on the rear-top of the fuselage transmits the ELT sig-

nals.

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Naviga1ion (ATA 34)

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Figure 133: Integration of Acceleration

Inertial Navigation
Fundamentals
lnertla
ln ordet" to understand an inertial navigation system, botll tlle definition of "inertia'
and the basic laws of motion as described by Newton over 300 years ago has to
be taken Into account.
Inertia can be delined as follows: 'A body continues in a state or rest, or unlfonn motion In a straight Une. unless acted upon by an extemaf force. This Is
also known as Newton's first law of motion.
Newton's second law of motion states: 'The acceleration of a body ts directly
proportional to tlle sum of the forces acting on the body.
Newton's third Jaw of motion states: 'For every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction."
Wrth these laws we can mechanize a device which is able to dated minute changes in accelerations and veloclty, an ab~ity necessary in the development of an inertial system . Newton's second law states that the acceleration (that is rate of
Change of velocity) Is directly proportional to the force acting on the body. Velocity
a nd distance are computed from sensed acceleration by the application of bask;
calculus. The relationship between acceleration, velocity and displacement are
shown below.
Note that velocity changes whenever aooeleration exists and remains constant
when acceleration is zero.
Figure 132: Accel eromoter as base of Inertial Navigation

Velocity

0
Displacoment

Acoeterometar

Time
Velocity

=acceleration time

v= a 'I

=velocity time = v I
0 =acceleration/2 time2 =a/2

Displacement D
'-----~ Acceleration

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Accelerometer
The basic measuring instrument of the inertial navigation system is the acceterometer. Two aocelerometers are mounte<l In the system. One will measure the aircratrs acceleratioos in the North-South d1tec1Jons, and tile other will measure the
aircraft's accelerations in the East-West directioos. The accelerometer is basically
a pendulous device. When the aircraft ;;~ccalerates, the pendulum, due to inertia.
swings off its null posllioo. A signal pickoff device tells how far the pendulum Is off
the nuH position. The signal from the pickoffdevice Is sent to an amplifier, and rur
rent from the ampr.fier fs sent back Into the accelerometer to the torquer motor.
The torq1.1er motor will restore the pendulum baCk to its null position.
Inertial navigation depends on the integraUon of acceleration to obtain velocity and
distance. In any integration process one must know the initial conditions, which in
this case are velocUy and position. The accuracy to which the navigation problem
is solved depends greatly upon lhe accuracy of the initial coAdrtions. Therefore,
syst.e m alignment is of paramo1.1nt importance.

tehnika

The aoceleration signal from the amplifier is also sent to an integrator, which is a
time multi p~cation device. 1l starts out with acoeteration Which is in meter per second squared. In the IAtegrator, it is literally m ultJplled by time and the result is a ve
locity in meter per s~ond .
lt is then sent through a second integrator and again it is a time multiplier. With an
input of meter per second, whicl'l i$ multiplied by time, the result is a d~tance In
meter or in miles. it can be computed that the alrcraft has traveled 221 miles in a
nottharly !llraction from time of takeoff.
The computer associated with the inertial system knows the lautude and the longitude of the takeoff point and calculates that the aircraft has traveled so tar in a
North-South ditedion and so far ill an East-West directloo. n now becomes simpJe
for a digital computer to continuously computa the new present position of the alrcrafl
Figure 135: Accelerometer with Integrators

Figure 134: Aec:eleromater

North
ACC

lntegrBtor

I
1
I

I
I

______________ __ ___ J I

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Platform
X, Y and Z

AXIs
North Soulh
East West
Up Down
To navigate In hortzontal level 2 perpendicular acceleometers are used. This accelerometers are installed on a platfonn.

X Axis
Y Axis
Z Axis

Levellng of A ccelerometers
The aooelerometer's output is affected by the attitude of the aircraft. In lhe illustre
tion below. the aircraft is shown in a nose up attitude during takeoff. This pitch angle makes the pendulum swing off the null positioo due to gravity. The
accelerometer would output an erroneous signal, which would result in an errone
ous velocity and distance traveled. Therefore. Ihere is a false acceleration problem
caused by this pitch angle. The solution lo this problem is of course to keep the
accelerometer level at all times.
Figure 137: Tilted Acceleromet er sensing Earth Gravity

Figure 136: Pl'atform with X and Y Accelerometers

SohJtioo:

-~

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..

Pitch Angle

'

Keep accelerometer
level

\
\

. --~~

o{~~

~
o.

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To keep the accelerometer level, it is mounted on a glmbal assembly commonly


referred to as the platform. The platfOilTl is nothing more than a mechanical device
which aDows the aircraft to go through any attitude change and at the same time
maintain the accelerometers level. The inner element of the platform where the aocele rometers are mounted. w ill also mount the gyroscopes used to slablhze the
platfOilTl. The gyros prOIIide signals to motors. which control the gim bals or the
platfOilTl.

Figure 139: Platform wlth 2 Gyros and 3 A ccelero meters

Inner
RoliGimbal
O u t ar
Roii Gi mbal

Figure 138: Platform Pri nciple

Inner Ro ll

Pitch

Outer
Roll Trans m i tter

Inner Roll
Torqu.e r

1 X Accel<oro meter
2 - Y Accelerom4Jter
3 Z A ccelerome ter
4 X Gyro
5 -Y Gyro

Transmitter

Z-gyro signal is taken from Y -gyro

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Figure 140: Rate Integrating Gyro

Gyros
The gyro fs used to oontrol the level of the platfonn. The gyro and accelerometer
are mounted on a common gimbal \IVhen this gimbal tips off the level position. the
spin axis of the gyro remains fixed. The case of the gyro moves with the gimbal,
and the amount of movement Is detected by the signal pickoff in the gyro. That signal Is then amplified and sent to a gimbal drive motor, which restores the gimbal
back to a level position. In this example, lhe aoceleromelcr is going along for the
ride. Since the accelerometer Is just being kept level, it does not sense a oomponenl of gravity and is able to sense only true horizontal acceterabons of tile alrCfEift.
Here we have illustrated a single axls platform. In reality, movement can occur in
three axes of the platfoiTil, pitch, roll, and yaw.

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Earth Rate Compensati on

Figure 141 : Earth Rat e

The previously described gyro stabm:r.ed platt0011 would remain fixed In space. but
the alrcrafl ls not operating 1n space. 1t is opera!lng on an earth which is round and
rotatjng. In order to keep the accelerometers level IYfth respect to the earth. so that
they sense acceleration of the aircraft in a horizontal direction only, some compensalion must be made. Take the example of lool<ing down at the earth from a point
in spaoe over the South Pole. At noon, the platform is leveled so that the accelerometers sense only horizontal acceleraUons. Now, as the earth rotates, the platform would maintain the same orientation In spaoe; however, from an earth
vantage point, the platform would appear to tip over every 2 4 hours.
To compensate for this apparent tipping, the platform is forced to tilt in proportion
to the 9alttl's rate. From our spaoe vantage point, the platform appears to lip over
every 24 hours, wtalle from an earth vantage point, it remains fixed and level as
required for proper operation. The required earth rate compensation is a function
of latitude, since what Is being compensated for !s the horizontal component of
earth rate that is fell by the gyros. At the equa1or this value is 15.04 degrees per
hour, and with travel north or south of the equator. rt reduces until it becomes zero
at the poles.

Transport Rate Compensation


The aircraft travels from a place at the equator toward north. At the equator the
platform was leveled. Without compensatlon the platform maintains Its poslti.on toward the space, but not against the earttl surface. The computer compensates this
effect dependtng on airaalt position. heading and speed, to maintain the platform
all the lime perfectly leveled.

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Figure 142: Transport Rate

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Navigation

Figure 143: Latitude and l ongit ude

Navigation may be though t of as the means of finding the route from one location
on the earth' s surface to another. This is mede posslbte by dividing the surface of
the earth with a grid system thal allows us t.o give an address to any localion.

Longitude
The o~rth may be thought of as a sphere rotating in s:p~ce about an imaginory a xi$
that runs through its two geographic poles. This sphere is diVided from north to
south by lines that lnterseot at the poles and cut through the center of the earth.
These lines are called meridians of longitude and are measured from the prime
meridian which passes through Greenwich, Engfand. There are 360 meridians, Jabeled 1 to 179 East and 1 to 179 West The prime meridian is zero degrees longitude, and the i nternational date Cne is the 180-degree meridian. Meridians of
longitude east of the prime meridian are called east longitude, and those to the
west are west longitude.

The meridians are not parallel, but each one of them is a part of a great circle, that
Is, a part of a line on the surlace of the earth formed by a plane that passes through
the canter of the earth.

Latitude
To form an intersecting line with the meridians, the earth is divided by parallel lines
formed on the surface by planes that cut the earth into parallel slices, each perpendicular to the axis of rotation. The line that cu ts the earth at Its center is called
the equator and it' s latitude is zero. The lines to the north are caled parallels of
northern latitude, with the north pole located at 90 degrees north latitude. Parallels
to the south are called southern latitude, and the south pole Is located at 90 degrees south latitude. Th e pareUets are, as !halt name Implies, paralet to each otber, but the equator Is the only parallel that Is also a great circie.

Figure 144: A Flight from Zurich to New Yoric

All of our maps and charts are based on th e grid system of latitude and longitude.
with the geographic north and south poles being the references for this grid. The
Right route from a departure to a destination point is divided into several waypolnts.
This waypolnts are defined by latitude LAT and longitude LONG.

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Parameters and Display

Figum 145: Parameter

The navigation parameter are presented In digital form at inertial sys!em control
display units CDU, or multl function display units MCDU.
Horizontal situation indicator HSI and navigation <!lsplays EFIS NO presenting the
navigation parameter in analog and digital formal.

MAGfTRUE North

Table 5: P ar ameter
WPT

Waypoin t

DSRTK

Desired Track

Greatcir<:le Lile

POS

Present Position

latitude/Longitude

HOG

True or Magnetic Heading

Direction of longitudinal axls

TK

Actual Track Angle

Direction flown above ground

Defined by Pilot
be~NeeO

two WPT's

DA

Drift Angle

Vector HOG Vector TK

TKE

Track Angle Error

Vedor DSRTK - VectorTK

TAS

True Air Speed

Signal from Airdata System

GS

Ground Speed

1 kt .. 1.852 kmlh

oelliation

XTK

Cross Track

OIS

Distance

Alretafl to next WPT

WS

W ind Speed

Vec!OI"GS +Vector TAS

WO

W ind Direction

Angle from where wind comes

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Lateral Distance rrom DSRTK

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Figure 147: Controls of Inertial Sensor System

Inertial Navigation System


The position inf()(mation calculated by the INS equipment is typically displayed to
the flight crew through an horizontal situation indicator or EFIS. The flight crew typIcally controls the INS from a cockpit display called a control-display unit CDU.
If the IRS is switched on, there is a need to insert the present position to align the
system. llle alignment takes 10 minutes.
When airplane power tails, the IRU switChes to battery power. Aircraft batteries or
separate batteries provides the power for a maximllm of 30 minutes.

N RTl AL S EN SOR DISPLAY UNIT

(j)

Figure 146: Inertial Navigation System INS


~:"!1'~---..,,Mode

S.lector
......_ _,_;;.....;;;;.;;;;;..,jUn lt

Figuro 148: Inertial Sensor System (ISS)

loiOOE SLE:CT UNIT

tlavlga1lon Data

......._'fniiM

.Jp ::.

(L_a_
A_TEA
r __
v_UN
_ rr___

~t-'-

"= :=

INERTIAl..

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SEtlSOR
LOOO-

l.tiiTI

os ..... ..,

,.,...,,._

j_

.w.un~

Ou1pul Data

001w tr>enlol

Rtf.,.n.. Syatems

SENSOR
DliSR.AY UNIT

All navigation functions are system integrated.

INERTIAL

AmJUQE

This system provides Inertial parameter to other navigation devices (RNAVIFMS)

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Strapdown System

Fi gure 149: Accelerometer and Laser Gyros

In a strapdown Inertial reference system, the gyros and accelerometers are mounted solidly to the system chassis which is ln tum mounted solidly to the aircraft.
There are no gimbals to keep ihe sensors level with the surface of ihe earth. The
acceleromelefs are mounted such that the input axis of one accelerometer is always In the l ongitudinal aircraft axis, one Is In the lateral axis, and one is In the vertical axls.. Ukewise. ihe gyros are mounted such that one gyro senses rOll, one
senses pitch, and the other senses yaw.

1 -X Accelorornater
2 V Accelerometer
3 - ZAccel arometer
4-XGyro
5 - YGyro
6

-z Gy ro

A microprocessor calculates velocity, position. and attitude from the inertial sensors acceleration and angular rate measurements. Three accelerometers and
three gyros are needed because. in a thre&<limensional world, an aircraft can simultaneously accelerate and rotate in three orthogooal exes - pitch, roll and heading.
In order to navigate over the surface or the earth, the system must know how this
eircreft acceleration is related to the earth's surface. secause acceleralions are
measured by accelerometers that are mounted to the lateral, longltudioal. and vertical axes of the aircraft, the IRS mU$t know the relationship of each of these axes
to the surface of the earth. The laser gyros in a strapdown system make the measurements necessary to describe this relabonship in tenns of pitch, roll, and heading angles. These angles are calculated from the angular rates measured by the
gyros through an integration -similar to the manner in which velocity Is calculated
from measured acceleration. For example, suppose a gyro measure$ a yaw rate
ot three degrees per second for 30 seconds. Through integratlon . the miaoprocessor calculates that the heading has changed by 90 degrees alter 30 seconds.
Given the knowledge or pitch, roll, and h8adlng that the gyros provide, the mlcroprocessot resotves the acceleration signals tnto earth-r&lated eccelerations, and
then perfolms the horizontal and vertical navigation calculations.
To reach the demanded accurancy of a strap down inertial navigation system, the
sensitivity of the instrument (gyros aoo accelerometers) must10 times higher than
those of a gimbaled platfoon. Laser gyros and precision pendulum accelerometers
are used.

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Figure 150: Spectrum of the Light

Laser Principle of Operation


Laser= Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
The laser gyro is a device that measures rotation by using tho properties of two
laser beams rotating in opposite directions inside a cavtty. The principles of operation of an ordinary single beam laser are described below, and then expanded
Into a descr'lptlon of the double-beam laser gyro.

(nm)

(nm)

In e laser cevlty, photons are emitted (or light Is radiated) in all directions. However. only the light that rBdiates in a straight tine between two or more mirrors is reInforced by repeated lrips through the gain medium. This repeated amplification of
the light reflecting between the mirrors soon reaches saturation. and a steadystate oscillation results. This light oscillating between the mirrors is typically called
a laser beam. To obtain usMul laser light outside the laser cavity, a small percentage of the laser beam is allowed to pass through one of the mirrors.

A laser gyro oper.rtes much tike an ordinary laser, but rather than just two mirrors
it contains at least three so that the laser beams can travel around an endosed
area. Such a configuration allows the generation of two distinct laser beams occupying the same spaoe. One beam ll'avels in a dockwise direction and the other
travels in a counter clockwise direction. The operation of a laser gyro Is founded
on the effects rotational moll on has on the two laser beams.

Figure 151 : LASER - Beams are dangerous!

A de voltage Is applied across a laser cavity, establishing an electrical discharge


In a mixture of helium and neon gases. The discharge that develops is simlar to
that in a neon sign. Light amplification ooc:urs when a photon slnlces a neon atom
that has been pumped into the excited state. This results in a nee gain of photons,
or an amplification of light also known as "lasing."
The light is a pure frequency. The hefiu!TWieon laser gyro. as defined by its wave
length and this is 6'928 Angstroms. 0.6328 11m or 632.8 nm . So the frequency is
474 X 1012 Hz.

LASER
00 t40Tloot< IHTOTHE8EAM
MCHT If Deti liTRAHL l!llfCKat

A laser changes Incoherent light, light whose vibrations do not have any consi stent
phase relationship, into coherent light, whose vibt'ations are all in phase. The light
beam from a laser is highly concentrated, very narrow, and has an ex:tremety small
area. Leser t&chnology Is opening new doors In atl aspects of science.

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Laser Gyro

Figure 152: RLG

Laser gyros ere sensors of angular rnte of rolatlon about a single axis. As exemplified. They are made of a triangular block of temperature-stable glass. Very small
tunnels are precisely drilled parallel to the perimeter of Ule triangle, and reflecting
mirrors are placed in each corner. A small charge of helium-neon gas Is inserted
end sealed into M aperture in the glass at ttte base of the trtangte. When high voltage is run between the anodes end cathode the gas is ionized. and In the energy
exchange process many of the atoms of the gas are transformed into llght in the
orang&-pink part of the visible spectrum.
In a laser gyro two beams of light are g&nerated, each travelling around the cavity
(in tttis case a triangle) in opposite directions.

Fringe Pa11ern

TlriO
Photocell
Detectors

--...,J'ii>r llL--::.-.::z:....

The lasef' beams have ooherent wave-lil<e prOperties. The llghtls a pure frequency. The helium-neon lasor gyro, as defined by fts wavelength (the reciprocal of frequency), it Is 6'328 Angstroms.
Although the frequency is detetmined by the gas that is laslng. lt can be varied
somewnat by changing the patttlength over which the waves have to travel. For a
given path length there are an integral number of waves. If the path length is altered, the waves w ill be either compressed or expanded, but there always will be
en integral number of cycles that occur over the complete path. If the waves are
compressed, more cycles oocor per unit time. Hence, the frequency increases. If
expanded, the opposite is !rue.
Since both contrarotating beams travel et the same constant speed or light, it takes
each the same exact time to complete Its circuit. However, if the gyro were rotated
on its axis, the path length or one beam would be shortened, while that for the other
would be lengthened. Since. as explained, the laser beam adjusts its wave-length
for the length of the path, the beam that travelled the shorter distance would rise
in frequency (wavelength decreases), while the bearn that travelled the longer distance to complete the circuit would encounter o frequency decrease.

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

Aeadout
Mirror

173

~oa1~

Detecting the Difference

tehnika

ttgure 1 !I:J: KLu

Thl$ frequency difference between the two beams Is directly proportional to the angular rate of tum about the gyro's axis. Simply stated, that is the principle of the
laser gyro. Thus, frequency difference beComes a measure of rotation rate. If the
gyro doesn't move about its axis, both frequencies remain equal (since the paltl
lengths or both beams are equal) and the angular rete is zero.
The difference in frequency in the laser gyro is measured by an optical detector
that counts the fringes of the fringe pattern generated by the Interference of the
two light waves. Since the fringes are seen as pulses by the photocell, the detected frequency difference appears at the output of the detector in digital form, ready
for immediate processing by the system's associated digital electronics.

Fr1ngo Panern

Two
PhotoceJt
Detectors

-.......Nl-r1U:__..--:..~::.....

Note that there are two photoceUs. The function of one ts to tell the direction In
which the fringes are moving, which is an indication of whether the gyro Is rotating
to the left or righl

Light Path
The three corner m irrors are not Identical One Is servoed so that it can make mlCI'IH!djustments to keep the physical path always the same. Another ~rmUs a
:;mell amount of light to pass through so as to impinge on lhe photocell detectors.
The prism, as can be seen, flips one beam around causing it to meet and Interfere
with the beam aimed directly at the photocells. The Interfering beams alternately
cancel and reinforce each other, thus generating the fringe pattern.
The block of glass used for the laser gyro is made from Cervit, a special glass, the
physical dimensions of which remain constant over a wide temperature range

High Voltage
To start the lasing action, 3.000 volts are applied across the anodes to the cathode. Although one can't see the laser beams in the laser gyro, a plasma is formed
between the cathode and the two anodes that glOws an orange pink that is in the
same part of the visible spectrum as the 6,328 Angstrom b&ams. This plasma can

2 Bemenl
Oateetor

be seen.

Dithering
In the conter of the Cervil block is a device caned a dither motor. The motor, which
vibrates at 319 Hz, eliminates "laser lock." a hangup that sometimes ocrurs in the
deadband around the zero-rate point.

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

174

EJO/?IEJ tehnika

Accelerometer Principfe of Operation

Figure 154: .Accelerometer

The basic principles of an inertial accelerometer have not changed Pendulous accelerometers have a very good performance and reliability at an acceptable cost,
so new technology has not been applied to accelerometer designs.
Inertial accelerometers contain a pendulum that tends to swing off its null position
when it is exposed to an acceleratioo or deceleration. A photo electric plc!<-off de~ce is positioned so that it can measure the size of the swing. and generate an
electrical signal proportional to the swing. This signal i s amplified pro portionately
into a CtJrront which is used to torque the pendulum back to the nun position_ The
net result of this control loop Is that the pelldutum remalns in the nuiJ position, and
a current has been generated proportlonal to the acceleration that the aoceleromeler is experiencing. This current is the output of the accelerometer.
The current output of the accelerometer is an analOg signal. The CtJrrent is converted into a voUage, which is converted into e digital signal by a high1)recision
analog-to-<llgital (AID) converter. This digital signal is supplled to a microprocessor, whlch uses this acoeleralion meaSurement in the navigation corl{lutatlons, Integrating that measurement once over time lo give velocity. Velocity is then
integrated once more over time to give distance travelled.

Figure 155: Navigation based on Acceleration


Velocity
(Ground Speed)

Integrator 2
Distance

Distan ce Flown

Starting
Position

~ l ,- --- -----00.:>----

Present
Poslllon

Digital
Computer

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

175

ehnika

Figure 156: 3-0 Navigation

Triple-Axis Navigation Computation


Accoleromet ors
Three accelerometers are staliooary relative to the alrplane frame. To determine
how much acceleration Is causing horizontal movement on the earth, the outputs
of the accelerometers have to be compensated by the IRU computer, laking into
account the airplane attitude and earth curvature.
The compensated outputs from the accelerometers are vectorlatly added to delermlne the actual direction of travel and tho amount of travel horizontally. In general.
the accelerometel$ are not oriented north-south and east-west, but lhatt output
signals can be related to a north-east coordinate system , and the present pOSition
can then be determined In terms of latitude and longitude.
Vertical velocity and altitude are calculated using the acceleration that is measured perpendicular to the earth's surface.
Inertial accelerometer cannot distinguish between gravitational foroe and actual,
aircraft acceleration. Consequently, any accelerometer that is not perfectly parallel
to the earth's surlace will measure a component of the earth's gravtly In addition
to the true airaalt acceleration. Therefore, theIRS's microprocessor must subtract
the estimated local gravity from the measured vertical acceleration signal. Thts
prevents the system from interpreting gravitational force as upward aircraft acceleration.
Laser Gyros
The purpose of the gyros is to meastJre rotational motion of the alraaft with respect to the earth. However. the laser gyro in a strapdown configuration Inherently
measures movement of the aircraft with respect to inertial space. The earth rotates
with respect to inertial space at a rate of one rotation per 24 hours as it spins from
west to east on its own axis, plus one rotation per year as it revolves around the
sun. The 6UI1I of these two rates is equivalent to an angular rate of 15.04 degrees
per hour. The microprocessor compensates for this rate by subtracting this value,
1vhich Is stored In memory, from the signal measured by gyros.

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

>-- -0 0 - -+ Prosent
Position
1
Acceleromet~r

Outpu1s {3)

Earth's Horizontal Plane

Compensations

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

11
------

Vector
Summing

176

EJO/?IEJ

Alignment

ehnika

Figure 157: Alignment, determini ng Latitude and Heading

During alignment the inertial reference system determines the local vertical and
the direction of true north. The three gyros sense angular rate of the airplane.
Since the plane is stationary df.Aing alignment, the angular rate is due to earth rotation. The IRU computer uses this angular rnt.e to detem'llne the direction or true
north.
The IRU computer has determined true north by sensing the direction of the earth's
rotation. The magnitude of the earlh rotation vector allows the IRU computer toes
timate latitude of the Initial present position. This calculated latitude Is compared
with the latitude entered by the opemtor during lnltJatization.
The system software performs a vertical levelling and determlnes alrcrsfl true
heading and latitude. The levelling operation brings the pitchand-l'oll attitudes
wilhJn 1.0 degree accuracy (coarse levelling), followed by fine levelling and head~
lng determination. Initial latitude and longitude data must be entered by manually
entering the actual present position via the IS DU or by entering 11 by the FMS CDU.
Upon AliGN completion, the IRS will enter NAV mode automatically. Alignment
Time. The JRU completes alignment in a maximum of 10 minutes. During alignment. the AUGN annunciator is tit. Under nonnal circumstances. atignment should
be initiated only within the latitudes of 10 North to 10 South.
To compl ete alignment, the p ilot must onter the present position (latitude and
longitude) of the aircnft on an FMS or ! SOU and transmil the position to the IRU
during the alignment time.
During alignment. the aircraft must remain staflonary. If the IRU detects excessive
aircraft motion, the ALIGN annunciator flashes and the FAULT annunciator lights.
If th.ls occurs, the alignment has to be restarted. Normal passenger-loading activities and wind gusts will not disturb alignment.
If lhe pilot does not enter present position within the normal alignment time, the
MSU ALIGN annunciator flashes, and the IRU will not enter the NAV mode until it
receives a valid input of present position.
The pilot may update~ current latitude and longitude entry any number of times
without delaying alignment as long as the IRU has not entered the NAV mode.
Each successive latitude and/or longitude entry writes over the previous entry.
Only the latest entry IS used for navigation.
The sensed earth rate sensed with the 3 RLG's depends on aircraft position latitude 1 - 4 and the aircraft azim uth.

Roll

-+-.

Pitch

Eanh Angular Rate


tnltlat Present Position

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

Yaw

~-- Roll
True Nortll

lnltlal Latitud

177

~oa1~

tehnika

Figure 158: IRU

lnertlal Reference Unit


Each IRU contains three laset" gyros, tllree accelerometers several electronic
boards, p ower supply and chassis. The insiNments are ftxed to the chessjs, so
those sense alf the aircraft movements and the earth gravitation. The computer
compensates the signals from the "strapped down" sensors. This sensed data and
local vertical coordinates, combined with airdata inputs, serve to compute the fol-

lowiflg.
The IRS provides the following aircraft flight lnformatloo:
Primary aircraft attitude Ill pitch and roll
Magne tic and true heading
Body linear acceleration
Longitudinal
Lateral

Normal
Body angular rates
Pitch
Roll

Yaw
Inertial velocity

N-S, E-W
Ground speed
Track angle
Vertical rate
Navigation position
L.e.titude
Longrtude
Inertial al titude
Wind data
Wind speed
Wind angle
Drlflangle
Calculated data
Flight path angle and acceletatloo
Along Crack and cross track acceleration
tnertlal pitch and roll rate
Vertical acceleration and potential vertical speed

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

178

ehnika

Example A320
The Alrdata Inertial Reference Unit ADIRU handles all airdata computations and
wor11s as a inertial reference system.
The ax:ternallnputs are:
Global Positioning Sensor Unit (GPSSU) provides satellite navigation data for
hybridisatiOn to the FUght Management System.
FMGC (Flight Management Guidance Computer) Buses provides lnltialisatloo
for IRS for alignmenl The data must be Inserted via MCDU.
ADIRS CDU provides initialisation if FMGC Input has failed.
Discrete inputB provides different option prOgramming hke Installation onenta-

tion.

Output Is provided to:


Electronic Flight display Syslem (EFIS)
Auto flight system
Discrete outputs tumlng on IRS FAULT and ALIGN Ughts.
Air Data Reference data are provided to atl users needing of lhls Information

Fig ure 160: Inertial Re fer ence System

CONT ROL DISPLAY UNIT

Alrdata Reference buses from other and own system provides airdata informations for wmd calculaUons and cC~TeCtions .
CFDIU (Centrarazed Feult Display Interface Unit) Is a maintenance tool for
lmo.lble shooting and maintenance.

ADIAS

' " t'



~

Figur e 159: .Inertial Refer ence Unit

~ ~

I st:NSORS I
GPSSU BUSES
Jm>clll.&S)

I ADIRS cou BUS 1- --+-~


I DISCRETE !""'-'TS I{

I AOR 8USES I
la:-ow eus I

AOIRU

ADIRU
3

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

ADIRU
2

179

~oa1~

Automatic Direction Finder ADF

Figure 162: NOB Radiating Electromagnetic Fields

Principle
The ADF is a historic short and medium range radio navigation aid, which receives
and interprets the signals provided by a non directional and broadcasting ground
staliOrt.
The combination of signals, received from two loop antennae and from one omnidirectional se11se antenna, provides bearing Information. The two loop ante11nae
are positioned
apart Ort fhe aircraft structure. The signal from the omni-directional sense antenna is not affected by the relative bearing.
An additional Morse signal Is provided to identify the selected ground station. The
ADF system also provides aural identification of the ground station. Newer receiver also decodes the Morse identification which is received. For enfertalnlno, listening of broadcasting radlo stalons at long- and medium frequency Is possible.

so

------

"

--

NON OlftECTIOitAL BEACOH

Magnctk; North

----

Figur'e 161 : Buring Indication


Non D lreOtional

tehnika

Non Directional

Beacon

Beacon

~1'-... ...,

Flgure 163: Principle

RFSignata'-.
!Tom ADF 1 Station
300"

Relative
e.ating

.....

___, "'

I
I
,/

Non
Oire<:ljOftal

Bucan
(NOB)

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

180

~oa1~

Control

tehnika

Indication

Frequency selection:
Long and medium frequency (LF and MF) 190 -1750 KHz
A1 NORM Switch
A1: Reception of non modulated morse code (oontinious wave CW)

Figure 166: Various ADF Bli!aring Indications

AOF 1 Aag

Noonat: Reception of noonally modulated NOB's and broadcasting stations.


ADF ANT Switch
AOF: Reception wilh Loop- and Sense Antenna. (Direction finding)
ANT; Reception with Sense Antenna only. (Listening of broadcatlog)
TFRSwitch
Transfers the receiver tuning to the standby frequency

ADF 2 Flag

Figure 164: AOF Control Panel

Radio
Magnetic Indicator

Radio Director Indicator

ADF 2 Pointer
Flgure 165: Audio Control Panel for ADF Caii U stening

a~~~miDJ
VHf1 VHF2 VliFG
HFI

HF2

EFIS

mm~e
INT
CAB

Navigatio'n

Display

0000000
INT

@
RAD
VOR1

~~
VOR2

MKR

ILS

0-PA-f:l
MLS

ADf1

AOF2

00000~~

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

ND Rose Mode

ADF 1 Pointer

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

ADF Ground Stations

181

ehnika

Direction Finding
The direction sensitive antenna receives depending on its position in the magnetic
field. or a transmitter, will receive a stronger or weaker signal. By rotating the loop
360 we experience 2 maximum and 2 min[mum signals. To find out the only possible direction to the radlostation. the signal of a second, noo-dlrectlonal antenna
(called sense antenna) is added to the si gnal of the loop antenna. Only the combination of the 2 signals will give the COrTBct bearing to the selected NOB. which is
displayed on the navlgaflon instrument in the cockpit

According the phaseangle between loop and sense-slgnaJ, the automatic direction
finding circuit steers the loop-antenna respective the loop-resolver to the correct
null posillon.
Figure 168: Loop and Sense Antenna In RF Field of NOB

Figure 167: Loop Antenna In H-Field

- - u .._

--- u -...

Figure 169: Principle of Direction Finding

Loop antenna in position:


B

Output voltage is minimal


Output voltage is maximal

Output voltage is Um3Ximol sin a

':::.

~ J ...i

t..oop

MOll!~ IQ.Ul Antenna

...-,p~ LL...---

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

182

ehnika

Bearing

Figure 170: Relative Bearing

Relative Bearing Indicator RBI


The oldest type of indication. The heading scale Is always fax and not rotateable.
The arro~ad of the pointer shows in direction toward a NOB. The angle between
the aircrat'llongitudinal axis and a tuned radlostation is called relative bearing.
The absolute beating from the aircraft position toward a non
named ODM must be calrol ated by the pilot.

dire~tional

beaoon

Radio Magnetic Indicator RMI


The heading .dial rotates automatically with the compass system. At the heading
reference hne, also name.d lubberline the actual magnetic heading Is shown. The
polnter"S are showing the direction from the airoraft position toward tuned non di
rectional beacon caned ODM (Direction Magnetic) or also defined as absolute
bearing.
The single or red pointer shows the beating of ADF 1.
The double or green pointer shows the bearing from ADF 2.
Relative Bearing
Pointer 1 shows 90" ( 3h position)
Pointer 2 shows o (12h position)

Figure 171 : Absolute Bearing

Absolute Bearing

r.la g North

Pointer 1 shows QDM 45" ( 3h position)


Pointer 2 shows QDM 315 {121\ posrtion)

NOB

NOB

Heading

+,
''

,
''

.-~

'

'

',

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

183

~oa1~

tehnika

Figura173: Zurich ILS 16

VHF Navigation
Overview
The VHF Navigation contains following subsystems.
Figure 172:

VHF
NAVIGATION

VHF
OMNIDIRECTIONAl.
RANGE

l ltSTRUt~ENT

LANDING
SYSTEN

LOCAt.IZER

GLIDEPA1H

Tile landing chart demonstrates the usage of ILS.

The chart at next page shows different VOR station around Zurich.

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

184

~oa1~

tehnika

Figure 174: Airways around Zurich with VOR Stations

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

185

ehnika

Figure 176: Display

ILS Instrument Landing System


General
The Instrument landing System allows the aircraft to follow an opUmum descent.
The descent axts Is determined by the intersection of a locatizer beam and a glide
slope beam. The beams are created by ground stations. The ILS allows measurement and display of angular devla~ons.The ILS also detects Morse audio signal
which Id entifies the ILS ground station.
Flgure175: Runway with Localb:er and Glid eslope

1=21m2

DH ..,., l./1'l4A

.
~:~

!=;r-+-.......=f+'

o'k:iif-~~~.;.....-!,

~-:;.::...,/:.

Locolixe< DeYiallon

V
Loc..aizef De1/iation

Figure 1n: Radio Management Panel


VHF NAV Frequency Selector

- The top knob selects 50 kH%

inefements.
- The botlom knOb selects entire Mhz.

Course Selector

~lects

00\JrSe sbown In course

window an!J diSplayed by the


course pointer In the respective NO.

Frequency:
Localizer 108.10- 111. 95 MHz all odd 1110MHz steps 40 Channels
(Even 1/10 MHz steps are reserved for VOR)
Glide Path reception is about 330 MH2 paired with Localizer channels.

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

186

ehnika

Tuning

Table 6 Localizer and Glidepalh Frequencies in MHz

The operator has to tune the tLS via cootrol panel or MCDU. In automated flight
decks the FUght Management System executas an automated tuning before the
begin of the approach.

LOC

GP

LOC

GP

LOC

GP

LOC

GP

108. 10

334.70

109.10

331.40

110.10

334.40

111.10

331.70

Locafizer and Gtidepath Frequencies

108.15

334.55

109.15

331.25

110.15

334.25

111.15

331.55

Each glide slope channel iS pained with a specific loc81rzer frequency and Is automa6calry selected when the pilot tunes the VHF nav receiver to the locafizer fre
quency.

108.30

334.10

109.30

332.00

110.30

335.00

111 .30

332.30

108.35

333.95

109.35

33L85

110.35

334.85

111.35

332.15

Figure 178: ILS Frequency Selector

108.50

329.90

109.50

332.60

110.50

329.60

111 .50

332.90

eou,.. RncloUt
snowe tunwtry hcc:Sng .seioctton

ILS Frequency R -0<11


Showa II.S frequonoy

ILS

108.55

329.75

109.55

332.45

110.55

329.45

111 .55

332.75

108.70

330 .50

109.70

333.20

110.70

330.20

11 1.70

333.50

333.05

110.75

330.05

111.75

333.35

11 1.90

331.10

111.95

330.95

108.75

330.35

109.75

108 90

329.30

109.90

333.80

110.90

330.80

108.95

329.15

109.95

333.65

110.95

330.65

Figure 179: Radio Management Panel


tLS ,:,..q~cy S.:~tOI'
-.aiLS frequenoy from
10&.10 111.!15 hi~ In 50 kHa olej>e

Course Sc:lcctOt

"""'""" h ...ding

This Radio Management Panel can be used to tune the following systems:
VHF communlcation transceiver
HF communlcatlon transceiver with SSBIAM select
Baclwp lunlng for.
VOR ReoeivertreQvency and course
ILS Receiver frequency and runway heading
ADF Re<:elverfrequency and BFO on/off

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

187

ehnika

Navigation Radio Tuning


Tuning

Figure 181: MCDU useabla for Navigation Radio Tuni ng

Auto

FMGC provides the frequency selection based oo fts database.


Manuai Tuni ng
Enter the desired station code or frequency/course on MCDU.
Standby Tuning
Enter the desired sfatloo frequency/course on RMP or MCOU.

........ ,,,.,.
t ...

I ~ 4 L I 1 f J I

Figure 180: Navigation Radio Tuning

.. 5 / JU . I

Radio Nav Frequency and Course Selection


Select RADIO NAV page tor manual tuning of VOA. ILS
and ADF statloos used let Chplay, and for ti.Wling status
of naYig3tlon ramos.
Frequency/Course or lde<1tiCourse ant manually Inserted
via 1118 MCOU. Manual entries are displayed In large fonts.
FMGC autotunea radios are displayeo in small fonts
NOTE: DME's used let diSplay are automatically 116led accorlllng to tne automatiC et manual selea10n ot a
VOA and/et ILS radio.

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

188

EJO/?IEJ tehnika

Localizer

Figure 183: Antenna Pattern

Ground Facility
The localizer signal comes from a transmitter located at the end of 111e runway tllat
operates In the frequency range from 108.10- 111.95 MHz. The localiUlr transmits
two beams one on the right side of the runway center line and one on the left side
of the rumvay center line.

LOC
Cent er

-Unc

The beam on the right side has a 150 Hz modulation, the beam on the left side has
a 90 H:z modulation. When the aircraft rues over the extended center line to the
runway it receives both signals with an equal strength. When the aircraft deVJates
from the canter fine there i:s a difference in signal strength. The system measures
the deviatiOn from the center line by comparing the s!tength of these 90 Hz and
150 H:z: modulation signals.

Ftont Boam Aroa

Back Beam Area

Figure 182: ILS Runway


Figure 184: Range
Pl:u~o

of L.ocall~

l~~~;- 1Antonn~

I
/
..........

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

_,/

189

ehnika

LOC Receiver

LOC Display

When the VHF Nav receiver Is tuoed to a localizer frequency, the localizercircuilry
Is activated. The signal from the antenna is taken into the receiver end passed
through two filters. One filter passes the 90-Hz tone and the other passes the 150~ tone. This audio signal 1$ redifoed and changed to a DC voHage applied to the
amplitude comparator that drives the pointer of the Lett-Rlght Indicator.

When the aircraft is to the right of the runway center line, it in the 150-Hz modulation area, and the needle deftacts to the left, showing that the runway is to the
left The needle deflects full scale when the aircraft is approximately 2.5 Dot off of
the canter line. This Cranslales to about 1,500 feet at five miles out, but becomes
less as the runway Is approache<l. If the aircraft moves to the left of (he runway
center line. it is in the 90-Hz area and the needle is dri ven to the right, Indicating
that the runway Is to the right of the aircraft.

The summing network verifys the correct reception of both signals.


A spoken weather- and runway- information (Automated Terminal Information
System ATIS) orlend 1020Hz morse<:odr.J identifi catloo is routed through the voice
filter to the cod<pit speaker or headphones.
Figure 185: LOC Receiver

rs

The localizer signals extend from both ends of the instrument runway. When the
aircraft Is approachlng the runway from the end that has the glide slope, it Is said
to be making a front-oourse approach and the pilot tums toward the needle when
the aircraft Is off course. When approaching from the opposite end of the runway,
lhe aircraft Is maktng a back-course approach. When the aircraft drifts off course
the pUot must turn it away from the needle to get back oo course.
Figure 186: LOC Indication

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

190

ehnika

Glide Slope or Path

Figure 187: Glide Path A ntenna Pattern

Ground Facility
The glideslope signal comes from a transmllter at the beg.innlng of the runway that
operates in the frequency range from 329.15 MH% to 335 MHz .
The glldeslope transmits two beams to give vert~aJ guidance over the gUdepath.
The glidepath has an angle of approxlmately 3'. The gli deslope beams are j ust like
the localizer. modulated with 90Hz and 150 H ~. The 90Hz modulated beam Is
above and the 150 Hz modulated beam rs below the 3' glldepath. The system
measures the deviation from the difference in signal strength between the 90 Hz
and 150 Hz modulation signals. The navigation display shows locali~er and gtideslope deviation.
The glide slope transmitter and antenna are located about 750 to 1,250 feet from
the approach end of the runway and offset about 250 to 600 feet from the runway
canter line. lt transmlts a highly directional signal that Is approximately 1.4' wldo
and is angled upo.vard from the transmitter at an angle of approximately 3'.

Figure 188: Range of Glide Path

The s.tgnal from the glide slope Is transmitted on one of 40 UHF channels between
329.315 MHl and 335.00 MHz, ana the anteMa Is a small UHF dipole that is
:sometimes built into the front of the VOR/Iocatizer antenna .

,,,. ----....... . . _
I

,41

,.

'

:---~~~br-.

\. - -

__ .,.a

'

\
1

10 N'M

'

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

GP
Antenna

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

'

' '....... _____... _,.,", ,

,'

191

ehnika

GS Receiver
Two signals using the same can1Eif are transmitted from the antenna system 11\

such a way that they overlap to form the gllde slope. The upper signal Is modulated
with a 90 Hz tone and the lower signal is modulated with a 150-Hz tone.

GS Display
If the aircraft is above the glide slope, it is in !he 90--Hz modulation and the pointer
Is d!1ven downward to show the pilot to fly down. If the aircraft Is below the gtide
slope, it is in the 150-<Hz modulation and the pomter is driven up to instruct the pilot
to fly up.

When the signal is recei\led, the ai.Kiio modulations are filtered and converted into
DC voltages that drive the deviation pointer.

Figure 189: GS Rec eiver

Flgur& 190: GS Indication

GlidoSio~

Af\tenna

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

192

EJO/?IEJ tehnika

System Layout

Figure 192: ILS

One, two or three recervers are instaUed. The receivers gets th eir VHF signals from
a VHF NAV or localizer anleona. The UHF signal is received by the GS antenna.
Tuning and course selection occurs via oontrolpanel or automatically trom FMS.
Tune- and test inhibit disables ILS tuning and testing during approach and autoland operation.

~@Bp

The receiver gives the output to aut omatlc flight guidance system (autopilot). FMS,
flight data recorder, ground proximity warning system and EFIS. The localizer avdlo output is rooted to audio management system.

. ...

--

PfD

I ll

If two or more ILS receivers are provided, all of th em must be tuned to the same
frequency, espedally on airportS with parallel runways.

Figure191: Discrap3ncy of Localizor Displays

lOC I

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

GS

193

ehnika

ILS Approach

Fi gure 193: A ppr oach

An automated or manual approach to the 1\Jnway oCCllrs In a predetermined sequence:

1.
2.

The aircraft Hies a<:eon:llng a preselected heading.


ILS frequency and 1\Jnway course Is selected. Autopilot Is prepared to fly a<>cording localizer.

3.

Th e locelizer deviation correspor~ds a predetermined value (2 dots). The locallzer deviation and course error is used to steer the alroran.
The descent altitude is reached and beeing hold. The system is ready to fly in
the glloeslope.

4.

The centertine of the locellzer is nearly reached. Tho aircraft maintains the
center1ine.

5.

The aircraft mes from below into the glide slope beam. The deviatiorl is less
than 2 dots. The aircraft beginns with a slig11t descent.

6.

The aircraft has centered to the glldepath and maintains the center1ine.

7.

Some automated confidence test of the autopilot system occured.

8.
9.

At about 135 feet the airoraft he.ad1ng Is aligned with the runway course.
The vertical speed or ttte aircraft is reduced for toudl down.
At touch down the aircraft lowers its nose.

....

FlARE

TQ.t.._toa;

.
@ . . -'"t'J!JS.."'!tl:IC:!L.~l\.- - - - - -
- .---rr-

ut. 1.-IU : ...

l.OC TAtC.

@!/
./'-.,LOO

CA~

:'
: ' ""'-..Loc ARU

10. For rollout guidance the locafizer deviation Is used to maintain the aircraft on
the centertine.

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Figure 194: ILS Cat egor ies

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

194

ehnika

Figure195: Geneva ILS Runway 05/23

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

195

~oa1~

Figure 196: Zurich A irport

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

tehnika

Figure 197: Zurich ILS Runway 14

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

196

ehnika

Antennas

Figure 199 : .Antanna Locations

The VOR and the loca6zer function of the ILS share the same antenna. The left
figure shows a "ram's-hOm" VHF V-dipole antenna. The favored location for this
type of antenna is on top of the aircraft above the cabin with the apex polnbng !Of-

ward.
Other high-efficiency VOR antennas aro of the type shown in the right f,gure. The
two antennas are designed to mount on the upper section of the vertical stabir.zer
of a single-finned airplane or on either side of a helicopter tail boom. The two antennas are connected together through a phasing coupler to provide a single 50ohm Input in the VOR. localizer. and glide slope bands.
The glide slope portion of the IL$ operates In the UHF range. Its antenna ts a UHF
dipole mounted near the front of the aircraft. sometimes on the same mast as the
VOR/LOC antenna. Some general aviation aircraft mount the glide slope antenna
Inside the cabin in roughly 11\e same location as the rear view mirrof in an automobile.
Figure 1M : VORJLOC Antenn:1 (Boomerang Ty pe)

B1/B2 Basic Training


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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

197

ehnika

The VOR system provides:

VOR VHF- Omnidirectional Range

The phase difference between the reference and the vanable phase is function of

Bearing information trom the difference between two phases transmitted by a


ground station.
Aircraft angular position which respect to a selected course.
TO/FROM position which respect to a selected course.
A MDfse signal whlch Identifies the station.
The Frequency is: 108.00 - 117.95 MH%

the aircraft position which respect to the ground station.

The VOR system is a medium range radio navigation aid.

Figure 200: VOR Signal

Figure 201 : VOR Information

Introduction
The Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range system is a navigation aid,
wtllch receives, deoodes and processes bearing information from the omnidirectional ground stabon.

Variable Phase Signal

Selected Course (CRS)

CompariS<)(l Bearing

..z:::>

Reference P h ase Signal

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Identification Morsa Signal

~I

TO Area

Bearing Information

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

198

EJO/?IEJ tehnika

VOR Indication

Navigation Display

Radio Magnetic Indicator

The VOR Bearing pointer at the Radio Magnetic Indicator or Navigation DISplay
(see below Nr. 2) shows always the direction toward the tuned VOR ground sta
lion.

This instrumetlt is a compass repeater, fitted with two VOR pointers, one for each
VOR system install ed. When the frequency of a VOR station is tuned and valid signals are received, the respective pointer to bear automa6cally In the direction of
the selected VOR statlon, showing OOM.
Figure 202: RMI

The Pilot may select any desired VOR course at the shown course selec!OC' or
MCOU. The indication at NO, ~dio Direction or Horizontal Situation Indicator
makes possible an accurate night along any selected course, also with cr0$Swind
toward or from the VOR station.
Figure 204: VOR NO Indication and real Situation
VOR

Q
\

\
\

\
\

\
\
\

\
\

\
\

\00111335'
\
\
\

Figure 203 : Frequency and Course Selecior

1.

Information of selected VOR station


Selectad frequency, course and station identification.

2.

VOR Bearing Pointer


Magnetic bearing (QDM) toward selected VOR stallon .

3.

VOR. Course Pointer


Represents selected VOR course.

4.

Deviation Bar
Each dot represents e lateral deviation of s against the selected course.

5.

TO/FROM Indication
Th e arrow shows toward (ODM) or from ODR the VOR station (QDR).

FREQUENCY

108.00- 117.95 MHz


COURSE

001"- 360'

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199

ehnika

Ground Stations

Uno of position

A VOR is a VHF transmitter whose eamer Is sim ultaneously frequency and amplitude modulated, FM and AM emission. The two modu1allon 5ignals, called reference and variable signal differ in their phase position according to the drectioo In
which they leave the station. The phase position difference between the reference
and the VBI"iable signal is use to determine the lines of position.
Tho roferenoo signal (FM) is constant in ell diredions.
The phase position of the variabl e signal (AM) differs from the reference
signal according to the direction in which lt leaves the station.

We differentiate the line of position in 2 terms, Whether ve mean the COW'Se leading TO a r adio station, or FROM that radio 5lation.
The magnetic course to be flown TO a radiostation, (by no wind) 15 called track
orQDM.
The magnetic cCXJTSe leading away FROM a radio stalion is called radial
orQDR.
Figure 206: Track QOM and Radial QDR

Figure 205: Phase Shift depending o f Azimuth

360

180

0'

p \7/""'\.....

270

tBO'

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Table 7: Cah~gorics of VOR Stations ICAO


-

RU fllfiiZ SIGIIN..

- .. "'

VAIUAM.e; sr.irt4

Type

Used for

Range NM

RF Power

High Power
A-VOR

p.jrway
Navigation

100 - 300

200W

Low Power
T-VOR

Terminal

25-50

Frequency MHz

112.00 - 117.95
All Channels

Area

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

25W

108.00-111 .85
even 1110 MHl Steps

200

ehnika

Aircraft Equipment

Figure 207: VOR Aircraft Equipment

The VOR receiver Is a separate unit or is build as a YHF-navigation receiver.


Some light eirct'llft ~e~ the VHF-communicatlon receiver with additional circuitry
to process the VOR and llS signals.

ll lll4.J3Iol

The oiJtput can be divided Into two groups:

Automatic VOR
The pllot has just to select a operating VOR stations frequency. The Radio Magnetic Indicator RMI or Navigation Display NO shows automatically the actual
VOR bearing (QDM).

VHF/NAV
EQUIPMENT

ManuaiVOR
The pilot selects manually at the course selector a desired VOR COURSE.
One of the 360 possible posiUon noes around the tuned VOR station.

The:

RDI (Radio Direction Indicator) 01'


HSI (Horizontal Situation Indicator} or
PDI (Pictorial Deviation lndicator)or
NO (Navigation Display)

60

AUDIO

shows VOR-DEVIA TION, TQ.FROM and COURSE ERROR between actual alrcrefl situation to the selected statoon.
HUOINO _

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

...__ _ __ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ __ _ __J

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

201

~oa1~

tehnika

Figure 209: VOR Receiver with RMI

Automatlc VOR
The VHF NAV receivers pick up both reference and variable signals or the VOR.
A phase detector automatically shifts Ule phase position of the reference signal to
correspond with the phase position of the variable signal. This phase shift cooe
sponds with Ule position line on whicb the aircraft is in respeclto the selectecl VOR
station.

IAAC;.HORO

voR-<>-.

The comblnallon of position line (Relative Bearing) and compass information


(Magnetic Heading) lnside VOR RMI results as Absolute Bearing QDM.

... ...... ...

...........

Figure 208: VOR Rx and RMI

VOR
ANTENNA

AUOIO
IIOR/RMI

30Hz

L--+-lr-----'----. VARIABlE
RECEIVER

PHASE

DEMODUlAl OR

DETECTOR

Fi gure 210: Radio Magnetic lrtdtcator

30Hz ENCE
..__ _ _ __, REFER

DME Counters

RELATIVE BEARING

FREQUENCY

TUNING
VOR1 (2) FU\Q$

AI>P'lar In case of:


- VORI (2) receiver falklre.

- internal failure oj R~U.

MAGNETIC HEADING

H~ding

!iigMI in'lalld.

- Power supply failt.lf&

VORRMI

Compass Cam

aear1ng Pointer
IndiCate the magnutlc bearing to the station rece111ea Dy
VOR 1 (dashed POinter) and VOR 2 (dQI.tlle polnrPrj.

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

202

ehnika

Function of RMI
Left example shows the airplane flying toward north. The phase ilngle is contlno.
ousJy changing, so the VOR-polnter changes it's ODM.

Right example shows the alrpl ane is along VOR-Irack 360. The phase angle remai ns 180". The heading is continuously changing. so the pointer moves with ~M
heading scale.

Figure 211: QDM changing, Heading 360"

Figure 212: Heading changing, QDM 3so


N

315

1ft

'''

'

'

/.

2 2 5

s
0 TR ACK

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

:/+-9

VOR

STATION
/

~
.

''

11

~i:

\I OR

S TATION

~-+
~

. +-9
~ -+
+-'9

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

'

io..

203

ehnika

Combined VOR I ADF Radio Magnetic Indicator

Fi gure 213: VOR/ADF- RMI

To minimize the number of instruments, the radio magnetic Indicator, or RMI, has
been developed and i s now widely used. This instrument combines the remote indicating compass with the indicators for the A DF and VOR.
The single arrow that indicates for the VOR is pointing to 150' . This is the TO bearIng to the staUol'l (QDM), al'ld if the aircraft were turned to a heading of 150' it
would go to the station. This places the aircraft on the 330" radial
(180" ~ 150" = 330"). VOR radlals (QDR) are always numbered by the magneijc
direction FROM the station.
The flux-gate compass has rotated the dial of the Indicator to show that lhe airetaft
is flying with a magnetic heading of 315'. The dial has wrned until315' is under
the mar1<er at the top of the lnstrlJment, which is the lubber nne.
The double arrow that indicates for the ADF shows that the station being received
on the ADF is to the left of the airetaft between the wing and the nose. The station
has a magnetic bearing (QOM} from the aircraft of 255".

B1/B2 Basic Training


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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

204

ehnika

Manual VOR

Figure 2 14: Receiver and Disp lay

The display gives a image of the ai rcraft position in relation to a selected VOR
course. Following information are shown:
VOR deviation (left - right Indicator),
Course error (difference between aircraft heading and selected tmek),
TO- FROM Indication.
Waming flag.
The pha~ shifl is activated manually by selecting the desired track with the
'course
When the aircraft Is on me selected course (on track), there Is no
phase difference between reference and 118riable signals In the deviation discriminator. The deviation pointer of ftle Indicator remains in the canter.

knoo.

As soon as the aircraft leaves the selected track. the phase differenoe In the deviation detector brings the pointer to move across the instrument, showing where the
selected track lies In relation to the aircraft heading,
The course error (atso ca"ed WCA, Wind Correction Angte), shows the angle between the aircraft heading and the selected track. The selected course and the
compass i nformation are lead to a differential synchro, and the difference between
the 2 pieces of Information gives the course error. The course error signaliJoverns
the Cour~ Poin ter in the indication.

VHF/ NAV
EOUtPMENT

' _..

~:
_____
_....,

~-

Figure 215: Radio Direction Indicator

The TO - FROM Indicator shows w hether the aircraft is rn the TO or FROM area
of the selected VOR station.
The warning flag Is actrvaled when the reception of VOR signals becomes too
weak. for Instance wtlen the eira-aflls out of the VOR working range, or by tech
nical malfunctions either of the ground or aircraft equipmenl
The receptioo frequency must be tuned and the desired course must be selected.

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

205

~oa1~

Function of Manual VOR

tehnika

Figure 217: Radio Direction Indicator

Figure 216: Aircraft Po$1Uon Situations toward and from a VOR Statlon

FRDW AI!EII.

~~~--------~

TO .t.fiEA

5"

+
I
I

POS.

J
IT010"

~ 045

E5

'@

._9
_____.

POS.

..9
__________...

Figure 2 18: TO- FROM Indication


IT360

1.

The aircraft is on the selected course. Deviation bat centred.

2.

The aircraft is 1 o teft of selected courSe. Deviation bar Is 2 dots righL

3.

The aircrt~ft is s right of selected cour&e and the heading i s not equal the se
tected course. Deviation bar is 1 dot left, coun;E! pointer shows the coun;;e er-

4.

The aircraft has over flown the VOR-Tx with a Wind Correction Angle.
The TO/FROM pointer moved to the other end of the deviation bar and shows
(FROM). The course error is shown.

J-

FROM

ror.

B1/B2 Basic Training


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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

206

ehnika

Control Panel and Automatic Tuning


A wide variety of control panels depending on system layout are present

The Flight Management System automatically tunes the VOR Receivers. The pi
lots may tune the VOR vl8 MCDU's. Backup tuning is possible via RMP.
Figure 221 : Automatic and MCDU Remote Tuning

figure 219: VORJDME Control Panel

1Jia1

Figure 220: VHF NAV Control Panel (VOR, ILS and DME)
VHF NAV Fr.quoncy Soloclot

- The top knob !.en SO I<H


incr.nenb..
- Thl bottom knob selects e ntire

MHL

eo.nc

Selector

- s.tectt

COUI"M

shown fn courH

wiodow and d Lplayed by the


c;our1e pointer in 11\e N .t:pKtlve
NO.

Table 8: Categories and VOR frequencies

Type

Used for

Frequency MHz

High Power
A VOR

Ajrway
Navigation

112.00 - 117.95

Low Power
T- VOR

Area

Terminal

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

120 Channels

All Channels
50 I<Hz spacing

108.00- 11 1.85 Even 1110 MHz Steps


40 Channels

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


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207

ehnika

Figure 223: A i rway Marker

Marker Beacon
Fundamentals
The Marker system is a radio navigation aid which determines the distance between the aircraft and the runway threshold. When the aircraft overflies one of
these Marker transmitters, the system provides aural and visual indications to the
flight crew.
Frequency: 75 MHz

Beacons
Marker radio beacons are transmitters whose antenna systems are designed to
propagate vertical beams.
Two types of Markers are used, the Z and the Fan-Marker.
The Z-Markerwhose vertical beam is cone shaped is used to mark a certain crossing point of airways, or to fill the cone of sUenoe over a NOB.
The Fa~rker propagates a fan shaped beam and Is used to mark important positions along airways and to give distance to threshold lnformatJon on the approach
and landing pa th.
According to ICAO recommendations, Airway Markers should reaCh at least
20'000 ft and ILS Markers 6'000 nIn altitude.

Fig ure 224: ILS Marker


1900Hz

3000 tl

Frequency and Emissions


All markers wo rk on 75 MHz with A2 modulation. They are modulated with either
one of 3 audio frequencies according to their Implementation. The audio freqency
can be keyed for identification purposes

MARKERS

AlJDlO i'REQ. JDENT. LAMP

...... -

IMPLEMENT.

blue

ILS

orange

n.s

OM
MM

1300 H z

Thf

3000 Hz

.... ..

white

l LS

8000 H2

white

alrwaya

400

H~<

All other

FM

. -.-.-

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

wltll or wlllloullclenOOc:otion (l.!ot.. code)

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

208

ehnika

System

Indicating on EFTS

A 75 MHz VHF reoeiver and a display unit In form of 1 or 318mps (one for each or
one for all possible modulation frequency) are required.

When the aircraft overflies the Maliler, the type of Mat1(er is displayed In different
oolors at the PFD ond Is Indicated by an aural identification via cockpit speaker or
headphone.

"The output of the Marker receiver Is lead to the headphones or loudspeakers and
to the visual indieating system: lights or Primary Flight Display.

Figure 226: Primary Flight Display

When the airctaft overflies a Marker beacon, the pilot hears the audio signal and
sees the appropriate Maliler visual indication.
Indications
Marker

Identification

Tone Hz

Light

Name

Outer

------ - - -

400

Blue

OM

Mlddle

- - - -

1300

Amber

MM

Cell sign/ .

3000

White

IMorA

Inner- or Airway

Figure 225: Marker System

AUt Otf'ICirS

.-.u.... ~

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209

ehnika

Receiver
The marker beacon receiver detects the audio modulation of the 75 MHz input
The audio modulation of 400 Hz of 1300 Hz or 3000 Hz goes to ltle audio fitters. If
a marker beaoon audio tone is present, ll goes through lhe filler and doses tile
eledronic switch to grve a ground for a Marker light
The Marker receiver can also be build lnslde the VOR or ILS receiver.
To have the display at the EFIS lhls Information also goes to the multiplexer and
ARINC 429 tr&n$mier in the VORIMB receiver. The ARJNC 429 transmitter puts
the marf<er beacon information in the bits 11, 12 and 13 of label 222.

Figure 227: Bloc;kdtagram Marl<er Receiver

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

210

ehnika

DME Distance Measurement

Figure 228: Distances

Principle
The Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) provides digital read-out of the aircraft
slant range distance from a selected ground station. The system generales Interrogation pulses from an ooboard interrogator and sends them loa selected ground
station. The ground station replies. The interrogator determines tM distance in
Nautical Mile (NM } between the station and !he aircra ft. The Interrogator detects
the Morse audio signal which identifies the ground station.
Frequency: Around 1 GHz 252 channels paired With VHF NAV frequencies.
At the same location as a VHF omnlrange statlon (VOR) Is generally also a DME
station. The VOR gives bearing and the DME distance l.o that station.
DME ground stations located close to the ILS - runways are used to determine the
distance between approaching alrcralls to the runway threshold. To compensate
the distance between runway4hreshold and the location of the ground-station, the
internal delay of the station 50 14S is reduced to the corresponding value.

~--~-,

VOR- OME ..J.


Ground W
Station

Allllude

'

~ ~ ~~~~

tntefTC)9alion ~-~ ~epty

Slant

~~~--~ - . ..........
Dist11n~
_

Ii
:

b ------------------------

Ground Oi$tance

. . -----:~4

VOR- OME
Ground

Station
Figure 229: Interrogation and Reply

1lle DME gives the slant distance. The flight management systems use the dis.
lance Information from the OME for position calculations. The distance Is also
available for indication in the Hight compartment.
The DME in the aircraft is an interrogator which in terrogates the DME ground stabon. The ground station gi ves a reply which the In terrogator receives. From the
time difference between Interrogation and reply the Interrogator calculates the dis
lance. The interrogation and the reply are on a different frequency. These frequen cies are:
1025 to 1150 MHz for the interrogator transmitter
962 to 1213 MHz. for the ground station transmitter.
The frequency for the groun d station transmitter is always 63 MHz above or below
the interrogator frequency (when below and wh en above depends on the selected
channel). The DME frequency has a fixed relation with the colrocated VOR, so
when you select a VOR frequ ency you automatically select the DME frequency.

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

C.onirot Panel
VH F NAY

ltot"ool

211

ehnika

lnte"ogatlon Pulses

Figure 231:

The interrogator transmlts 2 RF pulses, which is the interrogation. The ground station retransmllts ltle same pulses on the selected frequency. The interrogator varIes the repelilion rate of ltle transmission at random, wh1ch grves each OME
Interrogator a unique repetition rate. This is to make sure that the aircraft recognizes Its own reply pulses. The interrogator looks for replies with Its own repetition
rate and ignores other replies which are fof other aircraft. The time between the
two pulses depends on the channel type.
The DME ground staUon also transmits identification tones to identify the selected
station. Ttle SyStems tune either automatically or manually. The flight management system does the automatlc tuning. You tune manually when you select a
VOR frequency on a VORIDME control panel. When the FMS tunes the DME the
DME Interrogator can give the dlstance to op to 5 DME statlons.

T1 VARIESATAANOOt.tAATE

r~SE;I

Figure 230:
PtA.SE PAIR <PPI TfWISMISSIOH

~
j..:: __J '2

NAX

t.IAX 40 PP/SEC

eJ .S Jl.S

X.CHA!oi'El: ft 12Jl.S
Y-ti!AM'IEL: f1

~ .

X CHAnNEl.

< 40 PP/SEC
= ISO PP/ SEC
NORMALLY < 16 PP/ SEC

SEARCH MODE: NORMALLY


TRACX. MODE:

'lf.Jl. S

Tll. BETWEEN. XMSN Of' l'tA.S PAIRS


VARIES RANDOMLY.

I T2 DEPENDS ON CHANHiil. TYPE


I .X 121 y 36 &UCROSECONDS

Y-CHAN!tEL

Jl__Jl_
-.J r-

INTERROGATION

3.S}JSC

POLSe.I'AIRS

_fl_____fl
'

RC:!./\_/\_

34JJS[C

..1

I- 2T 50Jl.S~
T TIME TO GROlN) StAtiON

CROUNO STATtON OEJJ.Y:SO JLS

SEARCH_....'-----------~ _ll_

JITTEI!

25 82 IASeC

TRACK

il_

JITTER

B1/B2 Basic Training


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212

ehnika

Operation

Figure 232: Interrogator and Ground Station

The DME interrogator transiMs aod receives matched pulse pairs. The ground
station receives and echoes lhe twin pulses back. With no interrogating efrcralt$
around, the ground stalioo sends conUnuously pulse pairs (PP) with a constant
rate of 2'700 PP/s filler and identification pulses. Called squltter.

DIIJ

IOjDICAlO~

If there is an interrogating aircraft in the beacon range. filler (squitter) PP's are replaced by reply pulse pairs.
If the interrogator receives PP's from a ground station. the Interrogator changes
from stand by to search mode.
During search. a counter inside interrogator-computer runs through the range or
the range and searches for the actual distance.

tf the computer of the interrogator has tracked to the actual distance. the rate or
PP's are reduced . The indication follows the actual distance.
Tx 1025 1150 1.1112

I t
!i! I
1
I; I

Rl( 962 . 1213 UHz

,MI'C I : I
n.ACK~!t':::: I ~ I

&fA.eit . . , . c 40

u.x .40PMEC ~

TA CAN
TACtical Air Navigation is a m~itary rflotheta (distance-angle) navigation system.
Range and bearing can be detemnined from a single TACAN station. The diStance
measuring part of, is identical in operation of DME.
A civil aircra ft equipped with DME can use any TACAN station for distance determination.

OAI GROUNOSTATIOII

-j

A(0011t:A

;;;

CCOE

3!

I IOENTm

MOIISf

zg

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

\ r7
J 1--"'IAtmR I
f
PRIOAlTY

P\.LS[ ~AT!

COUr<T[II

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

0~[ A[pL)' a fl Ll11


2700
00tl$1"..r<T 1\.&tt

,.,$

213

ehnika

Figure 234: .VHF NAV to DME frequency conversion chart

Frequencies
The lnl errogator trans mits a pulse-pair signal on any one of 126 freQuencies within
the range of 1025 MHz to 1150 MHz. One hundred of the DME transmit frequencies are automatically seleded by tuning the NAV control to a freQuency between
108.00 and 117.95 MHz.

The other 26 frequencies can be selected by tuning the NAV control to frequencies
between 133.30 and 135.95 MHz, these chMnefs are normally used for military
TACAN slallons.
The signals transmitted by the airborne OME are received by the ground stallon
assigned to the selected channel frequency. After a built-In delay of 50 microseconds, a reply pulse-pair Is autOlllatically transmitted on the channel frequency assigned to the ground station. There are 252 channels within the frequency band of
962 to 1213 MHz set aside for DME ground stations.

NAY

OUE
XlollA

~c

108.00 10~1 978


108.05 1041 1104

lo.l!li

:~:~

1051
1051

lll'l.IO
'n 10'3.15
~~::~ 18S 1105
10'!.20
roa.zo :&a 980
nor.

18:~

<Oe.~5 IOU 'HL


IOU 1101 109.
IOMO 1os ')82 109.40
101.15
10*
~f
104.50
1109 10..55
!gt:i~ ~~
1047 ga. 10..~

l81: ~

'''

183:~
NAY

01.1
XloiT ~

11).00 1101
11).0 5

Once every 30 seconds the beacon transmits its identity, which is detected by the
pilot as a Morse code burst of three letters at an audio tone of 1350 Hz. These
Morse identir~ers are contained In tha onboard navlgallon cards.

tl8~
!:8~
it!I.r~
:~g 110)

RC

l!M
1165
10)9

'"

1040
1167
1041
ll68
1042

113.30 1104
113.35 1104
113. 40 110 5
1105
1106 11"
lll.SS 110& 104)

l:H~

Figure 233:

MC

nor 7
llr~ 1107 lb1~
Ill. TO IlD! 1171

NAY

Ot.E
XWTA REC

~a
Ill~

~~. Wf
~~~

.181~
::&:~~

18U

Ot.IE

11
~~n
.a 1109

VOR

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

11 8

VO!I

VOR

m:~

110'.1
1110
IlLO

Ut!~ 111~

:tb

m:lA
n:.t
~~~.,
114..85

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ISH 1159
1033

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1162
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116.00 IIJl 1191 lll.OO 1111 ~


1061 117.05 ll~ 107&
116.05
1205
1195
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1132 1069
120&
16.20 lll3
1180
1143
1133
11 14 1207
1187
1l31 1197 117.
1111 !Dil
1061 U6.l5 1134 1071 117.
11&8 U&.-40 IllS 1138 u?.~O 1145 120!
!062 11&.45 IllS IOTZ 117.15 11 45 1082
1119 116..50
117.~ 1146 1209
106) 116..55
111.
11 ~6 1083
11~7 1210
lpl
1147
~~~
11 7. 70 1!48 ~~11
119\ 116..70 l,~
]148 1085
t06S
11~11 I 5
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1066
t~
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1213
1071 117.<)5 ~~g 108T
106 7

H~~
ll2
~~~~~
11 0 112J

tb\1

1185

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m~

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usz UH~ 11 8
115.45 11~9

llt~~ I U3g

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U5.35 1124

U80

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

UB&

1015

)Ciolf

1053 11s.ss 1126

1.0~

HN

t&fi

:m

~~~ ns:~g Ui~


111, 11tso 1126

0 1183
1057
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ll8:~
~~

~~~ 1111~

1175

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ll8:t~

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1st~ ~~~

114.65 1117 1054


114.70 1118 1181 U5.70
110! 1045
1113 lOSS

30 SECONDS

"AV

110.00 1061 998 111.00 1071 1008 112.00


Ill~ 111.05
IIH 11~.05
110.05
110.10 ~~~ 9119 111.1~
IOO'l ll . lt JOB
1051 1115 110.15
108
105
1111
~~J~
101,
111
0
ll~S
108)
!8~ ll>b~
1814
lll'l~
1117
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IOS1
111.40 lOTS 1012 112.40 1095
992 110. 40 106S
LI J 8 112.15
IIO.iS
1128 ILL 45
;~r 110.50
100]
lOl l
1096
1016 1139
110.55 1066 1129
1057 994
1061 1004 11[-60 IOU 1014 112.~
1120
11'5 1077
11 .0 I OS8
I l.lO 1078 lM~ 11H
I 8 995 110.70
111.75 1078 1141
1098
1121
I
1068
IOS9 99&
111.80 1079 IOUi ~~~:~~ !099
1099
1132 111.85 1079 1142
1059 1122 110.85
108() 1011 I1~U
90 !lOO
997
1010 1007
112l 118:~~ 1070 llll m:~g 108() 1141 11 .!15 1100

114.00 1111
11 4.05
Ill
Ill
11 4.20
IH.ZS
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11 4.35 1114
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1!1.15 1115
114.50 1116
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'ru

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101.75 1048
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101 .9 1050 JII J 10..!15

Station Identification

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214

ehnika

Navigati on with DME

Figure 235:

While DME on its own provides useful navigation information it is not. in itself. a
complete navigation aid. 11 was Intended from the start that for both approach and
short-range en-route navigation DME would be used in conjunction With ILS and
VOR respectively. DME works in conjunction with VOR and ILS beacons.

ON
..~_; ~

En-route Naviga tion

I>

When a VOR and a DME beacon are at the same site the pilot can obtain range
and bearing Information thus the two systems together provide a Rho-Theta navl
gallon system.
Since the pilot knows. from his charts, the location of the beacons, the range and
bearing infomlation allows him to obtain a position fix.

'

.....~
/

0&1"

COLIRS

_ _ . . \ - Q IS1 All((

\ . . - OLSHIICE

Use of OME with VOR


With VORIOME beacons at selected waypolnts such as airways crossing points
are eo-located DME grQUildstations Installed. Of course large expanses of ocean
~nnot be served by the lme of sight system we are discussing here. The maximum range of an aiiWay DME is up to 300 NM. 11 should be enough to remind you
that pilots are given left/right guidanoe to fty along select.ed VOR r8dlals and while
Oying are given distance to go infOITT\ation courtesy of the DME.
A further complication is that some VOR beacons are designated terminal beacons. These are slluated at airllelds and transmit low power thus giving restricted
coverage. The OME beacons used with such VOR beacons similarly provide a restricted coverage. The range available Is nominally 25 NM.

,,,.

261'

1111

1.4

Approach
The use of OME with ILS is quite straighlfOIWard. ILS \lfll provide Its normal function of giving guidance lnformaUon leading to louc:hdown, while OME w111give dis
lance 10 touchdown. Of course the localizer, glldepath and DME beacons must be
suitably slled al the airfield.
Note that at glldepaUl angles of about 3 degrees, the slant range and ground range
are nearly the same.

VOitiOME NAVIGAT ION

IL..SOME

B1/B2 Basic Training


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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

215

ehnika

Indicating

Fig ure 237:

The DME distance is shown on the Primary Flight Display and on the Navigation
Display. The DME distance is also shown on the two counters of the DDRMI.
PRIMARY FLIGHT DISPLAY

NAVIGATION DISPLAY

ILS OME distance to runway threshold


Shown at the lower left corner of the PFO.
VOR OME distance to VOR station 1 and 2
Depending of the NO's display mode the slant distance Is shown et the left DME 1
respective right lower corner for DME 2.
OME counters of mechanical Indicator showing the DME distances as soon the In
terrOgator has !racked to the actual distance.

No Computed Data

is

DME interrogator not tracked to an actuar dis1anoe. standby or search.


Dashes -- -. -are visible.

OME fault
DME interrogator is not powered or an internal failure exists.
Flag covers the display or the display Is blank.

ILSDME

VOROME

Dit.tar\Ce LO

o;....,_lo
oolocatod OLIE

runway thruhold

Figure 236: OORMI

g<OIIftdolallofl

NO

tOHPUTED OH

DA.TA
~shas

COMP4SS
ARD
fAULT

~1--11+---~f~l POINTER
H-oe!"''C~~JZe--!~.j._--~0 (011PU1(0
VCR OA.TA OR
FAULT

Oigital

D!stanco
Radio

Magnetic
Indicator
DDRMI

HO CDHPUTEO

n.ar.a.

B1/B2 Basic Training


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216

EJO/?IEJ tehnika

DME usage by Flight Management Systems FMS

Figuro 238:

Sct~nnlng

DME 5 Cl>11nnels

If possible the FMS calculates the horizontal position (latitude and longitude) with
distarn:es from two DME stations (DMI:/DME). The FMS selects OME stations
around the start position or the selected route from its lntema! data base. There
must be an i deal angle between these stations (preferably 90) to make an accurate IWO-dlmensional navigation possible. The stations must also be strong
enough and within a usable range. In aTeas with minimum radio cov~trage the FMS
may be unable to find a suitable OMEIDME pair. In these areas the FMS uses distance and bearing a t a collocated VOR/DME station for its position calculations.
There are three ways to tune the VORIDME systems;
Automatic tuning by the FMS
The FMS can tune the DME and VOR automatically. AlthOugh the FMS can
tune the ILS, it tunes the OME to the ILSIDME frequency if the runway has
DME installed.
The FMS can automatlcaay tune up to four VORIDME stations and one ILS/
DME statioo. The FMS uses two of the DME stations for its navigation. If the
FMS canno t find two suitable DME stations, it selects the frequency of a collocated VORIOME station.
Manual tuning from the FMS Control Display Unit
Through the CDU you manually select the Identifier or frequency of a VOR/
DME beacon tor use in the DDRMis.
Manual tunin~ from Radio control panels
You can tune the VORIDME manuaDy from Its control panel on the pedestal.
Information from this VORIDME Is shown on the CDU, NO's and OORMis.

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

ILSIDME

~------' Station
\
Runway Threshold

~~',I<

~ORIOME2

'<>

BaCkground
DME Station

The Fligh t Management System uses all distance Informations for aircraft position
calculation.
The DME slant distance to VORIOME 1 and 2 is shown at DDRMI's and Navigation Displays.
The Slant distance to the both background stations are for FMS usage only.
The slant dtstance to the ILSIDME station is shown on the Primary Flight Ols
play.

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

217

ehnika

DMESystem

Figure 240: DME Interface

Inputs
Each interrogator has 2 lnpt.rl busses (frequency Input A and B) for frequency selections, one from the flight management system and one from the VOR/DME con
trol panel. A test switch gives !he possibility to test both DME systems.

Outputs
The rnterrogator has 2 output busses; distance data 1 and 2. One goes to the
DDRMI's and to lhe EFIS. The second goes to the night management system .

An audio output with the DME Identification tones, goes to the audio management
system. To listen to the DME you must select the associated potentiometer (VOR
or ILS) at the audio control panel.

1-4-------'---TOII'~ort
1 . - - - -- - - - - lbUIDII

Suppression
When an Interrogator transmits,.lt gives a suppression pulse to an other L-band
eqlipment (other DME. ATC transpOnders and TCAS computer). This pulse protects these systems against high RF input power (up to 700 Watt) to !hair receival'S
and prevents distortions of their operation.
Ante nna
A short, vertically polarized UHF whlp or blade antenna is used. lt is mounted on
the canter line of lhe bottom of the fuselage as far from any other antenna as is
practical.

Figure 239:

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

218

ehnika

GPS Globa l Position System

Figure 241: Earth orbiting Satellites

Introduction
GPS is a space based radiO navigation system which provides worldwide, highly
accurate, continuous three-<llmenslonal position, velocity and time Information.
GPS is generally regarded to be divided Into three parts:
Space Segment
Control Segmen t
User Segment

The Space Segment includes 2 1 operational satellites and 3 &otive spares.


The Control Segment Includes a master control station In Colorado, In the United
States and 4 linked monitor stations located around the world.
The User Segment conslsts of all the receivers that provide position, velocity and
lime data for aircraft, ships, trains, trucks, etc.
There are two levels of accuracy wilhin the system. A precision mode tor Ule mill
tary and a coarse/acquisition mode for civilian use. The precision mode has en accuracy of :1:16 meters both l aterally and vertically, while the coarselacquisidon
roode has an accuracy of t100 meters.

As is Ule case with much of the new technology in the field of aviation, GPS was
created by the military for purely military functions and is stil under the control of
the United States Air Force. Certain features of the system are strictly reserved for
the exclusive use of U.S. and allied military services. However. GPS Is available
to a large degree for civilian usage.
The European Space Ageocy and EU transport ministers released the develoP"
ment for the GaJfleo program. The total project cost tor development and deployment Is forecast to reach 3,4 billion Euros. with a 2008 operational date. The
Galileo system is based on civlllan use.

40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180


Lang!\1111 (degtlel)

B1/B2 Basic Training


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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

219

~oa1~

tehnika

Space Segment

Control Segment

The space segment consists of 24 satellites (21 + 3 spares). In six orbital planes
with tour satellites in each plane. Orbiting the earth every 12 hours, a~ an altilu<fe

All24 satellites will be controlled by the control segment on the ground. The control
segment is composed of 4 monitor stations and 1 master control station which pur-

of approximately 11,000 nautical miles, each of the satellites has a 28 view of the

sue the satelfltes, compute the ephemerides and dock corrections. and transmit

earth. From any point on the earth, at any glven lime. there will be six to ten satellites fn view. This provides redundancy, since only four satellites are required for
three dimensional position determination.

at regular lnteNals an lnformatlon message for the GPS users. The 4 monitor sta
lions are located at: Kwajalein, Hawaii, Ascension Island and Diego Garcia. The
master control station is located at Colorado Springs.
The sp<!cing of the monitor stations provide a nearly continuous "ground" vi5ibility
of every satellite. All of the monitor stations !rack lhe satellites, de!ennine their op
erational performance and validity and relay this information back to the Master
Control Station. The Master Control station can then determine the current satellite orbital parameters. tl'le current clock parameters and then transfer corredion
data back to tl'le s.atellites, three times a day.
Through the coooept of the number of satellites cirdiog the globe, plus the orbital
planes of the satellites, aloog with Lhe command and control struc!Ure, GPS wiU
ensure lhet at least four satellites wi~ atluays be available to a receiver at any time
of the day or night. anyWhere over the surtace Oftfle earth, to obtain a precise navigational fi11. This concept will also ensure that the e>alcl position of each satehite
will be known at afl times and that each satellfte will have a very precise time stand
ard. These two factors are necessary to ensure accurate three dimensional position determination.

Satellites
The architecture of the system is composed of a oonstellation of 25 satellites (21
always available}.
Mass: 815 kg.
Time of life: 7. 5 years
Boarded Power. 700 watt at the end of life. Operation frequency:1515.42MHz
OperaUng dock: 2 caesium and 2 rubidium docks.
The satellites are dispatched on 6 circular orbits of 4 satellites each.
Orbit alfitude: 20231 km
O!blt re<:urrenoe: 12 sidereal hour (1 sidereal day equals 23 hours 56 min. 4.1s)
Figure 242: Satellite

Figure 243; Monitor Stations

B1/B2 Basic Training


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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

220

ehnika

User Segment

Figure 245: Receiver counting the Travel time of Satettlte transmitted Signal

The principle of GPS position computation is based on the measurement of transmission lime of the GPS signals broadcast by a minimum of 4 received satellites.
For a boa~ only 3 satellites would be enough to obtain its position, while, for a user
on the move In the air. a fourth satellite is necessary to because of altitude of the
aircraft. The GPS data are:
GPS position (Latitude and Longitude)
Ground Speed
True Track
Altitude
Figure of merit (Position error can be up to 500 meter)

SATELLITE

RECEIVER

Whlle the oonoep t of navigation via GPS can include ships, trains. cars, etc. GPS
designed for aircrafts are expandable to include CAT Ill preci sion approach guidance, position reporling and flight following, as well as aircraft oonllict repot1ing
and resolution.

Derived lnformatlon
GPS Is primarily a position determining system, it is possible to derive certain data
by taking i nto account the change in position over time. Actual track can be obtained by looking at several position fixes. Ground speed can be calculated by
measuring the distance between two fixes, then measure the amount of time required to travel between the fLXes, to obtain a rate of travel.

Figure 246: Position Determination w ith 3 Satellites

Figure 244: Dis play of GPS Data at M CDU screen

1:!9
c:::>

llli
=
(ill

@]
GPS

ALT

10000

MOD E l' S A

NAV/6

=
@)
=
(ID

(ill

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

31

@)

IEJ

c=

@)
GPS

c=

A.L.T

(ill

10000
MOI>I!!I'SA

NAV /6

(ill

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


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221

ehnika

Theory of Operation

Figure 247: Distance measurement with one satellite (LOP)

GPS wori<s like DME in principle, with one Important difference. DME measures
the elapsed round trip time for a signal that Is transmitted to a DME ground station
from an ain:ratt and then dividing that time in half and multiplying the result by the
speed of light The result equals the slant range distance from the aircraft to the
ground station.
GPS measures the amount of time it tal<.es a signal to travel from a 5ateUite to a
receiver. That time Is then multiplied by the speed of light to obtain a distance
measurement. This distance results in a line ot position (LOP). Just as DME determines a position fix by1he intersection of two or three DME arcs, GPS uses four
distance measurements from four sateltites to determine latitude, longitude, alii
tude and time difference.
A signifi<:ant difference in the operation or DME versus GPS Is lhat DME is en active system, whDe GPS is a passive system. For OME to operate, an interrogation
signal from the user must be Initiated. GPS required no interrogation signal. As a
passive system, it i s always operational The orbiting satellites oontinually transmit
data, without the need of being Interrogated. All additional advantage to a passive
system is thatlt can have an unlimited number of users at any one time, where an
active system such as OME Is limited to approximately 100 users per statJOn at any
one time.

Figure 243: Posltlon determination with 4 satellites

GPS is a expensive system to put into operation. If v.'O forget about the oast of
putting the satellites Into Ofbit for the moment. direct measurements of elapsed
time require exact synchronization between the satellites and the reoelvers onboard the aircraft. To achieve this synchronization, extreme, stable clocks are re
qulred. Extremely stable in this case is on the order of 10"1 seconds per secood.
This equates to a drill rate of 0.003 seconds per thousand years. To achieve this
stability, atomic clocks must be used. For redundancy four atomic clocks instaned
on each satellite!
The GPS is working with lime differences. By using a quartz oscillator to set the
timing at the receiver (aircraft) end, the cost of operation ts greatly reduced. Using
a quaJtz oscillator provides less accuracy. However, by antlclpatlng this loss in aDcuracy, compensation can be applied In the form or a fourth Nne of position from a
fourth satel~te. This is why with GPS, four satellites should be In view et any given
time ror a precise navigation fiX.

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Pos;tion Fixing

Figure 249: Position fix.ing with 1, 2 and 3 satellites

If a dlstance from a specific point in space (satellite) Is known, then it follows that
the receiver Is located somewhere on the surface of sphere, with a radius of that
distance. The first distance measurement establishes the first line of position LOP.
The addltloo of a second satellite and a second distance measurement furthet' reftnes the positioo calcul ation as the two LOPs Intersect each other. The addl~oo of
a third distance measurement from a third satellite further refines the position eel
rulatlon as we now have three LOPs Intersecting at a speCific point In space. This
point in space represents the distances measured between the aircraft end the
three satellites.
This, all by itself, is not very helpful. If you consider that you are:
11 ,000 nautical miles from satelhte No. 1 and
12,000 nautical miles from satellite No. 2 and
13,000 nautical miles from satellite No. 3 and
thallhese satellites are moving through space at 7,500 miles per hour,

this means that they are not ln the same position they were in a second ago. To
overcome this problem, each satellite transmits Its position (ephemeris) to the receiving computer. The computer in turn can appJy matrix algebra an d the sOlution
or simultaneous equations with four unknowns (longitude, latitude, altitude and
time) into useful information.
For terrtsllc navigation at the sphere with 3 satellites, the elevation Is not determined For elevation or altliuda determlnatloo, the reception of a fout1h satellite Is
necessary.

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Aircraft Systems

Figure 250: Interface

Different system layout are possible:


GP SSU as a stand alone unit, located In the cabin ceiling dose to its antenna.
GPS Sensor Module as a circuit board located inside IRU or FMC.
Multi mode receiver.
The GPS Sensor Unit (GPSSU) has twelve channels. each capable or tracldng
NAVSTAR GPS satellite signals. The primary funcbon is to track the RF signal received from the antenna, deteiTTllne the signal code phase and earlier phase, compute the antenna position and output the navigation data to the ai rcreft's navigation
system.

AORJ COU

GPS satellite orbits do cl'l<lnge, there are times every day when the geometry of
the satellite positions is not optimum . During these times, the position eccuracy of
the system will be slightly degraded. By integrating the GPS posillon infonnation
with that o f other long-range navi gation (IRS) or flight management systems, the
overall positional accuracy of the system can be maintained.
In normal operation, the GPSSU data Is used by ADIRU. In order to reduce
GPSSU lnltlallzatlon lime, ADIRU's sendi ng data to GPSSU (IR poslbon, Altitude,
Date, UTC).

Multi Mode Receiver MMR


The primary function of the MMR is to receive and process ILS and GPS signals.
The ILS receiver and the GPS recewer make up two of the sub assembGes.
lLS
The ILS signals, including both locallzer and glide slope, are used to determine
flight path deviations during precision approach and landing. and are supplied to
l he aircrslt flight control and instrumeAt systems. These deviations are based on
radio frequency signals that the unit receives from a. ground-based instrument
landing system.
Figure 251: A nten na

GPS
The MMR receives RF signals through an active GPS antenna (preamplifier implemented within the antenna). T he GPS receiver filter s, mixes and performs N D
conversions. The resulting data ts processed by microprocessors that oufput position. v&locily. time, and intagrity data to lha system proceS$or. The system processor transmits ARINC 7 43A-complianl data for use b y o ther aircraft systems.

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

The GPS antenna Is a L band anten na. The GPS


antenna is desigood to operate at 1575.42 MHz
wi th a right hand circular po1arizatfon and to pro
vide an omnidirectional upper hemispheric cover
age.

224

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Area Navigation

Figure 252: RNAV

Introduction

COMPUTE

Area navlgalion (RNAV) Is a navigation and guidance system which uses VOR
bearing, DME slant ranging, and barometrtc altitude as its basic signal Inputs to
compute course and drstance to a waypolnL Since !he system can only function
within the service area of a VORIDME station. it cannot be u sed for overseas navlgaUon.
To fly over uncovered regions nke oceans, deserts and unpopul ated areas, the Input or the inertial reference syst.e m and or global positioning system is needed.
The next devlopment step Is the Flight Management System, covering also profile
(verUcal) navigation and engine thrust management.

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

POSITION

WAYPOINT-tf>----- -- -- - ~ - --- - - - - - -

lI

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225

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tehnika

VOR/DME flight

Using Area Navigation RNAV

For example this is a flight plan between Chicago's O'Hare alrport and Newaril.

The area navigation concept provldes direct routes belween airports. Alo ng each
route there are waypoints towards which the airplane fties. The waypoint locations
are establlshed when the route is designed. Each waypoint is associated with a
specific NAV ald or VORJDME station.

The flight takes from one VOR station to another until, by a round about path, we
arrive at Newark.

Figure 253 : VOR.Fiight

Figure 254: RNAV Flight


VORIOMf
CIU

YOSIO'U

ACTUAL FLIGHT PlAN ~

CA.l

G)
i \\

1.1 01/D.J.tf

PMM

Q
,

YOl/~1

OBK

VOR!D.I.H

~ ---------------------------------~
UD

---

DESIRED FliGHT PlAN _ . -

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

EWR

,
!

I \

\
;.

JI

VOI'D I41
SlT

IQ\\

YOR/ Dtll(

Q <-'_.-t-\~~::-\ /-,-.......g{J{,___;~ 0

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

WAYPOINTS

I WO

226

ehnika

Flight Management

Figure 256: FMS lnt11rface

Introduction
The Flight Management System (FMS) compares a pilot selected Otght plan wilh
the actual horltontal and vertical alrcreft position. In case of a difference between
the selected ftight plan and the aircraft position the FMS makes a steering and a
thrust commano.
Figure 255: Flight Route

iotPre~t.ent

Position Upd:.t

AIR Data

VOR
ILS

OPS
DME

The FMS shows the Information about the selected flight plan on the Control Display Unit (CDU). Through the keyboard of the CDU the aew can change ltle night
plan.
The FMS giVes the steering and thrust oommands to the AFS. The AFS can use
the commands to ny the aircraft automaticaUy on the fitQht plan. The AFS can also
use the commands to the crew 1hrough the flight director command cues.The FMS
also gives information to the EFIS to show the_flight plan on the navigation display.

Clock

Fu"l
Data Loa<Mr Conneclor 1

Data

Loa- COnnctor 2

AFS =Auto Flight System (AutopiloUAutothrollle)

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Tile FMS uses information from various aircraft systems and from a data base.
Navigation. The FMS uses Information from its data base to automatically tune

tehnika

The reason for this is traffic control. When there are many aircraft in the same air
vo.-ay secl ion traffic control puts these alrcraft above each o ther in the abway.

the navaids (ILS, VOR and DME). With these.navaids, the FMS measures !he aircraft's position, direction, and velocity.
Performance. The FMS calculates a vertical profile that grve s the shortes l possible flying time at the lowest fuel consumption. The FMS also can give predi ctions
of fuel quantities and arrival times at future points in the flight plan.

Figure 257: FMS Blockdlagram

Guidance. The FMS compares the position where the. aircraft has to be according
to the flight plan. with the actual aircraft position. If there is a difference, the FMS
gives guidance commands to the AFS to bring the aircraft back to the night plan.
EFIS display. The FMS is the primary source of information for !he displays.
In the FMS dala ba5-e there is informatiOn about flight piMs. navalds, aircraft aerodynamics and engine data. The flight plan and navaid data must have an update
every 28 days. To start the FMS the' orew has to select a fljght plan on the CDU.
After the selection, the FMS takes lhe flight plan out of the data base and puts lt in
the fli ght plan memory for use in that Hight The crew adds S tandard Instrument
Departl.lres (SI D) and S tandard Arrival Routes (STAR) when traffic control gives
these procedures.
After these selections the FMS knows the horizontal path that the aircraft must follow fi'Qm the origin airport to ihe destination airport. With information from the dala
base about navaids tnat give the best resul! for navigation. the FMS tunes the ILS
VOR and DME automaUc<JIIy . The FMS uses information from lhe IRS, GPS, OME
and VOR to calculate the aircraft position, dir ection and velocity.
To calCulate ihe optimwn vertical path of the aircraft tile crew give the FMS more
information, such as the:
cruise altitude (traffic control)
aircraft weight
standard instrument departure (traffic control)
Before the FMS starts to calculate the optimum vertical path the crew must select
an overall target for the Right economy. There are three targets for the whole night
profile; minimum cost, minimum fuel, or minimum flight duralion. When the FM S
has this information rt calculates the optimum vertical path rn combination with the
hortzontal path.

DMEDisbnce
VOASe~
1~$

Dt11.Uon

Mlgft. Huelklg
U neCGMT)

""'"""'

Vert.S.,eecl

rru AlrtpQCI

,...

F"t!JOtHIMitl
twll"tuw

Uacrt..NU,...,U
~leratlon

Roll A-no..

The cre.v C3n change the horizontal and vertical path through lhe CDUs. In most
cases, the rxew does not change the horizontal path but the vertical path.

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EJO/?IEJ

Flight Management System MD-11

ehnika

Figure 258; Flight Management System M011

Notes:

AD!' I
\lOA I
llS

0MC

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229

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Computation of Position

Flg1.1re 259:

The Flight Management Computer or Area Navigation Computer computes its aircraft position (caned the "FM posibonj from a MIX IRS poshlon ano computed radio position or a GPS position. The CO!ll)U!ef selects the most accurate position
considering the estimated accuracy and integrity of each positioning equipment.
GPSIINERTIAL is the basic navigation mode provided GPS data are valid and
successfully tested. Otherwise navaids plus inertial or inertial only are used.

IRS2

Mix IRS Position


The FMS or ANS receives a position from each of lhe three IRS and computes a
mean weighted average caUed the ''M IX IRS position. If one of the IRS falls, the
computer uses only one IRS. Each tRS position and velocity is continuously test
ed. If the test tails, the corresponding IRS is rejected. (Accuracy: 2 NM/h)
R ad io Pos ition
The FMS or ANS uses the navaids 10 compute Its radio position. The navaids it
can use are: DMEIDME, VORIDME, LOC, DME/OMEILOC, VORIOMEILOC . 11
uses LOC to update the lateral position using LOC beam during ILS approach.
LOC is also used for quick update when in GPSIIRS mode (If GPS onstalled).
(Accuracy: 0.3 NM)

.......

Rad io
Position

-$-

"ri7f ...-~

I .

GPS Position

OME2
VORIOME

DM EIDME

FM Position
At takeoff, the FM position is updated to the Nnway threshold position as stored
In the data base. In fllght, ltle FM position approaches the GPS position (or the radio posrtlon If the GPS is not valld) at a ra te depenolng upon the aircraft ahltude.
Accuracy: Enroule 3.5 NM, rerminat 2 NM, Approach 0.36 NM)

0~

Bias
Each FMGC computes a vector from its MixiRS position to the radio or GPIRS position. This vector ls called lhe "bias". The FMS updates lhe bias continuously if a
radio poslllon or a GPSIIRS j:>Oslllon is available.

If an FMGC loses its radio/GPIRS position. it memorizes lhe bias and uses it to
compute the FM position, which equals lhe mix IRS position plus the bias.

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

-$-

OME 1

If the GPS data comply with integrity criteria, GPS data are used to calaJiate the
FMS position. (GPS Primary) (Accuracy < 0.3 NM)

........ '

,,

..

FM Position

/:.: ~-.._,Position

-.........r

t . . .'

~ \. :..............
f OY.
~y-.
.' GPS
.a
..
~

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

'~

~GPIRS

MIX IRS

Position

230

EJO/?IEJ tehnika

FMS Functions

Figure 260: FMS Tasks

The Flight Management Sys tem combines lateral and vertical navigation control
with full performance management. Not only can it quickly define a desired route
from the aircraft's current position to any point In the world. The definition will be
based on the operating characteristics of the aircraft
FMS navigation provides highly accurate and au tomatic long range capability by
blending available inputs from both long range and short range sensors such as
IR$ , VLF/Omega, GPS (Global Posltlonmg System), VOR and Scanning DME, to
develop an FMS position more accurate than any single sensOf"can provide. The
FMS performs tlfght plan COf"npu!alions, displays the total picture on the EFIS, and
provides signals to the autopilot and autothrottle for automatic tracking.

OME

Clock

The Flight Management System (FMS) makes a ftightplan. This nightplan Is a lateral mghtplan to the selected destination and a vertical tlightplan to the selected
cn.lise altitude.

The lateral flight plan exists of ftlght legs. Speeds and altitudes are added to these
fllgl1tle9S. The total of the speeds and altitudes is the vertical High\plan.

GPS

IL S

After a lateral ftightplan sele<:lion additional data (i e .; weight, cruise altitvde) is In


serted to calculate the vertical flightptan.
During aircraft operation FMS upda tes the aircraft position. This present position
in relation to the flightplan is shown on the Electronic Flight In strument System
(EFI$).

Au top ilot

Autotuoe

The FMS makes steering commands to maintein the aircraft on the lateral and ver
tical flightplan. The Automatic Fltght Control and Augmentation System (AFCAS)
accepts the steering commands to follow the ftlghtplan path.
These funclions of the FMS take over many roulilla tasks and COf"npu tations oormaUy done by the night crew.

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ehnika

The Lateral Flightplan

Figure 261 : Flight Plan

The lateral flighlplan comes from a navigation database in the FMS. This navigation data base contains company routes (latefal flightplans), navigation station information and navi gation references (waypolrtts). Before each night the crew
selects the lateral flightplan from this navigation database.
The navigation database information cnanges from time to time. lt changes because of Introduction of new company routes. The navigation stations are not al
ways available because of periodic maintenance on these stations. The nevlgallon
database in the FMS is updated with the latest information every 26 days.
In addibon to the flightplan selection the crew also has to tell the FMS what ltle
s!art position of the alrcrafl is. The FMS gives the start position from the selected
nlghtplan as a present position. When the crew confirms this present position to
ltle FMS, the FMS accepts this present positl!)n information.

N;.1,vig;;rti.o n

AefNe nce
lol' Ptolt*t'lt

Posldon Update

The Oightptan Is a route from airport to airport. In addltlon to this ftlghtplan the crew
must speedy a take~ff procedure and an approach procedure. The Standard In
strument Departura (SI D) fs the route from the tak~H>ff runway to the begin of the
tlightplan. The Standard Arthlal Route (STAR) Is the route from the end of the
llightplan to the runway of the destination.
When the fh ghtplan Is tnsetted and the position of the aircraft is confirmed the FMS
starts to navigate. During the navigation operation the present position of the aircraft is updated by the FMS. The FMS updates ltle present position with the IRS
(senses motions and attitude changes) and the VOR, OME, ILS and GPS systems
(senses direction and distances to navigatiOn ground stations).
The present posHJon of the alrcrart is compared with the position of the flightplan.
Any deviation from the ftightplan results In a deviation indication on EFIS.
Roll steering commands are generated to foUow the lateral flightplan if the Autopilot operates In the NAV mode.
SID

Standard Instrument Departure

STAR

Standard Arrival Route

Figure 262: Lateral Flight Plan


SIO

Aight Plan

Star

En route

Weypoint

Navigation
Reference

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232

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AREA Navigation System RNAV

Figure 263: FMS or RNAV guided ntght

The RNAV system is identical to the Flight management system, containing tne
laternl (hori2:ontal) navigation pan. The VOR/OME stations can be located besides
of the rou te. The routes and its waypoints are calculated and based on tne radio
navigation aids.
Example of a FMS or RNAV guided night See next drawing.
1. FMS Position at Alrpott Reference Poin

2.

FMS Position updated by Take Off initiation

3.

Dual DME update (pip) R/1 Mode

4.

VORIDME update (9/p) R/1 Mode

5.

No VORIDME coverage I Mode

6.
7.

Dual DME update (pip) Rlt Mode


Dual DME and latel"$l update by Localizer R/1Mode

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Performance Management

tehnika

Figure 264: Performance Computatio n

Speeds, attitude and engine thrust oomputed in lfle flight plan. The total weight and
altitudes m ust be ins&rted to calculate lfle flight plan andoptimization of the aircraft
performance.

The pertomance computation reduces the fuel consumption. Via selection of the
best strategy, between 1 and 2% of energy can be ~aved.
How tile Pertonnance man;;~gement saves fuel;
Calculation of the flight profile (Vertical Fllglll'Piari) and optimization of speed
and altitude depending aircraft weight, fuel welghUnd time.
Computation of Engine thrust ftmils tor all flight phases.
Direct coopflng,of engi ne l hrust demand to the engine fuel control device. auto
throttle system or electronic fuel contrOl.
Contromng the englne thrust wllfl a minimum of change tile demanded thrust
Indication of the recommendations to the pilots for optimum climb, cruise and
descent.

The vertical fllght plan is calculated in tile FMS. For these vertical flight plan caJ.
culations the FMS uses:
the aircraft model database (this database COfltains the aerodynamic specifi
cations of tile respective aircraft type)
the engine database (this database contains perfomumce specifications of
tile engine)
the Inserted weights of the total aircraft Qncludlng passengers, luggage and
fuel)
the selected attitude
the wlndspeed and wlnddlrecllon Information.
After the vertical flight plan calculation the FMS shows predictions of time, speed
and altitude the ;~lrcraft will have on the different reference points in Its flight pl an.
During ftight the FMS updates the aircraft alutude with the ADC (altitude) and IRS
(inertial vertical speed and Inertial altitude) inputs. A rry deviatiofl from the vertical
f!Jght ptan re~uJts In a vertical deviation Indication on EFIS.

Engtne
Sensors

Figure 265: Tactical Modes

I
I
I
I

I
I

Uax: Cl/SPD CL :

Max ENDJSPED CRZ

DI!SC

:r.tax DES/SPD DES


'

Slra.tegic Mod"

T3CI.I,IIodc

I
I
I
I

Eco n, htln Fuel, . ,Jn Tim9

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The Vertical Flight Profile

tehnika

Figure 266; Flight Profile

Thrust and pitch steering commands are generated to follow the vertical flight
plan rf Auto Flight System operates in the PROFILE mode.
A vettical Right plan from origin to destination exists of a takeoff phase, a climb
phase. a cruise phase, a descent phase and an approach phase.
The takeoff phase starts when takeoff thrust is developed by the eng1nes on
the takeoff runway.
The climb phase starts at lhe lhrust reduction altitude (1500 feet according
lATA profile). AI this thrust reduction attitude the takeoff thrust is reduced to
climb thrust
At 3000 fee t above the airport level (aCceleration altitude) the speed is Increased to 250 kts. This is the maximum atrowable speed below 10 ,000 feet.
At 10,000 feet the aircraft accelerates to a higher speed.
The cruise phase starts at the top of climb and ends at the top of descent.
The descent phase start.s at the top of descent and Ot'Kls at the time the crew
selects the naps dollln. At 10,000 feet the speed is dea-eased to 250 kts.
(maximum aUowable speed below 10,000 feet).
The approach phase starts after flap down seleition and ends at runway
touch down .

IIH!DIAT Ol5CU T
l(lpel llESCf Nr

.5.1'ElDLIIUI
N.TITI.C)E

tN! t;lttP'r DI:SCOO f'tolli

CCNSTRAIHT

STRA!llll( HOOfS
-((OJtOH 'f

-1111<1!illl0 FUEl
-1411ft.~~l1 TIIU

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ehnika

Navigation Database

Figure 268: Data Base Loader

The dataloader connectors located In cockpit or evionlca bay Is used to update the
navigation database once in the 4 weeks. Each FMC has its own data-load con-

nector. Wrth a portable dataloader lhe new naYigation database is loaded from a
tape or diskette Into ltle FMC. Ally dataloeder fullfilllng the specification can be
connected to the datalo;~d connector.
New dat;~ base content will be uploaded every 28 calend;~r days
Figure 267: FMS Blockdi agram

Figure 269: Receptacles for Data Base Loader

I
/

!IAV
fi.\C-1

~A

OAIA

LOAOU
fMC--% \..

[.;\

~~

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ehnika

Radio Altimeter
Fundametals
The Radio Altimeter System determines the height of the aircraft above the terrain
during i nitial climb, approach and landing phases.
The principle of the radio altimeter rs to transmit a frequency modulated signal.
from the aircrafi to the ground, and to recelva the ground ref1&eted signal after a
certain delay. The timo between the transm ission and the reception of the signal
is proportional to the AI C height.

The RT Unlt send the radloaltltude to lhe indicator system (EFIS or conventional
inslruments) and to other systems. Flight data recorder for Investigations. Ftlght
warn system for altitude call out during approach and f ailure monitoring. Ground
proximity warning for pilot alerting. The automatic flight control system (Autopilot)
uses the height for automatic landings. During this phase of flight the selftest of the
RT Unit Is Inhibited to prevent a false maneuvre. The selftesl can be initiated from
the cockpit or at the RT Unit
Figure 271 : System

Frequency: 4.3 GHz


Maximum height: 2500 feet
Figure 270: Principle

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Radio Altimeter Indication


Analog instruments showing the aircraft height during take off and approach.
Above 2500 feet the pomer is not visible respective the tape with the scale shows

blank.

The PFD shows the radio height In digital form. OH IS shown when the aircraft decents under the selected decision height.
Figvre 273: Primary Flight D isplay

The DH light illuminates when the aircraft heig,ht is equal or lower lhan the selected
decision highl A sound is audible when the light turns on.
The rising runway represents the height below 200 feet durlng approach. At
ground it is close to the aircraft symbol.
Figure 272: Rad io Altim eter Indicators and Rising Runway

,.4 .......,
;~I.Jj

.:
RADIO

HEIGHT

<$(10ft

RIBBON

TYPE
tNDICATOft
RADIO
HEJGKT
O~ft

SCA1.1! TYPE INDICATOR

Final phase
of a ppr~h

A nal phase
of approach below 150ft

On ground

In the final phase of an approach below 150 feet . the lower timit on the altitude
sphere moves up as the aircra ft approaches the ground.lhe distance between the
tower limit and tile horiZon line is proportional to the aircraft height

Automatic Call Out


FLGHT DIRECTOR HORIZON
WITH RISING RUNWAY

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Below 400 feet, the redlo altitude Is announced by a synthetic voice generated by
the Aight Warning Computer.

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238

ehnika

Principle
T~e

system conlinuousliy transmitS radio signal to the ground. The ground renacts
thiS si~nal and it comes back in the aircraft after a delay. This delay depends on
the h~ight or lhe aircraft above te~in . The system processes this delay into altitude tnformat1on. A visual presentation or the albtude is on the EFIS or at the radioattimetsr indicator with ftightdiract()( horizon for the final approaches.
Figure 274;

The transmitter sends a signal lhat cnanges from 4'250MHz to 4'350 MHz and
back 100 limes per second (FM/CW). The transmit frequency changes 100 times
per second around 100 MHz. Between the ground reflected signal and lhe actual
transmit signal, !here is a frequency difference proportional of the traveltlme. out
oi the difference frequency the system computes the height.

Figure 275; Tx Rx Signal

........,

FltiOUI NCY

011 LIG HT

.... ...

flAOIO
AUITUOf

F\IQHT

IHCH CUOR

OIRECTOR
HOIVZOtf

$4GNAl

/
/

RADIO ALTlttETER
TRANSCEI\IER

/
/
/
/

so

o.o t

~
6 t TFIAVU
TUllE

100 MtU

10

'

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

\ I

r-------------~-~-'~~------------~~~~~
HCI GttT: ~

( c t SP0 0, ~IGKT
AND AAiliO WAVES J

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~oa1~

Antenna

tehnika

Figure 277:

Radio altimeters transmit vertically downward and receive !heir reflected signal
from ltie surface beneath them_ This system requiros two antennas mouni&d on
the bottom of the fuselage. In most instatJaUoos these antennas are nush with the
skin.

Figure 276:

CASKET

COAXIAL CABLE
RECEPTAClE

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Ground Proximity Warning


Warnings
lt has been proven that a human voice can attract a person's atlentlon mOfe than
~ warnlng light or other visual indi cation. For this reason aural warnings are used
m the GPWS when !he aircraft is in a dangerous position relative to the ground .
_D uring operation, a GPWS senses the nearness or the ground and warns the pilot
1f the eircn~fl has gotten too near the ground when it i s not In a contlgurallon tO(
landing. l t da&s thi s by monitoring the radio altimeter to determine !he actual height
above the gr~d . l t also monitors the air data computer, instromentlanding system, and la_nd1n_g gear and flap position to determine if the aircr aft is properly conngured for its dtstanc::e from the ground. If it is too near the ground for its location
or configuration, the system wil warn the pilot.

A typical GPWS in

Mode 3 warnings oocor When the aircraft hes lnlllated a dimb alter takeoff or
after a missed approach. tt there is a
loss of altitude under these conditlons,
the GROUND PROXIMITY light Will Uluminafe and the aural warning will say
"OOO'T SINK.. _ ."

a aircraft will warn the ftlght crew of 5 types of hazards:


Mode 1 w arolnos oocor when the aircraft is below 2 ,450 feet radio altitu<1e
and the barometric a~lmeter shows an
excessive rate of descent. When excessive descent rate is detected , the warning light will Illuminate and the aural
warning sounds. "SINKRATE" or
"WHOOP! WHOOP! PULL UP!"

Mode 2 warnings occur lllflen !he terrain


Is rising at an excessively fast rate.
When this is encountered the light Illuminates and the aural warning says the
word
"TERRAIN"
or
'WHOOP!
WHOOP! PULL UP!"

Mode 4 warnings occur during the landing pha.se of a flighl If there is Insufficient terrain dearance when the land1ng
gear Is up or the flaps are not in land
confiQuration. The warning will sound
TOO LOW GEAR or TOO LOW FLAPS
and the GROUND PROXIMITY light Illuminates.

Mode 5 warnings ocwr when the


aircraft is on ILS approaetl. If tne aircraft
sinks below the glide slope, the amber
GS light wilf Illuminate and the aural
warning Will repeat "GL1DE SLOPE
GLI OE SLOPE."

Figure Z78: Warnings Mode 1 - 5

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Ca/1-0uts

Windshear Aferting

Mode 6 provides alerts and callouts tor descent below predeflned aUitudes, Decision Height (OH), Minimums and Approaching Decision Heighl, Approaching Minimums.

Mode 7 produces optional alerts for flight Into an excessive Windshear con<11tlons
during takeoff or fll'lal approach. The Wiodshear warning produces aural, visual

Alerts for excessive roll or bank angle are also provided as part of this mode. The
"Excessive Bank Angle" aural alerts are given twice. and then suppressed unless
the roll angle increases by an additional 20%.
Specific callouts are selected via program pin from predefined menus. Mode 6
alerts and callouts produce aural and AHINC 429 oulput ln<llcatlons, but do nor
produce visual indications.
Figure 279:

and ARINC 429 output indications.


Wlndshear detection is active during the initial takeoff and final approach phases
of flight. Alert and warnings are provided when the level of windshear exceeds pr&determined threshold values.
The actual windshear value measured represents the vector sum of Inertial acceleration versus air mass eccelera.tions along the flight path and perpendicular to the
ftighl-path. These shears resu lt from vertical winds and rapidly changing horizontal
winds.
Wlndshear wamings are given for decreasing head wind (or Increasing tail wind)
and severe vertical down drafts. Windshear alerts are given for increasing head
wind (or decreasing tail wind) and severe up drafts. The windshear microburst
phenomenon and wlndshear caution and warning levels are illustrated below.
Figure 280:

RUNWAY

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

242

ehnika

EGPWS Terrain Alerting and Display

EGPWS Terrai n P icture

The Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System (EGPWS) i ncorporates terrain


alerting and display tundloos. These functions u se aircraft geogranc positlon. elfcraft allifude. and an intemal terrain data base to predict potential connicts between the aircraft night path and the terrain, and to provide grafic drsplays of lhe
conlllcting terrain.

The NO presents the terrai n picture. The terrain appeafS in different colours and
deosiUes acconltng to Its relative height.
Figure 282:

The Caution and Waming envelopes use the Terraill Clearance Floor as a baseline, and virtually "look ahead of the aircraft In a volum e whlcn Is calculated as a
function or airspeed, roll attitude and night path angle.

f>S 394TAS 388

249 / 16
/

If the airaall pene trates the Caution Envelope boundary,lhe aural message "Caution Terrain. Caution Terrain" Is generated. and alert discretes are activated for
visual annunciation. Simultaneously, the conflicting terrain areas are shown in solid yeUow color on the Terrain Display.

.....,.._.. __

~ _._........

UIG/004
93 Nil
18:35

If the aircral\ penetrates the Warning envelope boundary,lhe aural message -rertain Terrain. Pull Up!" Is generated, and alert discretes are activated for visual annunciation. Simultaneously the connicting terrain areas are shown i n solid red
calor on the Terrain Display.
Flgufe 281 :
~-+--- RED

OR
AI.IBER
MESSAGE

--------~~~--~~~~~~~-~------ -------- ---


MUIUOIU n U.U

t~

------ ~~L ----- ----------- - ---- - --- ---


Solid Red Warning Terrain (approximately 30 seconds from impact)
Solid Yellow Cautloo Terrain (approximately 60 seconds from impact)
SO% Red Dots Moro than 2000 fee t above reference altitude
50% Yellow Dots 1000 to 2000 feet above reference altitude
25~.

Yellow Dots 500 feet below to 1000 feet above reference altlt.u de

25~.

Green Dots 500 feat below to 1000 feet below reference altitude

12.5'Yo Green Dots 1000 to 2000 feet below reference altltude


Black No cJoso terrain
Magenta Unknown Terrain

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

243

ehnika

Terrain Clearance floor

Terrain

A nUO'Iber of airports throughout the wortd have approaches or departures that are
not entirely compatible with standard GPWS operation. These aiJpOrts are identified in the database in such a way that when the GPWS recognizes such an air
port, it modifies the profile to avoid nuisance wamings.

Local Terrain Processing extracts and formats local topographic terrain data from
the EGPWS Terrain Database. This Database divides the earth's surface Into grid
sets referenced horizontally on the geographic QatJioog) coordinate. E lements of
\he grid sets record the highest terrain elevation . Grid sets vary In resolution de
pending on geographic location. Because the overwhelming majority of "Controlled Aightlnlo Terrain (CFIT)" accidents occur near an airport, end the fact lhat
aircraft operate In doser proximity to terrain near airports, higher resolution grids
are used around airports. Lower resolution grids are used outside o f airport areas
where enroute aircraft altitude makes aecldents unlikely and for which detailed ferrain features are n ot of Importance to the flight crew.

The Terrain Clearance Floor (TCF) creates an Increasing terrain clearance envelope around !he Intended airport runway dlrecUy related to the distance from the
runway it is active during lakeoff, cruise and final approach.
Figure 283:

Database

Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) are available for most of the airports around the
world today.The global EGPWS Terrain Database Is organized In a nex.ible and ex
pandabl e manner. Using digital compression techniques, the complete database
is stored in non-volatile memory of 20 MByte within the LRU. Updates and additionS are easily done by inserting a single PCMCIA card In a card slot on the LRU
front-panel. Status LEDs on the LRU front-panel allo~~t \he operatOf to monitor the
database load p rogress and completlon.
Obstacle Database
Provisions arc also m ade tor future use of an Obstacle Database providing obstacle data In th e vicinity of major airports. This database wfll provide altitude data lot
man-mada obstades or groupu of obstacles that protrude above the EGPWS terrafn proledion floors.

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

244

~oa1~

System Block Diagram

tehnika

Figure 284:

The Enhanced Ground ProxJmity Warning System (EGPWS) gene<ates al/Tal


voice and visual warnings when one of the following conditions occurs between radio attitudes 30 feet and 2450 feet for modes 2, 4, 5 and between 10 feel and 2450
feet for modes 1 and 3.
Mode 1 : excessive rate of descent
Mode 2 : excessive terrain closure rate
Mode 3: attitude loss after takeoff or go around
Mode 4 : unsafe terraln clearance when not In landing oonliguration
Mode 5 : excessive deviation below glide slope.
In addition to the baslc GPWS functions the GPWS has an enhanced function
(EGPWS) which provides, based on a world wide terrain database :
A Terrain Awareness Display (TAD), which predicts the terrain conflict, and displays the terraln on the NO.
A Terrain Clearance Floor (TCF), which Improves the low terrain
warning during landing.

lAY

JJIW.. AL.Uf

lt>fi--

.u .. "'f$ -

/of$

t:l..ltE - I.JX
l l,.N.aY MK
I'CS: ACOJUty

GPWS lights come on to give a v isual warning for modes 1 to 4. For mode 5 the
glide stope (GIS) lights come on on the captain and first officer instrument panel.

tcM. t'IO

,_,IYLICii t'rn'

11ff

VUUIU. M.Eif

WARJIJING

ICDe - t:W:Z

The cockpit loudspeakers broadcast, even if tumed off, the aural w aming or caution messages associated with eadl mode. The audio volume of these messages
i$ nol controlled by the loudspeallel' volume knobs. (These llnobs allow the adjust
audio volume for radio oommunicallon only).

~J.tl.,.

ENHANCED
G ROUN D
PROXIMITY

u r - I.C*G -lfWX

....,

COMPUTER

........

.,...

~tl

DtllBlT
NJ..J,I,.CID 1 1'05

......

.,
'" ""'" "'""

Uli!IIT

I~IIIT

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

IUI f WfGI

BVTTONS

245

ehnika

Figure 286: Transponder Control

ATC Transponder

-
......
:"f5 o o:
:,

Principle

The Air Traffic Control (ATC) transponder is an Integral part of the Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System. The transponder is interrogated by radar pulses received from the ground station. tt automatically replies by a series of pul ses. These
reply pulses are coded to supply Identification and automatic altitude reporting of
the aircraft on the ground controller's radar soope. These repUes enable the controller to dlstingulsh the aircraft and to maintain effective ground surveillance of the
air traffic.
The ATC transponder also responses to Interrogation from aircraft equipped wtth
a T raffiC Collision Avoidance System.

'. :;'

.~ ' ...:..

-- . - - ~--

'

_,"":

.. ...
~

a o

:
',___

. ;~_
~

--

51flr

--og. . .-.. . . .
h-~d10dMI ..... cod~

ATC Info rmation


mode aboullh AJC

_____.____

Controller Scope

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

,..ft

-Tbo~--
:lt&IWfilldiBlUdt e.&.
-

Communk:ation
link

Altitu de

~~--.

lhtwftOfli!IIP'W!, lt:~~U OCIICMiln.ot. __,.cS'IIIfiNft \ 0


.-oonds. ** cocte refiPIMNI"L
M lonO ....... foil ~IM.of . .
code .... t'ICil
...... Mill h~ioui:OOO.NrnllinL

Identification

~buldontJI~

- ~~~

Figure 285:

-_
DGih
ATO...,..,_
nn&pen:Mr.s
.,.
~
_
_
_
ot'fb

Oft'f'!

Tc.r& Tbo . _ [CAJ<


~ln.gtMn.

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

-1"

-Hotflllwdt;OD~

"!'CAS

246

ehnika

Primary and Secondary Surveillance Radar (PSRJSSR)

Figure 288: PSR with SSR Principle

The air traffic control radar beacon system (ATCRBS} consists or airborne and
ground based equipment that operate togeth&r to locate and idenbfy the a1rcraft
operafing in the sysfams airspace. The alrbome equipment consists of a transponder (receiver-transmitter), a control unil and an antenna. The ground based
equipment consists of a primary surveillance radar (PSR) system and a secondary
surveillance radar (SSR) system. 1lle PSR consists of an antenna, a recelvef
transmitter, and en Indicator. The SSR system consists or an antenna, a receivertransmitter and interface and control equipment used by the air traffic controller.
The PSR provides the bearing and range of the aircraft within the airspace. The
SSR system provides the altitude and idenUficatfon Information of the aircraft with
in the airspace. The primary radar system uses a narrow RF beam, transmitted
through a rotating antenna to illuminate aircraft in the path of the beam. By calculating the elapsed time between transmission of the RF beam and reception of the
reflected RF beam. the distance to an aircraft Is determined. By noting the bearing
angle of the antenna, When recepti on occurs, the bearing to the aircraft Is determined.

The secondary surveinance radar (SSR) system interrogates the aircraft about its
identity and altitude by transmitting two sets of ptJisas. Tho Interrogation mode is
determined by the P1-P3 interrogation pulse spacing. There are two modes of Interrogation used. Mode A for the basic ATC identity Interrogation, and Mode C for
requesting the transmission of digitafly coded altitude lnfom1ation. The Mode A
ptJtses are spaced 8 microseconds apart and Interrogate the aircraft transponder
about the identity of the aircraft. The Mode C pulses are spaced 21 microseconds
apart and interrogate the aircran transponder about the altitude of the aircraft. The
pulses in both modes ate Identical except tor !he spacing of the pulses. Theie also
exists two alternate modes for interrogating the aircraft transponder. These optional modes are Mode B and Mode D.

R<opty ,
1010 ~-~x

\
I
I

'

/
Interrogation
1030MHz

Figun~ 287: Surveillance Radar Antenna (Primary with secondary)

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

247

~oa1~

ModeS

tehnika

Figure 289: .Mode S Principle

The Mode S tra!'lsponder equipped aircra ft and ground statiO!\ enhance lhe operation of ATCRBS by adding a data link. feature for performance improvements in
determJnlng the aircraft location. The Mode S transpondet data link capabaities in
elude bldirectional air-to-air information exch<mge, ground-to-air data uplink, air
to-ground data downlink. The Mode S transponder may also function as part of a
airborne separatioo assurance system \vl\en Interfaced with a Traffic Alert and
Collision Avoidance System (TCAS).

--

The A TCRBS/Mode S S}Siem operates in a similar fashion as A TCRBS. As a


transponder equipped aircraft enters the airspace. it receives the ATCRBS/Mode
S all-call interrogation, llltlich can be identified by both ATCRBS and ModeS transponders.
The Mode S transponder replies with a Mode S format that Includes the discrete
24-bit Mode S address. The address and the location of the Mode S alrcraf!ls entered into a rolkall tile. On the next scan, the Mode S airCfaft is discretely addressed. The discrete interrogations of a Mode S aircraft contain a command field
\l'lat may desensitize the Mode S transponder to further Mode S all-call interrogations. This is called Mode lockout. ATCRBS interrogalions (rrom ATCRBS inter
rogafotS) are not affected by this tockoul Mode S lr.!lnspond&rS reply to the
Interrogations of an ATCRBS interrogator under all circumstances.

U"',.t

-I

11JOWfiZ

ROLL CAU
NEIGH!I0Rit4G
AIR5PAC!
CONTROLLER
(MOOf Sl

I
I

I
t
\
\

--

AIRCRAFT l
AIRCRAFT2
AIRCRAI'T 3

As a Mode S aircraft flies into the airspace served by another Mode S interrogator,
the first Mode s interrogator may sand position Information and the aircraft's discrete address to the second interrogator via ground lines.
In regi ons where Mode S Interrogators are not connected via ground link, so if the
aircraft enters an airspace seNed by a different Mode S interTOgator. the new interrogator may acquire the aircraft via the reply to an atl-calllnterrogabon.

Transponder Systam
The interrogation signal on 1030 MHz Is received by the antenna. passed through
the coupler to the receiver. lt then passes into the decoder whldlls set to respond
only to the interrogation pulse selected by the pilots oontrol.
The trigger output or the decoder starts the encoder to produce a series of pulses
appropriate to the code selected. The transponder is capable replying to the
ground interrogator in any of 4096 : 2 12 codes.
These transponder pulses modulate the 1090 MHz of the transmitter carrier cw.
which passes the coupler to the antenna. The coupler prevents any of this signal
from entering the recelv.
When the transponder Is operating In mode A, it provides identification information
only. If the interrogation is in mode C. the interrogation is answered by a code pro-

B1/B2 Basic Training


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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

248

EJO/?IEJ tehnika

auced in the encoding altimeter and responds with information that produces a
read-out on !ha controller's scope showing the altitude of the aircraft i n one-huodrecHoot inc:rements. On many corporate Of' commercial-type aircraft, the 111titude
information is sent to the ATC transponder from the central air data computer.

Figure 290:

CONTROL PANEL

The only Indication the pilot has or the transponder operating is the \1/inking light
on the face ot the control head. This light blinks each time the transponder responds to an interrogation from the ground radar.
Some small transponders fit into the Instrument panel, l!Od others have only the
control head on the panel and the actual unit itsel f ts remotely tocatod In the avJ..
onk:s equipment rack. The antenna i s a short blade or stub and is located on the
belly oflhe airaaftas far as practical from any other antenna, and i n a position that
1\1111 not be shlelded by the landing ge11r when it is exlended.

L- SAND
EQUIPfiAEHTS

SUPPilESSION

Transponder installations are int&rconneded with the OME and TCAS system by
a suppressor bus. This prevents simultaneous transmissions of the L-Band (about
1 GHz) and inhibits the reception during transmlssion.

I!IONITOR
ATC

TRA~ISPONOER

REC1VE I T'R"'ISM IT
AllrTE.NNA

B1/B2 Basic Training


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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

249

~oa1~

Interface

Figure 291:

A single ATC control unit enables system selectlon. lt provides the !.lelected lrilnsponder with code and function data end, in return, receives status data.
Altitude information from alrdata computer or altimeter-digiti:zer transmits altitude
information to ATC 1 and 2 transponders to aDowing altib.Jde reporting operation.
The antenna receive the Interrogation coming from I he ground station and transmit
the reply. The transponder selects the top- Of' bottom antenna, depending on signal strength. The antenna Is a blade antenna used tor transmlsston and reception.
lt is Identical to the OME antenna. (same part number).
The Aircraft Ground/Flight infonnatlon disables ihe transmit func~on of the tn:~ns
ponder If file aircraft is on groulld and the mode selector in AUTO position.
A coaxial suppressor connects the ATC' s and TCAS to the DME interrogators to
prevent reception from one system while the other Is In transmission mode . Thfs
Is necessary because the ATC, ICAS and DME systems operate in the same frequency band.
The ATC ModeS transponder receives the fleet idenliflcatlon, by pin-programmed
modeS address plug and flight number from the Flight Management System. With
I he TCAS the tmnsponder exChanges control- and cOOtdination data for TCAS operation.

ATC CODe

CONTROL

ONTROL

&

AIR'GHD !W

ATC COO!:

AIR/GilD Sll

ATC/ TC IIS

STAH!li!Y/OH

ST~.I()tt

CON'!' ROt.

OOIITOR FAI.JI.l U>A?


A
T

: AI.TIT\a

R
A

tFUGHTICIROUNO

H
sp
0

llllll!TOR FAUI.T 1.A11P

UNIT

AJAQ.t(l'A
SYS

!mE !

AIR OA1llo

SYS

I
I

SUU.RllSSOR

FLIGHT NUMBER

FL&ET

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

FliGHT

01

H
$
p
0

"'

SOl'l'RESSOR

I(

'!CAS

Jr

IAGT. svs
10~

I.TI1'UDE

il>

TCIIS/MOD.E: S DATA j

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

tehnika

~/MOD~

FLIGHT

MGT. SYS

(MODE S

1FLIGHt

S DATA

NIJMBER

ADD~S)

250

ehnika

Components

F leet identification

The air traffiC control transponder uses the same type or ant.e nna as the DME. lt is
also mounted on the bOttom center line of the fuselage. lt and the DME antenna
must be as tar apart as practjcal. Both installations require that the coax between
the equipment and the antenna be as short as possible.

Mode S tronsponder system allows the individual addre~sing for all airplanes of
the WOI'Id. By pin programming the country Is assigned
Le. Switzerland 0100 10 110.

Fi gure 292: Transponder, Control Panel and Antennas

The remaining 15 Bit or the 24 available Bit allows to individually assign 32'768 airplanes.

Figure 293: County Codes Example

No. of

Country
Australia

Brazil
Canada
Egypt
France
Germany

treland

Israel
Japan
Jordan

o nu'"l'H.
o~,

...

oUf'K'I~'

o .......u, a.lfl

Monaco
New Zealand
Saudl Arabi a

Switzerland

o.u.1

UK

OCH.

USSR

us

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Addresses

262,144
262,144
262,144
32,768
262,144
262,144
4,096
32,7611
262,144
32,7611
1,024
32.,768

Bit Alloc.tlona (24)

Assigned

by
eact\ country

32,768
32,768

262,144
1 ,048,576

1,048,576

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

251

~oa1~

tehnika

Figure 295: Plan Positio n Indicator advanced Technology

Secondary Surveillance Radar display


Today the technology of display differs from in a wide way. Countries and regions
using older ground tacJUties, others are using modem and advanced tedlnology.

Figure 294: Plan Position Indicator fonner Technology

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

252

EJO/?IEJ tehnika

TCAS Traffic Collision Avoidance System

Principle

The TCAS interrogates ATC transponders of intruders. From the transponder re-

Introduction
The Traffic or Airborne Coflision Avoidance System function is to detect and dis
play aircraft In the immediate vicinity and to provide the flight crew with indications
to avoid these Intruders.
TCAS is a family of alrtlome devices that function Independent or the ground
based A TC system and provide collision avoidance protection for a broad spectrum of aircraft types.
TCAS I provides proximity warning codes, to assists the pilot in the visual acquisition ot intruder alrcrafts. lt is Intended for use by smaller airplanes and by
general aviation aircraft.
TCAS 11 Provides traffic advisorys and resolution advisorys. (Recommended
escape manoeuvres) in a vertical direction to avoid conflicting traffic. Airline
AC and larger commuters and business AC wiU use TCAS 11 equipment
TCAS Ill Whtch is stiU under development. will provide traffic advisory and resolution advisory In the hori2ontal as well as the vertical d1re<:ti0n to avoid conllidi ng traffic.

plies the TCAS detennines for each Intruder.


Its bearing.
Its range and closure rate.
Its relative altitude if avaHable (A TC mode C or S).
Figure 297:

Figure 296:
TCAS 11 / MODE S

MODEC

-- >~

MODE A

B1/B2 Basic Training


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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

253

~oa1~

tehnika

Figure 299: Caution, W arning and Resolution Areas

Function

The TCAS continually surveys ihe airspace around the aircraft utilizing ATC Ita osponder repfteS from other aircr.~fls in the vicinity, determines range, relative bearing and relative altitude of those AC and predicts than their flight paths.
Intruder 1-.tlose paths are predicted to penetrate protected comsion area surrounding the TCAS equipped AC are annunciated by the TCAS on capt's and copl's VS/
TRA display or respective EFI$ displays and by spoken messages. In addition, the
TCAS is capable of recommending evasive vertical manoeuvres Intended to preserve or Increase vertical clearance to intruder AC.

A traffic advisol)' ( TA) is generated 40 to 45 seconds prior to a conflict and a resolutio n adviSOI)' (RA) 20 to 25 sec "prior to a conflict. Once the flight path from th e

intruder no longer connlcts with lhe own AC. annunciation or an advisory ceases
and the voice message "Clear of con filet" will be broadcast
TCAS provides no protection against ai rcrafts that do not have an operating ATC
ttansponder. The TCAS cannot provide an RA when the intruder AC does not provide altitude information.

The TCAS computer performs airspace surveilla/IC8 and intruder and own AC
tracking, using ATC transponder infos and inputs from the TCAS antennas . If a
tracked AC is a collision threat. it selects the best avoidance manoeuvres and If
the lhreatAC is also equipped with TCAS, this manoeuvre is coordinated vfa the
ATC transponder (ModeS) to ensure the selection o f complemental)' advtsorys.

Figure 300: Collision Avolda.n oe by vertical Maneuvre

Figure 298: Communications between Alrcrafts

Traffic adviso.y

Closest
nnint ol

O M~~

135 ...~...,

...~

-on
~ 1

L/ 1

lr*.-t)m!>OI""""

T CAS 11

lOoecl

hili< dilf*lr

,"'

---------

Coofflct

~J[ -------T ---~ ~o(


Surveillance

Intruders

<~

detected

o 14 nmi horizonlol

(20 1o 310 -1

(60 OK!

Oisplly< an

. . . dlopll.y

('oo111lo or 111111)

In truder

onnunclollon
.,.._...,.""'
on !rode> cls4*Y

Vllkll mille<M!f

- i nterrogatiOn

ot re~

ClniWIClonVSI

reply-

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Resolution
advisory

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

254

ehnika

Intruder Classification
The TCAS computes the intruder trajectory, the closest point of approach (CPA)
and the estimated time (TAUt before reaching the CPA..
Each time the relative position of the intruder presents a ooUisionthreat aural and
visual advisories are triggered.
'
TCAS epitomizes vettlcal orders to ensure a sufficient trajectory separatlon and a
minimal VIS variation considering all intruders.

Table 9:

........
Advisory
RuoiUIIM

- RNI collision

Tnaffio

cr.-.,

Figure 301 : Traffic and Resolutlo n Ad visory Aroas

~po8ition

Olapay lnfonnabon
-No c:ciiSIOn,.... -lreu:let positi<ln
-Closer 1han 6 NU
and+/- 1200ft.
Poterotild colisicn -lro\ldilt posillcn.
1lnlt
- Aural messag&.

I Pro>Cin-e:e

"""'
(RAj"'""V

- lr11rUd@J pos~l0t1

ihrlllll

- Aummassage.
- 1/on!c:al Ofd<ifl
M.oirllin ac!ual V/S.

,_.,... IIIMiartl
or

Modify VIS.
~........,

ftesolution Ad visory """

01he<

-No ooll51on llwel. - ln!Nder po6111crl.

lnltuclets

-Any nOtl pnlldmille,TA.AA W<lhin aurv.envelope.

Table 10:

A/C ALT

TA/RA alert advisory thresholds

Traffic Advisory

Fi gure 302: Closost Point of Approach

TAU

Relative
altitude

600

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

......

atCPA

700 800 850

1200

255

ehnika

Figure 303: VSI with TA-RA I ndication

Cockpit Presentation
There are various types of di splays in the cockpit:
VSIITCAS Indicator
Weather Radar Indicator

AAIIOW PRESENT N~XT TO INTRUDER


lhDI(ATE$ VERTICAl $PEEO Of INTRUDER
~ fQUAl TO Oil GAtATU TitAN ~00 FT
PER MINUTE. THE MAOW POINn UP FOil
Q.IMaliiiG l~Affl( AND THE AMOW
POINTS DOWN FO~ OESClNDINll TIIAffiC.

N0fl THREAT AIRCIIAFT A~E


SHOWN

ND and PFD

DIAMOND

Nf

OPEH

1HAPE

AND

AS

WMI'IEOI CYANINCOlO~

Traffic Advisory Display

The TA indication supports the pilot to make a visual search. The AC symbol on
the display shows the pilot the distance and the relative bearing. The relative altj..
tude in hundreds of feet, and as an arrow is displayed whether the aircraft is i n
dimb or desoenl. Altitude information are only avail if the aircraft is equipped with
altitude r eporting. Update rate is once every second.

UVEl iS A SQu.tJIE SOLIO


REO lit COlOR

/TitREAT
AIRCRAFT
.. r
ntAFFIC ADVISORY LlVEt IS
A CIRCU 501.10 AMI( it lkl

l$1
A

T><REAT AI~CftAFT AT
ROSOlUTION
A.OVISOAV
'

COlOR

+ OS

'e

'
I

The RA Indication is the primary display to show the pilot the vertical speed correction to prevent a collision. The indication consists on red and green segments
which can illuminate instead of the normal v~rtJCal speed lndlcatlon. If the vertical
speed pointer Is in the red "stay-<~ut-ofl" area, the pilot has to change the vertical
speed until the pointer is in the green "fly to" area. That is designed as an corrective RA. If the pointer Is out of the red area, the p1lot has to maintain the actual verHcal speed. That is designed as a preventive RA Below 500 f! radio altitude, all
resolution advisory are suppressed.

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

-..

Resolution Advisory Di splay


RANGii RING IAMJCIN<iS

TO INOICATE ..PPROll. ;
IMA tt
BEARING OF "
AIR( RAfT

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

OWN AIRCRAFT
SYMIOLWCTAN
OAWfiiTE
AlTITUDE INOIU<TEO
PII'XT TO THREAT SVMIIOL. A
MINUS src:;.~ I) INOICATE$ Tlii\EA r
i(lOW OWN AIIICII4n. A PluS
51G"
(.) tNDICAl"t:S THREAT

o l 5 - ll!lATIVf

'

A
V

A80VE OWN AIIICRMT. 1111 "THIS


EX-Ptl. "THftt..&T 15 1500 H
ABOVE 0WH AIRCRAFT
PROlCilAA TE AlRCft4~T (IMTHIN
1200 FT RELATIVE ALTITUDE.
lliiD 6 NMI OR hUNIMUM IIANG(
IM!ICHEVEit IS UUt A~( 5~0WN
..S A DIAMOND SHAP AND
SOLID WI<ITE 1>1 COl01\

256

ehnika

Indication at NO and PFD

Fig ure 304: NO

In today's EFtS equipped aircraft's traffic advlsOty {TA) and resolution advisory
(RA) are superimposed in ltle navigation display. Vertical evasive manoeuvres Is

shown at the vertical speed scale on the pnmary night display.

1.
2.

RA Intruder Immediate evasive manoeuvre required


TA Intruder Alert of traffic

3.

ProKlmate Traffic within a range of 6 NM

4.

Other traffic \~thin a range of 8 NM

5.

Relative aiUtude, cJimbing descending of the Intruder

6.

Red area. Forbidden vertical speed. High l'l$k of oonflict

7.

Green area Recommended vertical speed

The TCAS 11 indleatio"' for flight plan modifications are In the vertical plane only.
The TCAS aural messages can be Inhibited dependtng on higher pnority aural
messages. The ResolutJon Advisooy (RA) informs the crew about an available
avoidance manoeuvre.

2.5NN

O t~cm

CLB >500 FPt.t

.Q5

+14

OTIR

L 1400'~

0 T DESC >500 FPIJ


+1 1

PROXII.IATE

1100'..6BOVE
lI OESC
>500 FPM

+051 TA

el

500' ABOV(
DESC >500 FPflt

00

RA

CO-Al.TmJDE

VRATE<500~

DESC fROI~ ABII

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

257

ehnika

Aural Annunciation

Exam ples o f aural a n n u n c iatio ns

Displayed traffic and resolution advisory era supplemented by synthetic voice advisory generated by the TCAS computer. The words "Traffic, Traffic" are annunciated at ltle time of the traffic advirory which directs the pilot to look at the TA
display to locate the traffic. If the encounter does not resolve itself,. a resolution
advisory is annunciated. The aural amuncialions listed In the following example
have been adopted os aviation indu!ltry standards.

The single announcement "Clear or Conllief" indicates that the encounter has ended (ronge has started to increase), and the pilot should promptly but smoothly retu m to the previous clear<tnce.
To avoid con fusion of pilots. by differend meaning of aural recommandations, following w arnings and situations will inhibit the TCAS voice warnings:
Stall warning
WindShear warning
Ground proximity warnings
Low radio heights

T ra ff l c

Adv i so r y :

TRAFFIC, TRAFF IC

Reso l u tion A dvisory :


Pr eventive:
MONITOR VERTICAl SPEED. MONITOR VERTICAL SPEED. Ensure that the
VSt needle i s kept out of the lighted segments.
Corrective :
CLIMB-CLIMB-CLIMB. Climb at the rate shown on the RA indicator: nominaQy
1500 fpm.
CLIMB, CROSSING CliMB-CLIMB. CROSSING CLIMB. As above except that it
further Indicates that own flfght path will cross through that of the threat
DESCEND-DESCE.NO-OESCEND. Descend at the rate shown on t he RA indicator; nomlllally 1500 fpm.
DESCEND, C ROSSING DESCEND-DESCEN D, CROSSING DESCEND. As
above except that it further Indicates that own Oight path will cross through thal or
the threat
REDUCE CLIMB-REDUCE CLIMB. Reduce vertic81speed to tha t shown on the
RA indicator.
REDUCE DESCENT -REDUCE DESCENT. Reduce vertical speed to tnat shown
oo the RA Indicator.
INCREASE CLIMB-INCREASE CLIMB. Fcillows a "Climb" adVIsory. The vertical
speed of the climb should be lnc:r-eased to that shown on the RA indicator. oominally 2500 fpm
INCREASE DESCENT-INCREASE DESCENT. follows a "Descend' advisory.
The vertical speed of the descent should be increased to that shown on the RA
indicator, n ominally 2500 fpm.
CLIMB, CLIMB NOW-CLIMB, CLIMB NOW. Follom a "Descend" advisory when
it has been determined that a re versal of vertical speed is needed to Pf'OVIde adequate separatioo.
DESCEND, DESCEND NOW-DESCEND, DESCEND NOW. Fonows a "Climb"
advisory when 1t has been determined that a reversal of vertical speed Is needed
to provide adequate separallon.

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

258

ehnika

System

Figure 306:

2 TCAS Antennas
1 TCAS Computer
2 TNRA Displays
1 TCAS Mode S control- panel
2 ModeS Transponder with 2 A ntennas

TOP NfTENI4A

Top and Bottom Antonna


Each connected via 4 colour coded coaxial cables Tx. 1030 MHz.

Rx. 1090 MHz..

Radio altimeter units (RA)


Modulat1on of system sensitivity 0 - 2500 ft. and triggering or i nhi bit orders.

GNO/f\.T
INTRUOBI
INFORIV\110H

No.

ATT/1100

Ground I Flight discr ete


When Aircraft Is on ground system operat.e s in TA ONLY mode.

RESOI..IITION
AlJAirSO'(

Attitude I Head ing data


Used to compute the clOsest point or approach
A TC modo S transponders
Air to Afr coordi l'lation of own TCAS and detected TCAS equipped intruder aircraft.
One transponder is active the other on stand-by.
Barometric Altitude via ATC Transponder
Modulation of system sensitivity ebove 2500 ft. and triggering of inhibit orders.
I.e. inhibit climb order above 48'000 lt.

P1Ds

TCAS
COMPUTER

MESSAGES

ATC I TCAS Control panel


Common to the ATC transponders and the TCAS. Enables the operahng modes
o f these two items of equipment to be sel ected.
Navigation Display NO
Lateral display of in truders TA I

RA.

Primary Flight Display PFD


Vertical display of resolution advisory RA.
Cockpit Speaker
Broadcasting aural TA and RA messages.

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

259

ehnika

Figure 308: Antenna Beam Pattern

Antenna
The antennas, mounted on the top and bottom exterior fuselage, are e1ctremely
low-profile, four-element directional devices capable of transmitting in four seledable directions and receiving omnidirectionaiJy with bearing information. The 4 antenna segments has an openillg angle of 30 degrees end are vertically polarized.
The TCAS computer's ability to receive omnidire<:llonallywith bearing greatly simpfifles surveillance algorithms tor tracking nearby aircraft.
The antenna transmits pulses at 1030 MHz at varying power levels in one of four
computer-selected segments. The computer receives at 1090 MHz from Che directional antenna over four output coaxial cables to four receivers, one fer eadl direclionaf beam. The directional antenna permits sectorlzed Interrogations for higher
density operation.

DIRECTIONAL TRANSMISSION

The range of the replying aircraft can be calculated, using the speed of the returning signal and the amount of time elapsed

Diwmc

Elapsed Time
12.359!15 perNM

Figure 307: Upper and lower Antenna

4 BEAM ANTENNA PATT:EAN


......,-UPPER A N~NA

LOWER AHTE~INA

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

260

EJO/?IEJ tehnika

Weather Radar

Figure 31 0: Radar scanning a Cloud

General
The Airborne Weather Radar System (WXR) allows the detection and display of
severe weather areas. The WXR helps the pilot to avoid these areas and the associated turbulences by dete1111lning their range and bearing. 1t also provides a
ground mapping.
The radar emits microwave pulses through a directive antenna which picks up tho
return signals. The range Is determined by the time taken for ihe echo to return.
The azmuth Is given by the aniBflna position when the echo is reoeived.
Frequency: Microwaves 9.4 GHz
Pulse power. 125 Watt 65 kW 180 400 pulses per second
Figure 309: Tx with Rx Pulses

Figure 311: Transmission and Echo


Obs erve the safety prec aution if you operate the radarl
The high energy rad iowaves are d angerous for human bodies and may ignihl
Inflammable liquids!

lONM

-~----...
20 NM ROUND T R IP IN 123,6
MICROSECONDS

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

261

~oa1~

Figure 312: Weather Radar System Block Diagram

tehnika

Figure 313: Weather Radar Indication


Colour
Green

Rainlall
1104mm/IV

Yelbw
fled

41012 mfl\!'hr

Magenta

Turblllenoe area

MfG 004'
93 NM

1!:35

> 12IMI/)v

.WFI

HYE !!!

Figure 314: Components

1\odor In

WX;

"'"'nal 01><"*'11,_

llll(fflN: TubuMI"'':a . . . .,. llhOwl\ in mtotn~t tr

-olllNMr-

-lo.,!l'.,...,..,.l'l'"'umoao.

TUKMI>

J Atows.......,l..,...olol ......... <lt OtMI ION tlorlzon

OAWf !IMC>
Uud 10

"'*""

liiO

...,.liM'I' oO !he ...:oiv In

rnopp;.,g ...,.., cdf.


~;B ... Io o.....-tta~"'""'"""""'"'soofrg.

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

262

ehnika

How Radar d e tects Turbulences and Windshear

Figure 316:

Conventional Radar: The transmitter e mi ts a pt.~lse which uses only the refiecti vlty
of rainfall (droplets of precipitation) to return an echo to the receiver.

TURiiULENCE

Turbulence Detection. Pulse waveforms show that the echo frequen cy dit'!ers from
that of transmitted pulse. Caused by the Doppler effect. The frequency shift represents turbulence llilllch Imparted motion to the droplets. The received radar signal
actuaUy shl11.s over a spectrum of frequencies; the broader the band, the greater is
the turbulence. When the spectrum exceeds a threshold denned moderate to
heavy, the retum Is dsplayed on the screen as tulbulence (a magenta-ooloced area). That threshold occurs when droplets move at the rate of 5 me ters per second.
Figure 315: Pulses

T<mmll

~'-------- T~mll~-----

ROC41Ye _ _ _ _ _ _( \ _

Conventional Radar

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Recelve

r
-----J_,~,A.,"'-

'L

Turbulence Detection

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

263

ehnika

Antenna

Figure 317:

The weather radar uses a narrow beam transmittal and received toward determined direction. The azimuth dive scanns the space ahead the ain;raft for clouds,

thunderstorm. hail and terrestic obstades. Elevation. tilt- and rolldrives compen
stable weather radar Image on the dis-

sates the ain;raft movements to obtain a


plays.

Parab olic Antennas


Older models using parabot antennas. The RF power 9,375 GHz about 65 kW ts
supplied via wave-guide and feeder toward the parabolic reflector. From there a
narrow beem Is directed Into the space. The spoiler deflects the radlowaves toward the ground for ground mapping.
The Parabolic Reftectorworks on a similar principle to a car headlight reflector. Energy str1k.ng the reflector from a point-source sihlated at the locus win produoe a
plane waveform In a direction parallel to the axis to the parabola
The feed is usual a dipole with a parasitic element The consequence of a dipole
feed is that the beam wlll have a main lobe and smaller side lobes, Which usually
means much higher powers are associated with these antennae than with the flatplate types.

Figure 318: Antenna Pattern

3'

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

264

ehnika

Flat Plate Anten na

Fi gure 319:

Newer systems uses flat plate antennas. Into a llollow plate many slots are er
ranged so, that each slots sends a n a/T'OW beam. T he sum of all beams together
builds up a pencil shaped narrow beam with an opening angle of only 3 degrees.
This high efficient antenna makes possible, that the wea ther radar system oper.
ates With reduced tran.smisson power of only 125 Watfs.
The flat plate antenna consists o f stl'lps of wave glide vertically mounted side by
Slde with the broad wall facing forward. Staggered off-centred slots are cut in each
wave-guide so as to in tercept the wall currents and hence radiale.
Several wavelengths from the antenna surface, the energy from each of the slots
1viU be summed in space. resulting In a narrow beam radiation partem.
The greater the number of Slots the better the performance (narrower beamwldth},
but since the spacing between slots Is critical. We can only inaease the number
of slots by increasing the plate ar ea.
lt Is mounted on a pedestal, which contains the necessary mechanisms and circuitry tor scanning and tilting the antenna.
The weather radar system's R/T unit and antenna are Interconnected by nexible
and rigld wav&1Julde secboos. The RF energy is routed direcUy to the antenna via
the wave-guide. The reflected RF energy is also routed dlrecUy back to the R/T

unit.

The wave-<;~uide is connected to the antenna with a quick-disconnect so that the


antenna may be easily removed and replaced when required. The wave-guide
system is vented aft of the fon.... ard bulkhead, so that pressurised warm cabin air
can be used to keep the waveijuide tree of moisture, this eases the problem or
wave-guide corrosion ilOd reduces the risk of hlgh-tlashovar at high altitudes.

Radome

l;l.EV...TION-

The radome is usually a covered honeycomb structure, mede of a plastic material


reinforced with fibregtaS$. Lightning conductors on the Inside of the redome will obstruct !he beam, but their effect is minimised If they are perpendicular to the electrical field of the wave.

& AZIMtiTH
DRIVE UNIT

Figure 320: Antenna Patter n

~:;;----~

B1/B2 Basic Training


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Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

265

ehnika

Antenna Stabilization

Figure 322: Roll and Pitch Stabllization

Pitch and Roll


The antenna Is stabilized in pitch and roll by inputs from the Attitude Reference
System (IRS) or from the Vertical Gyros. The antenna is horizontally polarised and
emits a narrow 'pencil' beam.
Antenna stabilization maintains antenna posiUon relaUve to the ea11hs horizon regardless of aircraft attitude variations incurred during tums and moderate maneuvers. To accomplish thi!il, lhe Rader System receives roll and pitch stablltzatloA
Input signals from either lhe aircraft's vertical gyro, or the Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS). The AHRS Is usoany a pal1 of the lnerual Navigation or Reference System.
The mechanical limit of the antenna is:
Roll +/- 43 degrees
PitCh +/- 25 degrees
Tlit +/- 15 degrees

Azimuth Drive
The antenna is capable of scar1ning a total azimuth of+/- 45" to +f- 90'
20 times per minute.
Figure 321: Antenna Azimuth ScanAing

Figuro 323: Antenna Tilt for Ground Mapping

....

~;:?? --:::.::.:--------------- - - ----~

B1/B2 Basic Training


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AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

266

EJO/?IEJ tehnika

Figure 324; W arning

Maintenance and Testing Safety Precautions

Maximum

There are two hazards 'M\en operating weather radar, namely damage to human
cells and ignition or combustible m<~terial . The greater the average power density
the greatM the health hazard.
A figure of 10 mWatts/cm2 is a generally accepted 'maximum permtssible expo-

Pormloolble

ExposW'I!
Love!

MPEL

sure level" (MPEL). Among the most vulnerable parts of the body are the eyes and
testas.
The greater the peak power the greater the fire hazard. Ally conducting material
dose to the scanner may act as a receiving aerial and have RF cun-ents Induced.
There is obvioosly a risk. particularly when airaafi are being refuened or defuelled.
The following rules should be observed when operating the weather radar on the
ground;
1.

'

Radiation

WARNING

This lmtttllllllnt oenera.tes mlcroW~Yt radlatlon.


DO NOT OPERATE UNTIL YOU HAV
ReAD ANOCAAEFULLY FOLlOWED ALL
SAFeTY PflECAUTIONS AND INS'l AUC.

Ensure that no persoMel are closer to a transmitting radar scanner than the
MPEL boundary, as laid down by the system manufacturer .

2.

Never transmit from a stationary scanner.

3.

Do not operate the radar when the aircraft is being refuelled or defuelled, or
when a.n olher aircran within the sector scanned is being refuelled or defuelled.

4.

Do not transmit when containers or Inflammable or explosive material are


close CO the aircraft within the sector seaMed.

5.

Do not operate with an disconnected wave guide .

6.

Never look down in en open wave-guide of a instaUed system

7.

Fll a dummy load if part of the wave guide run is disconnected. (Wor1<shop)

8.

Do not operate close to l arge reflecting objects or in a hangar.

All additiOnal hazard, wtlleh does not aHect safe ty but will affect the servlceabHity
of the radar. is the possibu.ty of very strong returns. if the radar Is operated dose
10 renecting objects. The resull of Ihasa returns is to bum out the receiver circuits.
In order to avoid the envelope in which the radiation level may eJCceed the standard
of 10 miniwatt per square cenlimeter, aU personnel should remain beyond the distance indicated in lhe ibuslrabon on the left side.

TIOf<S IN ll!! OPERATING A>IO SEI'MCE


.....NUALS.

IMPROPER USE OR EXPOSURE MAY CAUSE


SERIOUS BOOI~Y INJ URY.

B1/B2 Basic Training


Course

Adria Airways Tehnika Part-147


AMTO, ref. No. SI.147.100

267

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