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Course
TechnicalTraining
Manual
M 13
Aircraft Aerodinamics, structures and
systems
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t-rgure J: Potenliometer
Linoar Potentiomet. ...
Angular Potentlomtot
Variable Resistor
Rheoatat
Potentiometer
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Figure 6:.
Synchros
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Introduction
A typical synchro has a rotor and three stator coils. The coils in the stat.or are at
120 degrees with respect to each other. Thls unit acts like 3 control transformers
s,
R,
s,
Rl
Symbol
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f l o
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Synchros use 26 VAC or 115 VAC for excitation of the. rotor. The excitation mal(as
a m&gnetic fteld in lhe rotOf' coil. This magnetic fiald lnducas a 11o1taga in lhe stator
coils. The 11oltages in lha stator coils are in-phase or 180 degrees out-ot-phase
with respect to each other. The \/Oitage in the staCor coils depends on the angle
betweeo the rotor coft and eadl stator co~. When we turn the rotoc, the magnetic
field In the stator also turns and the vottages In the staler coils change.
s,
Jc
t-
.Dry-
synchro
Princ:iplo
90
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1 j 180'
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Figure 7:
The output signal of a synchro Is M AC signal which has angular infomlation. The
synchro's whictl make these signals are synchro transmitters.
These transmitters are of the okl multi-eo~ type or of the latest solid-state type. The
multi-coil type makes froln a rnechanlcel input a synchro signal, the second from
an electrical input
In a synchro system we conned the three output signals of a synchro transmitter
to the Ulree inputs of a synchro (reoelvGf). The lleld that is made by the rotor of Ule
synchro transmitter is now repeated in the stator of the synchro receiver.
f: __
Syncflro
Transmlner
Synchro
Receit..,.
Before the rotor of the receiver takes the position of the field in the stator we have
to make a field in the rotor of the receiver. This field must be 1so out of phase with
the field made by the syochro transmitter. The rotor of tile synchro receiver now
goes to the same position as the rotor of the synchro transmitter. Any time we
change the position of the rotor of the synchro transmitter the rotor ot the receiver
follows this turn.
--G
'!'1-
=Syncnro Recelfer
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Servo Systems
The rotor of a synchro receiver gtves a llmlted torque for other systems. When thts
torque is not high enough we have to u~ e servo system.
In a sync:hro-servo system the rotor of the synchro receiver gi ves a signal to a servo amplifier. In this system the rotor of the receiver is not connected to a supply
source but it m akes a signal from the stator-field in the r eoeiver synehro. The output signal of the servo amplifier drives a motor. The motor drives. via a reducllon
gear, the rotor of the sync:hro receiver and a load.
When the output signal of the rotor or the synchro reoei ver i s not zero, the servo
amplifier drives the motor. The motor adjusts the position of the rotor of the synchro receiver and the lOad until the outpot signal of this rotor fs zero. This output
signal Is zero w hen the angle between the rotor and the stal er field is 90 degrees.
l(
Sync;llro
Transmttler
Synchro
Control
z
Servo Amplifier
Servomotor
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Resolvers
The resolver has two stator coils and a rotor coil. Tho two rotor oolls and th8 two
stator coils are at 90 degrees with respect to each other. A resolver makes from
the signals in the stator coils sine and cosine signals.
Figure 9: Resolver
C~n.nei.A
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Exc.
Electronic
Engine
Sine
Control
<" =01
-a.
Amplitude (0 "'180")
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Po ]I[ Po Po J IC tp
s
linear Variable Oiffen!nlial Transducers (LVDT s) change llnear position fntormation into electrical signals.
An LVDT has:
one primary coli,
a linear moveable Iron core and
two io serial connected secondary coBs
The mechanical i nput Changes the position of the iron core. The position of the
core changes the magnetic coupling between the primary and the secondary coils.
When the Input moves the core in one dlraction. one of the secondary eo!ls re
ceives m ore magnetic flux; This induces a higher Voltage in the coi l.
~ctuJnical lnpul
~cat
Primar~
y ~
~--'~
Co ll...=.3
O u tpu t
Colla
I
Iron-eo.-.
(rno.,.able)
The other secondary colt receives less magnetic nux. This induces a lower voltage.
The difference between voltages induced In the secondary stator coils Is proportional to ltle mechanical position.
I
I
Pt; :J1[1 ~
A. The position of the iron core is centred. The m agnebc field Induced by prirnary
coft fs equally divided between the secondary coils. There fore the output voltage is
zero.
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I
B. The Iron core has moved upward. Now there Is rnore coopl1ng to the upper coil
and less coupling to the lower coil. Th e output voltage increases and is in phase
w ith the excitation.
~ J1.[I
kP
1
C. The iron core has turned downward. Now there is more coupling to the lower
coil and less coupfing to the upper coil. The output voltage increases and is in op
posite phase with the excitation.
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Figure 14:
"'-' lTIBu
-4P
Figure 13:
INPUT
'B
---L
_. :;tm
-~..... L2
.
n"-'s
_____V"__ r
'V
Rotary Variable Differential Transducers (RVDTs) change angular position infor
mation into electrical signals.
L3
--
L
\'':i:::.--'Ll
. /m
. ~
.
An RVOT hes:
R ...,..._ I
The mech anical Input changes the position of the iron core. The posltlon or the
core changes the magnetic coupling between the primary and the secondary stator COils. Wllen the Input rotates, one of the secondary coils receives more maQnetic flux. This induces a higher voltage i n the coil.
The o ther secondary coil rece.ves less magnetic flux. This induces a lower voltage.
The differ ence between voltages induced in the secondary stator coils Is proportional to the rotated angle. This is an AC Ratio Signal.
The difference between rotation direction Is that the output-voltage between R and
T is of opposite phase. The output measured between R and T is an AC.RATIO
sfgnal which represents the rotated angle of th e RVDT.
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Servo Loops
The DC servomotor loop is called a loop because of the dosed nature of the system operation. The DC source i s connected to the variable control potentlometer
and to the foiiOW"\JP potentiometer.
A servo amplifier amplifies the ratio signal and drives a motOI' with lt. The motOI'
drives a feedback device and a load. The signal from the feedback device also
goes to the servo amplifier. The loi!(l Is In the oorrec1 position when the ditrerence
between the ratio and the feedback signal is zero.
Moto r
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Pressure is the amount or rorce acting on a given unit or area, and all pressure
must be measured from somE! known rEiference. AbsOlute pressure Is measured
from zero pressure, or a vacuum. Gage pressure Is measured from lhe existing atmosphenc pressure, and differential pressu re is lhe difference between two pressures.
Gage presstJTe is measured rrom the existing barometric pressure and is actually
the pressure that has been added to a fluid.
Burdon Tube
A Bourdon tube is typically used to measure gage pressure. This tube Is a flattened thin-wall bronze tube formed into a curve. One end of the tube is sealed and
attached lhroogh a linkage loa sector gear. The other end Is connected to the instrument case through e fitting that allows the tlutd to be measured to enter.
When the pressure of the fluid Inside the tube Increases, it tries to change the
cross-sectional shape of the tube from Rat to round. As the cross sectlon changes,
the curved tube tends to straighten out. This in lum moves the sector geat, which
rotates the pinion gear on which the pointer is mounted.
Bourdon tuba instruments measure relatively high pressures like those in engme
lubricating systems and hydraulic systems.
Figure 18: Burdon Tube
AM<Oid
ChamiMir
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Bellows
lower pressures sudl as insiJI.lment air pressure, deloer air pressure, and suction
ate often measured with a bellows mechanism much like en aneroid capsule. The
A differential pressure is simp!y the difference between two pressures. A differential bellows lil<e that in tile figure below is a popular instrument mechanism that can
pressure to be measured ls taken Into the bellows. As the pressure Increases, the
bellows expands and its expansion rotates the rocking shaft and the sector gear.
Movement of !he sector gear rotates the pinion gear and the shaft oo \vtllch the
pointer is mounted.
Figure 19: Bellow Mechanism and Instrument
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Strain Gages
Piezo-Res/stl ve Sensors
This electric passive devices are used to detect forces. The resistance of straingages llaries with the fon;e applied to it. The metallic wire consists of a chromeni ckel alloy. The length and the diameter of the conductor changes as a fundion
of !he force. Expanding force increases, shortening force decreases the resistance.
This sensors are used for different appncalions. Structure monitoring, fon;e sensors, pressure transducers and weight measuring. Inside pressure sensors. the
pressure affects is changed into force.
Semiconductor based sensors in many different fonns. The substrata of the pres
sure sensor !i:hown below has a dimension of 3.5 x 3.5 mm Inside there is a bridge
with 4 elements.
Figure 23: Piazo Resistive Eleml!nt
P ressure
Substrata
Measuring
Conductor
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This very sensitive and accurate pressure transducer is used inside afrdata computers. The oscillator coli assembly oscillates the diaphragm. Its resonant frequency Increases with the appfle<S pressure against the vacuum reference Inside the
transducer.
The output frequency, proportional to the pressure is easily changed Inside the
computer, info a digital signal. The temperature sensing resistor compensates influences of the ambient temperature.
Figure 25: Vibrating Di aphragm Transducer
Frequency countel'$, microprocessor system and special moving coli meters are
all devices that work with variable frequency signals.
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Llnooair
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- ..., - - "+ - Non-Lint:8it
Ranp
V
Pararnele<
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Temperature Indication
Temperature is one of the most lmpOfUint measurements In lhe aircraft operauon.
Opera~al ~emperatures range from welt below !reeling for outside air, fuel, oil,
a~r-condthonmg and pneumatic air 10 around 1oooc for exhaust gas temperatures.
Gas Expansion
T emperatllre _is determined by measuring the pressure of the vapors abo\le a high
ly volatile hquid. The vapor pressure varies di~tly as the temperature of the liquid
Bourdon tube consi sts of a hollow brass or bronz.e enlptical-snaped tube formed
into a semi-drcle. One end of the tube Is open and connected to the fluid to be
r:neasured. lhe opposite end of the tube is sealed. As pressure Is applied, the e'6ptlcal tube ~nges shape and tends to straighten the semi-circle curve. The
bourdon tube nee4 to bee attache4 to a mechanical linkage and pointer to create
a usefulllnstrumenl
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The temperature sensing bulb consists ot a coil of f~~~e nicl<ektlronle wire encased
The PTC (Posltlve Temperature Coefficient} resistor. it's resistance Increases with
Increasing temperature. So it is called: Low temperature conductor. (Kallleiter)
and sealed in a thin stainless steel tube. This bulb is immersed in the ftuid \vho$e
temperature is being measured. The resistance of the nid<ek:hrome wire varies
directly with its temperature. AI the low end temperature, the bulb resistance is approx inl<~tely 20 ohms, at Ita high end, its resi st;~nce is about 200 ohms.
Figure 30: Resis tance Temperature Bulb
..
..,.
"'
""
....
t ...
1: \
..
...
i.
a:u
:.
!!
..."'.....
""'
"
.. . .. .. ..
... ..
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+
Temperature
Depend ing
Resistor
15
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Bridge Circuits
The instrument uses two coUs mounted on the indicator needle. When the temperature is low and the bulb resistance is low. more current flows through the coil 1
and the bulb than flows lhrough coil 2 and resistor R1 . The resulting magne6c field
pulls the needle toward the low sidr;~ of the dial. When thr;~ temperature is high and
more current flows thn;~ugh w il 2 and R1 than ooll 1 and the bulb, the needle deflads toward the high side of the dial.
(Wheatstone) Bridge circuits are a special type of complex circuit often used in
electrical measuring and controlling devices. The figure below shows a typical
bridge circuit used to measure tr;~rllj)&ralure. Resistor R2 is a temperature probe. 11
resistance changes as Its temperature changes.
Wheo the bridge Is eledrteally powered, electrons finds two path through which
they can flow. They can now lhrough resistors R 1 end R2 or they can now through
resistors R3 and R4 .
If the four resistors have values such that the ratio of the resistance R1 to R2 is the
same as the ratio or R3 to~ . then the voltage at point C will be the 11ame as the
voltage at point D. Because there is no vollage drop (no voltage difference) across
the indicator, no current will flow through it. In this condition, the bridge is satd to
be balanced.
Resistor R2 1s variable. and asH changes from the value that balanced the bridge,
a voltage drop will be developed across the indicator that causes C\JIT'lKII to flow
Permanent
Magnet
through it. As the resistance of R2 goes up, current flows C to D. If !he value of ~
goes down below the balance value. current flows from 0 to C.
Figure 32: Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
to Bulb
to Ground
28
through R 1
voc
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Thermocouples
Higher temperatures. like those found in the exhaust gases of both reciprocatiog
and turbine engines, are measured with thermocouples.
A thermocouple is a loop made of two different kinds of wire welded together at
one end to form a hot. or measuring junction. For example chrome! and atumel
wires. Tho coil of current-measuring instrument is connected between the wires at
the other end to form a cold, or reference junction.
The hot Junction is held O(lainst the cylinder head In the spark plug 9asket and a
voltage Is produced In the thermocouple whoa& amount is determined by the difference in tempetature between the hot and oold j unctions. This voltage di ffet'ente
Hot, or mea11urlng
junction
Connectors
Ho t Juncllon
Chrome! lead
i
.'
Alumet lead
Cold, or refere~
function
17
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tlons.
For accurate temperature lndlcallon, the reference junction temperature must be
held coostanL This Is not practical to do this In an aircraft Instrument. so the indi
ea tor needle is mounted on a bimetallic h.ain;pring in such a way that it moves bacll:
as the cockpit temperature incr eases. This compensates for reference junction
temperature changes.
SmaU indlcators operate s without any addilional electrical powlll' except for the illumination. fCM" more complex Indicators. In example non linear scales. electrical
power supply Is used for the amplrfiers and motors inside the indicator.
Chrome! (alloy of chromium and nickel)
Alumet (alloy of aluminium and nlet<el)
Fi gure 37: EGT Indicatio n (Chro m e! A lum et)
.........
(.
Temp1rawc
1Dd".Mor
~-1\..I.Ji~~ ~nglne
T""rmoeotJple
Ugh ling
c-
Const ntan
=s:
~--~~<=~--~~
Pylon
Oollbrollng
Ot.~necr
AM-iiiOf
.
.
c
l
L<lf1 l!nglno
EXMUCl
Gas
Temperature
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-:-J
Ol.aldlc:
T-
CO.rW~
18
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This oil quantity transmitter is a variable reed switch type resistor. The reed switch
operates by a magnet in a float. The current to the indicator is depending of the
activated resistors in the probe.
DC Electrical Indicators
A common quantity indicating system for fuel and oil operates on direct current.
These systems consists of a variable resistor as a tank unrt or transmitter and a
current measuring Instrument as the indicator.
The tank unit consists of either a wire wound resistor or a segment of composition
resistance material and a wiper arm driven by float moves across this resistance
material to change t he resistance as a function of the fuel level in the tank.
The ratio metertype minimizes the error that wooId be caused by variations in sys
!em voltage. Current flows through both coils and both the fixed resistor and the
tank unit.
rd-=-on
cp~~~
-----a~~ U~ae
- o
oatank
Figure 39: Mechanical Float Type Gauge
.-..........-
Oil Quantity
T,..MmiUer
r.lagnet
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Capacitance type fuel quantity measuring system Ulat measures the mass of the
fuel, rather than just Its level in the tank. Thi s is en electrooic system that measures
the capacitance of the probe, or probes, wtlich serve as the tank sender units. A
capacitor, can store eloctrical charges, and it consists of two conductors called
plates separated by some form of dielectric or insulator. The capacity of a capacitor depends upon three vatlables: the area of the plates, the separat;on between
the plates, which is the thiCk-ness of the dielectric, and the dielectric constant of
the material between the plates. The probes In a capacitance fuel quantlly l ndica t~
ing system are made of two concentric .metal tubes which serve as the plates of
the capacitor. The area of the plates is fixed, as well as the seperation between
them, so the only vallable we have Is the material which separates them.
These probes are installed so they cross the tank from top to bottom, and when
the tank is empty, the plates are separated by air which has a dielectric constant
of one. When the tank is full, the dielectric Is fuel which has a constant of approximately two. In any condition between fuU and empty, part of the dielectric is air and
part is fuel, and so the capacity of the probe varies according to the level of fuel in
the tank.
One of the big advantages of this system Is that the probes can be tailored for
tanks of all sizes and shapes, and all probes in the aircraft can be connected so
the system integrates their output to show the total amount of fuel on bOard.
The dielectric constant of the fuel is approximately two. but lt varies according to
its temperature and so a compensator Is built into the bottom of one of the tank
units. H is electrlcaUy in par<~net w ith the probes and cancels the chang&S in dielectric constant as the temperature of the fuel changes.
Inner
Plate
Plates of
CompenS<~tor
Capacitor
20
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CTRTa n k
Analog Display
20.5 Gallo n s
21
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The Indicator contains a power supply unit, a probe driver. a analog to digilal converter and a processor unit. A combined digital read-out with analog pointer and
scale eases a safe reading.
The fuel quantity Indication computer provides actual fuel quantity and temperature indication on the ECAM. The aetual quantity to tile Multi Tank Indicator and
Fuel Quantity Preselector located in, or outside of tile aircraft used for refuellng.
The probe drtver sends a drive signal to the tank probes and compensator. For example with an elCcilatloo frequency of 1 kHz. Fuel quantity information comes back
from the probes into the Indicator. The compensator senses tile dlelacttic constant
of the fuel used to calculate the fu el weighl
Refuel valves closes if actual fuel weight reaches Jl(eseleded value. The quanttty
preselector is used !Of automatic refuefing. from refuel panel.
Aircraft attitude signal compensates Influences of pitch and roll angles.
A set of capacitance probes in each tank provides fuel lever and temperature.
The analog signals coming from the probes and the compensator is converted to
digitel by the AID-Converter. The prooessor calculates the fuel weight in kg. or lbs.
to control tl1e pointer and read-oot.
Probe
Comp ..nulot
Fuel Quantity
Indi cator
Fuel
Quanltty
E:~Cait
lndlcatfon
Computer
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Air Data
The flight environment data system comprises the pilot static &ystem. This determines following data of the atmosphere:
Static pressure
Total- or Pilot- Pressure
Tote! or Ram- air tempe~ture
International
Standard
Atmosphere
.:.:1 :
~ :
. ..,
-o
800
OAT ("Cl
ZO
noc
linear wrth the change of the altitude. At sea level the pressure decreases
1 hPa trvery 28 feet. The altimeter senses the air pressure and shoWs the altitude
acoordlng !SA.
I'
0
400
200
The temperature In the troposphere decreases linear with minus 2"C per 1000ft.
I I I
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5
I I I I
II
I I i
600
II
~
l()
II
i I I
20
I I I
I
2!i
I i I I
IIN(M!SHG
STATlC f'IIE5SJRE
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Large A i rcraft
One of the most important instrument systems is tne pilot-static system. This system serves as the source of the pressures nee<led for the altimeter, airspeed indi>cator, ver1Jcef speed indicator and air data computer.
Large jet transport aifcran. have a more oomplex pitot-stafic system. The pilot tube
on the left side o f the aircraft supplies the caplaln's lnslruments. Static pressure
for all of the Instruments is obtained from the captain's static source. The allemate
s tatic source valve aiiOVIS this to be taken from the alternate static sources.
Light Aircraft
The rlgllthand pltot tube SUJ)plies pitot air pressure to the first office(s instruments
and Machllndicated Airspeed warning system. All the first officer's static instruments connect to the F/0 static source, and can also be oonnected to the alternate
static source.
The pilot tube ror light aira-aft is connected directly to the center opening of the airspeed indicator. The two flush static ports, one on either slde of the fuselage, are
connected together and supply pressure to tne airspeed indicator, altimeter, and
vertical speed indiC<ltor. An altemato static air valve Is coonoctod In to this lino to
supply ~tic air to the instruments If the outside static ports should ever cover over
vlith ice. The alternate air is taken direcUy from the oockpil of unpressurized aircraft, but pressurized aircraft pick it up from outside of the pressure vessel.
The auxiliary pilot tube piCks vp ram air for the auto pilot, yaw dampers, overspeed
111arnlng system, and flight recorder. The alternate slatic source supplies air to
these lnstrvments ptus the two flight directors and the re ference for cabin differential pressure.
Figure 49:
Figure 50:
Altimeter
Vertical speed
lndlcato{
Airspeed
Indicator
~AINS
~
AIRSI'EED
MACH
AlTtlUOf
IU.TI! Of
cu...
.....
AU'I!RNATE
Ul ..
SIO
STATH:
SELECTOft
VAlVIiS
~Clfll'S
~l==::!lt:=:t=~it
Flush
S1Btic port
Flush
static port
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Static Probe
Small holes on either side of the fuselage or vertical nn or small holes in the pilotstatic head sense the pressure or the stlH, or static air: This pressure Is taken into
the case of IM ammeter, airspeed Indicator, and vertical speed mdicator.
Figure 52:
Pitot Heads
Figure 51:
STBV
MaJn 2
~ AUX
F/0~
Captain
Static Ports
RH Side
Total Pressure
p
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Airdata modules converts pilot or static pressure in to digital output signal. The
modules are connected with a short piece of tlose to !M pilot- respective staticprobe. The output is transmitted In ARINC 429 format to the airdala computet.
Figure 54:
Figuro 55:
Metered Orlllce
(very small)
or
S~alio
Port
Prt$$Uf0
PressureTransducer
AAINC
Micro--
computer
>
1-::fO=u=tpu~l
t-
Diserat c lnpuu
(Pin Program)
P\VR Supply lrom
A$!1oclatad
AOIAU (1 .5 VOC)
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Altimeters
Figure 57:
All ammeter Is simpl)' a barometer that measures the absolute pressure of the air.
This pressure is caused by the weight of the air above the instrument and, naturally, this pressure constantly changes. Also, as the aircraft d imbs above the
earth's surface, there Is less air stacked on top of the aircraft and the absolute
pressure deeteases. By measuring this change of absolute pressure, the aircraft's
altitude can be detennined.
The altimeter is one of the oldest flight instruments, end some or the earty balloon
flights carried some fotm of pl'imillve barometer which served to indicate the
height. The standard altimeter used In many. of the early airplanes has a simple
evacuated bellows whose expansion and oonltaclion are measured by an arrangement of gears and levers that transmit the changes In dimensions Into movement of the pointer around the dial. The dial Is calibrated in feet, and since a
change In the barometric pressure changes the pointer position.
it is extremely Important that the altitude indication be acrurate. and that the piklt
be able to quickly read the altitude within a few feet. These requirements ere complicated by the feet that the pressure lapse rate, the decrease in pressure with altitude, is not linear: that is. the pressure for each thousand feet is greater i n the
lower albtudes than it is in the higher levels. The bellows are designed \llith corrugations that aliO\II the expansion to be linear with a change i n altitude.
Pointer
r- --/
Gear
~-- -- - ~ -- - 1 111 1!
Y
~---- - ---------l - - -- - -1 1111
Baro
Setting
Counter
Baro Scales
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An altimeter
2000 11- - - - -
Low
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Figure 59:
When the baroscale is set, that the altl
meter shows an altitude of zero. with the
aircraft oo ground, the baroscale shows
the local air-pressure of the pa!king field.
re-
Feet
6000
57
5000
Tran si tion JAvel
t
STD
ONE
4000
e
0<"
47
3000
ONH
Altitude
The altitude i s the vertical distance between ai rcraft and sea-4evel.
2000
u
d
I QFe
37
V
h
Height
1000
17
The heigh t Is the vertical distaFlCB between !iircraft and the ter rain.
Flight Level
The flight level is the vertical distance between aircrefl and the standard pressure
referen ce. This point can be above sea-level if high pressure exists or belOw sea
level if a low pressure exists. The barosetting therefore Is QNE.
Elevation
Th e e levation Is the vertical distance from sea level to the airport or obstacle
(mountains and hills).
29
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Altimeter Indicators
Figure 60:
For many years, altimeterS had three pointerS, the long one making a complete
round each 1 ,000 feet. a short. fat pointer making a complete round for each
10,000 feet, and a third pointer gearoo so thalli would have made one trip around
the dial for 100,000 feet If the instrument were to go that high. The range of these
ahlmeters Is usually 20,000, 35,000, 50,000 or 80,000 feeL
Because of the ease of misreading these altimetei'S, the more modem Instruments
combine a drum scale with a single pointer. T he drum gives the thousands of feet
In digital form. and the pointer indicates the hundreds of feet as it makes one trip
around the dial for one thousand feel
Encoding altimeters are pneumatic altimeters. They have an electronic device to
them that sends a digital code to the radar beacon transponder. When the trans
pO!lder repr.es to the interrogation of the air traffic control radar on the ground, a
numerical read-out appears on the screen beside the return for the aircraft.
Position error Is inherent with s1at1c systems, and is caused by the static port not
always being in undisturbed air. This error varies With each aif'craft desJgn and it
changes with airspeed and altitude. The senro altimeter has a built-in compensation system tha t taJiors the instrument to the particular aircraft end minimizes this
error for the full range of night speeds and anltudes.
Instrument or med\anlcal error Is produced from the Instrument i tself and Is divided Into different aspects:
Figure 61 :
A!~:'1;rc~~:: "-
Scale error. The altimeter must indicate the same altitude shown on the milster indicator or manometer within a specified allowable tolerance.
fo 1000 fl
Hysteresis. The reading taken with the altltu<le increasing must agree with the
readings at the same pressure fevef when the altitude Is decreasing. A specified
tolerance is allowed for this test.
8aro reference
lnoex
After effect. The altimeter must return to the same indication, wilhln tolerance, after
the test as it had when the test began.
FriCtion. Two altllude readings are to be taken at each pressure level. one before
and on e after the lostrument is vlbc'ated. There should be no more than a speclOed
difference between the two readings.
Case feak. A low pressure Is trapped inside the case and it should not leak down
more than a specified amount in a given period of lime.
Barometric scale error. The correlation between the barometric scale and the lndl
cation of the altimeter pointers must be correct within the allowable tolerance.
Reference presw,.
readout
30
ehnika
The rate-of-climb Indicator, more properly called the vertical speed indicator. Its
main funCtion Is that ol helping the pilot estabiJsh a rate of ascent or descent that
will allow them to reach a specified attitude at a given time.
The vertical speed Indicator has as Its operating mechanism a bellows, or pressure
capsule, Similar t.o that or an altimeter. except that rather than bemg evacuated and
sealed, it is vented to the inside or the Instrument case through a diffuser which is
en accurately calibrated leak. The principle of operation o f one type o f vertical
speed indicator. When the airctaft begins to d imb, the pressure Inside the capsule
b&gln& to deaease to a value belOw that Inside the Instrument case, and the cap
sule compresses, causing the levers and gears to move the p0111ter so it will indi
cate a climb. The pressure Inside the case now begins to decrease by leaklng
through the diffuser. This leak Is calibrated so that there win always be a differenoe
between the pressure inside the capsule and that Inside the case !hat is propOI"tional to the rale of change .of the outside air pressul'$. As soon as the aircran levels off, the pressure in side the case and !hat inside the capsule will equalize, and
the Indicator will show a zero rate of change.
Figure 62:
P r essure P 'H
Aro IVSI uses a mechanism similar to.a conventional VSI but it also has an accel
erometer-opereted air pump, across the capsule. When the aircraft noses over to
begin a descent, the inertia of, the eocelerometer piston causes it lo move upward,
Instantaneously incl'easing the pressure inside the capsule and lowering the pressure mside the case. This change in pressure gi ves an immediate ndcatlon of a
descent AI this tirne, thelag of the ordinary VSI has been 011ercome and it begins
to Indicate the descent. there is no more Inertia frorn the nos&-<lown rotation, and
tile accelerometer piston will be cantered so the instrument will be ready to indi
alia the leveling off frorn the desoent.
Flguro 64:
----------...
Diffuser w ith
calibrated leak
31
ehnika
Airspeed Indicators
Figure 66:
IAS Scale
- -~
Figure 65:
Pa
Static Press:ure
Total Pressure
L.H
Static Pressure
RH
The abov~ pilot tube shows that the Ram Air Pressure fs the difference between
Total Pressure end Static Pressure. If the airspeed is zero, Pt is equal Ps, so the
Ra~Air-Pressure is zero.
32
ehnika
Speeds
IAS
The uncorrected reading of an airspeed Indicator Is called Indicated airspeed, and
while it relates to the stalling speed of the aircraft. ll Is of little use to lhe pilot for
There are true airspeed indicators that incorporate not only the airspeed c..psule,
but a temperature sensor end en sltltude bellows that modifies the indication o f the
airspeed indicator and produces a !rue airspeed indication.
navigational purposes.
CAS
Electrically driVen i ndicator showing the TAS calculated by the airdala computer.
The same Instrument will also show outside air temperatures.
Figure 67:
For navigation we m ust convert indicated airllpeed into true airspeed, but we usually go through an Intermediate step, callbnlted airspeed. lt Is almost Impossi ble to
find a location for the static pott that is entirely free from airflow distortion, and any
distortion produces an error. This error is so small that for pracllcal purposes it is
often ignored.
SAT Readout
TAS
Calibrated and true airspeed ere the same under standard see level atmospheric
condiUons, and to find the true airspeed under non- standard conditions we must
apply a correcllon for llle tempera ture and altitude to the calibrated airspeed. This
Is normally done \vtth a computer. or with one of the hand-held electronic calcula
tors. Ught airttafts airspeed indic..tocs have a movable dial that may be rotated to
align a set of temperature and altitude scales so the pointer will indicate the com
puted true airspeed.
No matter what type of airspeed indicator is used on the aircraft. its accuracy reli es
heavily on the correct operation of the pil ot-static system.
GS
Groundspeed represents the actual speed of the airplane over the ground. ll is ITue
airspeed a dj usted for wind. A headwind decreases groundspeed, whil& a tailwind
increases il
1 Knot (K t)
= 1.852 km
Total A i r Temperatu re
The TAT Is the temperature of the air compressed by the Impact of the flyin g aircraft At higher airspeeds the temperature is increased.
This temperature is used for the power setting or the engines.
Temperatures
33
ehnika
The chart illustrates the dlf1erence betwaen indicated airspeed. true airspeed, and
Mach. True airspeed and Indicated airspeed are the same at sea level: however,
as altitude lllCN!ases, holding a constant indicated airspeed results in continually
increasing true airspeed. For an example, 400 indicated airspeed at sea level becomes about 450 true at 10,000 feet, and about 550 true at 20,000 feet.
The Mach numbered Ones are drawn on the basis of a standard day air temperature chart; 0.9 time$ the speed of sound at sea level would be about 600 knoiS 11\.Je
airspeed, but from about 36,000 feet o n up, 0.90 Mach equals 011iy 525 knots Crue
ai rspeed.
If a partiCI.IIar 11irplane Is not supposed to fly faster that 390 knots Indicated, and
not more than 0.885 Mach, it could fly 390 knots indicated until it got to 21 ,000 feet.
Above that altitude, the indicated airspeed would have to decrease in order not to
exceed maximum Mach. Flying an Indicated airspeed as high as 390 knots above
21,000 feel would result In transonic or supersonic speeds ..
Figure 68: Mach varies as a result of tomporature and altitude.
tbc:h Number
.90
.os
.88$
1reo~tc~
Airpoea
............-1~50
20
- - -21,
_,.-
:;2-
'/"''
10
Airplanes that are not designed to fly at sonic airspeed must never be allowed to
rea ch their critical Mach number. That Is, ttley must never be nown at a speed that
will allow the lllrflow over any part of the aircraft to reach sonic velocity. When this
happens, shock waves form and serious aerodynamic problems can result. Airplanes whose maximum speed Is limiled by structural conslderatlons have their
never-exceed speed m arked by a fixed red line on the dial of the alrspaed indicelor. Bul If the m<lXimum speed Is limited by lhe critical Mach number, the fixed r ed
line Is replaced by a red pointer (Barter pole) that i s driven as a function of altitude
...-.oo
'/"'
0
2.50
1100
350 310
400
~50
500
TruoAir'q>oed
34
ehnika
Overspeed Warning
The maximum operating limit speeds Vmo I Mmo is a airspeed or mach number
who should not be excseded. Warning alerts the pilots, if the nmit is exceeded. For
example: Below 23'000 ft the airspeed is limited to 372 lds. Above this flight level
the speed is fimited to Mach 0.88.
The warning can be triggered from an overspeed wamlng switch, mach airspeed
indicator or alrdata computer.
Figure 70: Overspeed Warning Switch
FL
...... :,
'
400
.....
....
....
Mt.to - 0.88
--
300
1,_-s. --
200
I
--
~r- -VMo-frfl . r --
.....
4 Ov~L-~~~------------~-------l
Test
100
-!'
~
#
~
0
250
Statio PrGAUre
300
350
IAS
4 00
=:=:=::=
Pitot Pressure
35
ehnika
Mach Meter
When alrplanos fly at or near lhe speed of sound, a measurement ls needed that
compares U1e speed of lhe ailplane w11h the speed of sound. This measurement
is calfed the Mach number. An indication of Mach one ocaJTS when the airplano is
Oylng at the speed of sound . Below the speed of sound, the Indication Is giVen a a
a decimal fraction. and above Mach one, the indication is an Integer with a decimal. For example, flight at Madl 1.25 Is nigh t at an ai rspeed of 1.25 times the
speed of sound at that altitude. Mach 0.75 is llight at an airspeed of 75% of the
speed of sound.
1lle inaeased value of instrument panel space aboard modem aircraft, and lhe
need to integrate as much of this information as possible has brought out one lnsttument that combines the elrspeed indicator with the Machmeter and also shows
the mal<.imum allowable operating aiiSpeed. This instrum ent also includes "bugs"
that are smalllndlcaiOI'S around the periphery of tl1e dial that may be manually set
to indicate the correct speed for certain flight conditions such as that needed during takeoff or an approach to landing.
Fi gure 73:
Figure 72:
Mach
Aeedoul
A ir speed
Pointer
Ai rspeed
Failure Fl119
36
~oa.1~
ehnika
....
150
200
IAS (kt )
250
300
350
400
rt
0.4
nr
SAT
320 KT
14' 000 FT
+10 'C
FIND :
TAS
MACH
406 KT
0.62
0.
~~
na
n,
Mach
150
200
250
IAS(kl)
300
350
400 200
300
400
TAS (kll
500
37
EJO/?IEJ tehnika
All results are send to the users like Instruments, dtsplays. Auto ftight and naviga-
The air data computer samples: discretes, total temperature, total and static pressures, baro seffing, angle or attack and total temperature.
tion systems.
Figure 75:
Dlscr~tes
Ottll.
rar
pt HAf0t
ADtltfA.TtR
ICDJ "11.1"
38
ehnika
Baro Setting
.,.I
M:: Type
V
Sen' Cal
P0 Sonsoo
Conversion
"
s-ea~
TampCal
P1SonSOt
con-lon
BroALT
P. Alht* Computat.bn
Po.ltion
r~ . 145om!A f - (.;~J'1
ElfOI'
CorrOdion
f--<
BaroAt
Cornputa!lOR
,._.
T~CaJ
Bro
Cotrealon
L~ '"lr""'"'-+ Oc Po [0.2
8oro ws
IMPACT
(~} ]'-'-}
CAS
v-
Mmo
__J Coonpula!lon
NC Type
MACH Computallon
.-
ALT. Aate
Componiion
PRESS. fOe)
I
t..
P.ALT
~.(I.0.2W)"""
Vmo Mme~
OVEASPO
VIAAit
I.IACH
'
TOTAL
PRESS.
TAT Sensor
H~er ONIOFF---o
AICTypo
N A Sensor
f-t
TAT
Compaollon
SAT Cotnll<illllcn
SAT
~T -, ::~j.f
TAT
4-,
TIIS Compvlallon
----------ll
TAS
AlA
~--------------------------------~ AlA
Computa.rion
39
ehnika
Figure 76: ln51ruments g etting air data f rom Central Alrdata Computer
<A,....NI
TAS
loU
U.T
11\10
MACH
TAT
SW< .:.V
""""''
""""''
AIIISI'IID
All$1ff0
II'GUrr)l
I~TOt
()
"lOT
,...,.ttM
. fii:XJCI(
"TOT
jcDCW::JI' S'f'~TOol
SlAJK:
ICIU
CfNTl!Al
AlR OAT...
COMIUI~
~lOT
STACIC
40
ehnika
Figure 79: Central Airdata Computer with EIS and other Systems.
Figure 80: Pitot- and Static Pressure from Air Data Modulas.
To Electronic:
InStrum ent S~wro
~pby
Electronic Unit
8 oro
J~.,..~s,.._
CAPT
AOA
CAPT
TAT
OIM I'OSIIION
TAT - t -
Wt fUR. OU.U..J
CAD<:
Soiling
Alrdala
Computer
ZAT oC.<\10 ON
. lH
.....,..,..
A.QA.
S[Jrt6:01
..101
AU~~=
SYSTIM
1'1101
PITOT
CAPT
........
SVST(M
f-----+-1::::
-"""'-
sTATIC
):======~ L ,.....,.,......
CAITAIN
CAPT
b-~-
~l!.nc ======~==..,=,: . ,. .: :n
= ==l
:Unt
I'Otn
I'OUS
STATIC
CAPT
41
EJO/?IEJ tehnika
Gyros
A gyroscope is a small wheel with Its weight concentrated In its rim. When it spins
at a high speed, it exhibits two Interesting characteristics: rigidity i n space and precession. DirecUonal gyros and gyro hoOzons are attitude gyros, and they make use
of the CharacterisUc of rigidity in 5pace . Rate gyros suoh as rum and slip indicators
and tum coordinators use the characteristic of precession.
Ri gidity In Space
Let's assume that a gyro having no friction In its beartngs, but with a power source
to keep it spinning, positioned at a C811aln place on ttl& equator, at noon we would
see the tail of the aJTOW. By the time the earth rota ted 90 degrees, at sbc p.m. we
would see the side of the. wheel with the arrow pointing to the right. At midnight we
would again be in line w ith the arrow, only this lime it would be pointing at us. By
six a.m., we would again see the side of the wheel. Now, however, the arrow would
be pomling to the left. This characterislic makes the gyroscope (Greek = view the
eerlh rotation) valuable to us as a stable ref~enoe fordetennlnfng both the attitude
and the dlrection of the aircraft carrying the gyro.
as a Gyro
Also the earth represents as a very large gyro and will maintain Its dlrectioo in the
space.
\
th e Earth \
\
Huge Gyroscope '.
42
ehnika
Precession
If a force is applied to a spinning gyroscope, its effect will be felt, not at the point
of application, but at a point 90 degrees from the point of application in the direc-
tion of rotation of the wheel. If a gyro is spinning in the plane and a force is applied
to the top of the wheel. it wHI not topple over as a static body would; it will rather
rotate about Its vertical axis. This rotation is called the precession of the gyro. If
one of the bearings which supports the gyro shaft has friction, it will produce a
force that wll cause precession.
Precession Is not desired In a directional- or vertical gyro, but it may be used in a
rate gyro because the amount of precession is related to the amount of force that
caused it. We use rate gyros to measure the rate of rotatlon of the aircraft about
one or more of ils axes.
~sslon
43
EJO/?IEJ
Different Gyros
ehnika
Figure 85:
Vartical Gyro VG
Directional Gyro DG
Rate Gyro RG
44
~oa1~
Vertical Gyro
tehnika
Figure 87:
Figure 86:
Y- ---=~~
- ~- -'1'
,~"'-'"=~..._.::..._
Outer
Gimbal
Bearing
y-
1:
Pi tc h
Vort.
.I
.-
,.. x
.....\
\Pitct~e
Inner GimbDJ (Gyro Housing)
~!
x/
The vertical gyro senses the relationship between the pitch and roU axes of the aircraft and a vel1ical llne through the center of the earth, and it gives a stable refer
ence so the actual pitch- and bank angle Is knOwn to keep the wings level.
The vertical gyro has two degrees of freedom. The axle of the wtleells always vertlcaUy directed. Vertical gyros are located Inside horizon indicator or bllfld in sepa-
rate units as remote vertical gyros. Their Roll and pitCh signals are used for
artificial horizons, autopilots, flight directors and the weather radar antenna stabl
llsatlon.
45
EJO/?IEJ
Attitude Indicator
When the nose of the aircratl is pitched down. lhe horiz:on moves up. If the aircraft
banks to the right. the sphere moves toward left.The instrument shows the horizon
as it would appear if we could actual!)' see it.
The example shows the Indication the pilOt has when the airplane Is:
flying straight and descending, level or c:iimbing.
banking to the left and descending, level or cfimblng.
banking to the right and descending, level or climbing.
7
on
Plane-flying t""el
HOti=n: k
P lane-noBGd up
-=-4b.t:::o:=---
Horizon
: - -
Plane-blanked
riglll
(nos" <k>wn) ._ ,
~ori&on
' .<r
' '
c-;=:-
'
foF'i
L -;
~~omo~l
H~
~ -=
~--~
'~
Horizon/ m~
~
~
(nose
~
Pl:lnbloonked left
!l.bove the horizon, the dial is light colored, usually blue, to represonl lhe sky. and
:>eJow the horizon, it is brown or black representing the ground. Shol1 hori%ontal
ines both above and below the horizon help the pilot to establish pitch angles. and
ehnika
JP)
up)~
~
across the top of !he instrument, e pointer may be ellgned with index markS toestablish tho desired bank angle . These marks are located at 10, 20, 30, 60 and 90
degrees.
46
~oa1~
tehnika
Figure 9():
The vertical direction to the earth center is sensed in unaccelerated flights with
pendulums or weights of two rotating balls. Any Wlbalance acts with force to the
gyro to erect its spin axis into the vertical.
Pendulum Position s
c11
By Air
The early artificial horizon uses a rotor with Its spin axis vertical. lt is spun by a jet
of air. The housing which holds the rotor Is mounted on two gimbals, aftowing the
aircraft to freely pitch and roil about the gyro. When the gyro Is erect, air leaving
the gyro houslng exits equally through four vertical slots in the bottom of the housIng. One-half of each of these slots is covered with a pendulUm valve, mounted in
such a way that any tilt of the rotor will open one valve and dose the valve on the
opposite side of the housing. Alr now leaving through the Slot in one S1de and not
in the other creates a precesslve force that will bring the gyro back to its upright,
or erect position.
Figure 89:
Alr Exit
Slot Open
Air ea<nlng from
rotor lloufng
Air Exit
Closed
m:;:;_-~Siot
Reaction Forces
--t
-1
47
EJO/?IEJ tehnika
Erectlon effect is caused when the unstable pendulum Is accelerated ahead of the
driving lug due to a significant horizontal acceleration. Ths creates a torque caus
lng the precession in the corrective direction.
If the aircraft accelerates. eroction suppression becomes operative, to prevent that
the vertical gyro gets In a wrong vertical diredlon.
Gyro Spin
Motor
Fest Et.etion
l..e>fer
48
~oa1~
tehnika
Two sman steel baUs mov10g on a circular track are driven by a alow moving transport arm. The eddy current drag reduces the speed from 16'000 rpm to 50 rpm .
If the gyro spin axis is vertical, the balltrack is situated horizontal. Both balls are
situated In opposite position and in balanoe. No force Is presented to lhe gyro.
If the gyro spin axi s is not vertical. assumed point A is downward.
Ball 1 has to be raised up,
(18'000 RPM)
49
EJO/?IEJ
ehnika
The vertical gyro also serves other systems like autopifots and the weather radar
with roll and pitch signals.
Figure 93:
Bank Synchro
P itch Synchro
Vertical Gyro
(VG)
115V
50
ehnika
Electrical Erection of VG
In order to maintain the spin axis vertically, two erection systems must be used,
one in the roH axis and one In the pitch axis. The reaction of a gyro to an applied
force makes it necessary to use erection foroes at right angles to the desired direction of motion. This accounts for the pitch erectlon I()(Quer mounted in the ro~
axis and the roll erwtlon'I()(Quer mounted in the pitch axis.
A torquer is a frustrated motOf'. lt never gets 10 lum anything, not even Itself; but
\.tlon called upon to do so, win try. A gravity sensing liqufd switch, constructed on
the principle of a carpenter's level, provides power to the torquer when the switch
is not level. The torquer lhen provi(las the force to erect the spin axis vertically in
one axis.
Roll erection torqulng Is w t off when the bank llllQie exceeds a boutS degrees and
pilch erection Is cut off If the acceleration is more than 2 ktslsec in square, to eliminate the tendency to erect to false sense of vertical.
P itdl
To rque
Motor
The erection control appfies for the first 3 minutes of gyro operation a higher voltage to the torquer for fast erectlon at start up of the gyro.
Bank and pitch synchros transmitting the angle between the gimbals to their users.
Figure 94: Uquid Lovol Sonsor and Torque Motor
Gyro L eveled
"
~~t
I"
12
VMI F
@~
r
'
_!!._
~
~
115VAC
Gyro Tilted
'
51
ehnika
Directional Gyro
The most commonly used magnetic compass consists of a small permanent magnet ~ld~red to a me~ fto.at and suspended in a bowl of liquid. This primitive type
of d1redion lndlcator 1s qUite a<!equate for visual flight when it ls only occasionally
referred to, but since it osc~lates back and forth so much we cannot use it as a
heading indicator when we are flying on ins1ruments.
'
Early directional gyros resembled the magnetic compass with its gyro rotor suspended in a d01.1ble gimbal with its spjn aJCis In a horizontal p lane Inside the calibrated scal e, The rotor was spun by a jet o f air impinging on buckets cut into its
periphery Th e caging knob In the front of tha Instrument could be turned to rotate
the entire mechanism and bring the desired heading opposite the reference marll,
or lubber fine. The rotor remains rigid in space, as the aircraft turned about the
gyro, the pilot had a reference bel\~n the heading of the aircraft and the earth's
magnetic field.
If we hav~ a f~eely spjnnfng gyroscope set to allgn with the earth's magnetic field,
we can V1sualze our heading and lt does not oscillllte. The main problem Is that
this mstrument has no north seeking tendency, and so it must be sat to agree with
the magn etic compass every 15 minutes when it is not swinging beCk and forth.
Figure 97:
Figure 96:
N
I
0
~g
Lullber
Line
52
ehnika
Figure 98:
Gyro Heading
Indicator
M~net
Compass
DGAIIgn
Mllgnetic Heading
53
ehnika
Drift of Gyros
A free running gyro will maintain Its direction in space. In relation to lhe earth, gyros
ap~e rS to rotate and looslng its direction. This beMviour Is called apparent drift
caused by the earth rotation.
The earth rotalion is 360' in one day this 15'/hour_
OG AT POLE
~ Dritt .. tsIH
Gyro
D irectional
Zul'!ch
47"
10.97
Po.le
90'
15
Equator
OG AT EQUATOR
Dri ft= 0'/H
Figure 101: Apparenl Drift of Vertical Gyro
Vertical
Gyro
VG AT POLE
Drift: 0'/H
Equator
15
Zurich
47"
10.23
Pole
90'
VG AT EQUATOR
Drift a 15'/H
Earth Rate
Earth rotation
Transport Rate
Random Drift
Mechanical error
54
ehnika
Rate Gyro
Precession ls the primaty characteristic used for rate gyros. There are two basic
rate gyros used fOl' "lghl iostrumen~atlof'l , the tum and slip i ndicator and the turn
ooO!inator. Rate gyros are also lnoorporal ed into a number of autopilot systems.
The basic di fferenoe between a rate gyro end an aUitude gyro is in the mounting
of the gyro Itself. or in the number of degrees of freedom the gyro is given. M attitude gyro Is mounted in a double gimbal and has freedom about two e:xe5, while
a rate gyro is mounl.e d in a single gimbal and has freedom about only one axis.
Cantering
Spring
\
Qimbat Bearing
= Curve Radius
~ Bankangle
= Normal Foroe
G =Weight Force
g =Earth gravity,. 9.81 m/seCl
v =velocity
tgp .. v2/R:xg
55
ehnika
The gyroscopic par1 of the tum and slip Indicator is a rotor, spun eith81' by air or by
an electric motor. This rotor has ifs spin axis parallel to the lateral axis of the aircnsfl, and the axis of the silgfe glmbal is paralle-l 10 the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. A centering spring holds the glmbaJ level when there is no outside
adlng oo it When the rotor is spinning and the elrC1'81t rotates about its vertical or
yaw, axis, a force Is carried into the rotor shaft by the gimbal in such a way that
one side of the shat1 is moved forward while the Olher side is moved back. Precession causes the rotor to lilt, es lhe force Is felt. at 90 degrees to the point of application In me direction of rotor rotation.
ronce
ihis till is opposed by both a dashpot which smooths out the force, and by a calibrated spring which reslltcts the amount the gimbal can tilt. A pointer Is driven by
the glmbal In suCh e way that lt Indicates not only tile direction or yaw, but the
amount of its deflection IS proportlooal to the rate of yaw.
Figure 105: Rate Gyro Inside Indicator
WR
-f.
Centerlng
Spring
56
ehnika
The dial of a tum and slip indicalor is not graduated with numbers, but the amount
of lum is measured in needle widths, and there are two standard calibrations.
Some instruments are caae<l t\vo,minute turn indicators, and a standard rate turn
of three degrees per seoond (360 degrees In 120 seconds) is indicated by the
pointer leaning over one needle width. In a standard rate tum to the right, the left
edge of the pointer aligns with the right edge of the index marl<. Most of the newer
turn and slip indicators are calibrated as four-minute turn indicators. WH.h this calibration, the needle deHects one needle width for a turn of one-and-a-half degree
per second (half-standard rate). Inst ruments calibrated for four minute turns have
two small doghous011-shaped marts on top of the dial, one needle-width !!WilY from
either side of the center index mark.
Figure 106:
%#~
Ji
~~ ~
"""''""'"~ --~-~-4)=-~
conootaonk(OOOtdiM....,
11D"hninuu-.. tum
, . O"fl'llllinol.il* .&gl'llliUoM
These instruments may also be mariled 'FOUR MINUTE TURN." When the alrcralt
Is rotating about Its vertical axis at 1,5 degrees per second, the needle of llle fourminute turn indicator aligns with the appropriate doghouse.
57
ehnika
Figure 108:
A turn and slip indicator can show rotation about only the vertical axis of the alraatt
yaw. But since a turn Is started by banking the aircraft. that is, by rotating lt about
its longitudinal axis. a turn indicator would be of more value if it sensed this rotation
also. The mechanism of a tum coordinator Is similar to that used in a turn and slip
indicator, except that its gimbal axis is titled, usually about thirty degrees, so the
gyro will preaess when the aircraft rolls, as well as when it yaws. This is especially
handy since a turn and slip Indicator is affected by adverse yaw at the beginning
of a turn, but a turn coordinator senses enough roll to cancel any deflection caused
by adverse yaw.
Rather than using a needle for Its indicator, the tum coordinator uses a small symbolic alrplane with markS on the dial opposite it s wing tips. When the aircraft Is
turned at a standard rate to the leli, the wings of the symbolic alrplane align with
!he martt on the left side of the instrument dial, the one mat1<ed "l.". When the rate
of yaw Is correct for the bank angle, the ball wm be cantered between the two lines
across the inclinometer.
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Figure 109:
Electric Motors
In today commercial Alrcrafl:s all gyros are driven by electric motOI'S.
Their speed is between 6'000 and 20'000 RPM.
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Pneumatic System
For $8fely, the attitude gyros may be e ledlicalty dt1ven and the rate gyro Is driven
by air, or the attitude instruments may be driven by air and the rate gyro electsically
driven. Some gyroscopic instrumen ts are dual powered .
Gyrowheets In pneumatic instruments are made of brass and have notches, or
buckel$ in their periphery. Ail' blows through a speCial nozzle Into the buckets and
spins the gyro at a high speed.
H<Nding
lndic.alor
rr==ffE::l__jjd
Most there Is used a vacuum system with ventury or a engine driven vacuum
pump. f'or aircrafls flying higher than 18'000 1'1 there is a compressor system who
provides enough airmass through the gyro.
. -- - - f t - , Anltud e
Indicator
Needle YaiYe
Heading
Indicator
Attltuda
Indicator
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Compass
In clination
When the compass is pulled by the earth's rnagoetic field, the compass' s magnet
tends to point Nott/'i and the magnet also tends to pull toward the earth' s surface.
Near the poles this tilting force is the greates~ so the compass is no more useable.
lt diminishes as you approach the equator. To compensate for this tilling foc'oe. the
compass float Is weighted on the side nearest the equator. For aircraft which ny In
UlE! northern hemisphere, the weight is oo the sou1h end of the floal
Figure 114:
Figure 113:
Geographic
Nonh Pole
"
MISSLEADING NORT H - -
Geographic
....---- North Pol
....-.;p,o~._.
Earth Magnetic
Fi eld Unes
......,..,:1.~
--
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Variation
Figure 116:
Sinoe all of our charts are lald out according to the geographic poles, and the mag
netlc compass points to the magnetic poles, we have an error called variation. To
simplify the correction for this error. aeronautical charts are marked with llnes of
equal variation, called Isogonic Unes. Anywhere along an Isogonic ' ne, there Is a
constant angle between the magnetic and geographic north poles. The variation
error is the same on any heading we fly, and is determined only by the position on
the surfaoe of the earth. The correction required for variation error Is found on aeronautical Charts.
Figure 115:
Magnetic
Pole
TN
.....
_,.
"""""'
.....
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Magnet Compass
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Figure 117:
The magnotic compass is one of our simpler instruments. Its main body is a cast
aluminlum hOusing, and one end 1$ covered with a gla.ss len$. Across this Is avertical reference ma111: called a rubber ~ne. Inside the housing and riding on a steel
pivot in a j8\vel post is a small brass float sur rounded by a graduated dial which is
part o f a cone. Around the full 360 degrees of the dial are 36 m ar1<s, representing
the ten s of degrees. Above evfMY third mark is eithef' a on e- or a lwo-<ligit number
representing the number or degrees with the last zero left off. Zero is the same as
360 degrees and is norfh: Nine is east, or 90 degrees, 18 is south (1 80 degrees).
and 27 is Z70 degrees. or west Two smaD bar-typ o permanent magnets are soldered to the bottom of the float, aligned wi th the zero and 18 marks, north and
south. The hOusing Is filled wflh compass flUid, whidl iS a hydrocarbon product
very similar to kerosen e, but with certain additives that keep it dear. The housing
must be completely full, with no bubbles, and to prevent damage to the housing
when the fluid expands due to h eat. an e)(.J)anslon diaphragm or bellows is mounted inside the housing. A set of compensa tor magnets is located In a slot In the
housing outside o f the compass bowl, and a smaD instrument lamp screws Into the
front of the housing and shines inside the bowl to Uluminate the lubber line and the
numbers on the card.
Instrument
Lamp
Expansion
Unit
Contact end
Socket
Outc
Case
Compensating
Mechanism
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The dltection-seel<ing portion of the system consists of a flux valve that picks up is
dl~ional signal from the earth's magnetic field. This signal is amplified and sent
into a slaving torque motor in the remotely-mounted directional gyro. This motor
causes the DG to precess until it indicates the relationship between the nose of the
aircrefl and the earth's magnetic field. When the gyro precesses, it drives the rotor
of an synchro transmitter which is etectricaUy connected to a synchro motor Inside
the compass indicator named; Radio Magnetic JndicatorRMI, Radio Directloo Indicator RDI or Horizontal Srtuation Indicator HSI. That dnves the headlng d1al. By
using thts mechanism, the actual magnetfc heading of th~ aircraft at any time is
shown by the posrtloo of the heading dial against the lubber line.
Figure 119:
Figure 118:
400il
!iL.J
Synchronizing
Knob
Flux
Valve
Flux
Valva
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Flux Valve
The flux valve is mounted In a wing tip or other location on lhe aircraft that has a
minimum of magne tic interference caused by various electrical circuits. it has a
highly permeable iron frame, or spider, made In the form of a segmented circle with
three legs radiating out from its center. An excitation coil is wound around the center of the spider, and pic~-up coils are wound around e8Ch of the three legs.
The excitation coli ls excited with 400 Hertz w11ose lletd periodically saturates the
arms of the spider and towers its permeability. When no corrent nows, the anr~s
are unsaturated and are able to aocepllines of flux from the earth' s; magnetic field,
but when they are saturated. !hey will not.
The position of the flux vatve ison a heading of magnetic north. The earth's magnetic field enters the arm of the spider during that portion of the cycle when it can
accept this flux and. as the field ls alternately accepted and rejected, it cuts across
the windings of the pick-up co~s and generates a voltage In them. This voltage is
amplified a.nd used to drive the slaving torque motor. As the aircraft turns to anolh
er magnetic heading, the relationship between the llux lines In each of the tJvee
B.mls ot the- spider changes, and for every head1ng there is a different phase rela
tionship generated in the pick-up co~s.
The varying three-phase AC voltage in the pick-up coils Is carried Into !he staved
gyro control has where Its output controls the variable phase voltage !hat is sent
into a tw~phase slaving torque motor in the directional gyro. This staving torque
motor applies a precise force on the directional gyro that causes 1t to turn until it
satisfies the signal being sent from the nux valve. The synchro system rotates the
dial of the RMI until it agrees with the signal from !he ftux valve.
Figure 120: Cut VIew
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Compass Systems
Figure 123:
Light Aircraft
The llux valve is locale<! in the aircraft tail or wing lip to prevent any influence ol
magnetic field induced by elecltic currents. The flux valVe senses the direction
(heading) of the earth magnetic field.
The heading is routed to a syndlro. If the directionat gyro Is not coindding with the
earth magnetic field, a synchro output voltage is applied to slaving amplifier. The
gyro torque motor produces a force to the gyro gimbal. The DG moves by preces.
sion to the actual magnetic heading direction.
As long the compass Is not synChronized with the earth magnebc field, the synchronisation indicator is deftected toward +or . For quick synchronisation the pilot
rotates the DG direction by SYN knob In + or direction until the syoc/vonisation
indicator is centred. Then the heading dial cofncides with the flux valve angle Information.
~ Syn.
- - - - v Knob
--
Gyro
Torque
Motor
A ir fr om Air Filter
Flux Valve
12VDC
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The Instrument amplifier gets the Rux valve heading and slaves the directional
gyro as long the mastershaft does not coincide. The direction of the directional
gyro Is repea ted to the mastershaft. Foor heading synchros feeding lhe heading to
the display and other systems.
::. ---
.
:
I
.. ~
SUlVIt4'
TOIIO\K OIOltlll
'
... I
"1:1
~
Mf
CAPTAIN'S
FIRST OFFICER'S
I
I
RADIO MAGNET IC
~ATOR
L---
--r---
'
I
I
~~~~~t +-----H-0;-w~
TJW'tS I
-..........
-
O&TA OUT
t t-----t
OillCl'IOti
.....,
........
I10C OAJ4 ~T l
~----..9
..o.t:Al'Ca
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The slaving rate of the directional gyro is very slow (2" 5" per mi nute). Thls caus
as a very long synchronisation time after applying eleelrical power. Lets assume
the position or mastershaft is 170" apart from flux valve signal. The synchronisation will take more than one hour.
To fast synchronizing the compass, the user may manually rotete the DG output
signal. After this is done the gyro Is not direc!Bd to magnetic north but together with
the rotation angle of the differential synchro it represents the heading reference.
~---
The synchronisetion annundator shows a plus or dot if lhe compass is not synchronized. Rotating the knob located on the RDI in the same direction will synchronize to the correct direction. If the knob is rotated opposite the annunciated + or
dot, the compass will show 180" wrong because of the second (wrong) nun position of a synchro control transformer.
'
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I
.. I
.'"'~ .
N5W'C
I
I
I
L---
--r--'
OIRECTIOI-IAL
GYRO
~~~t-----~~~
TIUHS I
......
oucoa
..OOOATAOUT2t----~
SYHCH
ANHUNCATOR
---......
rQ;
INSTRUMEHT AMPI.JFIER
AAOIO DIRECTION
INOICATIOR
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New Technology
The IRS part of the ADIRU provides ai rcraft heading to the E~IS end ODRMI. T~e
magnetic heading is derived from true heading. Megnelic vanattons are stored anside IRS memory. No flux valves are used any more. The DDRMI Dual Distance
Redio Magnetic Indicator shows magnetic heading from ADIRU 1 or ADIRU 3.
tehnika
PFD and NO showing the magnetic or dependi ng of aircraft and operation mode
the true (directed to geographic north) or magnetic heading. If the NO operates in
PLAN- mode, the horizontal situaliorlls directed true north upward.
Figure 129: Glass Cockpit
PFO
NO ROSEMOOE
G$ Ul$ TAS 1$0
..$ APP
'tl
"'
'"'.
IIAAOOol7
1:1.0111.1
1U5
.
NO ARC MODE
,,_
NO PLAN MODE
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Compass Errors
Figure 130:
OeHOQting
Magnt Field
E:!l-
-----CONPEHSAl'lOtf
f ..a.o
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e-
tiKIDy-1
'in!JL--t
[ -W
H~ral
STEER
357
fat
STEER
1 81
211
30
60
26
210
58
240
89
120
150
1 20
152
300
330
241
272
302
331
Poltlon
11-S
COmpe-nsatfng Potlt1on
f()l.
M- S
~(!
[-1'1
TN
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... ,..
lnde.x error
Causing:
Correction:
...
Correction:
Causing:
..~ +--~---1---l\---i-
HEADING
Remote compensator
Installed In commercial aircraft makes compensation of compass errors easier.
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Oust
Cover
the mandatory paramet8l'S. Early reoorders etched the vertical acceleration, altitude, speed, heading and lime in a heal resistant and impact protected metal! foil.
Today the digital recorder gets about 50 mandatory parameter via flight data interface unit and the parameter are stored for 25 - 50 hours on a magnetic tape or solid
state memory.
The underwater locator beacon will transmit a 37kHz tone if it Is Immersed in water
lo locate the recorder after an accident.
I
I
Timc(U TC)
Event
Button
System
P:~rameter
Navlgatlon
Para meter
rations Land in g
Gear
~ Flight Data
Recorder
I
E.l octronlc
Clrquit Boards
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The purpose of the Digital Flight Data Recorder Sysiem (DFDRS) is to record vat
ious cr'ifical flight parameters in a solid state memory to fulfil lhe mandatory re
quiremenls of crash recording .
The DFDRS basically includes a FUght Data Acquisition Unit, a Flight Date Recorder (FOR), a Linear Accelerometer, an Event push button and a control panel
to meet the minimum requirements.
~ Lino~r
A ceelcromata r
The Aighi Data Acquisition Unit Is a computer which collects various basic Aircraft
System parameters and converls lhem by internal processing.
The ftight data recorder Is located in the rear part of the alrcraft. lt &tares, In a solid
state memory the data of the last 25 hours collected by the FDAU. The memory
board is located in a mechanical protected box. The front taoe of the FOR includes
an Underwater Locator Beacon.
!<light Data
Aqulaltlon Unit
...___
Alran~n
SySTems
The ain:raft systems send basic parameters to the Right Data Acquisltlon U n~
(FOAU) via various system computers. The informatlon about the aircraft is given
to the FDAU directly by pin programming.
The Linear Aocelerometer is installed at the aircraft oenter of gravity to provide lhe
three axes acceleration data
When pushed, the EVENT push button is used to record an event mar'k in the
Flight Data Recorder (FOR) memory. The EVENT push button is located on lhe
pedestal.
OFOR
Eve.nt
Power lnterlod<. The Alght Data Recorder Is automatically supplied wilh power
when one engine Is started and will stop five minutes after the fast engine shut
down.
For test and maintenance purposes on ground as wen as for preflight checK it is
possible to supply power to the FOR by pressing the ground control push button
on the overhead panel.
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Parameter
The Flight Data Acquisition Unit collects many different mandatory parameters for
recording. Today about 300 parameteiS are recorded. In earfler versions between
6 and 50.
Here some example:
21: Temperatures, Pressures, Airflows
22: Engagement and Operational Modes
23: HF VHF Transmission Activities (PTI)
24 : Power Distribution Configuration, SWitching
26: Rre and Smoke Warnings
27: Various Flight Controls
28: Configuration, Quantities
29: Pressure, Quantity, Temperatures
30: Configuration, Pressure, Temperatures
31: Wamings. T1me
32: Configuration, Brake
34: Airdata. Position. Heading, ILS, Wamings
36: Configuration, Pressure, Temperature
70: EGT. EPR, N1, N2, 0~ Temp, Thrust
digital
discrete
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The tht'ee axes accelerometer detects acceleration along the longitudinal, the lateral and the vertical axes. The unit is atlhe cent er of gravity of the aircraft.
You lind the undetWater locator beacon on the front panel or the ftight data recorder. The beacon has a hi gh rmpact case which contains: - a mercury battery a water sensitive switch an electr onic Umer module . a piezo - electric transducer.
The unit has for each axes a sensor. The sensor has a bar. 1'1'1\lch bends, when
there is en acceleration. The resistance value of the strain gauge changes when
the bar bends. The strain gauge is a part of a resistance bridge ~nd results in a
change In the ou1put voltage.
Or tha acceleration force moves a pendulum in lho sensing mechanlsm. The detector forces the sensing-mass always to center position. The current from the ampiifler is proportional with the acceleration.
Alter water entry it transmits every second a 37,5 kH~ pulse. The range of the beacon is 2 miles in any direction and the system operates for about 30 days. At one
side or the beacon i s an end cap with the name BATIERY ACCES, the other eod
cap contains the water switch. Keep the switch end of the beacon clean and replace ltle bettary when the label "REPLACE BAITERY BY:" tells you to do so.
Figure 138:
Figure 137:
Watu
Switch
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Vertical
-~-o.j
Acceleromc tor
HFNHF'
COMM -~---~
Push to Talk
M agnetic
Heading --6---~
Pltot
Air Speed
SUilic:
Clrco.lt
Ftight data recorders are developed since world war U. In the 1960ties the reoorder
scratdled the most parameters with diamond needles in to a heat resistant metal
foil. The metal folll'las to be replaced when it was mted up with data.
For accident research, it was a tlme oonsumlng wt)lj( to find ell missing tape fragments and reading out the cause.
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~l Sol~~M-emory
lnpot/OutpUl ~
lntert;ace
~-+~roprocenor'
FOR
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or
accepting a large amount of engine and aircraft system data for lhe analysis for
trouble shooting, system engineering, procedure evaluation and flight crew sec-
Recording System
Print o r
I
- 1
M CDU 1
MCDU2
Air Cond
A ut0 Flight
Fligh!Cont
Fue I
LOG Gear
Nav ig11tion
Poe umatlc
EngIna
I
I
P rint
Order
..
~
B1/B2 Basic Training
Course
Recorder
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Introduc tion
Early automatic pllols were primarily pilot relief devices. which did bllle more than
hold the aircraft. straight and level. The introduction of transistorized electronics
permitted dramatic changes in the size. weight, and power requirements of automatic pilots. The automatic pilot has grown to become a system that is utilized in
aU phases of night and has, as sudl, acquired its more modem Identification as an
Autom allc Flight Control System.
Commercial Aircrafts
The Automatic Flight Control Systems or AFCS. in modem jet transporls, are all
uniquely tailored to the specific aircraft, but all share common features. For example, the Right aerodynamics of a MD-1 1 are different from those of a A380; however, both a rcraft would most likely require an "attitude hold" mode of operabon.
In this case, the attitude hold feature is common to both autopilot designs. but
gains in the two autopilots wiD differ to accommodate the differences in the aerodynamics of each aircrafl. Each AFCS receives attitude and heading signals from
a vertical and directional gyro end has its own rate gyro/accelerometer system t.o
develop attitude and flrght path stabiliz.atlon signals. The AFCS computers comprise an electronic "brain" that receives signals from ils "senses to compute the
proper responses and provides outputs to electric and/or hydraulic actuators that
are then "muscles" whid't move the aircraft's control surfaces.
Cl"""""""''tf"""''"""'""'"' -"'D'"-"\J
0 ' """'" '" "" 0 """" ' "'"""0"'-" " '""'"""0 - ..--.. Q
S malle r Aircraft
The need for Automatic Flight Control in smaller aircraft has produced autopilots
with varying degrees of com plexity; from simple slngl~s "wing levelers in smau
single engine aircraft, aU the v1ay up to three-axis systems for corporate jet ai~raft
that have as many fe atures and functions as those syslems found on jet transport
aircraft. Au!opllols, from !he slmple to the complex, have undoubtedly reduced pilOt workload and mental fatigue throughout all areas of the Might envelope.
Helicopters
Helicopters are relatively unslable ai~raft requiring con$1anl attention of the pilot
even under smooth flight conditions. Helicopters must be conllolled from :~:ero forward speed to speeds approaching 200 mlle.s per hour. Additionally, since they
can fly sideways and backwards as well, a completely new design approach was
required.
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1o---f~-;-Out
ln---
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Feedback Controls
Feedback controls are widely used in modem automated sysl.e ms. A feedback
conb"OI system cooststs of five basic components:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
input
process being cootroUed
output
sensing elements
r --- -- 1
!nput -~---<.t
The Input to the system Is ttle reference val ue, or set point, for the system output.
This represents the desired operating value oflhe outpllt. Using in example a heating system. tne input is the desired temperature setting for a room. The process
being controned is the h eater. In other feedback systems, the process might be a
steering system or lhe engines of a aircraft. Also the automobile engine i n cruise
contra~ 01' any of a variety of other processes to which power is applied. The output
Is the variable of the prooess that is being measured and compared to the input;
In the above example, it is room temperature.
:J
Feedback
Sensing elements
The sensing elemen\3 ere the measuring devloes used In the feedback loop to
monitor the value of the output variable. In the heating system example, this function Is nocmally accompliShed using a temperature sensor. There are many dlfferent kinds of sensors used in feedback control systems for automation
The purpose of the Controller and actuabng device in the feedback system Is to
compare the measured output value wi th the reference input value and to reduce
the difference between them. In general, !he controller and aauator or the system
are the mechanisms by which changes in the pc-ocess are accomplished to influence the output 'larlable. These mechanisms are usually designed specifically for
1he system and consist of devices such as motors, valves. solenoid switches, piston cylinders, gears, power screws, pulley systems, chain drives, and other mechanical and electrical components. When the output (room temperature) is below
the set point, the controller toms on the heater. When the temperature exceeds the
set point, the heater is t urned off.
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Synchronisation
During the time, when the human pilot steers manually the aircraft, the attitude reference provides the actual attitude infonnat!on {2) to the autopilot computer. The
outpul of the internal summing point is feeded back instead of input (1) to wash out
any builded up signal to the serve.
This mode iS called synchronisation. Tile synchronisation is necessary to prevent any jerks of the flight controls at lhe moment of autopilot engagement.
A disengaged autopilot synchronizes with the actual aircraft attitude, therefore
the autopilot must be always electricaUy powered and tunctlonal operative.
S.rw
Autopilot e ngag e d
The navigation system and sensors provides a steering command (1) to the autopilot computer. The summing point feeds the steering order (3) to the servo. The
alraan reactlon is sensed by the attitude reference and acts as feedback (2) to the
summing point.
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The therm .Automatic Flight Control SyStem (AFCS) is to understand as a complex system, with the purpose to Increase the comfort for the passengers, to relief
the pilots roullne workload and to increase the stability of the airplane.
Depending of the aircraft model, different devices or Integrated Into one computer
unit will perform following functions:
Take-off
Today there is n o aJrcrafl certificated for an au tomadc take-off certllle<l. Some
function s like ytJW damper, pitch trim, auto trust etc. must or may be activated.
Crulso
The AFCS controls the aircraft around and along all three axes.
L anding
The AFCS fandsthe aircraft automatically, including align, Hare, nose towering and
roll out.
attack) the AFCS calculates and displays the minimum and maximum operating
airspeeds.
Roll out
The AFCS steers and mai ntains the alrplane along the runway centertlne.
Depending of the environment condition (temperature and air pressure) end the
Yaw damp er YD
The YD is damping dutch rolling, assisting the lateral steering by turn coordination
and eliminates gusty wind effects dose the ground. The electronic controlled acllve ruddet" comp ensates every srnaU distortion around the alrcrafts yew axis.
Control wheel s teer ing CWS
With no autopilot engaged, aneroos and elevators are deflected via electro-hydraunc servos manually controlled by force sensors installed at the control wheel
and column.
A utomatic p itch trim APT
If lhe elevator is dellected over a longer time, the AFCS trims the horizontal stabil izer to eliminate the elevator defleclloo load.
l ongitudi nal sblbility augmentation syst em l.SAS
Large alrctalts wi th redu ced size o f horizontal stabilizers needing an electronic
controlled ecuve elevator compensating every small dlst0111on around the aircratt.s
pUch axis.
According tile aircraft contlguratioo (landing gear, ftap, slat, weight and angle of
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Fail safe
The crew Is part of the monitoring.
The
R11dundan t
etf111
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W he11 only one sensor of one kind Is available (one RA, one ILS)
Redundant modes
In these modes the extra equlpmeot is really-In use:
Take Off
Land
Go Around
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After a single failure the system continues Its operation but degrades to fail passive.
When you give more redundancy by adding a third or a fourth channel, the auto-
flight system becomes a fail operational status. This is used in critical modes like
Take-<lff, Land and Go-around.
Triple configuration
Example: Boeing 747, Fokker-100
Quadruple configuration
Example: M0-11, Airbus A320. A330. A340
r------
I
--c;=I
I
I
I
-- -c:::::=-
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Example MDBO
The Digital Flfght Guidance Computer is a dual channel unil lt receives all neces
sary inputs to calculate outputs wtlich afe send to eU ~ers .
Flight Guidance Control Panel: Engagement and mode selection of Autopllot,
Flight Diredor and Auto throttle.
Flight Mode Annunciator. Displays the preselected and active operational
mode.
Attitude Direction Indicator (ADI) shows deviation of the actual speed against
optimum or presetecte<l speed and Flight Director commands.
Automatic Reserve Trust increases engine power if one engine falls during
take off.
EPR Synchronisation controls both engines to keep Identical trusL
Auto ltvottle Servo moves both power levers to reach and maintain the desired trust or speed.
Engine Pressure (EPR) Limit Is the limiting parameter for the engine. The limit
depends from outside temperature, blee<l air consumption, a1r pressure and
flight phase.
Speed Bug shows the selected speed at the airspeed indicator. lt also represents the auto throttle desired speed.
Altitude Alert Light and sound reminding the crew to maintain the correct flight
level.
Aileron Servo steers the airgaft around roll (x) axis With ailerons.
Elevator Servo steers the aircraft around pflch (y) a><ls with elevators.
Auto Pitch Trim controls stabilizer to eliminate a durable elevator deflection.
Mach Trim counteracts lhe nose do'vn tendency of the aircraft when flying a
high Mach number.
Rudder Servo s teers around yaw (z) axis at low airspeed with great ruddardenectlons. For roll out guidance. the nose wheel steering system Is driven by
rudder servo.
Yaw Damper counteracts dutch rolling and performs the tum coordination
function.
......-~161
~--~~~~~~~~~~~~
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WAM GEAR 1819tfti
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hCGC
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E!oiCtr&E MID CE Of
AUtO M!iJiflt'E n.AL.aT0..
...Sl...,...,tuT 0..
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I
I
I
I
I
..._
88
ehnika
Example A320
The interactive Flight Management and Guidance System (FMGS) provides predictions of flight time, mileage, speed, economy profiles and altitude. lt reduces
cockpit workload, improves effidency and eliminates many routine operations nocmally performed by the pilots.
During cockpit preparation, the pilot inserts a planned route from origin to destination via the Multifunction Control and Display Unrts (MCOUs). This route Includes
the departure, enroute waypoints, arrival, approach. missed approach and allernata routes as selected from the NAV data b~se . The system generates optimum
vertical and lateral flight profiles and predicted progress along the entire flight path.
Either FMGC performs all operations If one FMGC fails.
The pilot may modify any Pight parameter on a short term basis (SPD. VIS,
HOG...and the FMGS will guide the aircraft to the manuaUy selected target.
NavJg:..Uon
Pwformenc:e
Opllmb:_.;on
FPLN MIUI!I-81\1
tAa~ Oo.okl..,..
Computation
tnlo<matlon lx.ptav
AulOpifol C<>.....,.,nd
-Y-~lno
RuddWTrim
Rudde< Umlllng
- Fllthl a.w.ropo
6peod Compul-ation
Wln-Prot-fl
Lov< l!ne'll\' \Von>lrl!l
89
ehnika
The aircraft is equipped with an automatic flight system (AFS). The AFS supplies
automatic lllght control and flight cl"9w guidance during the full night envelope
(from takeoff above 100 feet through ground roll out after landing).
The AFS Provides the fOllowing functions:
Automatic ILS approach.
Longitudinal stability augmentatloo system (LSAS ).
Speoo envelope limiting (Auto throttle alld LSAS).
Dual autopilot (AP), flight director (FD).
Auto throttle system (ATS) I engine trim control.
Automatic pitch trim in AP and LSAS.
Full-t~.,e parallel actuation ro[l cootrol wheel steering {CWS) with roll attitude
hold when the AP is not engaged.
Windshear warning with AP FO, and A TS compensation.
Yaw damping I tum coordination.
Elevator load feel (ELF} control end flap limiling (FL).
Automatic ground spo~er (AGS).
Stall warning with stick shaker and auto slat extend.
Altitude alerting with visual and aural warnings.
90
ehnika
Automatic
Fligttt
System
l
Autopil01
Fllghl
Dlr6Clor
Stab ility
Au gm entation
Manual
l nd~odCif'lt
Augmentation
Flight Systems
Automa tlo
ThrotUe/
Engine Trim
w:><nlng
SyatAima
l'~ ght
Conll'<ll
Cornputcl'
Maint~u!lnce
Flight M Annund..tion
Plleb C0<1ttoj
(LSAS)
- Roll Control
Ylrw Control
Combine:d
Pll<:ll and Roll
Pitch Conln>l
(I.SASI
- Roll Control
~YMConliO I
- Cj>inhln<O<I
Automalic
Automadc
P ltci>Tflm
Wlnda.l"'cJtr
Compen:mtion
-Winda....,
-Sillgle, O..al
-Single, Oua l
Land
CatiU!I
Auto Land
Pitcf\ Trim
Comptneatfon
La1,d
Cot !I
Landing
-Longitudinal
Stablllly
Augrnentalion
System (LSAS)
Pitc"- Cont..rot
L.aton~riAoiJ
Control Wheel
StHring(CWSI
Pitch
COntrol
~ !1ovaf0f
R<>N
-Flop Umlting
control
_,_
Control
-U!t
Cotnpet1.satfo n
LM<IF. .I
A1,1Iomatio
Q.found
Sflallltr
AolloSiit
l.xtenel
-'IllControl
-staJ
-Thrust
Control
Aulomadc
li1>e6d
Comrot
- AYtomatlc
Spwd
Trllls.l tfon
Yl;unlng
Slat Extonslon
Wind!:homr
De4ec:Uon
Altitude
AIWI
... AP Dl.sc.
-Cune.nt
Faullol
Fault Aovi..
- Return to
S c ndc:'!O T85"t
Sf!M'OI"
- t:raee
...
Utl.N enne.
Y.aw D ztmplng
- T urn
-l!ngi.fte. Trim
Coor<ltnatlon
-ovo"'Pfi'l
M cmo<y
Autotn.3_tio
F ul1
Protetion
~opordng
Lift
C4mpen~ation
Un elerspnd
TatQ ol SP"'d
- Lallrw l o att
AII/IU-tJcaf Of tAl
- Conlfol rAodes
AuntWwnln g
.. Armed r.Aoetll!!il
91
~oa1~
Autopilot
tehnika
General
The autopilot represents a closed control loop. The aulopaot controls the aircraft
via the associated sefVQs In the ri ght order to ny.
If the autopllol is not engaged, clutches are open so the pnot llas to control the
plane. Then the autopllot Is synchronizing during thts lime lhe output of the servos
lo zero, so the autopilot can be engaged at any tune with no jesldng aircraft movements.
The aircraft response is sensed by different sensors and applied as response i nformation back to the autopilot.
The pilot ta$k are:
Mode selection and switching
Setting of different navigation parameter nke spee<ls, altitude,
radio frequencies.
Selection of aircraft configurations such as Raps, slats. landing gear, trim .
Attltu<to
Htidir>IJ
AJiiludtt
S!>"d
LOCIOP
VOR
Rcfio Aldtua
AJC Acspon:.c
tnftM'tl'lation
92
~oa.1~
Control Panel
ehnika
are used to engage the autopilot, presetting the parameters and mode selection.
G;J
[25]
ELEV
0
T...
Aoll'f.tm
OH
li
u
DC9
Analog
M0-80
Digital flight guidance system
93
ehnika
Soeln.g 747
nple autopilot system
IAI( . )14.. CN
m-11
ual autopilot system
HOG(. )Ill
Em
..~.
@
@!]
1UM1j
MD-11
MMageoWDtUIJChDOT
"CU
,CU
lllanllgcd
wiftdo-.
HNcllng(Trac:ll;
Wlncfow
Lateral
DOT
$P~
lfl'Dor Mtcf'
...K_
""00
AP El'lfOSIIMIM
IUTHAActiv.allan
....
SWCI:Qt
'-+--ec.u
Mr
__..:.;"""="---'
'~:::u~:..
AIK1CW
P'Uib&lf*l
94
~oa1~
tehnika
The autothrottleJautolhi\ISt, autopilot and flight director operational modes are displayed at t he :opecified fligtJt mode annunciator or integrated in the primary flight
display.
~teraJ
J
m0<1""
Thmnle
SPD
250
Ron
I'P R
VOil
EPR
VOFI
ALT
G/A
MACH
SPD
" U'A
EPII
tACT
ALT
EPR
Cl.
t i,A.V
EPII
LOC
SPD
CR
F LAP
~R
I.IM
SlAT
u!
SPD
LOW
~-~
VMO
Atl.
LIM
~V.CH
"''10
ATL
Ut.l
~PEEO I ~
TIO
~
AP
Armed
Cl..l AP
AP
Hor ~on
Throttl@o l.kxfe
~I;!
11
Hc!ading
APTrlm M<lnllor
ILS
NOAuloland
LND
TAX
SP II
OFF
GO
ALT
GO
A LT
TRIC
FIUD
HLII
RND
VOA
CRS
HDO
A LT
CAP
FLAR
HLD
HOO
MACH
110
FLR
IAS
AUT
LND
AUT
G/A
SilL
F/0
AUT
G/A
LND
ALN
LOC
ROL
OUT
GS
NAV
TUI'B
TA K
Vlt<Q
LVL
ln:P,gaO"'<<CCH . . CfetNi'lt.
........ 11-NI~
atun(OI
at~CDJ
GS
LOC
CAP
t.Un.
111tudc CIONMI'alnt on I
V I!RT
OFF
GIA
ALT
TAlC
\lOA
MAH
n >'~'< IT~
r-
u-aentl ~
CAP
Al.T
1'-S
I AP~ tr-
flad(A}
..,_(AJ
W.tlfli(W)
ulo
l.OC
ILS
AP
2
rx- MDA
HOG CA{ 3
LOC Singlo 1~
DH100 AITHR
Pitch Mo~e
IAode
VOR
I I
C<IP8bil~ie&' OH
CAP
CAP
NAV
T RK
TRIC
OUT
SPD
L OW
95
EJO/?IEJ tehnika
Flight Director
lntroductlon
In 1950, an entirely new Idea in flight instrumentation, ltle original flight director or
Zero Reader, was introduced.
This system took information from the cockpit instrl.lments and gyros, processed it
through an electronic computer, end presllflted it as How to Fly Information on a
single Indicator. Thus, Inst ead of having to calculate for himself from flve or six dif
ferent instruments. a pilot could navigate and make landing approaches simply by
zeroing or centering two cross-pointers on the Indicator.
A flight director (FD) system In simple form is designed to provide computed steerIng commands to the command bars of the ADI andlor to an autopilot system. The
syslem uses various signal Inputs such as:
Air data
Radio
Course rnformation
Heading Informat ion
Vertlca I gyro
to generate the computed steering commands. A typical flight o:llrector system, like
an autopilot system, can be di vided Into four parts:
SensOI'S
Computer
Controls
Loads
rhe sef\SOI"S provide the raw data to be processed by the computer. The High! dt
ector mode &elector tells the computer which raw data to use, depending on pilot
node preference. 11le computer processes the raw data and gain scales the Infernation to be di splayed on the ADI command bars andlor to the autopilot computer.
RWA Data
Air O..ta
Computer
Loads
AO t
Command
B ars
~
~
Nav/Redios
~
and OME
' 1J.
Course
!----<
Heading
!----<
r---
Flight
Director
Computer
Flight
Director
____,
Autopilot
Comput er
Mode
Sei8Ctor
Radio
Altitude
:----
Vertical
Gyro
96
~oa1~
Flight Director
tehnika
One advance In fllghl instrumentation is the flight director. This instrvment functions lil<e an attitude indicator with the addition of the steering bars. The triangular
delta or wings symbol represents the alrpfane, and the steering bars are controlled
by the autop~ot command and error-sensing systems.
Rather than sending tfle signals to the appropriate servos to actually control the
aircraft, the signets are sent to the steering bars that tell the pllot what to do. For
example, the flight dlrector is temng the pilot to pitch the nose up and turn to the
right. The flight director shows the pilot the changes tomal<e in pitch and roll ifl the
same way lha honz:ontal situation Indicator {HSI} shows the pilot the proper changes to make io directional flight.
Steering
Bars
D elta
Symbol
Aerodyn;:omio Response
,-----------------------------------------------
'
Xaw or Rudder
Comand Bar
FOf landing approach or tal<eoff Climb also a flight Pa th Director can be used. The
director shows the commanded night path angle and track. The vector shows the
actual flight path angle and track.
97
EJO/?IEJ tehnika
Principle of FD Indication
Example
1. Aircraft flies heading 090. Preselected heading is 150.
2. Roll command bar orders right bank.
3.
4.
5.
98
~oa1~
Actuators
tehnika
S81Vos vary in complexity with the size ot the aircraft in whic!l they are installed.
and with the aerodynamic forces they must control.
Sue lion
from
Pneumatic Servo
The simplest servo is pneumatic and uses a diaphragm moved by either suction
or a positive air pressure from the gyro pi<:llff. Th;s d iaphragm is auached to the
control cable by a clamp and it pulls on the cable at the command of the autopilol
I'
I
. - - - - - - - - Clutch e11ga~ L
.....----J
- =:1
I
~
compu~~'
m"""'
Command
L- ___ _
:::=J
"' --
r-+-~
!
G __ 1!!!!:.f
[G;;l_ r, ]JJ
;< !
!.;~
_____A
_c
--......__---
Conb'OI SIKfoce
Servo Motor
If the au top~ot computer determines that the c~n trol surface should be moved up,
the computed command ca!ls for control surface movement up. The signal from
the follow-up synchro is of a phase opposite to !hat of the computed command.
Tlleraf()I'EI, control sutface movement will stop when the follow-up signal equals
the computed command.
99
ehnika
EJO/?IEJ
Rudder Servo
This actuator rotates the cable drum. For system redundancy motors are used.
The actuator operates fn parallel mode. The rudder pedals are moving with rudder
movements. The deftection of the rudder is +/- 25".
This acwator moves the oulput rod in ~near direction. The input to the rudder system is on serie mode. No movements at the rudder pedals are existent The ruoder
deflection Is +/- 3-6.
Follow~
Up T~ - - - - ---..
DriVe
. .,
I A_--:------,
Rate ~l
t-~
1$1![$1
$ir' J~
I
o u al Rud der
SIINO Drive
-1
,b.: :
f4!.11
,;
Rate~l
Drive
r~- -- -------J : :
0-J
) rt>.
Follow~
~ngag e
511
Rudder
[J Cl . ..,.,
"
~-~~~:iii
.
Servo Drum
Rud der
r--- -- -""~ab
"-,
kfl
.1"
~-------J ~
Up
Pedals
I
1
Dllm.p&;~ -,
I A 01Uiil10f'
r1:.
'L- -L---~f~J
R\lddor
Ser
Rud <klr
Rudder c = : : : ?AB
c;::y-
Peel~$
(j[J
\.
~....._---r- -
L - - - - - - - - .J
r--E3=-
H~tf.o\ci\uiilon ro'Ctcsfab
100
~oa1~
tehnika
The mechanical output of autopilot servos are applied in two different manners to
tile ftlght control system:
Serie Mode
Parell!ll Mode.
Sl.lmmlng
Lin"
Input
from Pedal s
Serle Mode
The Yaw Damper $ervo movement Is added (in serie) to lhe input from the pedals .
There is no feedback to the pedals feelable. The rudder deflections are small.
(up to -+I- 6')
This mode is used fOf' yaw damper function during cruise.
Parallel Mode
In critical modes like Taxe-otf, Land, Go-around and Engine-failure, the serve
movement is <liredly (parallel) applied to lhe pedal input. The pedals win move a~
cordingly . The rudder deflection authority can be large. (up to 25')
This mode is active during take-<>lf, approach, landing and go-around.
Input
to Pedals
Fix.ed
Lin k
101
ehnika
Operational Modes
Take Off
This is the mode In which the system powers-up on the ground. In the tak&-off
mode the auto flight system gives steeling signals for the ground roll, rotation,
lift-off and climb-out segments of tile take-off.
Aircraft on the ground and up to 35 - 100 fttet of radio aHltude:
The AFS glves ffight director commands only.
Above 35- 100 feet
it Is allowed to engage the autopilot.
AlP Engagod
' ... ,
...
v, Decision Speed
VR Rotation Speed
V2 Take Off Safety Speed
102
ehnika
Landing
This mode provides the capture ~md !reek of the ILS beam (LOC and GLIDE) and
ensures the following fUnctions: alignment, flare and roUout.
This mode is ava~able for AP and FD. it enables landings lo be performed in
CAT2/ CAT3 operation. Therefore, the selection of the LAND mode authorizes the
engagement of a second AP.
Tho arming of the LAND mode enables the LOC and GUDE modes to be armed
on the lateral and longitudinal axes. When the aircraff is stabmzed on the LOC and
GLIDE beams: the AP/ FD guides the aircraft a!ong the ILS beam to 30 ft. At this
altitude, the lAND mode provides the alignment on the runway center line on the
yaw axis and ftare on the pitch axis.
The ROLLOUT submode is engaged at touch doWn and provides guidance on the
runway centtlf" line. As the lAND mode is latched below 400 11, it can be deactivated only by engaging the GO AROUND mode . Actions on the FCU are no longer
taken into account.
Figure 35:
103
ehnika
Land !.lode
Ann
104
ehnika
A Brief History
The 9th or January, 1969, an Air lnterCaraveUe became the first aircraft In the history of civil aviation to land in actual Category Ill A conditions during a commercial
ftight (Lyon-Pans). This approval was the direct result ot successful flight tests
made since 1962.
Sinoe then, many aircraft were granted approval for Category Ill A, su<:h as the Tri
dent, the 8747 (1971) or lhe Concorde (1975). In 1974, lheA300 was certified for
Category 111 B, followed by the A310 (1983) and also the A300-600 (1984): FaRoperational automatic landing was firat u&ed for these type ol operations, but 1! was
found useful to develop fa~passive capability in order to satisfy airline requests.
Currently, Airbus lndustrie Aircraft are oertified both wi th rail-passive (Umited to OH
=5{) ft..) and fail-operatlonal1anding SY'Iems.
Economic As p ects
CAT 11/111 equipment represents a slgnif~eanl cost for an airline. However: lt Is .the
only way to keep in-line services during the wnole year wthout any dvers1on
Weather conditions ma1nly depend on the airlield location, nevertheless actual
CAT 11 or CAT Ill conditions may occur at any alrfleld during some periods of !he
year. Diversions are expensive ror an airline: directly by passenger_ compen~llon
costs but also by the resulting bad 'image'. For these reasons, gett1ng operatiOnal
approval for CAT 11 and CAT Ill approaches may be considered as a necessary
step in the evolution or a modern airline.
105
EJO/?IEJ tehnika
:orce $ensors are Installed in the mechanical steering links or directly inside the
:ontrol wheel hub. If the pilot is manually steering. sensors takes the applied force
rom ltle control wheel to ltle autopilot computer. The output is electrlcally send to
he serve actuator. The movement of ltle control suriaoe is mechanically feed back
o the control column and w heel.
"he cootrol wheel steering Pf'Ovide, lateral and vertical stability through eleclronic
:ontrol of ailerons and elevators when the AP is not engaged.
'Vith no foroe on the control wheel the aircrafl holds the CtJrrent al titude. Forces on
he conlrOI wheel command an aircraft roll and p~ch rate proportiooal to the aplled force so that when the force Is removed from the control wtleel the aircraft
oolds ltle new attitude. This simplifies the steering of the airplane and is also a pro3Ction against excessive steering commands by the pilots.
':INS is available when the ftlghl control computer is operational but not engaged.
Forcs
~c~ w""''
Ple~Aealallve
Force Setl$or
iff!
1~1
Force
Transducer
106
ehnika
Fly By Wire
Sidesticks are used to fty the eircrnft in pitch end roll. The pilot i nputs are interpreted by the computers and move the flight controls as necessaJ)' to achieve the de
sired flight p ath. However. regardless of the paors input the computers will prevent
excessnre manoeuvres and exceeding of the safe flight envelope. The flight con trol surfaces are all electrically controlled and hydrauticany 21ctuaterl. One of the
advantages of 1ty by wire 11; that the aircraft is slmpler to fly than a conventfonal
aircraft
Side$tlcl< released
Sldestick pushed
If the sldestlck Is cantered the aircraft will maintain l ts etlitude. oenection of lhe
sidestick represents a pitch or roll attitude change with a predetermined rate.
The autop~ot will provide the commands directly in to the night control computers
of the fty by wire system instead o f the side stick signal.
Figure 31 : System Layout
FMdback
+~1~.0g
0~9~--------~~~--------------,~~--------------
107
ehnika
Go-A round
In the go-around mode the autoflight system gives pitch, roll, and thrust steering
signal s to control the aircraft on a safe climb-<>ut from an unsuccessful approach.
There are switches on the thrust levers to select the go-around mode. The GA selection automatlcaWy engages the ATS, selects HOG hold mode on, and a safe
speed In the speed display.
On other aircraft types the throttles must be manually moved to fully rorward position. The Go-around lhrosl will be demanded from the engillB and automatically a
positive safe climb is Initiated. Tile wings are leveled and at a safe altitude heading
hold or heading select mode is initiated.
Trl~
Activated in flight :
- g o-around m o d e eng<~gcd
- ATS selects go-around thrust
- AP r emai ns engaged
108
ehnika
Heading Hold
In the heading hold mode the autopilot makes steeling signals to hold the aircraft's eXIsting heading. When the crew selects the HOG hold mode wnlle tne aircraft Is io a roll. lhe AFCS first levels the aircraft off. The heading hold mode is lhe
basic ron mode.
Heading
Heading Select
In the heading select mode the AFCS controls the a1rcraft to capture and hold the
heading which the crew selects on the flight mode panol.
tnt.'til"dOWII
Selected
Heading
109
ehnika
Altitude Hold
In the altitude hold mode the auto flight system makes steering signats to levelltle
aircrafl off and it !hen holds the altitude at which the airaaft was nying when the
altitude hold mode was ini!Jated by pressing the selector knob momentary in.
Hold Attitude
Altitude Select
The auto flight system makes steering signals to level the aircraft off at a preselected altitude and then 1t holds the altitude. The alraafl was climbing or descending wtth a preselected vertical speed or in the level change mode.
' , '\..
Level change or vortical
'~Speed mode
Altitude Track
110
ehnika
Level Change
The level change mode is a combination o f en speed mode end a thiUst mode
(when AT Is engaged). With this combination AFCS lties the airaal't from an old
flight level to a new preselecled al~tude. in the level change mode lhe AFCS
makes steering signals to control the speed or the airaaft with the elevator (IAS or
M sated mode). Auto ltvottle controls the et~glnes to lhe upper limit In level change
climb or lhe lower limit in descanl The vertical speed in this mode depends on air
crtltl weight etc. The AFCS stays In the level change mode until the aircr aft Is at
the preselected altitude and then it goes to altitude capture/hold.
P re Selected Altitude
Flight Path
~~
~orlzontat
Ve r1lcaf Speed
Speed
111
EJO/?IEJ tehnika
Lateral Navigation
In the navigation mode the ffight management computer gives st~Mring signals to
the flight control computers to control the heading of the aircraft.
vvv
Profile Navigation
Profile mode. In the profile mode the FMS gives vertical steering and thrust commands to lhe mght control computers. The fflght management system does all the
altitude changes, sllitude captures, and sltltude holds when the AFCS Is in the profile mode.
112
ehnika
Pitch Trim
Function
The horizontal stabilizer is automatically positioned to off-load any steady state elevator deflections of more than 3 seCO!lds. The trim rate is varied with airspeed
and altitude to provide best perlormaoce for all flight oonditions.
Autometic pitch trim (APD function Is coniained in auto flight system.
Out-of-trim oonditions that could result in unacceptable trim funcflon causes lo disengage and are annunciated to the flight crew.
A x iA S xIs
s
w
113
EJO/?IEJ tehnika
The motor on the right drives a jaeksaew whose nut is attached to the forward spar
of the stabilizer. The stabilizer Is pivoted on the aft spar. Turning lhe jackscrew one
way or the other rai ses or lowers the nose of the stabiriZer. The motor itself could
be hydraulically operated and electrically controlled. or 1t could be a threephase
electric motor. Shown is 11 DC 11lectrlc motor.
TherB are always at least two stabilizer motors, and usually, both can drive into the
same differential gear box. If both are driving, the rate of operation is greater than
that of only one motor. If there are two electric motors . one is typically smaller and
dt'lves through a lower ra ~o gear train for slow speed operation. There might be
one hydraulic motor used for the fast operation, and an electric motor used for the
slow operation. Fast is used durlng takeoff and approadl, and slow Is used for
cruise. The slow opefatlon Is used by the autopHot system.
CAl>C
~
~,~~----~~
On the outboard horns or the cockpit control wheels are two swltclles mounted
close together whidl can be operated by one thumb.
Generally, the man ual operation of the stabiliZer trim system by tl'le pilot disconnects his autopilot. T he reasoning behind this arrangement is that. if the pilot
needs to trim the stabilizer. the autopilot is not doing its job correctly. Operation of
either the caplain's or first officer's wheel trim switches operates a priority relay
which disconnects from the motor any signals that might be generated by the automatic slabilizer trim coupler. The trim coupler is part of the automatic flight guidance system.
The baslc control signal for automatic stabili~er trim is the elevator posJIIOn. If the
level detectors see an elevator too far away from the falred position tor several
seconds, one of them wiU operate the servo motor to trim the stabi~zer up or down
as needed. When the elevators get close enough to the faired posibon, the level
detectors stop their operation of the servomotor.
An airspeed functlon usually controls the sensitivity of the level detectors. AI cruise
speeds, if the elevator is held pemaps as little as 1/4'away from the faired position,
the stabilizer trim system operates. AI approacll or tal(eotf speeds, automatic sta
bilizer trimming is not lnltlated unless the elevator is held much farther away from
the falred position.
114
ehnika
Yaw Damping
Introduction
~ --
Many of the high-speed jet airaaft with swept-back wings have the undesirable
problem of Dutch Roll fhght d'laracterlslics. This Is an oscillataty night condition
lhat can be vefY uncomfortable for the passengers and, to counteract it. these arccraft are equipped with yaw dampers.
- 4 S&C.
~
~
A rate gyro senses the rate of yaw of the aircraft and sends <1 signal to the rudder
servo that provides ii!St exactly the correct amount of rudder deflection to cancel
the Ou1ch Roll before it gets enough amplitude to be disturbing.
-=ie-
Oust -..~
The block diagram shows a 'yaw damper. The complete rudder channel may or
may not perfoml other funcbons, bu1 this is its most Important one. The dutch roll
is only dampened, it is not eliminated.
In the signal source on the left of the block diagram, yaw rate or yaw acceleration
Is caned uut. This signal is typically supplied by the inertial reference system, a
yew rare gyro or yaw accelerometers.
The shaper/Pfocessor accomplishes whaCever Is necessary in the way of conver
slon, smoothing, dampening, limiting, and gain control. Its output goes to the dutch
roll fitter.
~----------------------------------1A~~aMI
The dutch roll filter attenuates an signals which are not at the frequency of the
dutch roll. Its output Is a continuously changing command foc left rudder. then right
rudder, then back to left rudder and so on.
Sorw
Sisnl So...-co
4Ru~der I
Dutct1 Roll
ffltM
ate lhe rudder 1t1e correct am011nt to eliminate most of the dutch roll.
The small am011nt or dutch roll that Is not eliminated Is represented with a dashed
line coupling the alrplane to the signal source.
-0 SOC.
Shaper!Proceuer
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Auto ThrottlefThrust
Introduction
The auto throttle system controls the power setting of the engines to reach and
maintain a presetected speed or thrust limit. A SeNO moves the thrust levers or an
electronic signal (;9mmands the engine power v1a the engine control unit
s~ ~~--------~
S.IK:t
Tl'VU.!l Limit
IAS SELECT Provides control of throttles to capture and hold the selected reference airspeed.
Engine
Fuel Control
MACH HOLD Provides control of throttles to hold the current MACH number.
MACH SELECT Provides control of throttles to capture and hold the selected reference MACH number.
THRUST LIMIT/TARGET Provides control of throttles to capture and hold thrust at
the thrust limilltarget.
Thndt
Throttle Servo
Auto throttlel
SpiiOdcommand
Co mp u ter
RETARD Provides control of throttles to reduce thi\ISI at the appropriate radio altitude during the landing nare mode.
CLAMP Inhibits ATS control during takeoff at approximately 80 knots without causing disengagement of the ATS. Full manual ~ttle Is ava~able during this mode.
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Thrust Umit
The maximum allowable engine thrust is a function of:
Selected Flight mode like:
Take off
Take-off flexible for a derated take off
Go around
Maximum continuous thrust
Climb thrust
Cruise thrust
Ambient condition like:
Ram air temperature RAT or TAT
Airspeed CAS
Altitude
Bleed-alr demand from engine for.
Anti Ice and airconditioning.
The thrust limit Is shown as EPR-Limit or N1 Umlt depending of the engine model.
The limit Is shown at a dedicated indicator. Thrust rating indicator, EPR Indicator.
The auto throttle serve oontrols the engfne thrust to the Umil
The assumed temperature is used for a derated take off thrust limit computation.
This temperature is assumed to be higher than the actual oulside air temperatura.
TAT= T otal Air Temperature, RAT= Ram Air Temperature.
TO. Flexible Is used for noise abatement, environment and engine protection.
Alrdata:
RAT/CASIALT
T HRUST L IMIT
THRUST
RATING
CO MPUTATION
lt.IPACTPRESSURE
THRUST
LIMIT
INDICATION
N1 or EPR
AUTO THROTTLE
SYSTEM
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Build In Test
In advanced technology aircrafts with di gi tal flight guidance computers, test and
maintenance devices are Integrated to assist maintenance engineers for trouble
shooting. Some aircraft types are equipped with a dedicated auto tlight system status/test or maintenance panel, others use the multipurpose control and display
units (MCDU) to access the integrated fault isolation and detection system.
The DFGC runs continuous Internal self-tests and controls a vahd light (CMPVLD)
:>n the StatusfTesl Panel. Failures deteded by these self-tests and other automat
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The FIDS is connec1ed to O'le BITEs of lhe various AFS computers an d serves as
tehnika
!he SYSTEM BITE. The FIDS is linked in acquisitloo and rncoption to the Centralized Maintenance Computers (CMC's).
11 receives commands from the C MC, interprets these commands and transfers
them to the various BITEs concerned. lt can also request the BITE to give complementary information.
lt receives malfunction reports from BIT Es. manages these r eports and. If applicable, consolidates the BITE diagnosis and g&nerates a fault messag& which i s sent
to the CMC.
The AFS system BITE has two fault detection and isolation modes.
In NORMAL MODE, the system stores the failure data relevant to the AFS in
noovolatile memories and transmils thls data to the CMC.
In MENU MODE, th e FIOS transmits different menus and submenus accord
ing to the operator selection on the MCOU. This is only ava~able on the
ground when the CMC itself allows access to System Report Test. The AFS
maintenance system always operates in NORMAL MODE as long as ltis not
interrupted by a CMC request (System Report Test).
The power up test starts EJutomatically at power up provided that !!le aircraft Is on
the ground wilh engines stopped. lt will be Initiated too if the computer power supply has been cut off for more than four seconds under the same conditions.
BUILD IN TEST
tt the power up test is not Ok. yoo have to dialogue with the FMGC through the
CFDS in order to get more information about the failure.
The reading o f the BITE cootents of the FMGC through the GROUND REPORT
function gives the faulty component.
POWER UP TEST
IN OPERAnoN TEST
MCOUTEST
119
EJO/?IEJ tehnika
MCDU T est
Figure 55: Auto Flight System Report and Test Ini tiation
Each test request made from the MCDU Is aocepted only If the aircraft Is on the
QI'OI.Ind with engines stopped. The vali<!ity of all components can be Cflecked. All
the MCDU test reQuests to the FM are send through the FIDS
These tests are Initiated from the MCOU.
AFS Test used for.
Confirmation of an AFS l.RU faiJU19 before removal.
Chedl. of a correct Installation and operation of a new AFS lRU.
Exlnlctlon of the status of AFS computer peripheral dlscrntes from ARINC Input messages
lAND TEST:
This test enables to check avaRabirtty of LAND MODE. equipment and wiring
required to obtain CAT Ill.
,_cov
~ '"u
ill
El <...._c
9
Ei
i3
!
e
"utU
tAl
Gl
=
<A lOS
Gi
\. A.ST L C.a
~
...........
~~~..
-.c;p qA r
CC .... flC:.POAT
1\CPO~'Y
AYfO"rc;-a 6 T A'r US
Uil
00
~
liil
GROUND SCAN:
Simulates that the aircraft is flying. Exls~ng failures are logged In the BITE
memory
IN OPERATION TEST
The In Operation test is a cyclic test automatically perlonned when the system
operates. During In operation test. the va6dity of all components are checked.
A. .
MA l"'
-.c.""
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Optical Emission
(Infrared}
300GHz
Designation and abbreviations of ra dio frequencies:
RF Radio Frequency (Carrier)
IF Intermediate Frequency
OF Oscillator Frequency
AF Audio Frequency
"'
1mm
EHF
Extremely High Frequency
30GHz
1c m
3GHz
1dm
SHF
Super High Frequency
UHF
Ultra High Frequency
Table 1: Radar Bands
Band
Frequency f
Wavelength "-
225-390 MHz
133.3 76.9 an
n.9- 19.3cm
s
c
19.3 - 5.7 an
5.3-5.8 GHz
5.7. 5.2 an
5.8 2.8 cm
Ku
10.9-36 GHz
2.6 -0.8cm
36 -46 GHz
8.3 - 6.3 mm
300MHz
1m
30MH;:
10m
VHF
Very High Frequency
HF
High Frequency
Sli.!Hz
100m
MF
Medium Frequency
300KHz
Hem
LF
Low Frequency
30KHz
VLF
Very Low Frequency
3KHz
10km
100km
AF
Audio Frequency
30Hz
121
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Antenna Installation
VOR
G6do
Slope
DM E 2
Rl>dio Altimete r
122
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There are a variety of radio antennas, each designed for a specific radio and installation. Typically the radio antenna must be located on the exterior of the aircraft
or located near the exterior protected by a plastic or nooconductlve cover. Antennas which are mounted on the exterior or the aircraft are either the blade (rigid) or
Whip (ftexible) type. Flush mounted antennas are located wlthln the aircraft outer
cover and produce less drag than an e)((ernaJiy mounted anteMa.
Maintenance procedures
Antennas and their associated cables shoukl be visually inspected for security and
integrity. The leadiog edge .of blade-type antennas often deteriorate rapidly on
higho$peed aircraft. This area should be given particular attention. If the antenna
leading edge is deteriorated beyond Hmlts, the antenna should be removed and replaced. In some cases, the antenna may be repaired; however this typically requires a special repair facility.
All antennas or antanna covers should be inspected for a proper seal OR GASKET
to the aircraft. If the seal has deteriorated, molswre may enter the antenna or aircraft and create corrosion problems. Remove and reseal any antenna or antenna
cover which may admit moisbKe. Pressurized airaafl also require that special attention be given to the antenna-w-alrcrafl seal in order that vapors do not leak form
the pressumed siJ\Icture .
Radar antennas are typically housed in the nose-section of the aircraft and are
protected form the environment by a non-conductive cover called a redome. The
radome should be inspected for cracb and to ensure a proper seal to the airtrama.
Proper radome repair is a itlcal to the operatiOfl of the radar equipmMt. Always fol
low the manufacturers recommendations for the repair and/or painting of the re
dome.
Blade Type
Whi p Type
Crystal resonators are small chips or sticks cut in a special way from a crystal.
Pressure or pull on the crystal surlace cause electrical charge displacement and
thus electrical vollages (Piazo-effect).
Conversely, if a eltemating voltage is applied to the crystal, it begins to OSCillate
meChanically. Tne resonant frequency of the OSCillations Is highly stable end depends upon the mechanical dimensions of the crystal.
Figure 59:
123
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Electrical charge
as at airfoll lralling edges, these fields become high enough to cause lonil.lltfon or
lhe air and short bursts or charge. or current, will leave the alrcran (corona pulses).
lt Is the energy released by the corona pulses. coupled into the radio antennas,
that causes the precipitation sialic (or shortly p-static). In the radio receivers this
wHI become evident. in the form of irregular popping sounels. As the degree of
dlarging increases so does the frequency of the popping, unta it becomes a continuous bu:tzlng which increases in intensily. Eventually, it becomes a steady roar
which mlilsks all but the very strongest rad lo signals.
Thunder Clouds
Particles strildng !he aircraft are not the only cause for high electric field s. They cen
also develop when flying near or between electncally charged clouds or dunng
el ectrical storms. In thss instance we refer to Induced charging rather than tribo&lectric charging. The resulting corona pulses, however, will generate the same kind
ofp~fatlc.
When flying through lee panicles for example cirrus clouds a large number or partides will strike the aifCI'Sft and bounce away. Electric charge is transferred at eadJ
Impact. ~e know this phenomenon as triboelectncity). Typically, the aircraft is left
with a negative charge white the rebounclng particle lilcquires 11 positive charge.
Each impact adds to the electrical charge or potentiel on the aircraft The developed potential difference can reach high values. Under normal charging conCI1tlons
lhls potential can readJ values of 100'000 to 200'000 volts In a fraction of a second.
Tabla 2: Causes of alectrical c hargo
Dust end Sand
lee Cfystals
Dry Snow
Rain
Corona discharge
When the potential of the aircraft reaches these high values, some interesting
things take place. The eledJic fields around the aircraft become high, particularly
at its extremities (wing tips, tal, etc.). AI the sharper edges In these locations, such
124
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Figure 61:
Static Dischargers
One major source of radio Interference comes from the discharge cif staUc elect(ic.
lty which Is produced on the aircraft due to friction. When ever an aircratl travels
through rain, dust or even airborne pol!utants. a s tatic charge is produced on the
sl<ln of the ain:rnft.
This statlc charge is more prevalent on aircraft capable of spee<ls o f 200 lds or
greater. T he static charge fanned on the aircraft skin will not produce radio 11\lerference If the charge remain s stationary. Hovtever, If the charge builds up etld be
comes great enough, it will discharge from the aircraft back Into the a tmosphere.
This discharge produces a magnetic field which is received by the radio as static
interference.
Static dischargers help to elimina.te radio interference by lowering the amount or
static electrical current which discharges from the aircraft back into the air. Without
static <fiSchargers, static electricity would bu ~d up on the aircraft to a certain level
end then rapidly discharge back into the air. This periodic discharge would continue as long as the static charge continued to build on the aircraft surface.
Flat Retainer
(3t tho Trailing Edges)
Figure 63: Loc.a tlons
If the aircraft is equipped with static dischargers. the static discharge occurs at a
lower current level and much more frequently. The lower level of discharge current
produces an extremely we&!< magnetic field which Is not picked up by radio receiv-
ers.
Static dischargers are m ounted to the trailing adges and tips ofwtngs, vertical and
horizontal stablllu!rs. and con1to1 surfaces. The layout of static dischargers can be
different, but welt< according to the same principle.
125
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Bonding
Figure 65: Radome d iverter strip and static discharger bonding failure
As already stated in the Introduction, the p-static problem can easily be solved by
installing static dischargers. There are, however, some additional lsauea that re.
quire attention. First of all it must be assured that all moving a4rframe surfaces, detachable panels, etc. are bonded to the main mass of the alrframe. This Is done to
prevent arcing which might create a fuel storage Ignition problem. 1t is also true
that, when moving parts of the aircraft like flaps and ailerons. are not bonded lcr
gether, then a difference In voltage level can exist between the two surfaces. (Ois
tribution of the static charges through the bearings only is absolutely insufficient).
As a result of this dllferentlal potential, spal'klng can be Induced across the unbonded portions of the aircraft We now in effect have a spark transmitter, that couples the energy of the spal'k into the aircraft antennas and can create crackling
noises into the head phones. Similarly, Inspection panels can become Isolated
from the main structure of the aircraft and have the same resuJL
Insulating Fiberglass
Aadomo
Charge deposited o n radome
surface flows lo isotaled
port ion of di verter strip and
charges lt to a tlfgh voltage
Charge flows to
afrframe via sparks
gap In divertor strip
Fibo<-glass Trailing
Edge
o-----~
/ "e /"/
Streamering
Synltle!lc materials form a different problem. As an aircraft flies through precipitation static conditions these parts will accumulate a static charge (static electricity).
Because they are not conductive, they cannot easily lose this charge without fur
ther steps. Upon reaching a certain potential difference, the acctJmulated charge
will then discharge all at once. This discharge can couple Into the antenna system
and create static noise. This phenomenon has boen named 'streamering'.
Static
Discharger
Current fl ows
from a irframe t o
dischargor via
spark$ across
break in bond
The solution Is the application of special paint that allows the charge to leak away.
Furthelmore the radome is ~ipped with metal stops to drain the static charge
without disturbing lhe radar operation. The strips may not be damaged.
126
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VHF Communication
Introduction
The VHF Is used for short range voice and data communications. The VHF system
allows short distance voioe communications between different alrcrafts (in flight or
on ground) or between the alraaft and a ground station.
Frequency:
Power.
5 - 25Watt
Pressing fhe Push To Tatk switch (PTT) located at handmicrophone. audio control
panel. control wheel or side-stick changes from reception (Rx) mode to transml ~
sion (Tx} mode.
Figure 68: System simplified
Antenna
Lino of alght
VHF '
Transcolfer
Frequency
Selection
127
ehnika
Controls
P;~ncl
8~~
VHF1
VHF2
VHF3
HFI
~lEl~e
HF2
INT
CAB
~@0000
lifT
~
RAO
VOR t
~~
VOR2
~A
ILS
0-f'A-DJ
MLS
AOF1
AOF2
0000000
MHz
MHz
MHz
MH2
MHz
Tower
Ground
Apron
Departure
Delivery
128
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HF Communication
tehnika
lntroducUon
The HF system allows long distance voice communications between different aircrafts (in flight or on ground) or between the aircraft and a groond station.
Table 3:
Frequency:
Power:
100 w - 400 w
The ionosphere refl ects lha mdiowavas back to tha a3J'th_This helps to reach depending of the solar activity to reach any point of the world.
--------
........
.......
...............
......
......
'
I
I
',
Earth
Figuro 75:
R~dio
Management Panel
'
I
'
The antenna must be matched to the transmlsskln frequency. This Is done with antenna-coupler near the antenna. Before transmission the antenna is automatically
tuned within few seconds.
Pressing the Push To Tall< swilef\ (PTT) located at haoomicrofone, audio contrOl
panel, control wheel or side-stlck changes from reception (Rx) mode to transmission (Tx) mode.
129
ehnika
System
This is for communication between the aircraft and ground stations. The ionosphere reflects the frequencies in the HF band, so the line of sight does not limit
the reception range of the system.. That is why the HF COMM is suitable for long
range, wolfd wide communication.
The frequency range of the system is 2 to 29.999 MHz. You can make the frequency selection In 1kH z steps, so there are 28000 channels available. There are two
modes or operation, these modes are:
AM amptitude modulation
SSB - upper side band
In the AM mode the system transmits a carrier with amplitude modulation. In the
SSB mode you remove the carrier and the lower Side band. The system only transmits the USB.
Antenna
Tuning
Rx Signal
Mode
Transmitter
Recalle r
TAx
Frequency Solection
Mod e
On the control panel you make the mode and frequency selections. The Information goes from the control panel to the transceiver through an ARINC 429 data bus.
The control panel also shows the frequency selection. The received audiO signals
go from the transceiver directly to the audio management system. A data output of
the transceiver supplies the SELCAL decoder. The push to transmit (PTT) and microphone signals go directly from the audio management system to the transceiver. The PTT signals also go to the coupler. The antenna coupler adjusts the
antenna ompedance to get the correct load for the transmrtter. To do a tunlH:ycle
after e frequency change the coupler gels a re-channel pulse from the transceiver.
The transceiver gets a Tune-In-Progress (TIP} signal from the coupler. To monitor
the coupler condition interlock signals come and go from the coupler to the transceiver.
Mic
Hoadsot
0_. . . .
o"""'
o"',.._'"
4bran~'o
130
ehnika
Antenna
Aircraft that fly over lhe water for long distances rely on high-frequency COIT1munlcations. The lower frequeru:ies used by this e-quJpment require long antenna. The
Antenna Wire
In the pa.st, long-wire trelllng antennas were u sed for HFoommunication. These
ere o ften installed between a polnt above the coc~pll and lhe tip of !he vertical fin.
The wire Is o ften a copper-plated steel wire, but the more efficient systems use an
antenna wire encased i n a pl01stic sheelh lo minimize precipitation staUc.
Some modem hlgh..speed aircraft have the HF oommunicationll entennas built into
some part of the structure, such as the leading edge of the vertical fin.
;J;.~""
Antenna
DC-9/ MD.SO
PrOb
Antenna
~
~
131
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SELCAL
Introduction
The SELCAL (Selective Calfiog) system provides aural and visual indications of
lhe caUs received from groond stations equipped with a oodmg device. The communloelioo sysiems used for SELCAL reception, are VHF and HF systems.
The ground station transmits a selective call code, via VHF or HF transmit1ers. The
SELCAL code panel is used to provide the decoder wilh the SELCAL code dedi
cated to the aircrafl The transmitter and recolvar must be tuned to the same operation frequency.
The SELCAI. decoder compares the code selected on the SELCAL code panel
with the received code. Once detected, the information is send to the aural wam
lng, whN:tlgenerales a buzzer sound and lhe "CALL" legend flashes AMBER in
the eo<:kpit.
When the RESET key is pressed, the aural and visual indications are cancelled.
Channel 2
-VHF-2
HF-2)
1---t--ca.
Channel 1
VHF1
- HF-1")
RESET button
132
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Satellite Communication
Introduction
The Muftichannel Aviation Sateflite Communication System (MCS SATCOM) is a
worldwide mobile communications system providing continuous voice and data
communications services to and from the aircraft. In addition to the Airborne Avlonics (referred to as an Aircraft Earth Station), the total MCS SATCOM system
coMtsts of the Space Segment (Satellite), Ground Earth Station (GES) and Public
as well as Private Voice and Oat<! terrestrial telecommunlcatloM networks.
The Space Segment comprises Satellite in geosynchrooous omit, providing atrgroond packet- swilctled data servioe5 and voice communications using conven..
lions and capabilities which are standard~ worldwide. The Satetrrtes function as
communication transponders to support L- band links to and from the Aircraft and
provide ~nks to and from Ground Earth Stations (GES). Th8f'6 arelwo space segment providers for Air11ne Aeronautical SateUite CQmm1.1nica1ioO$. The fir5t IS the
International Maritime Satellite Organisation (INMARSAT}, whose system Is In
place today to provide wor1dwide coverage. The other Is American Mobile Satellite
Consortium (AMSC) system.
Figure 83: Four Satellites and ten Ground Earth Stat ions
Figure 82:
~~......
o;;;;;;&Oll-or
~G
133
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Each Ground earth station has the necessary equipment to communicete with terrestrial nelworl<s and communicate through satellites with the Aircraft. ihe GESs
are designed to provide the Airline customer with a divers routing of national and
infamatlonal Voice and Dafa communications via submarine cable , satemte and
microwave links to all destinations. Automatic traffic managemenl5y$tems ensure
efficient routing of communications usi11g optimum 6nks Into Publlc SWitched Telephone Networks (PSTN) and avoiding multiple satellite connections whenever
possible. The GESs are strntegically placed globally io provide redundancy and
diversil't in the terrestrial extension of communications. The aircraft will be con
nected to aGES vta a "in- view" seteiJite depending on the service prererenoe tabte
settlngs In tl'le AES Satellite Data Unit.
The aircraft earth station comprises the AVIONICS and ANTENNA subsystems,
whQ!1e primary function Is to Interlace with the S PACE SEGMENT fOt communications \vith the GES. The AES accepts DATA and VOICE messages from various
sources, encodes and modulate this Information onto appropriate Radio Frequency carrieo; to be relayed by satellite to GES. Standard interface include the
ACARS, IRS, MCDUs and Cabin Teleoommunications System, for Passenger telephone. Channels are also provided for voice and dafa communications with Air
Traffic Control (ATC).
Figure 85: AES
Satellite
==
L-Band ~
1.5/1.6 GHz
'%
~
Aircraft Earth
134
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A CARS
Introduction
ConltOt
Unn
Management ...,..;n
Unit
I!SilU'
The ACARS Is used to trsllsmit or receive automaticalfy or manua~y generated reports or messages to or from a ground station. The ACARS is ded1cated to Maintenance, O~tion end Commercial purposes. The ACARS can manage both
transmission or reception of da1a. Ground- to- air and air- to- ground digi1al messages are transmitted or received via VHF transceiver or the SATCOM system
when the VHF link is not available.
The transmitted information is relayed via the ground stations to a central computer (Singapore for SITA or Ctlicago fo4- ARINC) wh8!e data Is converted into ajrline
message:..
A ground networt (SITA for EUROPE, ARINC for the USA), transmits the data
from the ground receiver to the airline main base.
Figure 86: A ir craft Syst em
Wire lina
------
135
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tehnika
At uncovered areas of the wor1d, If there is no link to a ground station, the ACARS
ARINC ACARS
131.500
SITA AIRCOM
136
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Data Format
The Aircr aft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) is a two
way digital data link between the aira'aft and grOIJJld stations through the VHF-3
communication system or to Ground Earth Stations (GES) Ilia satellrte through the
satellite communication system (SATCOM). ACARS prollides tile means to aufo.
matically report vital flight and routine Information. In addition the system enables
manual routing of pre-canoed or free text messages to and from the aircraft.
The data IS transmitted vis VHF with frequency shift keying in analog formal or via
SATCOM i n dlgital formal. Each alphabetic character Is represented with 7 B1t.
Each packet is divided l n 3 groups:
Preamble 34 Characters: Address and System Protokoll
Message 220 Characters of data
Trailer:
System in[llalisation (must be done before the nighL Fit. Nr. and From-To)
Mission Status (0001, Block Time end ~;'light Time, UTC)
Out:Aircraft out gale {Doors closed, Engines Runni ng, Parkbrake released)
Off: Aircraft lift off
On: Aircraft touched down
tn: Aircraft in gate
S!lflding and Receiving of free messages via telex
Standard Text (Sending of preprogrammed text)
Flight Data entering (Fuel, Time and Weight)
Fuefiog (Uplift, Fuel on board, svppfier. station)
Automa ted Terminallnformatlon System (ATIS)
Destination Weather
Weather (Actvat and Forec<~st)
Delay Message {Reason)
Estimated Arrlval Time ETA
Load Sheet request
Operation lnfo
Operation Flightplan
Diversion (New Destination, Ccmment and ETA)
Parking Position Requ est
Passenger Connection Request
Prumble
Lleuaga
Trailer
137
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Audio Integrating
tehnika
Introduction
First Officer
Modern airliners have a compte)( interphone system that allows ftight crew member.> to communica te with each other and ground crew-m embefs. The pilots and
flight attendants can make announcements to the passengers, and the conversaIIOIIS in the oocJ<plt are recoroed for investigative 11se In the event of an air crash.
Each of the subsystems of the Audio Integrating System of a large jet transport air
craft ara considered below.
All communications trom the night deck, both Internal and external, are directed
through audio selection panels at each one of the crew stations. By usi ng switches
on these panels, the crew members can receive and lransmit on any of the VHF
or HF ttsnsceiver s, can listen to any of the navigation receivers, and can talk over
the Interphone or the Pllbtlc address sysiem.
Figure 90: 0verview
Cockpit
Warning Syst..m
GPWS
Volc:o
ACPs
R""ordr
FWC
TCAS
Corn. Syo;tomo:;
\/HF 1-2-3
HF 1 2
Sat com
t4v. Sv>14m
VOR 1-2
DI\IE 1-2
ILS 12
ADF 1-2
MKR
]~~~~~
Communlcatlon
Sys tems
Navigation
Systems
oe>ooooo
MD
FHght!CabiniService
l'nterphone
8 -AEJJ
0000000
138
ehnika
Accoustic Equipment
Hand M icrophone
Headsets, boomsets. cockpit speakers, hand microphones and oxygen masks are
used tor the communication. Push To T alk switches provides discrete signals fo
enable the lransmission.
The hand mic contains the preamplifler 9nd the Push To Talk (PTT) &witch.
The DC power for the preamplifier is provided through the same fine as the output
transm1t mode.
Dynam ic
~-----------------,
:
I
[>
:Ring S upply/
I
_ ....
t -f !
KtryiPTT
I
j;S!o!Ye Ground
I
I
~--- ------- ------~
Electret
"Electrar mlcs use a piece of special Insulator material that contains a "trapped"
polarization charge (Q) at Its surfaces and a capacitance (C). Sound waves modulate the capacitance of the material and cause a voltage change. A polarizing
voltage o f about 4 V ls required to maintain the charge. The mic output level is fair1y
low, and a preamplitier is sometimes required.
Figure 93:
TauchlpUie
Ill em bran
Luftspatt
Membran
l<ri&tall
Piezo Microphone
Electrodynamic Microphone
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Headset
The headset converts electrical energy into the motioo of air molecules we call
sound. For reception and understanding of bad, dist.ort.ed signals, il is better to use
a headset instead the loudspeaker.
Boomset
The combination of a headset with a microphone is called boomset. "The pilots or
maintenance personal does not need to hold the mic, so both !lands are free to
figure95:
Figure 96:
work.
140
EJO/?IEJ tehnika
If the crew wears oxygen masks, fOf communication it is important that a microphone changes the voice in a signal to make spoken words In the mask under-
If the incoming re<ll!j)tion signal is clear and understandable the cockpit speaker is
mont COfnfortable then to wear the headsets. Ampllf.er Increases the slgnallevel
to operate the speaker.
Volume potentia meter Is used to select a convenient sound level.
The muUng of speaker during radio transmission Of interphone operation prevents
acoustical feedback (whistling noise).
Flgure98;
Microphone
Microphone Plug
141
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Connections
The microphones and headsets are connected via jacks located in the cockpit with
the audio Integrating system. Build in preamplifJefS gains the low output level Of the
dynamic microphones lo a appropriate level.
For the usage of boom or mask microphones, those switches are located et the
steering wheel (Yoke) or at the side sticks in advanced tedlnology aircrafts.
Figure 100: Yocke Switch and Si de Stick Sw itch
00
Yoke Switch
142
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Interphone
Allows communication between people lnsid_e or outslde of the eirplane. The oonnec:tions are made vie the wiring in the airplane. Three interphone :SY$1ems can be
distinguished: Fllgh t-, Cabin- and Service or Maintenance Interphone system .
Flight Interphone
Takes care of the oommunicalion between the flight deck crew among themseJ'Ies
and between the flight deck crew and the ground engi neer when the engines are
started and <Jurt.n g a test run. The audio distribution or Integrating &yslem is used
for the amplification and distribution of the audio signals. This means that the fligh t
dad< crew can use lho boomset. hand microphone headset and speaker. T he flight
Interphone system can be selected on the eudio control panel. The ground engineer can plug in his headset in the flight JOterphone jack located in the nose wheel
area. Older types of airplanes have a separate flight in terphone amplifier.
Flgure101 : Communl catlon Inside Cockpit and Ground Crew
ru~!}
~~~ ---+----1
AIAPUFIEJl
~
"'!."'
0
.,.....,..
-COli
&er~le
.......
!lriight
143
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Cabin Interphone
Cabin crew can communicate among themsetves and with the flight deck crew via
the cabin iot6(phone system_The cabin interphone system consislt! of ttvee oom-
ponents.
Cabin interphone handsets
Cootrol drOJKs inside Cabin intercommunlcaUon Data System CIDS
or a separate amplifier.
Can panels or call buttons at handset s.
Figure 103: Communic ation Between Cockpi t and Cabin
4l
144
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The seNice i nterphone system takes care of the communication among maintenance personnel during maintenance actiVities. The service Interphone system
consists of a number of plug in jacks can be found at various places In and on the
airplane. The service interphone system uses the audio distribution system for amplification and distl'fbubon of the audio signals. Older types of airplanes have a
separate service interphone ampUfier.
400CIIIl JUXJo.UTIJWt(.l
unuhOIIf
.....:.u 2
t.IJ JfloOC:
ftiiiNTCM'-tKf
U11UittOHI",
1: A1. .1(1.
._,
, ,... JA.Ql-
l'U.UIU ....a< l
I Mfft,__
UtJUPMDW:
[lll l lril 1
lJIJ Jt.O:
"'l N"rtU~CCI
lMrC.,Ull
1-'lt, JA.U
""' ~rC'iAMl
l tflU,ttOftl
5 Hydralllc c:ompa_rt"*''l
7SAAs~n
APUbay
--~------------------------~~--~~
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One handset is located in the ox:t<plt and several handsets are installed rn the cabin at the attendant stations.. The handsets are also used as a microphone for public
announcements via the public address system.
Dial buttons mak.es possible to communicate with a dedicated partner station or
cockpit, so other crew members are not able listening prlvate communications. So
a digital central switching system (Cabin Intercommunication Data System CIDS)
The mght interphone mal<es it possible tor lhe flight deck crew to communicate with each olher and with lhe ground engineer.
The cabin interphone is used by the cabin crew to ccmmunlcate among !hemselves a nd to corrununicate with the flight deck crew.
The service- or maintenance interphone Is used by the marntenance personnel to communicate with each other.
rs used.
Figure 107: Various Handsets
om om
BBD
~~B
~~D
ro"'i:..r
Dependin g of aircraft type. it i s poss4ble to interconnect this lhlee interphone systems in the following way:
Cabin interphone with service- or maintenance interphone.
Flight interphone with cabin interphone
Flight interphone with maintenance interphone
Therefore dedicated switches are used or it is done automatically after landing.
EJEJ
I
PUSH
lO TM.K
om om
B1/B2 Basic Training
Course
146
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Passenger Address
ehnika
Overview
Passengers are informed about a variety of me1ter.1 on board via the PA System .
In addition, the PA System supplies the boarding music. The system oonsists of
an amplifier, a loudspeaker system and a number of mletophones. The PA System
Is used by cockpit and cabin etew.
ll18 passenger address system enables announcements to the passengers via
cabin loudspeakers. Announcements can be m ade from the cockpit or cabin attendant's stations.
A tape reproducer enables recorded announcements and boarding muslc to be
broadcast through the PA system.
Loudspeakers are distributad in the cabin overhead of the passenger seals, toilets
and for the !light attendants et their working stations.
ll18re are several levels of priority enigned to the pas5enger address system.
1.
Cockpit
2.
Cabin attendants
3.
Prerecorded announcements
4.
Boarding music
CAlllli AIUIOONC~
~ -,.~
PRERECORDED
ANNOUNCE
Oll i~USIC
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lntoduction
The CIDS Integrates most of the Cabin systems for communicatioos, indications
and calls. The systems integrated/controlled by the cros are:
passenger adress
cabin and flight crew interphone
cab!n fllvmination
evacuation signalling
lavatory smoke indication
passenger lighted signs
passenger call
service interphone
emergency fightning test
passenger reading lightslaltendent work light test
prerecorded a11110uncement and boarding music control
passenger entertainment system
air conditioning system controls
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CIDS Architecture
Figure 11 0: Architecture
Functions
The CJDS provides control, monitortng and dala processing of various cabin systems through DATA BUS lines.
Director
The DIRECTORS are the major com ponents of tile CIDS.They act as an interlace
between U\e aircraft and cabin systems and the cockpit controls and Indicating in
order to process the controls of the cabin systems.
Director 1
The Cabin Assignment Module (CAM) Is part of the FOIWard Attendant Panel
(FAP). The CAM Is plugged into the FAP. 1\ stores all the cabin layout and programmable Information used by tile DIRECTORS.
lines.
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Table 4:
Kind of cntcrtainmont
Performed by:
Flight Atcendatlts
Music
PES Prooessors
or OVD's
Telephone
150
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ers.
V10EOTAPE REPAOOUCER
HEAPfli\CK IAOUNTED
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The Passenger Visual Information System supplies the Passengers with lnform&tlon on ambient aircraft flight data, times and aircraft posillon In the flight plan. The
information Is displayed oo the monitors of the Passenger Entertainment System.
The system receives data from various Nalligatlon Systems and the Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS).
The RCU ls the Input unit on which the shown information is selected by the use
of menus. Its front plate 1\as four switches In line under an LCO for control.
SELECT OOWNLIHK
down Up
The D IU computer processes data foc use With the stored menus, transforms 1he
digital data Into vkleo signals and sends them to the monitors. The available lnfor
mation menus and the data used from the differenl input buses (e.g. aiUtude, static
air temperature, heading & drift angle, ground speed & present position).
;po;;sm;;Ot4'SPEE:;::::;=.~:;DIHEADI==-~NG
:::;::=>
AlTITUO!/TeMPEAATVAE
452 mph
Time to
Oestlna1Jon
3 : 20
A ltitude
3 5000 FT
(\! I DEO)
Outside A ir
Temperatur e
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Longhaul aircrafls will be equipped with more complex systems, This systems may
comprises l.otal entertainmenl fealures.
Mode Selec t
(Audio, Video, Into, AulC)
Ch;~nne l
up & down
Interactive Games
lnseat Telephone
Passenger Control Unlts and/or Passenger Handsets is used to control the PES/
PSS. For the satellite telephone system the reverse side of the handset is used.
A very important function. the Passenger Address system must intem.tpt all other
inputs to the loudspeakers and to the displays and earphones in the seal in order
to get all the passengers attenllOn.
Channel Display
{12 Vidoo 96 Audio)
START
LED
G.A~lE
SELECT
SELECT
RESET
GIV~E
FUNCTION
MODE
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CALL
RESET
NO SMOKING
A passenger reading lighl command for example, coming from \he handset in \he
seal passenger control unft, lakes its way through the passenger entertainment
system controller and further on to the CIDS system where \he correct passenger
seNice unit above a seat must be edressed and \he correct reading light must be
Illuminated.
Both systems, the C IDS and \he Passenger Entertainment System must wofk correctly together to make sure \hat all liJnctJons are available.
READING llGffT
FRESCH AIR OUTLET PANEL
CALL
LIGHT
CALL
SWITCH PANEL
Figure 120: Passang er Handset
CROSS KEY
START
LEO
t;iA.ME FUNCTIOII
LOUDSPEAKER
SELECT
SELECT
RESET
GA~IE
MODE
OIIGAfdE
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Figure 121:
The design of passenger entertainment and service systems is cootinlousty develo ping. On following pages the MAS.2000 is shortly explained.
System 2000E is an interactive, fully integf<!ted passenger entertainment system.
Tlwt system is designed with a mcxlular approach lo support both Ovelhead and
In-seat VIdeo, Audio, Telephone, and Interactive Services.
Audio Up t.o 96 Channels of Hi-Fi Audio
Up to 48 Digital Audio Inputs
Up to 72 Analog A udio Inputs
Up lo 6 Passenger Address (PA) Inputs
Vidao Up to 24 Video Channels.. Supporting a wide variety of inputs:
Video Cassette Players
TV Tuners
Passenger Video Information Systems
Video Cameras
Video On Demand (VOD)
Telephone Telephone services can be made avaaable at each seat:
Air-lo-G round calls
Seat to seat calling
Fax and Data transmission
Interactive A variety of interactive opllons to customl%e the cabin environment
and passenger experience:
VIdeo Games
Nintendo
Windows-based
Shopping Servloes
Business Services
Passenger Information Services
Program Information
AudioNideo
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lr>
e(?)@ CI
I!>
Flight
Cornpartment
Microphone
E rase
c.dl,IIY.tc.A_.,.,
Parkin g
Brake
Mechanism
;:;
1.2 .2
..=
a;~
Get
'iiio
<7
c 0
Cftl 't)
.J! ~
14
Cl
c:
w o
o=
Ground/
Flight
Retais
c!
:'i l-s"c
>u
0 ..
i :I:: iO
<'>UI
Volco Rocordor
Audio
Chann~l .
Captain
i 31
1
First Offocor
Observer
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Function
Figure 125:
The voice recorder has a protective using whlch gives the recorder a bigger
chance to SU(IIive a crash . Also the location of the recorder. in the tail of tlle air-
craft, increases the survival chances. The casing has a bright orange color with
white fluorscenr tape stripes. This makes the recorder eas.ler to find. On the front
panel of the voice recorder Is an underwater locator beacon. Under waw the underwater locator beacon transmits ultrasonic pulse signals. which makes it easier
to find the recorder.
The voice recor der system gets audio slgr~als end records them on 4 separate
!racks. On the tracks ere the rouowing audio signals:
Cnanne11: all selected audio from the captain's audio station
Channel 2: - all selected audio from the first otfl(;e(s audio station
Channel 3: -all selected audio from the obsG(IIer's audio station.
Time reference signals from the flight data recording system.
Channel 4: aU area-sound-signals from the ~ight compartment microphone.
The voice recorder control panel has the controls for a TEST and ERASE function
of the recon:ler. The erase function goes through interlock conditions. The control
panel has straps for the setting of an inlernal ampUfier.
CVIWDA
G NOCon t
~~~
The voice reoorder gets lhe electrical pow er automatically when one of the engine
is slarted (fuel levers open) or ttle airoral'l is in flight. A lime delay relay removes
the power from Ihe voice recorder 5 minutes after lhe aircral'lls on the ground and
all fuel levers are dosed.
Manuatly you apply power to the voice reoorder w ith the CVRIFDR GND CONT
push switch on the alllonles switdl panel. The automatic power switching overrides
the manual switching.
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Todays technology Is lhe possibility to store the recording in digital format. There
are no moving part, which can be worn. (solid state)
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The Beacon is a battery operated underwater acoustic pulse generator that is activated when lhe switch end Is immersed in either fresh or salt water.
The water switch is part of a low-wrrent triggering ciJt:uit, which when closed by a
resistan<;e of less than a few thousand ohms, such as Immersion In water. wit! initiate normal pulsing of the Beacon oscillator circuit. The output voltage of the oscillator is impressed upon the ptezoceramic transducer ring. The resultant
mechanical motlon Is coupled to the metal case of the Beacon, which in turn, radiates it Into the surrounding water as 37.5 kHz acoustic energy.
The pulses generated are of 1()-mllnseoond nominal duration, and they occur onoe
per second. The Beacons operate continuously for at least 30 days after being immersed. The Beacons will withstand depths to 20,000 teat 01nd they can be detected at a range of 2000 to 4000 yards, depending upon sea state, nearby boats,
marine animals. gas or oil tines, and other factors contributing to the ambient noise
level in the 35 to 40 kHz frequency range. The internal battery must be replaced
every 2 - 6 years.
A (@Ml))) ~
1 S.o
.,
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Introduction
An emergency focatortransmitter (ELT) is a small, self-oontaJned radio transmitter
mounted i n a location w here it is least likely to be damaged In a ctash. lt has an
lne!1la SVI!Itch that closes in the event of a crash and starts lhe transmitter emitting
ELTs are lnslaUed as far aft in the fuselage as.it is practical to place them, and they
are connected to a flexible whi p~r external antenna. The installation must be such
that orients fhe inertia switch so that it is sensitive io a force o f approximately 5G
along the longitudinal axis or the airctaft.
When an ELT i s property installed, il requires little mamlenance other than ensuring that it remains securely mounted and connected to l!s antenna. There must be
no evidence of corrosion, and the battery must be repl aced according to a speclfiC
SCfledule. Non rechargeable batteries must b~ replaced when it has reached its
u sable life. The d ate required for its replacement must be legibly merked on the
outside or the transmitter case and recorded in the aircraft maintenance records.
An ELT can be tested by removing it and taking it into a shiel ded or screened room
to prevent its radiation from causing a false alert. An op erational check may be
made with the ELT In the aircraft for no more than thr&e audible sweeps.
Thil~
test must be conducted within the firs t five minutes after any full hour.
Orbiting satellites of the COSPAS and SARSAT (Search and Rescue Satellrte}
system can locate the positi011 of the signa l by doppler effect to approximately 14
l<m. The mission control centar then initiates the reswe which rs done with cooventlonal radio direction finding equipment on 121.5 MHz.
The transmi tter is installed in the ceiling of the cabin. To make the unit sensitive
for the shOCk-detection the unit needs to be installed in the correct way . Therefor
an arrow on top of the unit sh ows hDVI to Install [he untt with respecl to the direction
of flight.
The ELT antenna installed on the rear-top of the fuselage transmits the ELT sig-
nals.
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Inertial Navigation
Fundamentals
lnertla
ln ordet" to understand an inertial navigation system, botll tlle definition of "inertia'
and the basic laws of motion as described by Newton over 300 years ago has to
be taken Into account.
Inertia can be delined as follows: 'A body continues in a state or rest, or unlfonn motion In a straight Une. unless acted upon by an extemaf force. This Is
also known as Newton's first law of motion.
Newton's second law of motion states: 'The acceleration of a body ts directly
proportional to tlle sum of the forces acting on the body.
Newton's third Jaw of motion states: 'For every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction."
Wrth these laws we can mechanize a device which is able to dated minute changes in accelerations and veloclty, an ab~ity necessary in the development of an inertial system . Newton's second law states that the acceleration (that is rate of
Change of velocity) Is directly proportional to the force acting on the body. Velocity
a nd distance are computed from sensed acceleration by the application of bask;
calculus. The relationship between acceleration, velocity and displacement are
shown below.
Note that velocity changes whenever aooeleration exists and remains constant
when acceleration is zero.
Figure 132: Accel eromoter as base of Inertial Navigation
Velocity
0
Displacoment
Acoeterometar
Time
Velocity
=acceleration time
v= a 'I
=velocity time = v I
0 =acceleration/2 time2 =a/2
Displacement D
'-----~ Acceleration
t2
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Accelerometer
The basic measuring instrument of the inertial navigation system is the acceterometer. Two aocelerometers are mounte<l In the system. One will measure the aircratrs acceleratioos in the North-South d1tec1Jons, and tile other will measure the
aircraft's accelerations in the East-West directioos. The accelerometer is basically
a pendulous device. When the aircraft ;;~ccalerates, the pendulum, due to inertia.
swings off its null posllioo. A signal pickoff device tells how far the pendulum Is off
the nuH position. The signal from the pickoffdevice Is sent to an amplifier, and rur
rent from the ampr.fier fs sent back Into the accelerometer to the torquer motor.
The torq1.1er motor will restore the pendulum baCk to its null position.
Inertial navigation depends on the integraUon of acceleration to obtain velocity and
distance. In any integration process one must know the initial conditions, which in
this case are velocUy and position. The accuracy to which the navigation problem
is solved depends greatly upon lhe accuracy of the initial coAdrtions. Therefore,
syst.e m alignment is of paramo1.1nt importance.
tehnika
The aoceleration signal from the amplifier is also sent to an integrator, which is a
time multi p~cation device. 1l starts out with acoeteration Which is in meter per second squared. In the IAtegrator, it is literally m ultJplled by time and the result is a ve
locity in meter per s~ond .
lt is then sent through a second integrator and again it is a time multiplier. With an
input of meter per second, whicl'l i$ multiplied by time, the result is a d~tance In
meter or in miles. it can be computed that the alrcraft has traveled 221 miles in a
nottharly !llraction from time of takeoff.
The computer associated with the inertial system knows the lautude and the longitude of the takeoff point and calculates that the aircraft has traveled so tar in a
North-South ditedion and so far ill an East-West directloo. n now becomes simpJe
for a digital computer to continuously computa the new present position of the alrcrafl
Figure 135: Accelerometer with Integrators
North
ACC
lntegrBtor
I
1
I
I
I
______________ __ ___ J I
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Platform
X, Y and Z
AXIs
North Soulh
East West
Up Down
To navigate In hortzontal level 2 perpendicular acceleometers are used. This accelerometers are installed on a platfonn.
X Axis
Y Axis
Z Axis
Levellng of A ccelerometers
The aooelerometer's output is affected by the attitude of the aircraft. In lhe illustre
tion below. the aircraft is shown in a nose up attitude during takeoff. This pitch angle makes the pendulum swing off the null positioo due to gravity. The
accelerometer would output an erroneous signal, which would result in an errone
ous velocity and distance traveled. Therefore. Ihere is a false acceleration problem
caused by this pitch angle. The solution lo this problem is of course to keep the
accelerometer level at all times.
Figure 137: Tilted Acceleromet er sensing Earth Gravity
SohJtioo:
-~
..
Pitch Angle
'
Keep accelerometer
level
\
\
. --~~
o{~~
~
o.
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Inner
RoliGimbal
O u t ar
Roii Gi mbal
Inner Ro ll
Pitch
Outer
Roll Trans m i tter
Inner Roll
Torqu.e r
1 X Accel<oro meter
2 - Y Accelerom4Jter
3 Z A ccelerome ter
4 X Gyro
5 -Y Gyro
Transmitter
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Gyros
The gyro fs used to oontrol the level of the platfonn. The gyro and accelerometer
are mounted on a common gimbal \IVhen this gimbal tips off the level position. the
spin axis of the gyro remains fixed. The case of the gyro moves with the gimbal,
and the amount of movement Is detected by the signal pickoff in the gyro. That signal Is then amplified and sent to a gimbal drive motor, which restores the gimbal
back to a level position. In this example, lhe aoceleromelcr is going along for the
ride. Since the accelerometer Is just being kept level, it does not sense a oomponenl of gravity and is able to sense only true horizontal acceterabons of tile alrCfEift.
Here we have illustrated a single axls platform. In reality, movement can occur in
three axes of the platfoiTil, pitch, roll, and yaw.
Plckoff
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The previously described gyro stabm:r.ed platt0011 would remain fixed In space. but
the alrcrafl ls not operating 1n space. 1t is opera!lng on an earth which is round and
rotatjng. In order to keep the accelerometers level IYfth respect to the earth. so that
they sense acceleration of the aircraft in a horizontal direction only, some compensalion must be made. Take the example of lool<ing down at the earth from a point
in spaoe over the South Pole. At noon, the platform is leveled so that the accelerometers sense only horizontal acceleraUons. Now, as the earth rotates, the platform would maintain the same orientation In spaoe; however, from an earth
vantage point, the platform would appear to tip over every 2 4 hours.
To compensate for this apparent tipping, the platform is forced to tilt in proportion
to the 9alttl's rate. From our spaoe vantage point, the platform appears to lip over
every 24 hours, wtalle from an earth vantage point, it remains fixed and level as
required for proper operation. The required earth rate compensation is a function
of latitude, since what Is being compensated for !s the horizontal component of
earth rate that is fell by the gyros. At the equa1or this value is 15.04 degrees per
hour, and with travel north or south of the equator. rt reduces until it becomes zero
at the poles.
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Navigation
Navigation may be though t of as the means of finding the route from one location
on the earth' s surface to another. This is mede posslbte by dividing the surface of
the earth with a grid system thal allows us t.o give an address to any localion.
Longitude
The o~rth may be thought of as a sphere rotating in s:p~ce about an imaginory a xi$
that runs through its two geographic poles. This sphere is diVided from north to
south by lines that lnterseot at the poles and cut through the center of the earth.
These lines are called meridians of longitude and are measured from the prime
meridian which passes through Greenwich, Engfand. There are 360 meridians, Jabeled 1 to 179 East and 1 to 179 West The prime meridian is zero degrees longitude, and the i nternational date Cne is the 180-degree meridian. Meridians of
longitude east of the prime meridian are called east longitude, and those to the
west are west longitude.
The meridians are not parallel, but each one of them is a part of a great circle, that
Is, a part of a line on the surlace of the earth formed by a plane that passes through
the canter of the earth.
Latitude
To form an intersecting line with the meridians, the earth is divided by parallel lines
formed on the surface by planes that cut the earth into parallel slices, each perpendicular to the axis of rotation. The line that cu ts the earth at Its center is called
the equator and it' s latitude is zero. The lines to the north are caled parallels of
northern latitude, with the north pole located at 90 degrees north latitude. Parallels
to the south are called southern latitude, and the south pole Is located at 90 degrees south latitude. Th e pareUets are, as !halt name Implies, paralet to each otber, but the equator Is the only parallel that Is also a great circie.
All of our maps and charts are based on th e grid system of latitude and longitude.
with the geographic north and south poles being the references for this grid. The
Right route from a departure to a destination point is divided into several waypolnts.
This waypolnts are defined by latitude LAT and longitude LONG.
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The navigation parameter are presented In digital form at inertial sys!em control
display units CDU, or multl function display units MCDU.
Horizontal situation indicator HSI and navigation <!lsplays EFIS NO presenting the
navigation parameter in analog and digital formal.
MAGfTRUE North
Table 5: P ar ameter
WPT
Waypoin t
DSRTK
Desired Track
Greatcir<:le Lile
POS
Present Position
latitude/Longitude
HOG
TK
Defined by Pilot
be~NeeO
two WPT's
DA
Drift Angle
TKE
TAS
GS
Ground Speed
1 kt .. 1.852 kmlh
oelliation
XTK
Cross Track
OIS
Distance
WS
W ind Speed
WO
W ind Direction
169
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(j)
S.lector
......_ _,_;;.....;;;;.;;;;;..,jUn lt
tlavlga1lon Data
......._'fniiM
.Jp ::.
(L_a_
A_TEA
r __
v_UN
_ rr___
~t-'-
"= :=
INERTIAl..
SEtlSOR
LOOO-
l.tiiTI
os ..... ..,
,.,...,,._
j_
.w.un~
Ou1pul Data
001w tr>enlol
Rtf.,.n.. Syatems
SENSOR
DliSR.AY UNIT
INERTIAL
AmJUQE
170
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Strapdown System
In a strapdown Inertial reference system, the gyros and accelerometers are mounted solidly to the system chassis which is ln tum mounted solidly to the aircraft.
There are no gimbals to keep ihe sensors level with the surface of ihe earth. The
acceleromelefs are mounted such that the input axis of one accelerometer is always In the l ongitudinal aircraft axis, one Is In the lateral axis, and one is In the vertical axls.. Ukewise. ihe gyros are mounted such that one gyro senses rOll, one
senses pitch, and the other senses yaw.
1 -X Accelorornater
2 V Accelerometer
3 - ZAccel arometer
4-XGyro
5 - YGyro
6
-z Gy ro
A microprocessor calculates velocity, position. and attitude from the inertial sensors acceleration and angular rate measurements. Three accelerometers and
three gyros are needed because. in a thre&<limensional world, an aircraft can simultaneously accelerate and rotate in three orthogooal exes - pitch, roll and heading.
In order to navigate over the surface or the earth, the system must know how this
eircreft acceleration is related to the earth's surface. secause acceleralions are
measured by accelerometers that are mounted to the lateral, longltudioal. and vertical axes of the aircraft, the IRS mU$t know the relationship of each of these axes
to the surface of the earth. The laser gyros in a strapdown system make the measurements necessary to describe this relabonship in tenns of pitch, roll, and heading angles. These angles are calculated from the angular rates measured by the
gyros through an integration -similar to the manner in which velocity Is calculated
from measured acceleration. For example, suppose a gyro measure$ a yaw rate
ot three degrees per second for 30 seconds. Through integratlon . the miaoprocessor calculates that the heading has changed by 90 degrees alter 30 seconds.
Given the knowledge or pitch, roll, and h8adlng that the gyros provide, the mlcroprocessot resotves the acceleration signals tnto earth-r&lated eccelerations, and
then perfolms the horizontal and vertical navigation calculations.
To reach the demanded accurancy of a strap down inertial navigation system, the
sensitivity of the instrument (gyros aoo accelerometers) must10 times higher than
those of a gimbaled platfoon. Laser gyros and precision pendulum accelerometers
are used.
171
ehnika
(nm)
(nm)
In e laser cevlty, photons are emitted (or light Is radiated) in all directions. However. only the light that rBdiates in a straight tine between two or more mirrors is reInforced by repeated lrips through the gain medium. This repeated amplification of
the light reflecting between the mirrors soon reaches saturation. and a steadystate oscillation results. This light oscillating between the mirrors is typically called
a laser beam. To obtain usMul laser light outside the laser cavity, a small percentage of the laser beam is allowed to pass through one of the mirrors.
A laser gyro oper.rtes much tike an ordinary laser, but rather than just two mirrors
it contains at least three so that the laser beams can travel around an endosed
area. Such a configuration allows the generation of two distinct laser beams occupying the same spaoe. One beam ll'avels in a dockwise direction and the other
travels in a counter clockwise direction. The operation of a laser gyro Is founded
on the effects rotational moll on has on the two laser beams.
LASER
00 t40Tloot< IHTOTHE8EAM
MCHT If Deti liTRAHL l!llfCKat
A laser changes Incoherent light, light whose vibrations do not have any consi stent
phase relationship, into coherent light, whose vibt'ations are all in phase. The light
beam from a laser is highly concentrated, very narrow, and has an ex:tremety small
area. Leser t&chnology Is opening new doors In atl aspects of science.
172
EJO/?IEJ tehnika
Laser Gyro
Laser gyros ere sensors of angular rnte of rolatlon about a single axis. As exemplified. They are made of a triangular block of temperature-stable glass. Very small
tunnels are precisely drilled parallel to the perimeter of Ule triangle, and reflecting
mirrors are placed in each corner. A small charge of helium-neon gas Is inserted
end sealed into M aperture in the glass at ttte base of the trtangte. When high voltage is run between the anodes end cathode the gas is ionized. and In the energy
exchange process many of the atoms of the gas are transformed into llght in the
orang&-pink part of the visible spectrum.
In a laser gyro two beams of light are g&nerated, each travelling around the cavity
(in tttis case a triangle) in opposite directions.
Fringe Pa11ern
TlriO
Photocell
Detectors
--...,J'ii>r llL--::.-.::z:....
The lasef' beams have ooherent wave-lil<e prOperties. The llghtls a pure frequency. The helium-neon lasor gyro, as defined by fts wavelength (the reciprocal of frequency), it Is 6'328 Angstroms.
Although the frequency is detetmined by the gas that is laslng. lt can be varied
somewnat by changing the patttlength over which the waves have to travel. For a
given path length there are an integral number of waves. If the path length is altered, the waves w ill be either compressed or expanded, but there always will be
en integral number of cycles that occur over the complete path. If the waves are
compressed, more cycles oocor per unit time. Hence, the frequency increases. If
expanded, the opposite is !rue.
Since both contrarotating beams travel et the same constant speed or light, it takes
each the same exact time to complete Its circuit. However, if the gyro were rotated
on its axis, the path length or one beam would be shortened, while that for the other
would be lengthened. Since. as explained, the laser beam adjusts its wave-length
for the length of the path, the beam that travelled the shorter distance would rise
in frequency (wavelength decreases), while the bearn that travelled the longer distance to complete the circuit would encounter o frequency decrease.
Aeadout
Mirror
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Thl$ frequency difference between the two beams Is directly proportional to the angular rate of tum about the gyro's axis. Simply stated, that is the principle of the
laser gyro. Thus, frequency difference beComes a measure of rotation rate. If the
gyro doesn't move about its axis, both frequencies remain equal (since the paltl
lengths or both beams are equal) and the angular rete is zero.
The difference in frequency in the laser gyro is measured by an optical detector
that counts the fringes of the fringe pattern generated by the Interference of the
two light waves. Since the fringes are seen as pulses by the photocell, the detected frequency difference appears at the output of the detector in digital form, ready
for immediate processing by the system's associated digital electronics.
Fr1ngo Panern
Two
PhotoceJt
Detectors
-.......Nl-r1U:__..--:..~::.....
Note that there are two photoceUs. The function of one ts to tell the direction In
which the fringes are moving, which is an indication of whether the gyro Is rotating
to the left or righl
Light Path
The three corner m irrors are not Identical One Is servoed so that it can make mlCI'IH!djustments to keep the physical path always the same. Another ~rmUs a
:;mell amount of light to pass through so as to impinge on lhe photocell detectors.
The prism, as can be seen, flips one beam around causing it to meet and Interfere
with the beam aimed directly at the photocells. The Interfering beams alternately
cancel and reinforce each other, thus generating the fringe pattern.
The block of glass used for the laser gyro is made from Cervit, a special glass, the
physical dimensions of which remain constant over a wide temperature range
High Voltage
To start the lasing action, 3.000 volts are applied across the anodes to the cathode. Although one can't see the laser beams in the laser gyro, a plasma is formed
between the cathode and the two anodes that glOws an orange pink that is in the
same part of the visible spectrum as the 6,328 Angstrom b&ams. This plasma can
2 Bemenl
Oateetor
be seen.
Dithering
In the conter of the Cervil block is a device caned a dither motor. The motor, which
vibrates at 319 Hz, eliminates "laser lock." a hangup that sometimes ocrurs in the
deadband around the zero-rate point.
174
EJO/?IEJ tehnika
The basic principles of an inertial accelerometer have not changed Pendulous accelerometers have a very good performance and reliability at an acceptable cost,
so new technology has not been applied to accelerometer designs.
Inertial accelerometers contain a pendulum that tends to swing off its null position
when it is exposed to an acceleratioo or deceleration. A photo electric plc!<-off de~ce is positioned so that it can measure the size of the swing. and generate an
electrical signal proportional to the swing. This signal i s amplified pro portionately
into a CtJrront which is used to torque the pendulum back to the nun position_ The
net result of this control loop Is that the pelldutum remalns in the nuiJ position, and
a current has been generated proportlonal to the acceleration that the aoceleromeler is experiencing. This current is the output of the accelerometer.
The current output of the accelerometer is an analOg signal. The CtJrrent is converted into a voUage, which is converted into e digital signal by a high1)recision
analog-to-<llgital (AID) converter. This digital signal is supplled to a microprocessor, whlch uses this acoeleralion meaSurement in the navigation corl{lutatlons, Integrating that measurement once over time lo give velocity. Velocity is then
integrated once more over time to give distance travelled.
Integrator 2
Distance
Distan ce Flown
Starting
Position
~ l ,- --- -----00.:>----
Present
Poslllon
Digital
Computer
175
ehnika
>-- -0 0 - -+ Prosent
Position
1
Acceleromet~r
Outpu1s {3)
Compensations
11
------
Vector
Summing
176
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Alignment
ehnika
During alignment the inertial reference system determines the local vertical and
the direction of true north. The three gyros sense angular rate of the airplane.
Since the plane is stationary df.Aing alignment, the angular rate is due to earth rotation. The IRU computer uses this angular rnt.e to detem'llne the direction or true
north.
The IRU computer has determined true north by sensing the direction of the earth's
rotation. The magnitude of the earlh rotation vector allows the IRU computer toes
timate latitude of the Initial present position. This calculated latitude Is compared
with the latitude entered by the opemtor during lnltJatization.
The system software performs a vertical levelling and determlnes alrcrsfl true
heading and latitude. The levelling operation brings the pitchand-l'oll attitudes
wilhJn 1.0 degree accuracy (coarse levelling), followed by fine levelling and head~
lng determination. Initial latitude and longitude data must be entered by manually
entering the actual present position via the IS DU or by entering 11 by the FMS CDU.
Upon AliGN completion, the IRS will enter NAV mode automatically. Alignment
Time. The JRU completes alignment in a maximum of 10 minutes. During alignment. the AUGN annunciator is tit. Under nonnal circumstances. atignment should
be initiated only within the latitudes of 10 North to 10 South.
To compl ete alignment, the p ilot must onter the present position (latitude and
longitude) of the aircnft on an FMS or ! SOU and transmil the position to the IRU
during the alignment time.
During alignment. the aircraft must remain staflonary. If the IRU detects excessive
aircraft motion, the ALIGN annunciator flashes and the FAULT annunciator lights.
If th.ls occurs, the alignment has to be restarted. Normal passenger-loading activities and wind gusts will not disturb alignment.
If lhe pilot does not enter present position within the normal alignment time, the
MSU ALIGN annunciator flashes, and the IRU will not enter the NAV mode until it
receives a valid input of present position.
The pilot may update~ current latitude and longitude entry any number of times
without delaying alignment as long as the IRU has not entered the NAV mode.
Each successive latitude and/or longitude entry writes over the previous entry.
Only the latest entry IS used for navigation.
The sensed earth rate sensed with the 3 RLG's depends on aircraft position latitude 1 - 4 and the aircraft azim uth.
Roll
-+-.
Pitch
Yaw
~-- Roll
True Nortll
lnltlal Latitud
177
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lowiflg.
The IRS provides the following aircraft flight lnformatloo:
Primary aircraft attitude Ill pitch and roll
Magne tic and true heading
Body linear acceleration
Longitudinal
Lateral
Normal
Body angular rates
Pitch
Roll
Yaw
Inertial velocity
N-S, E-W
Ground speed
Track angle
Vertical rate
Navigation position
L.e.titude
Longrtude
Inertial al titude
Wind data
Wind speed
Wind angle
Drlflangle
Calculated data
Flight path angle and acceletatloo
Along Crack and cross track acceleration
tnertlal pitch and roll rate
Vertical acceleration and potential vertical speed
178
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Example A320
The Alrdata Inertial Reference Unit ADIRU handles all airdata computations and
wor11s as a inertial reference system.
The ax:ternallnputs are:
Global Positioning Sensor Unit (GPSSU) provides satellite navigation data for
hybridisatiOn to the FUght Management System.
FMGC (Flight Management Guidance Computer) Buses provides lnltialisatloo
for IRS for alignmenl The data must be Inserted via MCDU.
ADIRS CDU provides initialisation if FMGC Input has failed.
Discrete inputB provides different option prOgramming hke Installation onenta-
tion.
Alrdata Reference buses from other and own system provides airdata informations for wmd calculaUons and cC~TeCtions .
CFDIU (Centrarazed Feult Display Interface Unit) Is a maintenance tool for
lmo.lble shooting and maintenance.
ADIAS
~ ~
I st:NSORS I
GPSSU BUSES
Jm>clll.&S)
I AOR 8USES I
la:-ow eus I
AOIRU
ADIRU
3
ADIRU
2
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Principle
The ADF is a historic short and medium range radio navigation aid, which receives
and interprets the signals provided by a non directional and broadcasting ground
staliOrt.
The combination of signals, received from two loop antennae and from one omnidirectional se11se antenna, provides bearing Information. The two loop ante11nae
are positioned
apart Ort fhe aircraft structure. The signal from the omni-directional sense antenna is not affected by the relative bearing.
An additional Morse signal Is provided to identify the selected ground station. The
ADF system also provides aural identification of the ground station. Newer receiver also decodes the Morse identification which is received. For enfertalnlno, listening of broadcasting radlo stalons at long- and medium frequency Is possible.
so
------
"
--
Magnctk; North
----
tehnika
Non Directional
Beacon
Beacon
~1'-... ...,
RFSignata'-.
!Tom ADF 1 Station
300"
Relative
e.ating
.....
___, "'
I
I
,/
Non
Oire<:ljOftal
Bucan
(NOB)
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Control
tehnika
Indication
Frequency selection:
Long and medium frequency (LF and MF) 190 -1750 KHz
A1 NORM Switch
A1: Reception of non modulated morse code (oontinious wave CW)
AOF 1 Aag
ADF 2 Flag
Radio
Magnetic Indicator
ADF 2 Pointer
Flgure 165: Audio Control Panel for ADF Caii U stening
a~~~miDJ
VHf1 VHF2 VliFG
HFI
HF2
EFIS
mm~e
INT
CAB
Navigatio'n
Display
0000000
INT
@
RAD
VOR1
~~
VOR2
MKR
ILS
0-PA-f:l
MLS
ADf1
AOF2
00000~~
ND Rose Mode
ADF 1 Pointer
181
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Direction Finding
The direction sensitive antenna receives depending on its position in the magnetic
field. or a transmitter, will receive a stronger or weaker signal. By rotating the loop
360 we experience 2 maximum and 2 min[mum signals. To find out the only possible direction to the radlostation. the signal of a second, noo-dlrectlonal antenna
(called sense antenna) is added to the si gnal of the loop antenna. Only the combination of the 2 signals will give the COrTBct bearing to the selected NOB. which is
displayed on the navlgaflon instrument in the cockpit
According the phaseangle between loop and sense-slgnaJ, the automatic direction
finding circuit steers the loop-antenna respective the loop-resolver to the correct
null posillon.
Figure 168: Loop and Sense Antenna In RF Field of NOB
- - u .._
--- u -...
':::.
~ J ...i
t..oop
...-,p~ LL...---
182
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Bearing
dire~tional
beaoon
Absolute Bearing
r.la g North
NOB
NOB
Heading
+,
''
,
''
.-~
'
'
',
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VHF Navigation
Overview
The VHF Navigation contains following subsystems.
Figure 172:
VHF
NAVIGATION
VHF
OMNIDIRECTIONAl.
RANGE
l ltSTRUt~ENT
LANDING
SYSTEN
LOCAt.IZER
GLIDEPA1H
The chart at next page shows different VOR station around Zurich.
184
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tehnika
185
ehnika
1=21m2
DH ..,., l./1'l4A
.
~:~
!=;r-+-.......=f+'
o'k:iif-~~~.;.....-!,
~-:;.::...,/:.
Locolixe< DeYiallon
V
Loc..aizef De1/iation
inefements.
- The botlom knOb selects entire Mhz.
Course Selector
~lects
Frequency:
Localizer 108.10- 111. 95 MHz all odd 1110MHz steps 40 Channels
(Even 1/10 MHz steps are reserved for VOR)
Glide Path reception is about 330 MH2 paired with Localizer channels.
186
ehnika
Tuning
The operator has to tune the tLS via cootrol panel or MCDU. In automated flight
decks the FUght Management System executas an automated tuning before the
begin of the approach.
LOC
GP
LOC
GP
LOC
GP
LOC
GP
108. 10
334.70
109.10
331.40
110.10
334.40
111.10
331.70
108.15
334.55
109.15
331.25
110.15
334.25
111.15
331.55
Each glide slope channel iS pained with a specific loc81rzer frequency and Is automa6calry selected when the pilot tunes the VHF nav receiver to the locafizer fre
quency.
108.30
334.10
109.30
332.00
110.30
335.00
111 .30
332.30
108.35
333.95
109.35
33L85
110.35
334.85
111.35
332.15
108.50
329.90
109.50
332.60
110.50
329.60
111 .50
332.90
eou,.. RncloUt
snowe tunwtry hcc:Sng .seioctton
ILS
108.55
329.75
109.55
332.45
110.55
329.45
111 .55
332.75
108.70
330 .50
109.70
333.20
110.70
330.20
11 1.70
333.50
333.05
110.75
330.05
111.75
333.35
11 1.90
331.10
111.95
330.95
108.75
330.35
109.75
108 90
329.30
109.90
333.80
110.90
330.80
108.95
329.15
109.95
333.65
110.95
330.65
Course Sc:lcctOt
"""'""" h ...ding
This Radio Management Panel can be used to tune the following systems:
VHF communlcation transceiver
HF communlcatlon transceiver with SSBIAM select
Baclwp lunlng for.
VOR ReoeivertreQvency and course
ILS Receiver frequency and runway heading
ADF Re<:elverfrequency and BFO on/off
187
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Auto
........ ,,,.,.
t ...
I ~ 4 L I 1 f J I
.. 5 / JU . I
188
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Localizer
Ground Facility
The localizer signal comes from a transmitter located at the end of 111e runway tllat
operates In the frequency range from 108.10- 111.95 MHz. The localiUlr transmits
two beams one on the right side of the runway center line and one on the left side
of the rumvay center line.
LOC
Cent er
-Unc
The beam on the right side has a 150 Hz modulation, the beam on the left side has
a 90 H:z modulation. When the aircraft rues over the extended center line to the
runway it receives both signals with an equal strength. When the aircraft deVJates
from the canter fine there i:s a difference in signal strength. The system measures
the deviatiOn from the center line by comparing the s!tength of these 90 Hz and
150 H:z: modulation signals.
of L.ocall~
l~~~;- 1Antonn~
I
/
..........
_,/
189
ehnika
LOC Receiver
LOC Display
When the VHF Nav receiver Is tuoed to a localizer frequency, the localizercircuilry
Is activated. The signal from the antenna is taken into the receiver end passed
through two filters. One filter passes the 90-Hz tone and the other passes the 150~ tone. This audio signal 1$ redifoed and changed to a DC voHage applied to the
amplitude comparator that drives the pointer of the Lett-Rlght Indicator.
When the aircraft is to the right of the runway center line, it in the 150-Hz modulation area, and the needle deftacts to the left, showing that the runway is to the
left The needle deflects full scale when the aircraft is approximately 2.5 Dot off of
the canter line. This Cranslales to about 1,500 feet at five miles out, but becomes
less as the runway Is approache<l. If the aircraft moves to the left of (he runway
center line. it is in the 90-Hz area and the needle is dri ven to the right, Indicating
that the runway Is to the right of the aircraft.
rs
The localizer signals extend from both ends of the instrument runway. When the
aircraft Is approachlng the runway from the end that has the glide slope, it Is said
to be making a front-oourse approach and the pilot tums toward the needle when
the aircraft Is off course. When approaching from the opposite end of the runway,
lhe aircraft Is maktng a back-course approach. When the aircraft drifts off course
the pUot must turn it away from the needle to get back oo course.
Figure 186: LOC Indication
190
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Ground Facility
The glideslope signal comes from a transmllter at the beg.innlng of the runway that
operates in the frequency range from 329.15 MH% to 335 MHz .
The glldeslope transmits two beams to give vert~aJ guidance over the gUdepath.
The glidepath has an angle of approxlmately 3'. The gli deslope beams are j ust like
the localizer. modulated with 90Hz and 150 H ~. The 90Hz modulated beam Is
above and the 150 Hz modulated beam rs below the 3' glldepath. The system
measures the deviation from the difference in signal strength between the 90 Hz
and 150 Hz modulation signals. The navigation display shows locali~er and gtideslope deviation.
The glide slope transmitter and antenna are located about 750 to 1,250 feet from
the approach end of the runway and offset about 250 to 600 feet from the runway
canter line. lt transmlts a highly directional signal that Is approximately 1.4' wldo
and is angled upo.vard from the transmitter at an angle of approximately 3'.
The s.tgnal from the glide slope Is transmitted on one of 40 UHF channels between
329.315 MHl and 335.00 MHz, ana the anteMa Is a small UHF dipole that is
:sometimes built into the front of the VOR/Iocatizer antenna .
,,,. ----....... . . _
I
,41
,.
'
:---~~~br-.
\. - -
__ .,.a
'
\
1
10 N'M
'
GP
Antenna
'
,'
191
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GS Receiver
Two signals using the same can1Eif are transmitted from the antenna system 11\
such a way that they overlap to form the gllde slope. The upper signal Is modulated
with a 90 Hz tone and the lower signal is modulated with a 150-Hz tone.
GS Display
If the aircraft is above the glide slope, it is in !he 90--Hz modulation and the pointer
Is d!1ven downward to show the pilot to fly down. If the aircraft Is below the gtide
slope, it is in the 150-<Hz modulation and the pomter is driven up to instruct the pilot
to fly up.
When the signal is recei\led, the ai.Kiio modulations are filtered and converted into
DC voltages that drive the deviation pointer.
GlidoSio~
Af\tenna
192
EJO/?IEJ tehnika
System Layout
One, two or three recervers are instaUed. The receivers gets th eir VHF signals from
a VHF NAV or localizer anleona. The UHF signal is received by the GS antenna.
Tuning and course selection occurs via oontrolpanel or automatically trom FMS.
Tune- and test inhibit disables ILS tuning and testing during approach and autoland operation.
~@Bp
The receiver gives the output to aut omatlc flight guidance system (autopilot). FMS,
flight data recorder, ground proximity warning system and EFIS. The localizer avdlo output is rooted to audio management system.
. ...
--
PfD
I ll
If two or more ILS receivers are provided, all of th em must be tuned to the same
frequency, espedally on airportS with parallel runways.
lOC I
GS
193
ehnika
ILS Approach
1.
2.
3.
Th e locelizer deviation correspor~ds a predetermined value (2 dots). The locallzer deviation and course error is used to steer the alroran.
The descent altitude is reached and beeing hold. The system is ready to fly in
the glloeslope.
4.
The centertine of the locellzer is nearly reached. Tho aircraft maintains the
center1ine.
5.
The aircraft mes from below into the glide slope beam. The deviatiorl is less
than 2 dots. The aircraft beginns with a slig11t descent.
6.
The aircraft has centered to the glldepath and maintains the center1ine.
7.
8.
9.
At about 135 feet the airoraft he.ad1ng Is aligned with the runway course.
The vertical speed or ttte aircraft is reduced for toudl down.
At touch down the aircraft lowers its nose.
....
FlARE
TQ.t.._toa;
.
@ . . -'"t'J!JS.."'!tl:IC:!L.~l\.- - - - - -
- .---rr-
l.OC TAtC.
@!/
./'-.,LOO
CA~
:'
: ' ""'-..Loc ARU
10. For rollout guidance the locafizer deviation Is used to maintain the aircraft on
the centertine.
194
ehnika
195
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tehnika
196
ehnika
Antennas
The VOR and the loca6zer function of the ILS share the same antenna. The left
figure shows a "ram's-hOm" VHF V-dipole antenna. The favored location for this
type of antenna is on top of the aircraft above the cabin with the apex polnbng !Of-
ward.
Other high-efficiency VOR antennas aro of the type shown in the right f,gure. The
two antennas are designed to mount on the upper section of the vertical stabir.zer
of a single-finned airplane or on either side of a helicopter tail boom. The two antennas are connected together through a phasing coupler to provide a single 50ohm Input in the VOR. localizer. and glide slope bands.
The glide slope portion of the IL$ operates In the UHF range. Its antenna ts a UHF
dipole mounted near the front of the aircraft. sometimes on the same mast as the
VOR/LOC antenna. Some general aviation aircraft mount the glide slope antenna
Inside the cabin in roughly 11\e same location as the rear view mirrof in an automobile.
Figure 1M : VORJLOC Antenn:1 (Boomerang Ty pe)
197
ehnika
The phase difference between the reference and the vanable phase is function of
Introduction
The Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range system is a navigation aid,
wtllch receives, deoodes and processes bearing information from the omnidirectional ground stabon.
CompariS<)(l Bearing
..z:::>
~I
TO Area
Bearing Information
198
EJO/?IEJ tehnika
VOR Indication
Navigation Display
The VOR Bearing pointer at the Radio Magnetic Indicator or Navigation DISplay
(see below Nr. 2) shows always the direction toward the tuned VOR ground sta
lion.
This instrumetlt is a compass repeater, fitted with two VOR pointers, one for each
VOR system install ed. When the frequency of a VOR station is tuned and valid signals are received, the respective pointer to bear automa6cally In the direction of
the selected VOR statlon, showing OOM.
Figure 202: RMI
The Pilot may select any desired VOR course at the shown course selec!OC' or
MCOU. The indication at NO, ~dio Direction or Horizontal Situation Indicator
makes possible an accurate night along any selected course, also with cr0$Swind
toward or from the VOR station.
Figure 204: VOR NO Indication and real Situation
VOR
Q
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\00111335'
\
\
\
1.
2.
3.
4.
Deviation Bar
Each dot represents e lateral deviation of s against the selected course.
5.
TO/FROM Indication
Th e arrow shows toward (ODM) or from ODR the VOR station (QDR).
FREQUENCY
001"- 360'
199
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Ground Stations
Uno of position
A VOR is a VHF transmitter whose eamer Is sim ultaneously frequency and amplitude modulated, FM and AM emission. The two modu1allon 5ignals, called reference and variable signal differ in their phase position according to the drectioo In
which they leave the station. The phase position difference between the reference
and the VBI"iable signal is use to determine the lines of position.
Tho roferenoo signal (FM) is constant in ell diredions.
The phase position of the variabl e signal (AM) differs from the reference
signal according to the direction in which lt leaves the station.
We differentiate the line of position in 2 terms, Whether ve mean the COW'Se leading TO a r adio station, or FROM that radio 5lation.
The magnetic course to be flown TO a radiostation, (by no wind) 15 called track
orQDM.
The magnetic cCXJTSe leading away FROM a radio stalion is called radial
orQDR.
Figure 206: Track QOM and Radial QDR
360
180
0'
p \7/""'\.....
270
tBO'
RU fllfiiZ SIGIIN..
- .. "'
VAIUAM.e; sr.irt4
Type
Used for
Range NM
RF Power
High Power
A-VOR
p.jrway
Navigation
100 - 300
200W
Low Power
T-VOR
Terminal
25-50
Frequency MHz
112.00 - 117.95
All Channels
Area
25W
108.00-111 .85
even 1110 MHl Steps
200
ehnika
Aircraft Equipment
ll lll4.J3Iol
Automatic VOR
The pllot has just to select a operating VOR stations frequency. The Radio Magnetic Indicator RMI or Navigation Display NO shows automatically the actual
VOR bearing (QDM).
VHF/NAV
EQUIPMENT
ManuaiVOR
The pilot selects manually at the course selector a desired VOR COURSE.
One of the 360 possible posiUon noes around the tuned VOR station.
The:
60
AUDIO
shows VOR-DEVIA TION, TQ.FROM and COURSE ERROR between actual alrcrefl situation to the selected statoon.
HUOINO _
...__ _ __ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ __ _ __J
201
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Automatlc VOR
The VHF NAV receivers pick up both reference and variable signals or the VOR.
A phase detector automatically shifts Ule phase position of the reference signal to
correspond with the phase position of the variable signal. This phase shift cooe
sponds with Ule position line on whicb the aircraft is in respeclto the selectecl VOR
station.
IAAC;.HORO
voR-<>-.
...........
VOR
ANTENNA
AUOIO
IIOR/RMI
30Hz
L--+-lr-----'----. VARIABlE
RECEIVER
PHASE
DEMODUlAl OR
DETECTOR
30Hz ENCE
..__ _ _ __, REFER
DME Counters
RELATIVE BEARING
FREQUENCY
TUNING
VOR1 (2) FU\Q$
MAGNETIC HEADING
H~ding
!iigMI in'lalld.
VORRMI
Compass Cam
aear1ng Pointer
IndiCate the magnutlc bearing to the station rece111ea Dy
VOR 1 (dashed POinter) and VOR 2 (dQI.tlle polnrPrj.
202
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Function of RMI
Left example shows the airplane flying toward north. The phase ilngle is contlno.
ousJy changing, so the VOR-polnter changes it's ODM.
Right example shows the alrpl ane is along VOR-Irack 360. The phase angle remai ns 180". The heading is continuously changing. so the pointer moves with ~M
heading scale.
315
1ft
'''
'
'
/.
2 2 5
s
0 TR ACK
:/+-9
VOR
STATION
/
~
.
''
11
~i:
\I OR
S TATION
~-+
~
. +-9
~ -+
+-'9
'
io..
203
ehnika
To minimize the number of instruments, the radio magnetic Indicator, or RMI, has
been developed and i s now widely used. This instrument combines the remote indicating compass with the indicators for the A DF and VOR.
The single arrow that indicates for the VOR is pointing to 150' . This is the TO bearIng to the staUol'l (QDM), al'ld if the aircraft were turned to a heading of 150' it
would go to the station. This places the aircraft on the 330" radial
(180" ~ 150" = 330"). VOR radlals (QDR) are always numbered by the magneijc
direction FROM the station.
The flux-gate compass has rotated the dial of the Indicator to show that lhe airetaft
is flying with a magnetic heading of 315'. The dial has wrned until315' is under
the mar1<er at the top of the lnstrlJment, which is the lubber nne.
The double arrow that indicates for the ADF shows that the station being received
on the ADF is to the left of the airetaft between the wing and the nose. The station
has a magnetic bearing (QOM} from the aircraft of 255".
204
ehnika
Manual VOR
The display gives a image of the ai rcraft position in relation to a selected VOR
course. Following information are shown:
VOR deviation (left - right Indicator),
Course error (difference between aircraft heading and selected tmek),
TO- FROM Indication.
Waming flag.
The pha~ shifl is activated manually by selecting the desired track with the
'course
When the aircraft Is on me selected course (on track), there Is no
phase difference between reference and 118riable signals In the deviation discriminator. The deviation pointer of ftle Indicator remains in the canter.
knoo.
As soon as the aircraft leaves the selected track. the phase differenoe In the deviation detector brings the pointer to move across the instrument, showing where the
selected track lies In relation to the aircraft heading,
The course error (atso ca"ed WCA, Wind Correction Angte), shows the angle between the aircraft heading and the selected track. The selected course and the
compass i nformation are lead to a differential synchro, and the difference between
the 2 pieces of Information gives the course error. The course error signaliJoverns
the Cour~ Poin ter in the indication.
VHF/ NAV
EOUtPMENT
' _..
~:
_____
_....,
~-
The TO - FROM Indicator shows w hether the aircraft is rn the TO or FROM area
of the selected VOR station.
The warning flag Is actrvaled when the reception of VOR signals becomes too
weak. for Instance wtlen the eira-aflls out of the VOR working range, or by tech
nical malfunctions either of the ground or aircraft equipmenl
The receptioo frequency must be tuned and the desired course must be selected.
205
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tehnika
Figure 216: Aircraft Po$1Uon Situations toward and from a VOR Statlon
FRDW AI!EII.
~~~--------~
TO .t.fiEA
5"
+
I
I
POS.
J
IT010"
~ 045
E5
'@
._9
_____.
POS.
..9
__________...
1.
2.
3.
The aircrt~ft is s right of selected cour&e and the heading i s not equal the se
tected course. Deviation bar is 1 dot left, coun;E! pointer shows the coun;;e er-
4.
The aircraft has over flown the VOR-Tx with a Wind Correction Angle.
The TO/FROM pointer moved to the other end of the deviation bar and shows
(FROM). The course error is shown.
J-
FROM
ror.
206
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The Flight Management System automatically tunes the VOR Receivers. The pi
lots may tune the VOR vl8 MCDU's. Backup tuning is possible via RMP.
Figure 221 : Automatic and MCDU Remote Tuning
1Jia1
Figure 220: VHF NAV Control Panel (VOR, ILS and DME)
VHF NAV Fr.quoncy Soloclot
MHL
eo.nc
Selector
- s.tectt
COUI"M
shown fn courH
Type
Used for
Frequency MHz
High Power
A VOR
Ajrway
Navigation
112.00 - 117.95
Low Power
T- VOR
Area
Terminal
120 Channels
All Channels
50 I<Hz spacing
207
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Marker Beacon
Fundamentals
The Marker system is a radio navigation aid which determines the distance between the aircraft and the runway threshold. When the aircraft overflies one of
these Marker transmitters, the system provides aural and visual indications to the
flight crew.
Frequency: 75 MHz
Beacons
Marker radio beacons are transmitters whose antenna systems are designed to
propagate vertical beams.
Two types of Markers are used, the Z and the Fan-Marker.
The Z-Markerwhose vertical beam is cone shaped is used to mark a certain crossing point of airways, or to fill the cone of sUenoe over a NOB.
The Fa~rker propagates a fan shaped beam and Is used to mark important positions along airways and to give distance to threshold lnformatJon on the approach
and landing pa th.
According to ICAO recommendations, Airway Markers should reaCh at least
20'000 ft and ILS Markers 6'000 nIn altitude.
3000 tl
MARKERS
...... -
IMPLEMENT.
blue
ILS
orange
n.s
OM
MM
1300 H z
Thf
3000 Hz
.... ..
white
l LS
8000 H2
white
alrwaya
400
H~<
All other
FM
. -.-.-
208
ehnika
System
Indicating on EFTS
A 75 MHz VHF reoeiver and a display unit In form of 1 or 318mps (one for each or
one for all possible modulation frequency) are required.
When the aircraft overflies the Maliler, the type of Mat1(er is displayed In different
oolors at the PFD ond Is Indicated by an aural identification via cockpit speaker or
headphone.
"The output of the Marker receiver Is lead to the headphones or loudspeakers and
to the visual indieating system: lights or Primary Flight Display.
When the airctaft overflies a Marker beacon, the pilot hears the audio signal and
sees the appropriate Maliler visual indication.
Indications
Marker
Identification
Tone Hz
Light
Name
Outer
------ - - -
400
Blue
OM
Mlddle
- - - -
1300
Amber
MM
Cell sign/ .
3000
White
IMorA
Inner- or Airway
AUt Otf'ICirS
.-.u.... ~
209
ehnika
Receiver
The marker beacon receiver detects the audio modulation of the 75 MHz input
The audio modulation of 400 Hz of 1300 Hz or 3000 Hz goes to ltle audio fitters. If
a marker beaoon audio tone is present, ll goes through lhe filler and doses tile
eledronic switch to grve a ground for a Marker light
The Marker receiver can also be build lnslde the VOR or ILS receiver.
To have the display at the EFIS lhls Information also goes to the multiplexer and
ARINC 429 tr&n$mier in the VORIMB receiver. The ARJNC 429 transmitter puts
the marf<er beacon information in the bits 11, 12 and 13 of label 222.
210
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Principle
The Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) provides digital read-out of the aircraft
slant range distance from a selected ground station. The system generales Interrogation pulses from an ooboard interrogator and sends them loa selected ground
station. The ground station replies. The interrogator determines tM distance in
Nautical Mile (NM } between the station and !he aircra ft. The Interrogator detects
the Morse audio signal which identifies the ground station.
Frequency: Around 1 GHz 252 channels paired With VHF NAV frequencies.
At the same location as a VHF omnlrange statlon (VOR) Is generally also a DME
station. The VOR gives bearing and the DME distance l.o that station.
DME ground stations located close to the ILS - runways are used to determine the
distance between approaching alrcralls to the runway threshold. To compensate
the distance between runway4hreshold and the location of the ground-station, the
internal delay of the station 50 14S is reduced to the corresponding value.
~--~-,
Allllude
'
~ ~ ~~~~
Slant
~~~--~ - . ..........
Dist11n~
_
Ii
:
b ------------------------
Ground Oi$tance
. . -----:~4
VOR- OME
Ground
Station
Figure 229: Interrogation and Reply
1lle DME gives the slant distance. The flight management systems use the dis.
lance Information from the OME for position calculations. The distance Is also
available for indication in the Hight compartment.
The DME in the aircraft is an interrogator which in terrogates the DME ground stabon. The ground station gi ves a reply which the In terrogator receives. From the
time difference between Interrogation and reply the Interrogator calculates the dis
lance. The interrogation and the reply are on a different frequency. These frequen cies are:
1025 to 1150 MHz for the interrogator transmitter
962 to 1213 MHz. for the ground station transmitter.
The frequency for the groun d station transmitter is always 63 MHz above or below
the interrogator frequency (when below and wh en above depends on the selected
channel). The DME frequency has a fixed relation with the colrocated VOR, so
when you select a VOR frequ ency you automatically select the DME frequency.
C.onirot Panel
VH F NAY
ltot"ool
211
ehnika
lnte"ogatlon Pulses
Figure 231:
The interrogator transmlts 2 RF pulses, which is the interrogation. The ground station retransmllts ltle same pulses on the selected frequency. The interrogator varIes the repelilion rate of ltle transmission at random, wh1ch grves each OME
Interrogator a unique repetition rate. This is to make sure that the aircraft recognizes Its own reply pulses. The interrogator looks for replies with Its own repetition
rate and ignores other replies which are fof other aircraft. The time between the
two pulses depends on the channel type.
The DME ground staUon also transmits identification tones to identify the selected
station. Ttle SyStems tune either automatically or manually. The flight management system does the automatlc tuning. You tune manually when you select a
VOR frequency on a VORIDME control panel. When the FMS tunes the DME the
DME Interrogator can give the dlstance to op to 5 DME statlons.
T1 VARIESATAANOOt.tAATE
r~SE;I
Figure 230:
PtA.SE PAIR <PPI TfWISMISSIOH
~
j..:: __J '2
NAX
t.IAX 40 PP/SEC
eJ .S Jl.S
X.CHA!oi'El: ft 12Jl.S
Y-ti!AM'IEL: f1
~ .
X CHAnNEl.
< 40 PP/SEC
= ISO PP/ SEC
NORMALLY < 16 PP/ SEC
'lf.Jl. S
Y-CHAN!tEL
Jl__Jl_
-.J r-
INTERROGATION
3.S}JSC
POLSe.I'AIRS
_fl_____fl
'
RC:!./\_/\_
34JJS[C
..1
I- 2T 50Jl.S~
T TIME TO GROlN) StAtiON
SEARCH_....'-----------~ _ll_
JITTEI!
25 82 IASeC
TRACK
il_
JITTER
212
ehnika
Operation
The DME interrogator transiMs aod receives matched pulse pairs. The ground
station receives and echoes lhe twin pulses back. With no interrogating efrcralt$
around, the ground stalioo sends conUnuously pulse pairs (PP) with a constant
rate of 2'700 PP/s filler and identification pulses. Called squltter.
DIIJ
IOjDICAlO~
If there is an interrogating aircraft in the beacon range. filler (squitter) PP's are replaced by reply pulse pairs.
If the interrogator receives PP's from a ground station. the Interrogator changes
from stand by to search mode.
During search. a counter inside interrogator-computer runs through the range or
the range and searches for the actual distance.
tf the computer of the interrogator has tracked to the actual distance. the rate or
PP's are reduced . The indication follows the actual distance.
Tx 1025 1150 1.1112
I t
!i! I
1
I; I
,MI'C I : I
n.ACK~!t':::: I ~ I
&fA.eit . . , . c 40
u.x .40PMEC ~
TA CAN
TACtical Air Navigation is a m~itary rflotheta (distance-angle) navigation system.
Range and bearing can be detemnined from a single TACAN station. The diStance
measuring part of, is identical in operation of DME.
A civil aircra ft equipped with DME can use any TACAN station for distance determination.
OAI GROUNOSTATIOII
-j
A(0011t:A
;;;
CCOE
3!
I IOENTm
MOIISf
zg
\ r7
J 1--"'IAtmR I
f
PRIOAlTY
P\.LS[ ~AT!
COUr<T[II
,.,$
213
ehnika
Frequencies
The lnl errogator trans mits a pulse-pair signal on any one of 126 freQuencies within
the range of 1025 MHz to 1150 MHz. One hundred of the DME transmit frequencies are automatically seleded by tuning the NAV control to a freQuency between
108.00 and 117.95 MHz.
The other 26 frequencies can be selected by tuning the NAV control to frequencies
between 133.30 and 135.95 MHz, these chMnefs are normally used for military
TACAN slallons.
The signals transmitted by the airborne OME are received by the ground stallon
assigned to the selected channel frequency. After a built-In delay of 50 microseconds, a reply pulse-pair Is autOlllatically transmitted on the channel frequency assigned to the ground station. There are 252 channels within the frequency band of
962 to 1213 MHz set aside for DME ground stations.
NAY
OUE
XlollA
~c
lo.l!li
:~:~
1051
1051
lll'l.IO
'n 10'3.15
~~::~ 18S 1105
10'!.20
roa.zo :&a 980
nor.
18:~
l81: ~
'''
183:~
NAY
01.1
XloiT ~
11).00 1101
11).0 5
Once every 30 seconds the beacon transmits its identity, which is detected by the
pilot as a Morse code burst of three letters at an audio tone of 1350 Hz. These
Morse identir~ers are contained In tha onboard navlgallon cards.
tl8~
!:8~
it!I.r~
:~g 110)
RC
l!M
1165
10)9
'"
1040
1167
1041
ll68
1042
113.30 1104
113.35 1104
113. 40 110 5
1105
1106 11"
lll.SS 110& 104)
l:H~
Figure 233:
MC
nor 7
llr~ 1107 lb1~
Ill. TO IlD! 1171
NAY
Ot.E
XWTA REC
~a
Ill~
~~. Wf
~~~
.181~
::&:~~
18U
Ot.IE
11
~~n
.a 1109
VOR
11 8
VO!I
VOR
m:~
110'.1
1110
IlLO
Ut!~ 111~
:tb
m:lA
n:.t
~~~.,
114..85
llH~
01.1
ICiflA AEC
011(
HAY XWTA
AC
nu
I?7CZ
1050
nn
1051
m~
9
m:~
HAV
OM
18li
n~:~
HAV
0!.1
HAY
11~~
1019
~~~
l!,\~
11 46
HS8
IOJ2
ISH 1159
1033
t&n 1160
1?.?:
10"
1162
103&
1165
10 l7
~E
lUofl IIEC
R!C
1121
H~~
ll2
~~~~~
11 0 112J
tb\1
1185
~~~:1~
XloiU RtC
m~
ll2-4
!lt~ lliJ ~~
~~~
usz UH~ 11 8
115.45 11~9
llt~~ I U3g
IH:l~
lll8 m~
U80
UB&
1015
)Ciolf
1.0~
HN
t&fi
:m
0 1183
1057
I
m~
!8U
l8Jj
18~~ I~
ll8:~
~~
~~~ 1111~
1175
~~~
ll8:t~
~~
Xloll I RC
1st~ ~~~
30 SECONDS
"AV
114.00 1111
11 4.05
Ill
Ill
11 4.20
IH.ZS
IH.lO 1111
11 4.35 1114
114.40 IUS
1!1.15 1115
114.50 1116
114.55 IIIG
11~ .60
HAY
,,
:ru& tm
""
~~~~
l&B~ :8:i W
f
1111
'ru
10..75
101.75 1048
109.10
!Ge.IO 1019
1049 1112 109.85
IOSO 987 109.90
101 .9 1050 JII J 10..!15
Station Identification
or.tE
HAY
I'.m
1:~% ~~~
llt65
llfjS
ll&.9~
lli~
ll!8
nu~
~ nm
m:~ n:~
214
ehnika
Figure 235:
While DME on its own provides useful navigation information it is not. in itself. a
complete navigation aid. 11 was Intended from the start that for both approach and
short-range en-route navigation DME would be used in conjunction With ILS and
VOR respectively. DME works in conjunction with VOR and ILS beacons.
ON
..~_; ~
I>
When a VOR and a DME beacon are at the same site the pilot can obtain range
and bearing Information thus the two systems together provide a Rho-Theta navl
gallon system.
Since the pilot knows. from his charts, the location of the beacons, the range and
bearing infomlation allows him to obtain a position fix.
'
.....~
/
0&1"
COLIRS
_ _ . . \ - Q IS1 All((
\ . . - OLSHIICE
,,,.
261'
1111
1.4
Approach
The use of OME with ILS is quite straighlfOIWard. ILS \lfll provide Its normal function of giving guidance lnformaUon leading to louc:hdown, while OME w111give dis
lance 10 touchdown. Of course the localizer, glldepath and DME beacons must be
suitably slled al the airfield.
Note that at glldepaUl angles of about 3 degrees, the slant range and ground range
are nearly the same.
IL..SOME
215
ehnika
Indicating
The DME distance is shown on the Primary Flight Display and on the Navigation
Display. The DME distance is also shown on the two counters of the DDRMI.
PRIMARY FLIGHT DISPLAY
NAVIGATION DISPLAY
No Computed Data
is
OME fault
DME interrogator is not powered or an internal failure exists.
Flag covers the display or the display Is blank.
ILSDME
VOROME
Dit.tar\Ce LO
o;....,_lo
oolocatod OLIE
runway thruhold
g<OIIftdolallofl
NO
tOHPUTED OH
DA.TA
~shas
COMP4SS
ARD
fAULT
~1--11+---~f~l POINTER
H-oe!"''C~~JZe--!~.j._--~0 (011PU1(0
VCR OA.TA OR
FAULT
Oigital
D!stanco
Radio
Magnetic
Indicator
DDRMI
HO CDHPUTEO
n.ar.a.
216
EJO/?IEJ tehnika
Figuro 238:
Sct~nnlng
DME 5 Cl>11nnels
If possible the FMS calculates the horizontal position (latitude and longitude) with
distarn:es from two DME stations (DMI:/DME). The FMS selects OME stations
around the start position or the selected route from its lntema! data base. There
must be an i deal angle between these stations (preferably 90) to make an accurate IWO-dlmensional navigation possible. The stations must also be strong
enough and within a usable range. In aTeas with minimum radio cov~trage the FMS
may be unable to find a suitable OMEIDME pair. In these areas the FMS uses distance and bearing a t a collocated VOR/DME station for its position calculations.
There are three ways to tune the VORIDME systems;
Automatic tuning by the FMS
The FMS can tune the DME and VOR automatically. AlthOugh the FMS can
tune the ILS, it tunes the OME to the ILSIDME frequency if the runway has
DME installed.
The FMS can automatlcaay tune up to four VORIDME stations and one ILS/
DME statioo. The FMS uses two of the DME stations for its navigation. If the
FMS canno t find two suitable DME stations, it selects the frequency of a collocated VORIOME station.
Manual tuning from the FMS Control Display Unit
Through the CDU you manually select the Identifier or frequency of a VOR/
DME beacon tor use in the DDRMis.
Manual tunin~ from Radio control panels
You can tune the VORIDME manuaDy from Its control panel on the pedestal.
Information from this VORIDME Is shown on the CDU, NO's and OORMis.
ILSIDME
~------' Station
\
Runway Threshold
~~',I<
~ORIOME2
'<>
BaCkground
DME Station
The Fligh t Management System uses all distance Informations for aircraft position
calculation.
The DME slant distance to VORIOME 1 and 2 is shown at DDRMI's and Navigation Displays.
The Slant distance to the both background stations are for FMS usage only.
The slant dtstance to the ILSIDME station is shown on the Primary Flight Ols
play.
217
ehnika
DMESystem
Inputs
Each interrogator has 2 lnpt.rl busses (frequency Input A and B) for frequency selections, one from the flight management system and one from the VOR/DME con
trol panel. A test switch gives !he possibility to test both DME systems.
Outputs
The rnterrogator has 2 output busses; distance data 1 and 2. One goes to the
DDRMI's and to lhe EFIS. The second goes to the night management system .
An audio output with the DME Identification tones, goes to the audio management
system. To listen to the DME you must select the associated potentiometer (VOR
or ILS) at the audio control panel.
1-4-------'---TOII'~ort
1 . - - - -- - - - - lbUIDII
Suppression
When an Interrogator transmits,.lt gives a suppression pulse to an other L-band
eqlipment (other DME. ATC transpOnders and TCAS computer). This pulse protects these systems against high RF input power (up to 700 Watt) to !hair receival'S
and prevents distortions of their operation.
Ante nna
A short, vertically polarized UHF whlp or blade antenna is used. lt is mounted on
the canter line of lhe bottom of the fuselage as far from any other antenna as is
practical.
Figure 239:
218
ehnika
Introduction
GPS is a space based radiO navigation system which provides worldwide, highly
accurate, continuous three-<llmenslonal position, velocity and time Information.
GPS is generally regarded to be divided Into three parts:
Space Segment
Control Segmen t
User Segment
As is Ule case with much of the new technology in the field of aviation, GPS was
created by the military for purely military functions and is stil under the control of
the United States Air Force. Certain features of the system are strictly reserved for
the exclusive use of U.S. and allied military services. However. GPS Is available
to a large degree for civilian usage.
The European Space Ageocy and EU transport ministers released the develoP"
ment for the GaJfleo program. The total project cost tor development and deployment Is forecast to reach 3,4 billion Euros. with a 2008 operational date. The
Galileo system is based on civlllan use.
219
~oa1~
tehnika
Space Segment
Control Segment
The space segment consists of 24 satellites (21 + 3 spares). In six orbital planes
with tour satellites in each plane. Orbiting the earth every 12 hours, a~ an altilu<fe
All24 satellites will be controlled by the control segment on the ground. The control
segment is composed of 4 monitor stations and 1 master control station which pur-
of approximately 11,000 nautical miles, each of the satellites has a 28 view of the
sue the satelfltes, compute the ephemerides and dock corrections. and transmit
earth. From any point on the earth, at any glven lime. there will be six to ten satellites fn view. This provides redundancy, since only four satellites are required for
three dimensional position determination.
at regular lnteNals an lnformatlon message for the GPS users. The 4 monitor sta
lions are located at: Kwajalein, Hawaii, Ascension Island and Diego Garcia. The
master control station is located at Colorado Springs.
The sp<!cing of the monitor stations provide a nearly continuous "ground" vi5ibility
of every satellite. All of the monitor stations !rack lhe satellites, de!ennine their op
erational performance and validity and relay this information back to the Master
Control Station. The Master Control station can then determine the current satellite orbital parameters. tl'le current clock parameters and then transfer corredion
data back to tl'le s.atellites, three times a day.
Through the coooept of the number of satellites cirdiog the globe, plus the orbital
planes of the satellites, aloog with Lhe command and control struc!Ure, GPS wiU
ensure lhet at least four satellites wi~ atluays be available to a receiver at any time
of the day or night. anyWhere over the surtace Oftfle earth, to obtain a precise navigational fi11. This concept will also ensure that the e>alcl position of each satehite
will be known at afl times and that each satellfte will have a very precise time stand
ard. These two factors are necessary to ensure accurate three dimensional position determination.
Satellites
The architecture of the system is composed of a oonstellation of 25 satellites (21
always available}.
Mass: 815 kg.
Time of life: 7. 5 years
Boarded Power. 700 watt at the end of life. Operation frequency:1515.42MHz
OperaUng dock: 2 caesium and 2 rubidium docks.
The satellites are dispatched on 6 circular orbits of 4 satellites each.
Orbit alfitude: 20231 km
O!blt re<:urrenoe: 12 sidereal hour (1 sidereal day equals 23 hours 56 min. 4.1s)
Figure 242: Satellite
220
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User Segment
Figure 245: Receiver counting the Travel time of Satettlte transmitted Signal
The principle of GPS position computation is based on the measurement of transmission lime of the GPS signals broadcast by a minimum of 4 received satellites.
For a boa~ only 3 satellites would be enough to obtain its position, while, for a user
on the move In the air. a fourth satellite is necessary to because of altitude of the
aircraft. The GPS data are:
GPS position (Latitude and Longitude)
Ground Speed
True Track
Altitude
Figure of merit (Position error can be up to 500 meter)
SATELLITE
RECEIVER
Whlle the oonoep t of navigation via GPS can include ships, trains. cars, etc. GPS
designed for aircrafts are expandable to include CAT Ill preci sion approach guidance, position reporling and flight following, as well as aircraft oonllict repot1ing
and resolution.
Derived lnformatlon
GPS Is primarily a position determining system, it is possible to derive certain data
by taking i nto account the change in position over time. Actual track can be obtained by looking at several position fixes. Ground speed can be calculated by
measuring the distance between two fixes, then measure the amount of time required to travel between the fLXes, to obtain a rate of travel.
1:!9
c:::>
llli
=
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GPS
ALT
10000
MOD E l' S A
NAV/6
=
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=
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31
@)
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c=
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GPS
c=
A.L.T
(ill
10000
MOI>I!!I'SA
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(ill
221
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Theory of Operation
GPS wori<s like DME in principle, with one Important difference. DME measures
the elapsed round trip time for a signal that Is transmitted to a DME ground station
from an ain:ratt and then dividing that time in half and multiplying the result by the
speed of light The result equals the slant range distance from the aircraft to the
ground station.
GPS measures the amount of time it tal<.es a signal to travel from a 5ateUite to a
receiver. That time Is then multiplied by the speed of light to obtain a distance
measurement. This distance results in a line ot position (LOP). Just as DME determines a position fix by1he intersection of two or three DME arcs, GPS uses four
distance measurements from four sateltites to determine latitude, longitude, alii
tude and time difference.
A signifi<:ant difference in the operation or DME versus GPS Is lhat DME is en active system, whDe GPS is a passive system. For OME to operate, an interrogation
signal from the user must be Initiated. GPS required no interrogation signal. As a
passive system, it i s always operational The orbiting satellites oontinually transmit
data, without the need of being Interrogated. All additional advantage to a passive
system is thatlt can have an unlimited number of users at any one time, where an
active system such as OME Is limited to approximately 100 users per statJOn at any
one time.
GPS is a expensive system to put into operation. If v.'O forget about the oast of
putting the satellites Into Ofbit for the moment. direct measurements of elapsed
time require exact synchronization between the satellites and the reoelvers onboard the aircraft. To achieve this synchronization, extreme, stable clocks are re
qulred. Extremely stable in this case is on the order of 10"1 seconds per secood.
This equates to a drill rate of 0.003 seconds per thousand years. To achieve this
stability, atomic clocks must be used. For redundancy four atomic clocks instaned
on each satellite!
The GPS is working with lime differences. By using a quartz oscillator to set the
timing at the receiver (aircraft) end, the cost of operation ts greatly reduced. Using
a quaJtz oscillator provides less accuracy. However, by antlclpatlng this loss in aDcuracy, compensation can be applied In the form or a fourth Nne of position from a
fourth satel~te. This is why with GPS, four satellites should be In view et any given
time ror a precise navigation fiX.
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Pos;tion Fixing
If a dlstance from a specific point in space (satellite) Is known, then it follows that
the receiver Is located somewhere on the surface of sphere, with a radius of that
distance. The first distance measurement establishes the first line of position LOP.
The addltloo of a second satellite and a second distance measurement furthet' reftnes the positioo calcul ation as the two LOPs Intersect each other. The addl~oo of
a third distance measurement from a third satellite further refines the position eel
rulatlon as we now have three LOPs Intersecting at a speCific point In space. This
point in space represents the distances measured between the aircraft end the
three satellites.
This, all by itself, is not very helpful. If you consider that you are:
11 ,000 nautical miles from satelhte No. 1 and
12,000 nautical miles from satellite No. 2 and
13,000 nautical miles from satellite No. 3 and
thallhese satellites are moving through space at 7,500 miles per hour,
this means that they are not ln the same position they were in a second ago. To
overcome this problem, each satellite transmits Its position (ephemeris) to the receiving computer. The computer in turn can appJy matrix algebra an d the sOlution
or simultaneous equations with four unknowns (longitude, latitude, altitude and
time) into useful information.
For terrtsllc navigation at the sphere with 3 satellites, the elevation Is not determined For elevation or altliuda determlnatloo, the reception of a fout1h satellite Is
necessary.
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Aircraft Systems
AORJ COU
GPS satellite orbits do cl'l<lnge, there are times every day when the geometry of
the satellite positions is not optimum . During these times, the position eccuracy of
the system will be slightly degraded. By integrating the GPS posillon infonnation
with that o f other long-range navi gation (IRS) or flight management systems, the
overall positional accuracy of the system can be maintained.
In normal operation, the GPSSU data Is used by ADIRU. In order to reduce
GPSSU lnltlallzatlon lime, ADIRU's sendi ng data to GPSSU (IR poslbon, Altitude,
Date, UTC).
GPS
The MMR receives RF signals through an active GPS antenna (preamplifier implemented within the antenna). T he GPS receiver filter s, mixes and performs N D
conversions. The resulting data ts processed by microprocessors that oufput position. v&locily. time, and intagrity data to lha system proceS$or. The system processor transmits ARINC 7 43A-complianl data for use b y o ther aircraft systems.
224
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Area Navigation
Introduction
COMPUTE
Area navlgalion (RNAV) Is a navigation and guidance system which uses VOR
bearing, DME slant ranging, and barometrtc altitude as its basic signal Inputs to
compute course and drstance to a waypolnL Since !he system can only function
within the service area of a VORIDME station. it cannot be u sed for overseas navlgaUon.
To fly over uncovered regions nke oceans, deserts and unpopul ated areas, the Input or the inertial reference syst.e m and or global positioning system is needed.
The next devlopment step Is the Flight Management System, covering also profile
(verUcal) navigation and engine thrust management.
POSITION
WAYPOINT-tf>----- -- -- - ~ - --- - - - - - -
lI
225
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tehnika
VOR/DME flight
For example this is a flight plan between Chicago's O'Hare alrport and Newaril.
The area navigation concept provldes direct routes belween airports. Alo ng each
route there are waypoints towards which the airplane fties. The waypoint locations
are establlshed when the route is designed. Each waypoint is associated with a
specific NAV ald or VORJDME station.
The flight takes from one VOR station to another until, by a round about path, we
arrive at Newark.
YOSIO'U
CA.l
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i \\
1.1 01/D.J.tf
PMM
Q
,
YOl/~1
OBK
VOR!D.I.H
~ ---------------------------------~
UD
---
EWR
,
!
I \
\
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VOI'D I41
SlT
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YOR/ Dtll(
Q <-'_.-t-\~~::-\ /-,-.......g{J{,___;~ 0
WAYPOINTS
I WO
226
ehnika
Flight Management
Introduction
The Flight Management System (FMS) compares a pilot selected Otght plan wilh
the actual horltontal and vertical alrcreft position. In case of a difference between
the selected ftight plan and the aircraft position the FMS makes a steering and a
thrust commano.
Figure 255: Flight Route
iotPre~t.ent
Position Upd:.t
AIR Data
VOR
ILS
OPS
DME
The FMS shows the Information about the selected flight plan on the Control Display Unit (CDU). Through the keyboard of the CDU the aew can change ltle night
plan.
The FMS giVes the steering and thrust oommands to the AFS. The AFS can use
the commands to ny the aircraft automaticaUy on the fitQht plan. The AFS can also
use the commands to the crew 1hrough the flight director command cues.The FMS
also gives information to the EFIS to show the_flight plan on the navigation display.
Clock
Fu"l
Data Loa<Mr Conneclor 1
Data
Loa- COnnctor 2
227
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Tile FMS uses information from various aircraft systems and from a data base.
Navigation. The FMS uses Information from its data base to automatically tune
tehnika
The reason for this is traffic control. When there are many aircraft in the same air
vo.-ay secl ion traffic control puts these alrcraft above each o ther in the abway.
the navaids (ILS, VOR and DME). With these.navaids, the FMS measures !he aircraft's position, direction, and velocity.
Performance. The FMS calculates a vertical profile that grve s the shortes l possible flying time at the lowest fuel consumption. The FMS also can give predi ctions
of fuel quantities and arrival times at future points in the flight plan.
Guidance. The FMS compares the position where the. aircraft has to be according
to the flight plan. with the actual aircraft position. If there is a difference, the FMS
gives guidance commands to the AFS to bring the aircraft back to the night plan.
EFIS display. The FMS is the primary source of information for !he displays.
In the FMS dala ba5-e there is informatiOn about flight piMs. navalds, aircraft aerodynamics and engine data. The flight plan and navaid data must have an update
every 28 days. To start the FMS the' orew has to select a fljght plan on the CDU.
After the selection, the FMS takes lhe flight plan out of the data base and puts lt in
the fli ght plan memory for use in that Hight The crew adds S tandard Instrument
Departl.lres (SI D) and S tandard Arrival Routes (STAR) when traffic control gives
these procedures.
After these selections the FMS knows the horizontal path that the aircraft must follow fi'Qm the origin airport to ihe destination airport. With information from the dala
base about navaids tnat give the best resul! for navigation. the FMS tunes the ILS
VOR and DME automaUc<JIIy . The FMS uses information from lhe IRS, GPS, OME
and VOR to calculate the aircraft position, dir ection and velocity.
To calCulate ihe optimwn vertical path of the aircraft tile crew give the FMS more
information, such as the:
cruise altitude (traffic control)
aircraft weight
standard instrument departure (traffic control)
Before the FMS starts to calculate the optimum vertical path the crew must select
an overall target for the Right economy. There are three targets for the whole night
profile; minimum cost, minimum fuel, or minimum flight duralion. When the FM S
has this information rt calculates the optimum vertical path rn combination with the
hortzontal path.
DMEDisbnce
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Mlgft. Huelklg
U neCGMT)
""'"""'
Vert.S.,eecl
rru AlrtpQCI
,...
F"t!JOtHIMitl
twll"tuw
Uacrt..NU,...,U
~leratlon
Roll A-no..
The cre.v C3n change the horizontal and vertical path through lhe CDUs. In most
cases, the rxew does not change the horizontal path but the vertical path.
228
EJO/?IEJ
ehnika
Notes:
AD!' I
\lOA I
llS
0MC
I
I
229
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Computation of Position
Flg1.1re 259:
The Flight Management Computer or Area Navigation Computer computes its aircraft position (caned the "FM posibonj from a MIX IRS poshlon ano computed radio position or a GPS position. The CO!ll)U!ef selects the most accurate position
considering the estimated accuracy and integrity of each positioning equipment.
GPSIINERTIAL is the basic navigation mode provided GPS data are valid and
successfully tested. Otherwise navaids plus inertial or inertial only are used.
IRS2
.......
Rad io
Position
-$-
"ri7f ...-~
I .
GPS Position
OME2
VORIOME
DM EIDME
FM Position
At takeoff, the FM position is updated to the Nnway threshold position as stored
In the data base. In fllght, ltle FM position approaches the GPS position (or the radio posrtlon If the GPS is not valld) at a ra te depenolng upon the aircraft ahltude.
Accuracy: Enroule 3.5 NM, rerminat 2 NM, Approach 0.36 NM)
0~
Bias
Each FMGC computes a vector from its MixiRS position to the radio or GPIRS position. This vector ls called lhe "bias". The FMS updates lhe bias continuously if a
radio poslllon or a GPSIIRS j:>Oslllon is available.
If an FMGC loses its radio/GPIRS position. it memorizes lhe bias and uses it to
compute the FM position, which equals lhe mix IRS position plus the bias.
-$-
OME 1
If the GPS data comply with integrity criteria, GPS data are used to calaJiate the
FMS position. (GPS Primary) (Accuracy < 0.3 NM)
........ '
,,
..
FM Position
/:.: ~-.._,Position
-.........r
t . . .'
~ \. :..............
f OY.
~y-.
.' GPS
.a
..
~
'~
~GPIRS
MIX IRS
Position
230
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FMS Functions
The Flight Management Sys tem combines lateral and vertical navigation control
with full performance management. Not only can it quickly define a desired route
from the aircraft's current position to any point In the world. The definition will be
based on the operating characteristics of the aircraft
FMS navigation provides highly accurate and au tomatic long range capability by
blending available inputs from both long range and short range sensors such as
IR$ , VLF/Omega, GPS (Global Posltlonmg System), VOR and Scanning DME, to
develop an FMS position more accurate than any single sensOf"can provide. The
FMS performs tlfght plan COf"npu!alions, displays the total picture on the EFIS, and
provides signals to the autopilot and autothrottle for automatic tracking.
OME
Clock
The Flight Management System (FMS) makes a ftightplan. This nightplan Is a lateral mghtplan to the selected destination and a vertical tlightplan to the selected
cn.lise altitude.
The lateral flight plan exists of ftlght legs. Speeds and altitudes are added to these
fllgl1tle9S. The total of the speeds and altitudes is the vertical High\plan.
GPS
IL S
Au top ilot
Autotuoe
The FMS makes steering commands to maintein the aircraft on the lateral and ver
tical flightplan. The Automatic Fltght Control and Augmentation System (AFCAS)
accepts the steering commands to follow the ftlghtplan path.
These funclions of the FMS take over many roulilla tasks and COf"npu tations oormaUy done by the night crew.
231
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The lateral flighlplan comes from a navigation database in the FMS. This navigation data base contains company routes (latefal flightplans), navigation station information and navi gation references (waypolrtts). Before each night the crew
selects the lateral flightplan from this navigation database.
The navigation database information cnanges from time to time. lt changes because of Introduction of new company routes. The navigation stations are not al
ways available because of periodic maintenance on these stations. The nevlgallon
database in the FMS is updated with the latest information every 26 days.
In addibon to the flightplan selection the crew also has to tell the FMS what ltle
s!art position of the alrcrafl is. The FMS gives the start position from the selected
nlghtplan as a present position. When the crew confirms this present position to
ltle FMS, the FMS accepts this present positl!)n information.
N;.1,vig;;rti.o n
AefNe nce
lol' Ptolt*t'lt
Posldon Update
The Oightptan Is a route from airport to airport. In addltlon to this ftlghtplan the crew
must speedy a take~ff procedure and an approach procedure. The Standard In
strument Departura (SI D) fs the route from the tak~H>ff runway to the begin of the
tlightplan. The Standard Arthlal Route (STAR) Is the route from the end of the
llightplan to the runway of the destination.
When the fh ghtplan Is tnsetted and the position of the aircraft is confirmed the FMS
starts to navigate. During the navigation operation the present position of the aircraft is updated by the FMS. The FMS updates ltle present position with the IRS
(senses motions and attitude changes) and the VOR, OME, ILS and GPS systems
(senses direction and distances to navigatiOn ground stations).
The present posHJon of the alrcrart is compared with the position of the flightplan.
Any deviation from the ftightplan results In a deviation indication on EFIS.
Roll steering commands are generated to foUow the lateral flightplan if the Autopilot operates In the NAV mode.
SID
STAR
Aight Plan
Star
En route
Weypoint
Navigation
Reference
232
ehnika
The RNAV system is identical to the Flight management system, containing tne
laternl (hori2:ontal) navigation pan. The VOR/OME stations can be located besides
of the rou te. The routes and its waypoints are calculated and based on tne radio
navigation aids.
Example of a FMS or RNAV guided night See next drawing.
1. FMS Position at Alrpott Reference Poin
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
233
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Performance Management
tehnika
Speeds, attitude and engine thrust oomputed in lfle flight plan. The total weight and
altitudes m ust be ins&rted to calculate lfle flight plan andoptimization of the aircraft
performance.
The pertomance computation reduces the fuel consumption. Via selection of the
best strategy, between 1 and 2% of energy can be ~aved.
How tile Pertonnance man;;~gement saves fuel;
Calculation of the flight profile (Vertical Fllglll'Piari) and optimization of speed
and altitude depending aircraft weight, fuel welghUnd time.
Computation of Engine thrust ftmils tor all flight phases.
Direct coopflng,of engi ne l hrust demand to the engine fuel control device. auto
throttle system or electronic fuel contrOl.
Contromng the englne thrust wllfl a minimum of change tile demanded thrust
Indication of the recommendations to the pilots for optimum climb, cruise and
descent.
The vertical fllght plan is calculated in tile FMS. For these vertical flight plan caJ.
culations the FMS uses:
the aircraft model database (this database COfltains the aerodynamic specifi
cations of tile respective aircraft type)
the engine database (this database contains perfomumce specifications of
tile engine)
the Inserted weights of the total aircraft Qncludlng passengers, luggage and
fuel)
the selected attitude
the wlndspeed and wlnddlrecllon Information.
After the vertical flight plan calculation the FMS shows predictions of time, speed
and altitude the ;~lrcraft will have on the different reference points in Its flight pl an.
During ftight the FMS updates the aircraft alutude with the ADC (altitude) and IRS
(inertial vertical speed and Inertial altitude) inputs. A rry deviatiofl from the vertical
f!Jght ptan re~uJts In a vertical deviation Indication on EFIS.
Engtne
Sensors
I
I
I
I
I
I
Uax: Cl/SPD CL :
DI!SC
Slra.tegic Mod"
T3CI.I,IIodc
I
I
I
I
234
~oa1~
tehnika
Thrust and pitch steering commands are generated to follow the vertical flight
plan rf Auto Flight System operates in the PROFILE mode.
A vettical Right plan from origin to destination exists of a takeoff phase, a climb
phase. a cruise phase, a descent phase and an approach phase.
The takeoff phase starts when takeoff thrust is developed by the eng1nes on
the takeoff runway.
The climb phase starts at lhe lhrust reduction altitude (1500 feet according
lATA profile). AI this thrust reduction attitude the takeoff thrust is reduced to
climb thrust
At 3000 fee t above the airport level (aCceleration altitude) the speed is Increased to 250 kts. This is the maximum atrowable speed below 10 ,000 feet.
At 10,000 feet the aircraft accelerates to a higher speed.
The cruise phase starts at the top of climb and ends at the top of descent.
The descent phase start.s at the top of descent and Ot'Kls at the time the crew
selects the naps dollln. At 10,000 feet the speed is dea-eased to 250 kts.
(maximum aUowable speed below 10,000 feet).
The approach phase starts after flap down seleition and ends at runway
touch down .
IIH!DIAT Ol5CU T
l(lpel llESCf Nr
.5.1'ElDLIIUI
N.TITI.C)E
CCNSTRAIHT
STRA!llll( HOOfS
-((OJtOH 'f
-1111<1!illl0 FUEl
-1411ft.~~l1 TIIU
235
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Navigation Database
The dataloader connectors located In cockpit or evionlca bay Is used to update the
navigation database once in the 4 weeks. Each FMC has its own data-load con-
nector. Wrth a portable dataloader lhe new naYigation database is loaded from a
tape or diskette Into ltle FMC. Ally dataloeder fullfilllng the specification can be
connected to the datalo;~d connector.
New dat;~ base content will be uploaded every 28 calend;~r days
Figure 267: FMS Blockdi agram
I
/
!IAV
fi.\C-1
~A
OAIA
LOAOU
fMC--% \..
[.;\
~~
236
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Radio Altimeter
Fundametals
The Radio Altimeter System determines the height of the aircraft above the terrain
during i nitial climb, approach and landing phases.
The principle of the radio altimeter rs to transmit a frequency modulated signal.
from the aircrafi to the ground, and to recelva the ground ref1&eted signal after a
certain delay. The timo between the transm ission and the reception of the signal
is proportional to the AI C height.
The RT Unlt send the radloaltltude to lhe indicator system (EFIS or conventional
inslruments) and to other systems. Flight data recorder for Investigations. Ftlght
warn system for altitude call out during approach and f ailure monitoring. Ground
proximity warning for pilot alerting. The automatic flight control system (Autopilot)
uses the height for automatic landings. During this phase of flight the selftest of the
RT Unit Is Inhibited to prevent a false maneuvre. The selftesl can be initiated from
the cockpit or at the RT Unit
Figure 271 : System
237
ehnika
blank.
The PFD shows the radio height In digital form. OH IS shown when the aircraft decents under the selected decision height.
Figvre 273: Primary Flight D isplay
The DH light illuminates when the aircraft heig,ht is equal or lower lhan the selected
decision highl A sound is audible when the light turns on.
The rising runway represents the height below 200 feet durlng approach. At
ground it is close to the aircraft symbol.
Figure 272: Rad io Altim eter Indicators and Rising Runway
,.4 .......,
;~I.Jj
.:
RADIO
HEIGHT
<$(10ft
RIBBON
TYPE
tNDICATOft
RADIO
HEJGKT
O~ft
Final phase
of a ppr~h
A nal phase
of approach below 150ft
On ground
In the final phase of an approach below 150 feet . the lower timit on the altitude
sphere moves up as the aircra ft approaches the ground.lhe distance between the
tower limit and tile horiZon line is proportional to the aircraft height
Below 400 feet, the redlo altitude Is announced by a synthetic voice generated by
the Aight Warning Computer.
238
ehnika
Principle
T~e
system conlinuousliy transmitS radio signal to the ground. The ground renacts
thiS si~nal and it comes back in the aircraft after a delay. This delay depends on
the h~ight or lhe aircraft above te~in . The system processes this delay into altitude tnformat1on. A visual presentation or the albtude is on the EFIS or at the radioattimetsr indicator with ftightdiract()( horizon for the final approaches.
Figure 274;
The transmitter sends a signal lhat cnanges from 4'250MHz to 4'350 MHz and
back 100 limes per second (FM/CW). The transmit frequency changes 100 times
per second around 100 MHz. Between the ground reflected signal and lhe actual
transmit signal, !here is a frequency difference proportional of the traveltlme. out
oi the difference frequency the system computes the height.
........,
FltiOUI NCY
011 LIG HT
.... ...
flAOIO
AUITUOf
F\IQHT
IHCH CUOR
OIRECTOR
HOIVZOtf
$4GNAl
/
/
RADIO ALTlttETER
TRANSCEI\IER
/
/
/
/
so
o.o t
~
6 t TFIAVU
TUllE
100 MtU
10
'
\ I
r-------------~-~-'~~------------~~~~~
HCI GttT: ~
( c t SP0 0, ~IGKT
AND AAiliO WAVES J
239
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Antenna
tehnika
Figure 277:
Radio altimeters transmit vertically downward and receive !heir reflected signal
from ltie surface beneath them_ This system requiros two antennas mouni&d on
the bottom of the fuselage. In most instatJaUoos these antennas are nush with the
skin.
Figure 276:
CASKET
COAXIAL CABLE
RECEPTAClE
240
ehnika
A typical GPWS in
Mode 3 warnings oocor When the aircraft hes lnlllated a dimb alter takeoff or
after a missed approach. tt there is a
loss of altitude under these conditlons,
the GROUND PROXIMITY light Will Uluminafe and the aural warning will say
"OOO'T SINK.. _ ."
Mode 4 warnings occur during the landing pha.se of a flighl If there is Insufficient terrain dearance when the land1ng
gear Is up or the flaps are not in land
confiQuration. The warning will sound
TOO LOW GEAR or TOO LOW FLAPS
and the GROUND PROXIMITY light Illuminates.
241
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Ca/1-0uts
Windshear Aferting
Mode 6 provides alerts and callouts tor descent below predeflned aUitudes, Decision Height (OH), Minimums and Approaching Decision Heighl, Approaching Minimums.
Mode 7 produces optional alerts for flight Into an excessive Windshear con<11tlons
during takeoff or fll'lal approach. The Wiodshear warning produces aural, visual
Alerts for excessive roll or bank angle are also provided as part of this mode. The
"Excessive Bank Angle" aural alerts are given twice. and then suppressed unless
the roll angle increases by an additional 20%.
Specific callouts are selected via program pin from predefined menus. Mode 6
alerts and callouts produce aural and AHINC 429 oulput ln<llcatlons, but do nor
produce visual indications.
Figure 279:
RUNWAY
242
ehnika
The NO presents the terrai n picture. The terrain appeafS in different colours and
deosiUes acconltng to Its relative height.
Figure 282:
The Caution and Waming envelopes use the Terraill Clearance Floor as a baseline, and virtually "look ahead of the aircraft In a volum e whlcn Is calculated as a
function or airspeed, roll attitude and night path angle.
249 / 16
/
If the airaall pene trates the Caution Envelope boundary,lhe aural message "Caution Terrain. Caution Terrain" Is generated. and alert discretes are activated for
visual annunciation. Simultaneously, the conflicting terrain areas are shown in solid yeUow color on the Terrain Display.
.....,.._.. __
~ _._........
UIG/004
93 Nil
18:35
If the aircral\ penetrates the Warning envelope boundary,lhe aural message -rertain Terrain. Pull Up!" Is generated, and alert discretes are activated for visual annunciation. Simultaneously the connicting terrain areas are shown i n solid red
calor on the Terrain Display.
Flgufe 281 :
~-+--- RED
OR
AI.IBER
MESSAGE
t~
Yellow Dots 500 feet below to 1000 feet above reference altlt.u de
25~.
Green Dots 500 feat below to 1000 feet below reference altitude
243
ehnika
Terrain
A nUO'Iber of airports throughout the wortd have approaches or departures that are
not entirely compatible with standard GPWS operation. These aiJpOrts are identified in the database in such a way that when the GPWS recognizes such an air
port, it modifies the profile to avoid nuisance wamings.
Local Terrain Processing extracts and formats local topographic terrain data from
the EGPWS Terrain Database. This Database divides the earth's surface Into grid
sets referenced horizontally on the geographic QatJioog) coordinate. E lements of
\he grid sets record the highest terrain elevation . Grid sets vary In resolution de
pending on geographic location. Because the overwhelming majority of "Controlled Aightlnlo Terrain (CFIT)" accidents occur near an airport, end the fact lhat
aircraft operate In doser proximity to terrain near airports, higher resolution grids
are used around airports. Lower resolution grids are used outside o f airport areas
where enroute aircraft altitude makes aecldents unlikely and for which detailed ferrain features are n ot of Importance to the flight crew.
The Terrain Clearance Floor (TCF) creates an Increasing terrain clearance envelope around !he Intended airport runway dlrecUy related to the distance from the
runway it is active during lakeoff, cruise and final approach.
Figure 283:
Database
Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) are available for most of the airports around the
world today.The global EGPWS Terrain Database Is organized In a nex.ible and ex
pandabl e manner. Using digital compression techniques, the complete database
is stored in non-volatile memory of 20 MByte within the LRU. Updates and additionS are easily done by inserting a single PCMCIA card In a card slot on the LRU
front-panel. Status LEDs on the LRU front-panel allo~~t \he operatOf to monitor the
database load p rogress and completlon.
Obstacle Database
Provisions arc also m ade tor future use of an Obstacle Database providing obstacle data In th e vicinity of major airports. This database wfll provide altitude data lot
man-mada obstades or groupu of obstacles that protrude above the EGPWS terrafn proledion floors.
244
~oa1~
tehnika
Figure 284:
lAY
JJIW.. AL.Uf
lt>fi--
.u .. "'f$ -
/of$
t:l..ltE - I.JX
l l,.N.aY MK
I'CS: ACOJUty
GPWS lights come on to give a v isual warning for modes 1 to 4. For mode 5 the
glide stope (GIS) lights come on on the captain and first officer instrument panel.
tcM. t'IO
,_,IYLICii t'rn'
11ff
VUUIU. M.Eif
WARJIJING
ICDe - t:W:Z
The cockpit loudspeakers broadcast, even if tumed off, the aural w aming or caution messages associated with eadl mode. The audio volume of these messages
i$ nol controlled by the loudspeallel' volume knobs. (These llnobs allow the adjust
audio volume for radio oommunicallon only).
~J.tl.,.
ENHANCED
G ROUN D
PROXIMITY
u r - I.C*G -lfWX
....,
COMPUTER
........
.,...
~tl
DtllBlT
NJ..J,I,.CID 1 1'05
......
.,
'" ""'" "'""
Uli!IIT
I~IIIT
IUI f WfGI
BVTTONS
245
ehnika
ATC Transponder
-
......
:"f5 o o:
:,
Principle
The Air Traffic Control (ATC) transponder is an Integral part of the Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System. The transponder is interrogated by radar pulses received from the ground station. tt automatically replies by a series of pul ses. These
reply pulses are coded to supply Identification and automatic altitude reporting of
the aircraft on the ground controller's radar soope. These repUes enable the controller to dlstingulsh the aircraft and to maintain effective ground surveillance of the
air traffic.
The ATC transponder also responses to Interrogation from aircraft equipped wtth
a T raffiC Collision Avoidance System.
'. :;'
.~ ' ...:..
-- . - - ~--
'
_,"":
.. ...
~
a o
:
',___
. ;~_
~
--
51flr
--og. . .-.. . . .
h-~d10dMI ..... cod~
_____.____
Controller Scope
,..ft
-Tbo~--
:lt&IWfilldiBlUdt e.&.
-
Communk:ation
link
Altitu de
~~--.
Identification
~buldontJI~
- ~~~
Figure 285:
-_
DGih
ATO...,..,_
nn&pen:Mr.s
.,.
~
_
_
_
ot'fb
Oft'f'!
-1"
-Hotflllwdt;OD~
"!'CAS
246
ehnika
The air traffic control radar beacon system (ATCRBS} consists or airborne and
ground based equipment that operate togeth&r to locate and idenbfy the a1rcraft
operafing in the sysfams airspace. The alrbome equipment consists of a transponder (receiver-transmitter), a control unil and an antenna. The ground based
equipment consists of a primary surveillance radar (PSR) system and a secondary
surveillance radar (SSR) system. 1lle PSR consists of an antenna, a recelvef
transmitter, and en Indicator. The SSR system consists or an antenna, a receivertransmitter and interface and control equipment used by the air traffic controller.
The PSR provides the bearing and range of the aircraft within the airspace. The
SSR system provides the altitude and idenUficatfon Information of the aircraft with
in the airspace. The primary radar system uses a narrow RF beam, transmitted
through a rotating antenna to illuminate aircraft in the path of the beam. By calculating the elapsed time between transmission of the RF beam and reception of the
reflected RF beam. the distance to an aircraft Is determined. By noting the bearing
angle of the antenna, When recepti on occurs, the bearing to the aircraft Is determined.
The secondary surveinance radar (SSR) system interrogates the aircraft about its
identity and altitude by transmitting two sets of ptJisas. Tho Interrogation mode is
determined by the P1-P3 interrogation pulse spacing. There are two modes of Interrogation used. Mode A for the basic ATC identity Interrogation, and Mode C for
requesting the transmission of digitafly coded altitude lnfom1ation. The Mode A
ptJtses are spaced 8 microseconds apart and Interrogate the aircraft transponder
about the identity of the aircraft. The Mode C pulses are spaced 21 microseconds
apart and interrogate the aircran transponder about the altitude of the aircraft. The
pulses in both modes ate Identical except tor !he spacing of the pulses. Theie also
exists two alternate modes for interrogating the aircraft transponder. These optional modes are Mode B and Mode D.
R<opty ,
1010 ~-~x
\
I
I
'
/
Interrogation
1030MHz
247
~oa1~
ModeS
tehnika
The Mode S tra!'lsponder equipped aircra ft and ground statiO!\ enhance lhe operation of ATCRBS by adding a data link. feature for performance improvements in
determJnlng the aircraft location. The Mode S transpondet data link capabaities in
elude bldirectional air-to-air information exch<mge, ground-to-air data uplink, air
to-ground data downlink. The Mode S transponder may also function as part of a
airborne separatioo assurance system \vl\en Interfaced with a Traffic Alert and
Collision Avoidance System (TCAS).
--
U"',.t
-I
11JOWfiZ
ROLL CAU
NEIGH!I0Rit4G
AIR5PAC!
CONTROLLER
(MOOf Sl
I
I
I
t
\
\
--
AIRCRAFT l
AIRCRAFT2
AIRCRAI'T 3
As a Mode S aircraft flies into the airspace served by another Mode S interrogator,
the first Mode s interrogator may sand position Information and the aircraft's discrete address to the second interrogator via ground lines.
In regi ons where Mode S Interrogators are not connected via ground link, so if the
aircraft enters an airspace seNed by a different Mode S interTOgator. the new interrogator may acquire the aircraft via the reply to an atl-calllnterrogabon.
Transponder Systam
The interrogation signal on 1030 MHz Is received by the antenna. passed through
the coupler to the receiver. lt then passes into the decoder whldlls set to respond
only to the interrogation pulse selected by the pilots oontrol.
The trigger output or the decoder starts the encoder to produce a series of pulses
appropriate to the code selected. The transponder is capable replying to the
ground interrogator in any of 4096 : 2 12 codes.
These transponder pulses modulate the 1090 MHz of the transmitter carrier cw.
which passes the coupler to the antenna. The coupler prevents any of this signal
from entering the recelv.
When the transponder Is operating In mode A, it provides identification information
only. If the interrogation is in mode C. the interrogation is answered by a code pro-
248
EJO/?IEJ tehnika
auced in the encoding altimeter and responds with information that produces a
read-out on !ha controller's scope showing the altitude of the aircraft i n one-huodrecHoot inc:rements. On many corporate Of' commercial-type aircraft, the 111titude
information is sent to the ATC transponder from the central air data computer.
Figure 290:
CONTROL PANEL
The only Indication the pilot has or the transponder operating is the \1/inking light
on the face ot the control head. This light blinks each time the transponder responds to an interrogation from the ground radar.
Some small transponders fit into the Instrument panel, l!Od others have only the
control head on the panel and the actual unit itsel f ts remotely tocatod In the avJ..
onk:s equipment rack. The antenna i s a short blade or stub and is located on the
belly oflhe airaaftas far as practical from any other antenna, and i n a position that
1\1111 not be shlelded by the landing ge11r when it is exlended.
L- SAND
EQUIPfiAEHTS
SUPPilESSION
Transponder installations are int&rconneded with the OME and TCAS system by
a suppressor bus. This prevents simultaneous transmissions of the L-Band (about
1 GHz) and inhibits the reception during transmlssion.
I!IONITOR
ATC
TRA~ISPONOER
REC1VE I T'R"'ISM IT
AllrTE.NNA
249
~oa1~
Interface
Figure 291:
A single ATC control unit enables system selectlon. lt provides the !.lelected lrilnsponder with code and function data end, in return, receives status data.
Altitude information from alrdata computer or altimeter-digiti:zer transmits altitude
information to ATC 1 and 2 transponders to aDowing altib.Jde reporting operation.
The antenna receive the Interrogation coming from I he ground station and transmit
the reply. The transponder selects the top- Of' bottom antenna, depending on signal strength. The antenna Is a blade antenna used tor transmlsston and reception.
lt is Identical to the OME antenna. (same part number).
The Aircraft Ground/Flight infonnatlon disables ihe transmit func~on of the tn:~ns
ponder If file aircraft is on groulld and the mode selector in AUTO position.
A coaxial suppressor connects the ATC' s and TCAS to the DME interrogators to
prevent reception from one system while the other Is In transmission mode . Thfs
Is necessary because the ATC, ICAS and DME systems operate in the same frequency band.
The ATC ModeS transponder receives the fleet idenliflcatlon, by pin-programmed
modeS address plug and flight number from the Flight Management System. With
I he TCAS the tmnsponder exChanges control- and cOOtdination data for TCAS operation.
ATC CODe
CONTROL
ONTROL
&
AIR'GHD !W
ATC COO!:
AIR/GilD Sll
ATC/ TC IIS
STAH!li!Y/OH
ST~.I()tt
CON'!' ROt.
: AI.TIT\a
R
A
tFUGHTICIROUNO
H
sp
0
UNIT
AJAQ.t(l'A
SYS
!mE !
AIR OA1llo
SYS
I
I
SUU.RllSSOR
FLIGHT NUMBER
FL&ET
FliGHT
01
H
$
p
0
"'
SOl'l'RESSOR
I(
'!CAS
Jr
IAGT. svs
10~
I.TI1'UDE
il>
TCIIS/MOD.E: S DATA j
tehnika
~/MOD~
FLIGHT
MGT. SYS
(MODE S
1FLIGHt
S DATA
NIJMBER
ADD~S)
250
ehnika
Components
F leet identification
The air traffiC control transponder uses the same type or ant.e nna as the DME. lt is
also mounted on the bOttom center line of the fuselage. lt and the DME antenna
must be as tar apart as practjcal. Both installations require that the coax between
the equipment and the antenna be as short as possible.
Mode S tronsponder system allows the individual addre~sing for all airplanes of
the WOI'Id. By pin programming the country Is assigned
Le. Switzerland 0100 10 110.
The remaining 15 Bit or the 24 available Bit allows to individually assign 32'768 airplanes.
No. of
Country
Australia
Brazil
Canada
Egypt
France
Germany
treland
Israel
Japan
Jordan
o nu'"l'H.
o~,
...
oUf'K'I~'
o .......u, a.lfl
Monaco
New Zealand
Saudl Arabi a
Switzerland
o.u.1
UK
OCH.
USSR
us
Addresses
262,144
262,144
262,144
32,768
262,144
262,144
4,096
32,7611
262,144
32,7611
1,024
32.,768
Assigned
by
eact\ country
32,768
32,768
262,144
1 ,048,576
1,048,576
251
~oa1~
tehnika
252
EJO/?IEJ tehnika
Principle
The TCAS interrogates ATC transponders of intruders. From the transponder re-
Introduction
The Traffic or Airborne Coflision Avoidance System function is to detect and dis
play aircraft In the immediate vicinity and to provide the flight crew with indications
to avoid these Intruders.
TCAS is a family of alrtlome devices that function Independent or the ground
based A TC system and provide collision avoidance protection for a broad spectrum of aircraft types.
TCAS I provides proximity warning codes, to assists the pilot in the visual acquisition ot intruder alrcrafts. lt is Intended for use by smaller airplanes and by
general aviation aircraft.
TCAS 11 Provides traffic advisorys and resolution advisorys. (Recommended
escape manoeuvres) in a vertical direction to avoid conflicting traffic. Airline
AC and larger commuters and business AC wiU use TCAS 11 equipment
TCAS Ill Whtch is stiU under development. will provide traffic advisory and resolution advisory In the hori2ontal as well as the vertical d1re<:ti0n to avoid conllidi ng traffic.
Figure 296:
TCAS 11 / MODE S
MODEC
-- >~
MODE A
253
~oa1~
tehnika
Function
The TCAS continually surveys ihe airspace around the aircraft utilizing ATC Ita osponder repfteS from other aircr.~fls in the vicinity, determines range, relative bearing and relative altitude of those AC and predicts than their flight paths.
Intruder 1-.tlose paths are predicted to penetrate protected comsion area surrounding the TCAS equipped AC are annunciated by the TCAS on capt's and copl's VS/
TRA display or respective EFI$ displays and by spoken messages. In addition, the
TCAS is capable of recommending evasive vertical manoeuvres Intended to preserve or Increase vertical clearance to intruder AC.
A traffic advisol)' ( TA) is generated 40 to 45 seconds prior to a conflict and a resolutio n adviSOI)' (RA) 20 to 25 sec "prior to a conflict. Once the flight path from th e
intruder no longer connlcts with lhe own AC. annunciation or an advisory ceases
and the voice message "Clear of con filet" will be broadcast
TCAS provides no protection against ai rcrafts that do not have an operating ATC
ttansponder. The TCAS cannot provide an RA when the intruder AC does not provide altitude information.
The TCAS computer performs airspace surveilla/IC8 and intruder and own AC
tracking, using ATC transponder infos and inputs from the TCAS antennas . If a
tracked AC is a collision threat. it selects the best avoidance manoeuvres and If
the lhreatAC is also equipped with TCAS, this manoeuvre is coordinated vfa the
ATC transponder (ModeS) to ensure the selection o f complemental)' advtsorys.
Traffic adviso.y
Closest
nnint ol
O M~~
135 ...~...,
...~
-on
~ 1
L/ 1
lr*.-t)m!>OI""""
T CAS 11
lOoecl
hili< dilf*lr
,"'
---------
Coofflct
Intruders
<~
detected
o 14 nmi horizonlol
(20 1o 310 -1
(60 OK!
Oisplly< an
. . . dlopll.y
('oo111lo or 111111)
In truder
onnunclollon
.,.._...,.""'
on !rode> cls4*Y
Vllkll mille<M!f
- i nterrogatiOn
ot re~
ClniWIClonVSI
reply-
Resolution
advisory
254
ehnika
Intruder Classification
The TCAS computes the intruder trajectory, the closest point of approach (CPA)
and the estimated time (TAUt before reaching the CPA..
Each time the relative position of the intruder presents a ooUisionthreat aural and
visual advisories are triggered.
'
TCAS epitomizes vettlcal orders to ensure a sufficient trajectory separatlon and a
minimal VIS variation considering all intruders.
Table 9:
........
Advisory
RuoiUIIM
- RNI collision
Tnaffio
cr.-.,
~po8ition
Olapay lnfonnabon
-No c:ciiSIOn,.... -lreu:let positi<ln
-Closer 1han 6 NU
and+/- 1200ft.
Poterotild colisicn -lro\ldilt posillcn.
1lnlt
- Aural messag&.
I Pro>Cin-e:e
"""'
(RAj"'""V
- lr11rUd@J pos~l0t1
ihrlllll
- Aummassage.
- 1/on!c:al Ofd<ifl
M.oirllin ac!ual V/S.
,_.,... IIIMiartl
or
Modify VIS.
~........,
01he<
lnltuclets
Table 10:
A/C ALT
Traffic Advisory
TAU
Relative
altitude
600
......
atCPA
1200
255
ehnika
Cockpit Presentation
There are various types of di splays in the cockpit:
VSIITCAS Indicator
Weather Radar Indicator
ND and PFD
DIAMOND
Nf
OPEH
1HAPE
AND
AS
WMI'IEOI CYANINCOlO~
The TA indication supports the pilot to make a visual search. The AC symbol on
the display shows the pilot the distance and the relative bearing. The relative altj..
tude in hundreds of feet, and as an arrow is displayed whether the aircraft is i n
dimb or desoenl. Altitude information are only avail if the aircraft is equipped with
altitude r eporting. Update rate is once every second.
/TitREAT
AIRCRAFT
.. r
ntAFFIC ADVISORY LlVEt IS
A CIRCU 501.10 AMI( it lkl
l$1
A
T><REAT AI~CftAFT AT
ROSOlUTION
A.OVISOAV
'
COlOR
+ OS
'e
'
I
The RA Indication is the primary display to show the pilot the vertical speed correction to prevent a collision. The indication consists on red and green segments
which can illuminate instead of the normal v~rtJCal speed lndlcatlon. If the vertical
speed pointer Is in the red "stay-<~ut-ofl" area, the pilot has to change the vertical
speed until the pointer is in the green "fly to" area. That is designed as an corrective RA. If the pointer Is out of the red area, the p1lot has to maintain the actual verHcal speed. That is designed as a preventive RA Below 500 f! radio altitude, all
resolution advisory are suppressed.
-..
TO INOICATE ..PPROll. ;
IMA tt
BEARING OF "
AIR( RAfT
OWN AIRCRAFT
SYMIOLWCTAN
OAWfiiTE
AlTITUDE INOIU<TEO
PII'XT TO THREAT SVMIIOL. A
MINUS src:;.~ I) INOICATE$ Tlii\EA r
i(lOW OWN AIIICII4n. A PluS
51G"
(.) tNDICAl"t:S THREAT
o l 5 - ll!lATIVf
'
A
V
256
ehnika
In today's EFtS equipped aircraft's traffic advlsOty {TA) and resolution advisory
(RA) are superimposed in ltle navigation display. Vertical evasive manoeuvres Is
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The TCAS 11 indleatio"' for flight plan modifications are In the vertical plane only.
The TCAS aural messages can be Inhibited dependtng on higher pnority aural
messages. The ResolutJon Advisooy (RA) informs the crew about an available
avoidance manoeuvre.
2.5NN
O t~cm
.Q5
+14
OTIR
L 1400'~
PROXII.IATE
1100'..6BOVE
lI OESC
>500 FPM
+051 TA
el
500' ABOV(
DESC >500 FPflt
00
RA
CO-Al.TmJDE
VRATE<500~
257
ehnika
Aural Annunciation
Displayed traffic and resolution advisory era supplemented by synthetic voice advisory generated by the TCAS computer. The words "Traffic, Traffic" are annunciated at ltle time of the traffic advirory which directs the pilot to look at the TA
display to locate the traffic. If the encounter does not resolve itself,. a resolution
advisory is annunciated. The aural amuncialions listed In the following example
have been adopted os aviation indu!ltry standards.
The single announcement "Clear or Conllief" indicates that the encounter has ended (ronge has started to increase), and the pilot should promptly but smoothly retu m to the previous clear<tnce.
To avoid con fusion of pilots. by differend meaning of aural recommandations, following w arnings and situations will inhibit the TCAS voice warnings:
Stall warning
WindShear warning
Ground proximity warnings
Low radio heights
T ra ff l c
Adv i so r y :
TRAFFIC, TRAFF IC
258
ehnika
System
Figure 306:
2 TCAS Antennas
1 TCAS Computer
2 TNRA Displays
1 TCAS Mode S control- panel
2 ModeS Transponder with 2 A ntennas
TOP NfTENI4A
GNO/f\.T
INTRUOBI
INFORIV\110H
No.
ATT/1100
RESOI..IITION
AlJAirSO'(
P1Ds
TCAS
COMPUTER
MESSAGES
RA.
259
ehnika
Antenna
The antennas, mounted on the top and bottom exterior fuselage, are e1ctremely
low-profile, four-element directional devices capable of transmitting in four seledable directions and receiving omnidirectionaiJy with bearing information. The 4 antenna segments has an openillg angle of 30 degrees end are vertically polarized.
The TCAS computer's ability to receive omnidire<:llonallywith bearing greatly simpfifles surveillance algorithms tor tracking nearby aircraft.
The antenna transmits pulses at 1030 MHz at varying power levels in one of four
computer-selected segments. The computer receives at 1090 MHz from Che directional antenna over four output coaxial cables to four receivers, one fer eadl direclionaf beam. The directional antenna permits sectorlzed Interrogations for higher
density operation.
DIRECTIONAL TRANSMISSION
The range of the replying aircraft can be calculated, using the speed of the returning signal and the amount of time elapsed
Diwmc
Elapsed Time
12.359!15 perNM
LOWER AHTE~INA
260
EJO/?IEJ tehnika
Weather Radar
General
The Airborne Weather Radar System (WXR) allows the detection and display of
severe weather areas. The WXR helps the pilot to avoid these areas and the associated turbulences by dete1111lning their range and bearing. 1t also provides a
ground mapping.
The radar emits microwave pulses through a directive antenna which picks up tho
return signals. The range Is determined by the time taken for ihe echo to return.
The azmuth Is given by the aniBflna position when the echo is reoeived.
Frequency: Microwaves 9.4 GHz
Pulse power. 125 Watt 65 kW 180 400 pulses per second
Figure 309: Tx with Rx Pulses
lONM
-~----...
20 NM ROUND T R IP IN 123,6
MICROSECONDS
261
~oa1~
tehnika
Rainlall
1104mm/IV
Yelbw
fled
41012 mfl\!'hr
Magenta
Turblllenoe area
MfG 004'
93 NM
1!:35
> 12IMI/)v
.WFI
HYE !!!
1\odor In
WX;
"'"'nal 01><"*'11,_
-olllNMr-
-lo.,!l'.,...,..,.l'l'"'umoao.
TUKMI>
OAWf !IMC>
Uud 10
"'*""
liiO
262
ehnika
Figure 316:
Conventional Radar: The transmitter e mi ts a pt.~lse which uses only the refiecti vlty
of rainfall (droplets of precipitation) to return an echo to the receiver.
TURiiULENCE
Turbulence Detection. Pulse waveforms show that the echo frequen cy dit'!ers from
that of transmitted pulse. Caused by the Doppler effect. The frequency shift represents turbulence llilllch Imparted motion to the droplets. The received radar signal
actuaUy shl11.s over a spectrum of frequencies; the broader the band, the greater is
the turbulence. When the spectrum exceeds a threshold denned moderate to
heavy, the retum Is dsplayed on the screen as tulbulence (a magenta-ooloced area). That threshold occurs when droplets move at the rate of 5 me ters per second.
Figure 315: Pulses
T<mmll
~'-------- T~mll~-----
ROC41Ye _ _ _ _ _ _( \ _
Conventional Radar
Recelve
r
-----J_,~,A.,"'-
'L
Turbulence Detection
263
ehnika
Antenna
Figure 317:
The weather radar uses a narrow beam transmittal and received toward determined direction. The azimuth dive scanns the space ahead the ain;raft for clouds,
thunderstorm. hail and terrestic obstades. Elevation. tilt- and rolldrives compen
stable weather radar Image on the dis-
3'
264
ehnika
Fi gure 319:
Newer systems uses flat plate antennas. Into a llollow plate many slots are er
ranged so, that each slots sends a n a/T'OW beam. T he sum of all beams together
builds up a pencil shaped narrow beam with an opening angle of only 3 degrees.
This high efficient antenna makes possible, that the wea ther radar system oper.
ates With reduced tran.smisson power of only 125 Watfs.
The flat plate antenna consists o f stl'lps of wave glide vertically mounted side by
Slde with the broad wall facing forward. Staggered off-centred slots are cut in each
wave-guide so as to in tercept the wall currents and hence radiale.
Several wavelengths from the antenna surface, the energy from each of the slots
1viU be summed in space. resulting In a narrow beam radiation partem.
The greater the number of Slots the better the performance (narrower beamwldth},
but since the spacing between slots Is critical. We can only inaease the number
of slots by increasing the plate ar ea.
lt Is mounted on a pedestal, which contains the necessary mechanisms and circuitry tor scanning and tilting the antenna.
The weather radar system's R/T unit and antenna are Interconnected by nexible
and rigld wav&1Julde secboos. The RF energy is routed direcUy to the antenna via
the wave-guide. The reflected RF energy is also routed dlrecUy back to the R/T
unit.
Radome
l;l.EV...TION-
& AZIMtiTH
DRIVE UNIT
~:;;----~
265
ehnika
Antenna Stabilization
Azimuth Drive
The antenna is capable of scar1ning a total azimuth of+/- 45" to +f- 90'
20 times per minute.
Figure 321: Antenna Azimuth ScanAing
....
266
EJO/?IEJ tehnika
Maximum
There are two hazards 'M\en operating weather radar, namely damage to human
cells and ignition or combustible m<~terial . The greater the average power density
the greatM the health hazard.
A figure of 10 mWatts/cm2 is a generally accepted 'maximum permtssible expo-
Pormloolble
ExposW'I!
Love!
MPEL
sure level" (MPEL). Among the most vulnerable parts of the body are the eyes and
testas.
The greater the peak power the greater the fire hazard. Ally conducting material
dose to the scanner may act as a receiving aerial and have RF cun-ents Induced.
There is obvioosly a risk. particularly when airaafi are being refuened or defuelled.
The following rules should be observed when operating the weather radar on the
ground;
1.
'
Radiation
WARNING
Ensure that no persoMel are closer to a transmitting radar scanner than the
MPEL boundary, as laid down by the system manufacturer .
2.
3.
Do not operate the radar when the aircraft is being refuelled or defuelled, or
when a.n olher aircran within the sector scanned is being refuelled or defuelled.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Fll a dummy load if part of the wave guide run is disconnected. (Wor1<shop)
8.
All additiOnal hazard, wtlleh does not aHect safe ty but will affect the servlceabHity
of the radar. is the possibu.ty of very strong returns. if the radar Is operated dose
10 renecting objects. The resull of Ihasa returns is to bum out the receiver circuits.
In order to avoid the envelope in which the radiation level may eJCceed the standard
of 10 miniwatt per square cenlimeter, aU personnel should remain beyond the distance indicated in lhe ibuslrabon on the left side.
267