Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet

Definitions
iff positive c, n0 such that
0 f (n) cg(n) n n0 .

f (n) = O(g(n))
f (n) = (g(n))

iff positive c, n0 such that

f (n) cg(n) 0 n n0 .

f (n) = (g(n))

iff f (n) = O(g(n)) and

f (n) = (g(n)).

f (n) = o(g(n))

iff limn f (n)/g(n) = 0.

iff > 0, n0 such that
|an a| < , n n0 .

lim an = a

least b R such that b s,

s S.

sup S

greatest b R such that b

s, s S.

inf S

lim inf{ai | i n, i N}.

lim inf an

Series
n
X

i=

i=1

n(n + 1)
,
2

n
X

i2 =

i=1

n
X

n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
,
6

i3 =

i=1

n2 (n + 1)2
.
4

In general:


n
n
X
X


1
(i + 1)m+1 im+1 (m + 1)im
(n + 1)m+1 1
im =
m+1
i=1
i=1


n1
m
X
1 X m+1
im =
Bk nm+1k .
m
+
1
k
i=1
k=0

Geometric series:
n
X
cn+1 1
ci =
,
c1
i=0

n
X
i=0

ici =

c 6= 1,

ci =

i=0

ncn+2 (n + 1)cn+1 + c
,
(c 1)2

Harmonic series:
n
X
1
Hn =
,
i
i=1

n
X

1
,
1c

c 6= 1,

ci =

i=1

ici =

i=0

c
,
1c
c
,
(1 c)2

|c| < 1,
|c| < 1.

n(n + 1)
n(n 1)
Hn
.
2
4
lim sup an
lim sup{ai | i n, i N}.
i=1
n
n



n  
n
X
X


1
i
n+1
n
Combinations:
Size
k
subHi =
Hn+1
Hi = (n + 1)Hn n,
.
k
m
m+1
m+1
sets of a size n set.
i=1
i=1
n
  

 
n  
X
Stirling numbers (1st kind):
n
n
n
n!
n
k
n
,
2.
=2 ,
3.
=
,
1.
=
Arrangements of an n ele(n k)!k!
k
k
nk
k
k=0










ment set into k cycles.
n
n
n1
n1
n n1
n
,
5.
4.
=
=
+
,
Stirling
numbers
(2nd
kind):
k k1
k
k
k
k1
k
    

 

n 
Partitions of an n element
X
n
m
n
nk
r+k
r+n+1
6.
=
,
7.
=
,
set into k non-empty sets.
m
k
k
mk
k
n

n
k=0


 

n  
n  
1st order Eulerian numbers:
X
X
k
k
n+1
r
s
r+s
8.
=
,
9.
=
,
Permutations 1 2 . . . n on
m
m+1
k
nk
n
k=0
k=0
{1, 2, . . . , n} with k ascents.


   
 
kn1
n
n
n

n 
,
11.
=
= 1,
10.
= (1)k
2nd order Eulerian numbers.
k
k
1
n
k
 
 

 

Cn
Catalan Numbers: Binary
n
n
n1
n1
n1
12.
=
2

1,
13.
=
k
+
,
trees with n + 1 vertices.
2
k
k
k1
 
 
 
   
n
n
n
n
n
14.
= (n 1)!,
15.
= (n 1)!Hn1 ,
16.
= 1,
17.

,
1
2
n
k
k
 
 

 


 
  
n  
X
2n
1
n
n1
n1
n
n
n
n
,
18.
= (n 1)
+
,
19.
=
=
,
20.
= n!,
21. Cn =
n+1 n
k
k
k1
n1
n1
2
k
k=0
  

  

 




n
n
n
n
n
n1
n1
22.
=
= 1,
23.
=
,
24.
= (k + 1)
+ (n k)
,
0
n1
k
n1k
k
k
k1
 
 
  n


n
n
0
n+1
1 if k = 0,
26.
= 2n n 1,
27.
25.
= 3n (n + 1)2n +
=
,
1
2
k
2
0 otherwise

  X

  X

n  
m 
n  
X
n
x+k
n
n+1
n
n
k
28. xn =
,
29.
=
(m + 1 k)n (1)k ,
30. m!
=
,
k
n
m
k
m
k
nm
k=0
k=0
k=0
  X

 
 
n  
n
n
nk
n
n
nkm
31.
=
(1)
k!,
32.
= 1,
33.
= 0 for n 6= 0,
m
k
m
0
n
k=0
 





 
n 
X
n
n1
(2n)n
n1
n
,
34.
= (k + 1)
+ (2n 1 k)
,
35.
=
2n
k
k
k1
k
k=0

 X
 


 X    X

n 
n 
x
n
x+n1k
n+1
n
k
k
36.
=
,
37.
=
=
(m + 1)nk ,
xn
k
2n
m+1
k
m
m
n

k=0

iHi =

k=0

Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet

38.
40.
42.
44.
46.
48.

Identities Cont.
 
n
X
1 k
,
nnk = n!
k! m
m

Trees

 

n 
X
x
n
x+k
n+1
39.
=
,
=
=
xn
k
2n
m+1
k m
k=0
k=0
k
k=0
  X  

  X
 
n
n
k+1
n
n+1
k
nk
=
(1)
,
41.
=
(1)mk ,
m
k
m+1
m
k+1 m
k
k





 X

 X
m
m
n+k
n+k
m+n+1
m+n+1
k(n + k)
,
k
,
43.
=
=
k
k
m
m
k=0
k=0
  X
 
  X
 
n
n+1
k
n
n+1
k
=
(1)mk , 45. (n m)!
=
(1)mk , for n m,
m
k+1
m
m
k+1
m
k 

k X 




X m nm + n m + k 
n
mn m+n m+k
n
=
,
47.
=
,
nm
m+k
n+k
k
nm
m+k
n+k
k

 k  X  
 

k
 X  
 
n
+m
k
nk
n
n
+m
k nk n
=
,
49.
=
.
+m

m
k
+m

m
k


X  n  k 


n 
X
k

Every tree with n

vertices has n 1
edges.

Kraft
inequality: If the depths
of the leaves of
a binary tree are
d1 , . . . , dn :
n
X
2di 1,
i=1

and equality holds

only if every internal node has 2
sons.

Recurrences
Master method:
T (n) = aT (n/b) + f (n),

a 1, b > 1

If > 0 such that f (n) = O(n

then
T (n) = (nlogb a ).

log b a

If f (n) = (nlogb a ) then

T (n) = (nlogb a log2 n).
If > 0 such that f (n) = (nlogb a+ ),
and c < 1 such that af (n/b) cf (n)
for large n, then
T (n) = (f (n)).
Substitution (example): Consider the
following recurrence
i
Ti+1 = 22 Ti2 , T1 = 2.
Note that Ti is always a power of two.
Let ti = log2 Ti . Then we have
ti+1 = 2i + 2ti , t1 = 1.
Let ui = ti /2i . Dividing both sides of
the previous equation by 2i+1 we get
ti+1
2i
ti
=
+ i.
i+1
i+1
2
2
2
Substituting we find
ui+1 = 21 + ui ,
u1 = 12 ,
which is simply ui = i/2. So we find
i1
that Ti has the closed form Ti = 2i2 .
Summing factors (example): Consider
the following recurrence
T (n) = 3T (n/2) + n, T (1) = 1.
Rewrite so that all terms involving T
are on the left side
T (n) 3T (n/2) = n.
Now expand the recurrence, and choose
a factor which makes the left side telescope

1 T (n) 3T (n/2) = n

3 T (n/2) 3T (n/4) = n/2

..
..
..
.
.
.


log2 n1
3
T (2) 3T (1) = 2

Let m = log2 n. Summing the left side

we get T (n) 3m T (1) = T (n) 3m =
T (n) nk where k = log2 3 1.58496.
Summing the right side we get
m1
m1
X
i
X n
i
3
3
=
n
.
2
i
2
i=0
i=0
Let c = 23 . Then we have
 m

m1
X
c 1
i
c =n
n
c1
i=0

= 2n(c(k1) logc n 1)
= 2nk 2n,

and so T (n) = 3n 2n. Full history recurrences can often be changed to limited
history ones (example): Consider
i1
X
Tj , T0 = 1.
Ti = 1 +
j=0

Ti+1 = 1 +

Tj .

j=0

Subtracting we find
i1
i
X
X
Tj
Tj 1
Ti+1 Ti = 1 +
j=0

= Ti .

And so Ti+1 = 2Ti = 2i+1 .

i0

i0

We choose G(x) = i0 xi gi . Rewrite

in terms of G(x):
X
G(x) g0
= 2G(x) +
xi .
x
P

i0

i
X

Multiply
X and sum:
X
X
gi+1 xi =
2gi xi +
xi .
i0

= 2n(clog2 n 1)

Note that

Generating functions:
1. Multiply both sides of the equation by xi .
2. Sum both sides over all i for
which the equation is valid.
3. Choose a generatingPfunction
i
G(x). Usually G(x) =
i=0 x gi .
3. Rewrite the equation in terms of
the generating function G(x).
4. Solve for G(x).
5. The coefficient of xi in G(x) is gi .
Example:
gi+1 = 2gi + 1, g0 = 0.

j=0

Simplify:
G(x)
1
= 2G(x) +
.
x
1x

Solve for G(x):

G(x) =

x
.
(1 x)(1 2x)

Expand this 
using partial fractions:

1
2

G(x) = x
1 2x 1 x

X
X
= x 2
2i xi
xi
i0

(2

i0

So gi = 2i 1.

i+1

i0

i+1

1)x

Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet

3.14159,

e 2.71828,

0.57721,

1+ 5
2

2i

pi

General

1
2

2
4

2
3

3
4

8
16

5
7

Bernoulli Numbers (Bi = 0, odd i 6= 1):

1
,
B0 = 1, B1 = 21 , B2 = 61 , B4 = 30
1
1
5
B6 = 42 , B8 = 30 , B10 = 66 .

5
6

32
64

11
13

7
8

128
256

17
19

9
10

512
1,024

23
29

11
12

2,048
4,096

31
37

13
14

8,192
16,384

41
43

15

32,768

47

16
17

65,536
131,072

53
59

18
19

262,144
524,288

61
67

20
21

1,048,576
2,097,152

71
73

22
23

4,194,304
8,388,608

79
83

24
25

16,777,216
33,554,432

89
97

26
27

67,108,864
134,217,728

101
103

28

268,435,456

107

29
30

536,870,912
1,073,741,824

109
113

31
32

2,147,483,648
4,294,967,296

127
131

Pascals Triangle
1
11
121
1331
14641
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1
1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10 1

1
1
+ 61 + 24
+ 120
+


n
x
lim 1 +
= ex .
n
n

n

n+1
1 + n1 < e < 1 + n1
.
 


11e
1
e
n
1 + n1 = e
.
O
+
2
2n 24n
n3
Harmonic numbers:

1, 23 ,

1
2

11 25 137 49 363 761 7129

6 , 12 , 60 , 20 , 140 , 280 , 2520 , . . .

ln n < Hn < ln n + 1,
 
1
.
Hn = ln n + + O
n
Factorial, Stirlings approximation:
1, 2, 6, 24, 120, 720, 5040, 40320, 362880,

1 5
2

.61803

Probability

Change of base, quadratic formula:

b b2 4ac
loga x
,
.
logb x =
loga b
2a
Eulers number e:
e=1+

1.61803,

...

 
 n 

1
n
2n
1+
.
e
n
Ackermanns
function and inverse:
i=1
2j
a(i, j) = a(i 1, 2)
j=1

a(i 1, a(i, j 1)) i, j 2

n! =

(i) = min{j | a(j, j) i}.

Binomial distribution:
 
n k nk
Pr[X = k] =
p q
,
q = 1 p,
k
 
n
X
n k nk
[X]
=
k
p q
= np.
E
k
k=1

Poisson distribution:
e k
, E[X] = .
Pr[X = k] =
k!
Normal (Gaussian) distribution:
2
2
1
p(x) =
e(x) /2 , E[X] = .
2
The coupon collector: We are given a
random coupon each day, and there are n
different types of coupons. The distribution of coupons is uniform. The expected
number of days to pass before we to collect all n types is
nHn .

Continuous distributions: If
Z b
Pr[a < X < b] =
p(x) dx,
a

then p is the probability density function of

X. If
Pr[X < a] = P (a),
then P is the distribution function of X. If
P and p both exist then
Z a
p(x) dx.
P (a) =

Expectation: If X is discrete
X
g(x) Pr[X = x].
E[g(X)] =
x

If X continuous
Z then
Z
[g(X)]
=
g(x)p(x)
dx
=
E

g(x) dP (x).

Variance, standard deviation:

VAR[X] = E[X 2 ] E[X]2 ,
p
= VAR[X].
For events A and B:
Pr[A B] = Pr[A] + Pr[B] Pr[A B]
Pr[A B] = Pr[A] Pr[B],
iff A and B are independent.

Pr[A B]
Pr[B]
For random variables X and Y :
E[X Y ] = E[X] E[Y ],
if X and Y are independent.
Pr[A|B] =

E[X + Y ] = E[X] + E[Y ],

E[cX] = c E[X].
Bayes theorem:
Pr[B|Ai ] Pr[Ai ]
Pr[Ai |B] = Pn
.
j=1 Pr[Aj ] Pr[B|Aj ]
Inclusion-exclusion:
n
n
i X
h_
Pr[Xi ] +
Xi =
Pr
i=1

i=1

n
X

k=2

(1)k+1

ii <<ik

Pr

k
h^

j=1

i
Xij .

Moment inequalities:

 1
Pr |X| E[X] ,

h
i

1
Pr X E[X] 2 .

Geometric distribution:
Pr[X = k] = pq k1 ,
q = 1 p,

X
1
kpq k1 = .
E[X] =
p
k=1

Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet

Trigonometry

Matrices

More Trig.
C

Multiplication:
(0,1)

(-1,0)

(1,0)

cos a = B/C,
sec a = C/B,
cos a
B
cot a =
= .
sin a
A
circle:
AB
.
A+B+C
cos x =

1 + cot2 x = csc2 x,
sin x = sin( x),


tan x = cot 2 x ,

cos x = cos( x),

cot x = cot( x),

1
,
sec x

sin2 x + cos2 x = 1,

1 + tan2 x = sec2 x,


sin x = cos 2 x ,

csc x = cot x2 cot x,

sin(x y) = sin x cos y cos x sin y,

cos(x y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y,

tan x tan y
,
1 tan x tan y
cot x cot y 1
cot(x y) =
,
cot x cot y
cos 2x = cos2 x sin2 x,
cos 2x = 1 2 sin2 x,

2 2 and 3 3 determinant:


a b


 c d  = ad bc,







a b c 







d e f  = g b c  ha c  + ia

e f 
d f 
d

g h i 
aei + bf g + cdh
=
ceg f ha ibd.
Permanents:
n
XY
ai,(i) .
perm A =


b 
e

e +e
,
2
1
csch x =
,
sinh x
1
coth x =
.
tanh x
cosh x =

Identities:
cosh2 x sinh2 x = 1,

tanh2 x + sech2 x = 1,

coth2 x csch2 x = 1,

sinh(x) = sinh x,
tanh(x) = tanh x,

cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y,

2 tan x
,
1 + tan2 x
cos 2x = 2 cos2 x 1,
sin 2x =

cos 2x =

1 tan2 x
,
1 + tan2 x

cos(x + y) cos(x y) = cos2 x sin2 y.

e

= 1.

c
v2.02 1994
by Steve Seiden
sseiden@acm.org
http://www.csc.lsu.edu/~seiden

sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x,

cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x,
cosh x + sinh x = ex ,

cosh x sinh x = ex ,

(cosh x + sinh x)n = cosh nx + sinh nx,

2 sinh2 x2

= cosh x 1,

sin

cos

1
2

2
2

3
2

3
2

2
2
1
2

tan
0

3
3

2 cosh2 x2

A
c
B
Law of cosines:
c2 = a2 +b2 2ab cos C.

= 21 ab sin C,

i=1

A = 21 hc,

Hyperbolic Functions

Definitions:
ex ex
sinh x =
,
2
x
x
e e
,
tanh x = x
e + ex
1
sech x =
,
cosh x

Area:

sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y,

2 tan x
cot2 x 1
,
tan 2x =
cot 2x =
2 ,
2 cot x
1 tan x
sin(x + y) sin(x y) = sin2 x sin2 y,
Eulers equation:
eix = cos x + i sin x,

det A B = det A det B,

n
XY
sign()ai,(i) .
det A =

cosh(x) = cosh x,

tan(x y) =

sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x,

ai,k bk,j .

k=1

i=1

Definitions:
sin a = A/C,
csc a = C/A,
sin a
A
tan a =
= ,
cos a
B
Area, radius of inscribed

Identities:
1
,
sin x =
csc x
1
tan x =
,
cot x

ci,j =

Determinants: det A 6= 0 iff A is non-singular.

(0,-1)

B
Pythagorean theorem:
C 2 = A2 + B 2 .

1
2 AB,

C = A B,

(cos , sin )

n
X

n Z,

= cosh x + 1.

. . . in mathematics
you dont understand things, you
just get used to
them.
J. von Neumann

c2 sin A sin B
.
2 sin C
Herons formula:
=

A = s sa sb sc ,
s = 12 (a + b + c),
sa = s a,
sb = s b,
sc = s c.

More identities:
r
1 cos x
x
,
sin 2 =
2
r
1 + cos x
cos x2 =
,
2
r
1 cos x
tan x2 =
,
1 + cos x
1 cos x
,
=
sin x
sin x
=
,
1 + cos x
r
1 + cos x
cot x2 =
,
1 cos x
1 + cos x
=
,
sin x
sin x
,
=
1 cos x
eix eix
sin x =
,
2i
eix + eix
,
cos x =
2
eix eix
,
tan x = i ix
e + eix
e2ix 1
= i 2ix
,
e +1
sinh ix
,
sin x =
i
cos x = cosh ix,
tanh ix
tan x =
.
i

Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet

Number Theory
The Chinese remainder theorem: There exists a number C such that:
C r1
.. ..
. .

mod m1
..
.

C rn mod mn
if mi and mj are relatively prime for i 6= j.

Eulers function: (x) is the number of

positive integers
Qnless than x relatively
prime to x. If i=1 pei i is the prime factorization of x then
n
Y
piei 1 (pi 1).
(x) =
i=1

Eulers theorem: If a and b are relatively

prime then
1 a(b) mod b.
Fermats theorem:
1 ap1 mod p.
The Euclidean algorithm: if a > b are integers then
gcd(a, b) = gcd(a mod b, b).
Qn
If i=1 pei i is the prime factorization of x
then
n
Y
X
piei +1 1
.
d=
S(x) =
pi 1
i=1
d|x

Perfect Numbers: x is an even perfect number iff x = 2n1 (2n 1) and 2n 1 is prime.
Wilsons theorem: n is a prime iff
(n 1)! 1 mod n.
M
obius
inversion:
1
if i = 1.

0
if i is not square-free.
(i) =
r

(1) if i is the product of

r distinct primes.

If

G(a) =

F (d),

d|a

then
F (a) =

X
d|a

a
(d)G
.
d

Prime numbers:
ln ln n
pn = n ln n + n ln ln n n + n
ln n


n
,
+O
ln n
n
2!n
n
(n) =
+
+
ln n (ln n)2
(ln n)3


n
.
+O
(ln n)4

Graph Theory
Definitions:
Loop

An edge connecting a vertex to itself.

Directed
Each edge has a direction.
Simple
Graph with no loops or
multi-edges.
Walk
A sequence v0 e1 v1 . . . e v .
Trail
A walk with distinct edges.
Path
A trail with distinct
vertices.
Connected
A graph where there exists
a path between any two
vertices.
Component A maximal connected
subgraph.
Tree
A connected acyclic graph.
Free tree
A tree with no root.
DAG
Directed acyclic graph.
Eulerian
Graph with a trail visiting
each edge exactly once.
Hamiltonian Graph with a cycle visiting
each vertex exactly once.
Cut
A set of edges whose removal increases the number of components.
Cut-set
A minimal cut.
Cut edge
A size 1 cut.
k-Connected A graph connected with
the removal of any k 1
vertices.
k-Tough
S V, S 6= we have
k c(G S) |S|.
k-Regular
A graph where all vertices
have degree k.
k-Factor
A k-regular spanning
subgraph.
Matching
A set of edges, no two of
which are adjacent.
Clique
A set of vertices, all of
which are adjacent.
Ind. set
A set of vertices, none of
which are adjacent.
Vertex cover A set of vertices which
cover all edges.
Planar graph A graph which can be embeded in the plane.
Plane graph An embedding of a planar
graph.
X
deg(v) = 2m.
vV

If G is planar then n m + f = 2, so
f 2n 4, m 3n 6.

Any planar graph has a vertex with degree 5.

Notation:
E(G) Edge set
V (G) Vertex set
c(G)
Number of components
G[S]
Induced subgraph
deg(v) Degree of v
(G) Maximum degree
(G)
Minimum degree
(G) Chromatic number
E (G) Edge chromatic number
Gc
Complement graph
Kn
Complete graph
Kn1 ,n2 Complete bipartite graph
r(k, ) Ramsey number
Geometry
Projective coordinates: triples
(x, y, z), not all x, y and z zero.
(x, y, z) = (cx, cy, cz) c 6= 0.

Cartesian

Projective

(x, y)
(x, y, 1)
y = mx + b (m, 1, b)
x=c
(1, 0, c)
Distance formula, Lp and L
metric:
p
(x1 x0 )2 + (y1 y0 )2 ,
1/p

,
|x1 x0 |p + |y1 y0 |p


1/p
lim |x1 x0 |p + |y1 y0 |p
.
p

Area of triangle (x0 , y0 ), (x1 , y1 )

and (x2 , y2 ):


 x1 x0 y1 y0 
1

.
2 abs  x x
y2 y0 
2
0
Angle formed by three points:
(x2 , y2 )
2

(x1 , y1 )
1
(0, 0)
(x1 , y1 ) (x2 , y2 )
cos =
.
1 2
Line through two points (x0 , y0 )
and (x1 , y1 ):


 x y 1


 x0 y0 1  = 0.


 x1 y1 1 
Area of circle, volume of sphere:
A = r2 ,
V = 34 r3 .
If I have seen farther than others,
it is because I have stood on the
shoulders of giants.
Issac Newton

Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet

Calculus

Wallis identity:
2 2 4 4 6 6
=2
1 3 3 5 5 7
Brounckers continued fraction expansion:
12

4 = 1+
32
2+
52
2+

2+

Gregrorys series:
1

4 =1 3 +

1
5

1
7

72
2+

1
9

Derivatives:
1.

du
d(cu)
=c ,
dx
dx

4.

d(un )
du
= nun1 ,
dx
dx

7.

d(cu )
du
= (ln c)cu ,
dx
dx

9.

d(sin u)
du
= cos u ,
dx
dx

Newtons series:

1
1
13
= +
+
+
3
2 232
2 4 5 25

Sharps series:


1 
1
1
1
= 1 1
+ 2
3
+
3 3 3 5 3 7
3

Eulers series:
2
6
2
8
2
12

=
=
=

1
12
1
12
1
12

+
+

1
22
1
32
1
22

+
+
+

1
32
1
52
1
32

+
+

1
42
1
72
1
42

+
+
+

1
52
1
92
1
52

+
+

Partial Fractions
Let N (x) and D(x) be polynomial functions of x.
We can break down
N (x)/D(x) using partial fraction expansion. First, if the degree of N is greater
than or equal to the degree of D, divide
N by D, obtaining
N (x)
N (x)
= Q(x) +
,
D(x)
D(x)
where the degree of N is less than that of
D. Second, factor D(x). Use the following rules: For a non-repeated factor:
A
N (x)
N (x)
=
+
,
(x a)D(x)
xa
D(x)
where

N (x)
A=
D(x)

k=0

where

d(u + v)
du dv
=
+
,
dx
dx dx


v du
d(u/v)
dx u
5.
=
dx
v2

13.

d(sec u)
du
= tan u sec u ,
dx
dx

14.

du
d(arcsec u)
1
=
,
2
dx
u 1 u dx
d(sinh u)
du
21.
= cosh u ,
dx
dx
23.

d(tanh u)
du
= sech2 u ,
dx
dx

25.

d(sech u)
du
= sech u tanh u ,
dx
dx

20.

26.

du
1
d(arcsech u)
=
,
dx
u 1 u2 dx
Integrals:
Z
Z
1.
cu dx = c u dx,

sin x dx = cos x,




1 dk N (x)
.
Ak =
k! dxk D(x) x=a

10.

32.

The reasonable man adapts himself to the

world; the unreasonable persists in trying
to adapt the world to himself. Therefore
all progress depends on the unreasonable.
George Bernard Shaw

12.
14.

n 6= 1,

2.
4.

dx
= arctan x,
1 + x2

d(cos u)
du
= sin u ,
dx
dx

du
d(arccsc u)
1
=
,
2
dx
u 1 u dx
d(cosh u)
du
22.
= sinh u ,
dx
dx
d(coth u)
du
= csch2 u ,
dx
dx

d(csch u)
du
= csch u coth u ,
dx
dx

du
d(arccsch u)
1

=
.
dx
|u| 1 + u2 dx
(u + v) dx =

11.

sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x|,

p
a2 x2 ,

u dx +

v dx,

Z
1
dx = ln x,
5.
ex dx = ex ,
x
Z
Z
dv
du
7.
u dx = uv v dx,
dx
dx
Z
9.
cos x dx = sin x,

tan x dx = ln | cos x|,

arcsin xa dx = arcsin xa +

d(cot u)
du
= csc2 u ,
dx
dx

28.

31.

8.

d(ln u)
1 du
=
,
dx
u dx

du
d(arccosh u)
1
=
,
2
dx
u 1 dx
d(arccoth u)
1 du
30.
= 2
,
dx
u 1 dx

1
du
d(arcsinh u)
=
,
2
dx
1 + u dx
d(arctanh u)
1 du
29.
=
,
dx
1 u2 dx

6.

d(ecu )
du
= cecu ,
dx
dx

d(csc u)
du
= cot u csc u ,
dx
dx

24.

27.

6.

16.

19.

3.

d(arccos u)
1 du
=
,
dx
1 u2 dx
d(arccot u)
1 du
18.
=
,
dx
1 + u2 dx

d(arcsin u)
du
1
=
,
2
dx
1 u dx
1 du
d(arctan u)
=
,
17.
dx
1 + u2 dx

1
x dx =
xn+1 ,
n+1

12.

15.

dv
dx

10.

d(tan u)
du
= sec2 u ,
dx
dx

d(uv)
dv
du
=u
+v ,
dx
dx
dx

3.

8.

11.

x=a

For a repeated factor:

m1
X
N (x)
N (x)
Ak
+
=
,
m
mk
(x a) D(x)
(x a)
D(x)

2.

13.
a > 0,

cot x dx = ln | cos x|,

csc x dx = ln | csc x + cot x|,

Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet

Calculus Cont.
15.
17.
19.
21.
23.
25.
26.
29.
33.
36.

arccos

x
a dx

= arccos

sin2 (ax)dx =

1
2a

x
a

p
a2 x2 ,

a > 0,

16.

arctan xa dx = x arctan xa

ax sin(ax) cos(ax) ,

18.

sec2 x dx = tan x,

cos2 (ax)dx =

1
2a

20.

a
2

ln(a2 + x2 ),

a > 0,

ax + sin(ax) cos(ax) ,
Z

csc2 x dx = cot x,

sech2 x dx = tanh x,

Z
Z
Z
sinn1 x cos x n 1
cosn1 x sin x n 1
+
+
sinn2 x dx,
22.
cosn x dx =
cosn2 x dx,
n
n
n
n
Z
Z
Z
tann1 x
cotn1 x
n
n2
n
tan x dx =
tan
x dx, n 6= 1,
24.
cot x dx =
cotn2 x dx, n 6= 1,
n1
n1
Z
tan x secn1 x n 2
+
secn x dx =
secn2 x dx, n 6= 1,
n1
n1
Z
Z
Z
cot x cscn1 x n 2
cscn x dx =
+
cscn2 x dx, n 6= 1,
27.
sinh x dx = cosh x,
28.
cosh x dx = sinh x,
n1
n1
Z
Z
Z


tanh x dx = ln | cosh x|, 30.
coth x dx = ln | sinh x|, 31.
sech x dx = arctan sinh x, 32.
csch x dx = ln tanh x2  ,
sinn x dx =

sinh x dx =
arcsinh

x
a dx

1
4

sinh(2x)

= x arcsinh

x
a

1
2 x,

p
x2 + a2 ,

34.

a > 0,

cosh x dx =

1
4

sinh(2x) +
37.

1
2 x,

35.

arctanh xa dx = x arctanh xa +

a
2

ln |a2 x2 |,

x p
x arccosh x2 + a2 , if arccosh xa > 0 and a > 0,
a
38.
arccosh xa dx =
p
x arccosh x + x2 + a2 , if arccosh x < 0 and a > 0,
a
a
Z


p
dx

= ln x + a2 + x2 , a > 0,
39.
a2 + x2
Z
Z p
p
2
dx
1
x
= a arctan a , a > 0,
40.
41.
a2 x2 dx = x2 a2 x2 + a2 arcsin xa , a > 0,
2
2
a +x
Z
p
4
42.
(a2 x2 )3/2 dx = x8 (5a2 2x2 ) a2 x2 + 3a8 arcsin xa , a > 0,


Z
Z
Z
a + x
dx
dx
1
dx
x
x
,


= arcsin a , a > 0,
,
45.
43.
=
ln
44.
=


2
2
2
2
3/2
2
2
2
a x
2a
ax
(a x )
a x
a a2 x2
Z p
Z




p
p
p
2
dx





a2 x2 dx = x2 a2 x2 a2 ln x + a2 x2  ,
46.
= ln x + x2 a2  , a > 0,
47.
x2 a2


Z
Z

2(3bx 2a)(a + bx)3/2

1  x 
dx
,
=
ln
,
49.
x a + bx dx =
48.


2
ax + bx
a
a + bx
15b2


Z
Z
Z

 a + bx a 
a + bx
1
x
1


dx,
51.
dx = ln 
50.
dx = 2 a + bx + a
 , a > 0,
x
x a + bx
a + bx
a + bx + a 
2

Z p
Z 2
 a + a2 x2 
p
a x2


2
2
53.
x a2 x2 dx = 13 (a2 x2 )3/2 ,
dx = a x a ln 
52.
,


x
x


Z
Z
 a + a2 x2 
p
p
4
dx



54.
x2 a2 x2 dx = x8 (2x2 a2 ) a2 x2 + a8 arcsin xa , a > 0,
= a1 ln 
55.
,
2
2


x
a x
Z
Z
2
p
p
2
x dx
x dx
x

= a2 x2 ,
= x2 a2 x2 + a2 arcsin a,
57.
a > 0,
56.
2
2
2
2
a x
a

Z
Z
 a + a2 + x2 
p
p
a2 + x2
x2 a2


a
dx = a2 + x2 a ln 
dx = x2 a2 a arccos |x|
59.
58.
, a > 0,
,


x
x
x


Z
Z p


dx
x
,

61.
60.
x x2 a2 dx = 31 (x2 a2 )3/2 ,
= a1 ln 
x x2 + a2
a + a2 + x2 
Z

Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet

Calculus Cont.

62.

64.

66.

67.

68.

Z
Z

dx
dx
x2 a2
1
a

= a arccos |x| , a > 0,

=
,
63.
a2 x
x x2 a2
x2 x2 a2

Z
p
x2 a2
x dx
(x2 + a2 )3/2

65.
= x2 a2 ,
dx
=

,
x4 
3a2 x3
x2 a2


 2ax + b b2 4ac 

ln 
 , if b2 > 4ac,

2
2

dx
b 4ac
2ax + b + b 4ac 
=
ax2 + bx + c

2ax + b
2

arctan
,
if b2 < 4ac,
4ac b2
4ac b2



p
1



ln 2ax + b + 2 a ax2 + bx + c , if a > 0,

a
dx

=
2ax b
1
ax2 + bx + c

,
if a < 0,
arcsin
a
b2 4ac
Z
p
2ax + b p 2
4ax b2
dx

ax2 + bx + c dx =
ax + bx + c +
,
2
4a
8a
ax + bx + c
Z

ax2

dx
b
+ bx + c

2
a
2a
ax + bx + c



1  2 c ax2 + bx + c + bx + 2c 

Z
 , if c > 0,
c ln 

x
dx

70.
=
2

x ax + bx + c
bx + 2c
1

arcsin
,
if c < 0,
c
|x| b2 4ac
Z
p
2 2
a )(x2 + a2 )3/2 ,
71.
x3 x2 + a2 dx = ( 13 x2 15
69.

72.
73.
74.
75.
76.

x dx

=
2
ax + bx + c

xn sin(ax) dx = a1 xn cos(ax) +
n

x cos(ax) dx =
xn eax dx =

1 n
ax

xn eax

xn ln(ax) dx = xn+1
xn (ln ax)m dx =

sin(ax)
n
a

n
a

n
a

xn1 cos(ax) dx,

Difference, shift operators:

f (x) = f (x + 1) f (x),

E f (x) = f (x + 1).
Fundamental Theorem:
X
f (x) = F (x)
f (x)x = F (x) + C.
b
X

f (x)x =

Differences:
(cu) = cu,

b1
X

f (i).

i=a

(u + v) = u + v,

(uv) = uv + E vu,
(xn ) = nxn1 ,
(Hx ) = x1 ,
(cx ) = (c 1)cx ,

(2x ) = 2x ,




x
x
m
= m1
.

Sums:
P
P
cu x = c u x,
P
P
P
(u + v) x = u x + v x,
P
P
uv x = uv E vu x,
P 1
n+1
P n
x x = Hx ,
x x = xm+1 ,




P
P x
x
x
x
c
,
c x = c1
m x = m+1 .
Falling Factorial Powers:
xn = x(x 1) (x n + 1),

n1

x = 1,

1
,
(x + 1) (x + |n|)
xn+m = xm (x m)n .
Rising Factorial Powers:

sin(ax) dx,

1
ln(ax)

n+1
(n + 1)2

n+1

x
m
(ln ax)m
n+1
n+1

x1 =
x2 =

x1
x2 + x1

=
=

x3 =
x4 =

x3 + 3x2 + x1
4
x + 6x3 + 7x2 + x1

=
=

x5 =

x5 + 15x4 + 25x3 + 10x2 + x1

x1 =
x2 =

x1
x + x1

x1 =
x2 =

x3 =
x4 =

x3 + 3x2 + 2x1
x4 + 6x3 + 11x2 + 6x1

x3 =
x4 =

x5 =

x5 + 10x4 + 35x3 + 50x2 + 24x1

x5 =

n > 0,

xn =

xn1 eax dx,

Finite Calculus

n < 0,

xn = x(x + 1) (x + n 1),

n > 0,

x0 = 1,

xn =
xn (ln ax)m1 dx.

x1
x2 x1

x3 3x2 + x1
4
x 6x3 + 7x2 x1

x5 15x4 + 25x3 10x2 + x1

x1
x x1
2

x3 3x2 + 2x1
x4 6x3 + 11x2 6x1

x5 10x4 + 35x3 50x2 + 24x1

1
,
(x 1) (x |n|)

n < 0,

xn+m = xm (x + m)n .
Conversion:
xn = (1)n (x)n = (x n + 1)n
= 1/(x + 1)n ,

xn = (1)n (x)n = (x + n 1)n

= 1/(x 1)n ,
n  
n  
X
n k X n
xn =
x =
(1)nk xk ,
k
k
k=1
k=1
n  
X
n
(1)nk xk ,
xn =
k
k=1
n  
X
n k
n
x .
x =
k
k=1

Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet

Series
Taylors series:

X (x a)i
(x a)2
f (a) + =
f (i) (a).
f (x) = f (a) + (x a)f (a) +
2
i!
i=0
Expansions:

X
1
xi ,
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 +
=
1x
i=0

X
1
ci xi ,
= 1 + cx + c2 x2 + c3 x3 +
=
1 cx
i=0

X
1
n
2n
3n
xni ,
=
1
+
x
+
x
+
x
+

=
1 xn
i=0

X
x
2
3
4
ixi ,
= x + 2x + 3x + 4x +
=
(1 x)2
i=0
n  

X
X
n
k!z k
n 2
n 3
n 4
in xi ,
=
x
+
2
x
+
3
x
+
4
x
+

=
k (1 z)k+1
i=0
k=0

X
xi
=
ex
= 1 + x + 21 x2 + 16 x3 +
,
i!
i=0

X
xi
(1)i+1 ,
=
ln(1 + x)
= x 12 x2 + 31 x3 41 x4
i
i=1

i
Xx
1
ln
= x + 21 x2 + 31 x3 + 41 x4 +
,
=
1x
i
i=1

X
x2i+1
1 3
1 5
1 7
sin x
= x 3!
,
(1)i
x + 5!
x 7!
x + =
(2i + 1)!
i=0

X
x2i
1 4
1 6
1 2
(1)i
x + 4!
x 6!
x + =
cos x
= 1 2!
,
(2i)!
i=0

X
x2i+1
(1)i
,
=
tan1 x
= x 31 x3 + 51 x5 71 x7 +
(2i + 1)
i=0
 
X
n i
2
(1 + x)n
= 1 + nx + n(n1)
x,
x
+

=
2
i
i=0


X


1
i+n i
n+2 2
x,
= 1 + (n + 1)x + 2 x + =
i
(1 x)n+1
i=0

X
Bi xi
x
1
1 2
1
4
=
1

,
x
+
x

x
+

=
2
12
720
x
e 1
i!
i=0
 

1
1
2i i
2
3
=
x,
(1 1 4x)
= 1 + x + 2x + 5x +
2x
i+1 i
i=0
 
X
1
2i i

x,
= 1 + 2x + 6x2 + 20x3 +
=
i
1 4x
i=0


n


X


1 1 4x
2i + n i
1
4+n 2

x,
= 1 + (2 + n)x + 2 x + =
2x
i
1 4x
i=0

X
1
1
3 2
11 3
25 4
ln
= x + 2 x + 6 x + 12 x + =
Hi xi ,
1x 1x
i=1

2

X
1
Hi1 xi
1
11 4
ln
= 21 x2 + 43 x3 + 24
,
x +
=
2
1x
i
i=2

X
x
2
3
4
Fi xi ,
=
x
+
x
+
2x
+
3x
+

=
1 x x2
i=0

X
Fn x
2
3
Fni xi .
=
F
x
+
F
x
+
F
x
+

=
n
2n
3n
1 (Fn1 + Fn+1 )x (1)n x2
i=0

Ordinary power series:

X
ai xi .
A(x) =
i=0

Exponential power series:

X
xi
ai .
A(x) =
i!
i=0

Dirichlet power series:

X
ai
A(x) =
.
ix
i=1

Binomial theorem:
n  
X
n nk k
(x + y)n =
x
y .
k
k=0

Difference of like powers:

n1
X
xn y n = (x y)
xn1k y k .
k=0

For ordinary power series:

X
(ai + bi )xi ,
A(x) + B(x) =
i=0

xk A(x) =

aik xi ,

i=k

A(x)

Pk1
i=0

ai x

xk

A(cx) =

ai+k xi ,

i=0

ci ai xi ,

i=0

A (x) =

(i + 1)ai+1 xi ,

i=0

xA (x) =

iai xi ,

i=1

A(x) dx =

X
ai1
i=1

A(x) + A(x)
=
2
A(x) A(x)
=
2

xi ,

a2i x2i ,

i=0

a2i+1 x2i+1 .

i=0

Pi
Summation: If bi = j=0 ai then
1
B(x) =
A(x).
1x
Convolution:

i
X
X

aj bij xi .
A(x)B(x) =
i=0

j=0

God made the natural numbers;

all the rest is the work of man.
Leopold Kronecker

Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet

Series
Expansions:
1
1
ln
n+1
(1 x)
1x
xn

ln

1
1x

n

tan x
1
(x)
(x)
2 (x)

Eschers Knot



 n
 
X
i
n+i i
1
xi ,
=
(Hn+i Hn )
x,
=
n
i
x
i=0
i=0
 
 
X
X
n i
i n!xi
x
n
,
=
x,
(e 1)
=
i!
i
n
i=0
i=0
 

X
X
i n!xi
(4)i B2i x2i
=
,
x cot x
=
,
n i!
(2i)!
i=0
i=0

2i 2i
2i1
X
X
1
i1 2 (2 1)B2i x
(1)
=
,
,
(x)
=
x
(2i)!
i
i=1
i=1

X
X
(i)
(i)
(x 1)
,
,
=
=
x
i
(x)
ix
i=1
i=1
Y
1
=
,
Stieltjes Integration
1 px
p
If G is continuous in the interval [a, b] and F is nondecreasing then

X
Z b
P
d(i)
=
where d(n) = d|n 1,
G(x) dF (x)
xi

i=1

(x)(x 1)
(2n)
x
sin x


n
1 1 4x
2x
x

e sin x

X
S(i)

xi

1x
x

2
arcsin x
x
1

where S(n) =

i=1
2n1

d|n d,

|B2n | 2n
=
, n N,
(2n)!

X
(4i 2)B2i x2i
(1)i1
=
,
(2i)!
i=0
2

=
=

X
n(2i + n 1)!
i=0

X
i=1

X
i=0

X
i=0

i!(n + i)!

i/2

sin
i!

i
4

xi ,

x,

(4i)!

xi ,
i
16 2(2i)!(2i + 1)!
4i i!2
x2i .
(i + 1)(2i + 1)!

Cramers Rule
If we have equations:
a1,1 x1 + a1,2 x2 + + a1,n xn = b1
a2,1 x1 + a2,2 x2 + + a2,n xn = b2
..
..
..
.
.
.
an,1 x1 + an,2 x2 + + an,n xn = bn
Let A = (ai,j ) and B be the column matrix (bi ). Then
there is a unique solution iff det A 6= 0. Let Ai be A
with column i replaced by B. Then
det Ai
xi =
.
det A
Improvement makes strait roads, but the crooked
roads without Improvement, are roads of Genius.
William Blake (The Marriage of Heaven and Hell)

exists. If a b c then
Z c
Z
G(x) dF (x) =
a

G(x) dF (x) +

G(x) dF (x).

G(x) dF (x) +

G(x) d F (x) + H(x) =

If the integrals involved exist

Z
Z b


G(x) + H(x) dF (x) =
Z

c G(x) dF (x) =

H(x) dF (x),

G(x) dF (x) +

G(x) d c F (x) = c

G(x) dF (x) = G(b)F (b) G(a)F (a)

G(x) dH(x),

a
Z b

G(x) dF (x),

a
b

F (x) dG(x).

If the integrals involved exist, and F possesses a derivative F at every

point in [a, b] then
Z b
Z b
G(x) dF (x) =
G(x)F (x) dx.
a

00 47 18 76 29 93 85 34 61 52
86 11 57 28 70 39 94 45 02 63
95 80 22 67 38 71 49 56 13 04
59 96 81 33 07 48 72 60 24 15
73 69 90 82 44 17 58 01 35 26
68 74 09 91 83 55 27 12 46 30
37 08 75 19 92 84 66 23 50 41
14 25 36 40 51 62 03 77 88 99
21 32 43 54 65 06 10 89 97 78
42 53 64 05 16 20 31 98 79 87

Fibonacci Numbers
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, . . .
Definitions:
Fi = Fi1 +Fi2 ,

F0
i1

= F1 = 1,

Fi = (1) Fi ,


Fi = 15 i i ,

Cassinis identity: for i > 0:

Fi+1 Fi1 Fi2 = (1)i .

The Fibonacci number system:

Every integer n has a unique
representation

Additive rule:
Fn+k = Fk Fn+1 + Fk1 Fn ,

n = Fk1 + Fk2 + + Fkm ,

where ki ki+1 + 2 for all i,
1 i < m and km 2.

Calculation by matrices:

 
n
Fn2 Fn1
0 1
=
.
1 1
Fn1
Fn

F2n = Fn Fn+1 + Fn1 Fn .