bod~mind & voice

foundations
of
'

VOICe

education

REVISED

EDITION

Co-editors
Leon Thurman EdD
Graham Welch PhD

chapter 6
helping children's voices develop
in general music education
Anna Peter Langness

hroughout the history of music education, children's

inability to sing accurately has been a primary concern. Vocal problems were attributed to a variety of
causes such as the result of poor pitch discrimination, lack
of musical talent, lack of experience, or lack of attention or
effort. Inaccurate singers were perceived not only as being
'problems" in the classroom but also as being "deficient" or
as possessing less "musical intelligence" than the accurate
singers. In textbooks, inaccurate singers were referred to as
droners, monotones, croakers, and other derogatory labels. Seating
charts designed to "help" the inaccurate singers labeled them
as "negatives" while tuneful singers were "positives~
Helpful hints were given for eliminating the inaccuracies from musical performances. Untuneful singers could
silently mouth the words, play an instrument, become living
props such as trees, or assume the honorable and responsible position of curtain puller. For these and many more
reasons, children who could not sing accurately received
many reminders of their personal, musical, and vocal inadequacies. They learned that their presence in a singing group
or activity was not desirable.
In the 1960s when the child-centered approach gained
popularity, music education aimed at success for every child
in music. The feeling of success was closely linked with
liking music. Teacher training methods now focusing on
student involvement recommended techniques for songsinging activities and avoided tedious and much disliked

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vocai exercises and drills. Unfortunately for the generations

of music educators to come, vocal skill-building techniques
were also omitted in the teacher training. It was thought
that children would learn to sing simply by singing.
In maintaining a positive, successful atmosphere, teachers then were faced with another set of problems. What
response is given to the child who sings out-of-tune? How
would a child who is singled out for individual vocal help
feel? If the teacher worked with individuals, could the class
maintain interest and attention? Could musical study proceed at the necessary rate? Should the teacher spend time
working with individuals when it is highly possible that no
immediate or lasting results would be obtained? How could
the teacher speak positively about unsuccessful results?
Many teachers and children have experienced frustration as a result of classroom singing experiences. Many
teachers may feel threatened by a failure to produce quality
singing because their professional ability is measured by
student success. Blaming the students' lack of talent rather
than the teacher's lack of knowledge and abilities may have
become a professional survival technique. As a result of
vocal frustrations or failures, some children become turned
off to all musical activities involving singing. Again, blame
is placed on music class or the music teacher; rather than
on the incomplete voice education that music teachers receive. The solution for teachers and their students lies in
preservice and/ or inservice voice education.

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Voice Education in
The Elementary Classroom
When singing is considered a developmental skill rather
than a talent, much more promise can be held for the future
of human self-expression. Singing skills can be expected to
develop over a period of time as do linguistic and motor
skills. The "Continuum of Vocal Development" hypothesized by Welch (1986) and the "Categories of Vocal Skills"
identified by Rutkowski (1988) indicate clearly that vocal
skills develop over a period of time and are affected by
experience and guidance (Book IV; Chapter 3 has details).
Knowledge of these developmental stages helps teachers
accept the differences among children's vocal skills and to
choose the most beneficial type of vocal development experiences for inclusion in singing experiences.
Research into children's vocal range suggests that there
is generally a positive relationship between developmental
skill level. age, and comfortable singing pitch range. That is,
the younger the child, the greater the likelihood that he or
she will have limited vocal skill development and a limited
comfortable vocal pitch range (Welch, 1979b). This comfortable range tends to overlap the child's habitual speaking
range. The comfort of singing where voices are most frequently exercised may relate more to habitual use than to
actual ease of vocal production. Teachers are given many
ideas for achieving pitch-accurate results from children;
however, the ideas more often involve altering the music
than helping vocal production. For example, teachers have
the options of choosing songs of a limited range, changing
(usually lowering) the key of the songs, or altering the melodies to fit the children's range. In response to the research
findings and teacher requests, music textbook and choral
literature publishers have scored children's songs in lower
keys to fit within the so-called comfortable singing range.
Some continue to do so. All of these practices should be
considered short-term or partial solutions for achieving
accurate singing. Techniques that aid the development of
children's singing skills would offer the preferred long-term
solution.

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Developing Vocal Awareness

Matching a single pitch is often considered the first
step in developing singing ability. Such a beginning, which
focuses on the accuracy of sound, requires particular vocal
muscle coordinations; vocally, this is an advanced step. For
many children, awareness of personal sound-making capabilities (speaking and singing) is a necessary first step.
Vocal exploration and personal knowledge of what voices
can do lead children to more positive experiences and accurate singing. Consider following Bennett's (1986) exploratory approach to developing vocal awareness that leads to
rather than begins with pitch-matching experiences (Table V-6-1 ).

Table V-6-1
Six phases in the development of vocal awareness and
voice skills (After Bennett, 1986).
Phase I:
Experiment with their voice quality and pitch range possibilities.

Phase II:
Describe how their voices feel as they experiment, where they experience
physical sensations of vocal production, and how voices sound to the producer and others.

Phase III:
Match the quality and range of the teacher and other students in singing
and speaking.

Phase IV:
Decide which labels best fit a given vocal sound (high/ medium/low, loud/
moderate/ soft, light/heavyI energized/ strained).

Phase V:
Produce a particular sound according to a given label (high, smooth).

Phase VI:
Produce a specific pitch (or pattern) to match one given by another voice or
instrument.

Throughout these phases, the children become aware

of the sounds and sensations of vocal production as they
develop the muscular coordination necessary for refined
vocal coordination. Concurrently with their experience of
vocal production, the children acquire a vocabulary for
describing pitch, dynamics, quality and production. While
these phases are somewhat sequential, progression through
them may move quickly and some phases may be repeated
with varying tasks.

Goetze 0985) and Goetze & Horii (1989) examined

factors that affect singing accuracy. Surprisingly, the studies
found that children sing pitches more accurately when singing individually than when singing with a teacher or with
other children. Ternstrom (1994) has provided a possible
explanation for this phenomenon by finding that the auditory feedback for a singer's own voice is reduced when in
close proximity to other singers and when other singers are
singing the same pitches. Music educators may find that a
predominance of group singing experiences may actually
hinder the development of pitch accuracy and other voice
skills in some children. In addition to the unison singing
factor, Goetze found that singing the song on a neutral syllable, such as "loo; results in more accurate singing than
when singing the text.

Feedback
Feedback that is given to students regarding their singing is yet another factor that needs examination and evaluation. Welch (1985) identified the need for the singer to
receive specific information about the results of his or her
vocal performance. In order for learning to take place, singers
must know the outcome of their performance so they will
know how to continue or improve future singing. The kind
cf information that is given to singers depends on the
teacher's knowledge of the singing process as well as the
present skill development of the children. Teacher feedback
often pertains only to the accuracy of the pitch pattern and
does not include aspects of the vocal coordination that produces the pitch pattern. A popular practice of teachers is to
offer only positive feedback in the form of "praise" (Langness,
1986; Bennett, 1988). While pleasant, complimentary statements tend to make everyone feel good, little or no information is given about the student's vocal output. Extremely
positive teachers who issue nothing but superlatives may
be surprised to discover that judgmental messages are still
being given, even though they are not intended. Such superlatives as Fantastic, Excellent, Good, O.K., and All right may
represent or feel the same to the students as Good, Average,
Acceptable, and Poor or the grades A B, C and D.
Praise also has a negative effect when it is perceived as
an inaccurate or untrue assessment. If the praise doesn't
match the recipient's perception of the outcome, the praisechi 1 d r en' s

giver's knowledge or intentions may be questioned. For

example, "You have a fantastic voice!" or "That's perfect,
absolutely beautiful singing!" Students may wonder if the
teacher didn't hear what was wrong or if the teacher thought
they were not "smart enough" to know the difference. The
students also may sense that the praise was used to make
them feel good, to like choir or music class, or to like the
teacher, rather than used to help them become more competent. Too often, praise can leave students feeling that they
have pleased the teacher, but knowing nothing about their
singing.
When teachers are knowledgeable of the singing process and give helpful information through feedback, then
students can feel ownership of their achievements and success. For the teacher, information-giving statements such
as, "That sounded like it was in your upper registet,' may
feel rather matter of fact compared to the hype of positives
and praise, yet the sense of knowing what skill has been
achieved creates a different kind of pleasure, thrill, and excitement within children that may have a more lasting effect. That pleasure is the feeling of self-esteem that comes
from mastering their perceived world, particularly their own
voices.

Voice Education:
The Vocal Mechani sm
Children of all ages are curious to learn about themselves. Knowledge of the vocal mechanism promotes acceptance of individual differences in skills and motivates
personal skill development. Information about voices and
vocal production can be given in simple, descriptive terms.
Some of the technical terms can be used with children of all
age levels. Technical terms are appealing to many children,
and all children need meaningful terms. In most cases, the
following description is understandable:
The parts of us that we use to make vocal sounds are
made of our own growing, living tissue. Just like our faces
and hands are different, so each person's voice is unique.
Singing involves the coordination of groups of muscles that
move in a variety of ways to operate the vocal folds. When
we breathe for singing we feel the muscles of the midsection/abdominal area release as air fills our lungs. Then as we

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sing and breath is flowing out of us, we feel the same muscles
contract or tighten.
One set of muscles brings the vocal folds together for
making sound and apart for inhalation and rest. Some
muscles shortm the vocal folds for the production of slower
vibrations or "lower" pitches, while others lmgthm the vocal
folds for faster vibrations or "higher" pitches. In order to
sing an exact pitch or a melody that we hear, all of the
muscles used for singing must become coordinated so our
voice produces the same pitch ormelody that we hear. This
hearing and singing process is called ear-brain-voice coordination.

Suggestions for
Facilitating Vocal Experience
The ideas presented here are suggestions for helping
students gain vocal experience through exploration and
discovery. The ways of setting up the experience and engaging individual participation are equally important to the
vocal tasks that are being invited. Rather than a correcting or
fixing approach to voice education, the teacher focuses on
creating a setting that invites vocal responses, guides the
experience, then facilitates exploration and provides feedback that informs and instructs.
When you begin teaching, prepare students to understand the importance of the voice education studies in your
classes. A key expectation of voice study is that all students
will learn to use their voices in healthy ways and to sing
tunefully and expressively. Every student will help monitor his or her personal progress towards meeting those expectations. When students are informed about vocal skills,
they can set personal goals for their vocal development.
An introduction to the focus on voice study could be as
follows :
In addition to learning about music, we will learn about our
voices and how to use them for singing and speaking. One of our
expectations is that every studmt will gain vocal skills. just as in physical
education you learn better ways that your body can walk and run, in
music class you will learn more efficient ways your voice can speak
and sing. It will be helpful if you develop a habit of singing and
participating in every exercise and activity so that the various sets of
muscles that work in specific ways and that work together for singing
can become conditioned and coordinated. Your voice will become able
to produce a wide range of pitches throughout your voice registers and
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will be flexible for singing the patterns of melodies. And, the muscles
involved with breathing will be able to smd the energized breath
flow your voice needs. This may sound familiar to you or it could
sound somewhat complicated. Whichever it is, I am quite sure that in
our explorations we will be surprised to discover what our voices can
do.
As teachers and leaders of our classes, we are models
for our students. Our body alignment and freedom and
efficiency in vocal production are present as models for
our students, whether or not they are conscious of it. Consider also that we can model how to be a keen observer
and an acute listener, how to be responsive to expressiveness and appreciative of student efforts and achievements.
Monitor your vocal use in the classroom and know
your voice well. Check what your comfortable range is
when vocalizing and singing in the classroom. Will your
range exp~nd or limit the exploratory experience for the
students? Establish the practice of modeling an idea for
vocal exploration and then involving individual students
to model variations, extensions or extremes of that idea.
Besides the value of including students as leaders, this practice will allow you some vocal rest. Review your teaching
practices to find other ways your vocal fatigue factor can be
diminished. For example, cultivate a habit of listening to
the students sing without you. Communicate your interest
in hearing their vocal skills and monitoring their progress.
This will allow students to grow in confidence and vocal
independence.
Conduct a physical warm-up routine with children
that involves the whole body in stretching and in movements that bring an awareness of sensations and body alignment. Children will become aware that singing is a body
and mind experience that requires them to be physically
and mentally active. Let children know the purpose and
benefits of the playful exercises.
Begin vocal exploration with speaking and soundmaking ideas using nonspecified pitches. Ask questions and
give challenges using words to elicit vocal responses. This
may engage students to a greater degree and bring about
more vocal exploration than if students just echo your
modeL Also, our model implies that the pattern and pitches
should be matched. Our descriptive questions invite students to give "a" vocal response rather than a "specific' vo-

cal response. The following sequence of directives and questions is how such a session might proceed:
Explore saying "hello" three ways with your voice.
Say "hello" in three different places of your range.
Say "hello" with a different feeling.
Let your sound move around when you say "hello~
("move" to different pitches)
Feel your voice change sounds when you ask. "Where
are you going?"
Let your voice stretch (extend) certain words of that
question.
Let your voice make a wavy sound.
Listen for sounds that move a further distance.
Who has another idea?
How would this sound? (Draw or gesture patterns
of change: curving and angular lines, varying speeds, smooth
and abrupt changes.)
When talking to students during vocal studies, take
care to refer specifically to their voices. Notice in the following examples how the subtle shift to the person's voice
focuses the study on the vocal response instead of the person.
Listen to John's voice call, "Where are you?"
How would you describe what John's voice did?
Let me hear how your voice would ask. "What are
you doing?"
Susan, let me hear your voice say that again.
This shift of attention can feel less threatening for students. Classmates are asked to listen to the voice, not the
person. They describe the sound of the voice, not the person. The singer also can then join objectively in the discussion about his or her voice. This shift should enable some
students to receive feedback without becoming defensive.
Utilize sounds that require breath energy to explore
and develop an awareness of the breath. Avoid contests for
sustained output The competition often triggers pressurized breathing and related tensions. Explore with the following ideas:
"Whoooo" in ghostly sounds.
"Cushion" lower tones with breath.
Sustain lip buzzes using breath only, then add voice
to the flow of air to produce vocal slides (motor sounds).
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Make sustained tongue brrrrs, add voice. "Brrr" the

melodic outline of songs.
(Note that the "brr" stops when the breath energy level
is inadequate even though the voice may continue the pitch.)
Treat breathing as a natural function and draw awareness to efficient breathing through observation and exploration, rather than beginning with routine "how to" instructions or a demonstration of "the correct" way. Begin by
observing the students' breathing habits. Note habits of
chest and shoulder movement on the inhalation that will
need retaining. Have students notice what happens when
they sing while lying on their backs, with knees up and feet
flat on the floor. Ask students to notice what they feel and
hear when they sing a song with their eyes closed. Have
them describe the sounds and sensations. Usually students
have a heightened awareness of their own singing and the
class singing sounds different from when they sit or stand.
Next. have them put one hand on their chest and one at
their waistline (on their tummy) while they sing and notice
what happens. They usually observe which hand moved
when they were singing. Have them explain when the hand
moved. For those whose chest moved, ask them to experiment to see if it is possible to have the "chest hand" remain
still and let the "tummy hand" move when the air comes in.
As everyone continues to experiment. ask them to notice
how the tummy (abdominal) muscles move out or expand
when the air comes in and moves in as they sing, sending a
breath energy flow for their voice.
During vocal exploration, gradually change from
speaking to singing short patterns or phrases. Extend the
speech pattern into song. Speak and sing the patterns in a
variety of pitch locations. Explore speaking and singing
patterns from song repertoire. Play with sounds of the
pattern, sustain pitches, sing the pattern at many pitch levels. Examples of these follow:
"Where are you going?" (extend speech pattern into
song)
"A---shes, Ashes" (Ring Around the Rosy)
"Oh Here-----" (Oh Here We Are Together)
"Blue---bird" (Bluebird Through My Window)
Further develop and demonstrate increasingly accurate vocal coordination by producing sounds from prevoices

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scribed labels, by echoing patterns, and by matching a partner. Offer these type of challenges:
Begin medium-high and glide lower.
On a medium sound, begin softly and add more
and more breath energy.
Sing a pattern for us to copy.
Sing your pattern, then repeat it as your partner
blends with your sound.
Vary the vocal exploration format for responding with
a variety of patterns for individual and class responses. Let
each student respond in rapid succession. If one child hesitates, cheerfully indicate that you'll return for another chance,
as you quickly move on. You may say, "If you aren't ready
or miss your turn, I'll come by again~ Be sure to remember
to do so. Alternate individual responses with whole-class
responses. This keeps everyone alert, vocally prepared for
individual responses, and provides more vocal practice.
Have all students prepared to respond, then gesture in random order to indicate who is to respond and who will be
next. This gives a moment of preparation for the singer
and creates a flow of responses. Have students respond as
individuals, pairs, small groups, or as groups that are located in sections of the room. Let a student indicate who
will respond or how responses will be given. Use the "secret singers" technique which involves individual singing
and careful listening by class members. The class, with eyes
dosed, stands in a circle while the song is sung by the secretly designated students or students. Students are instructed
to sing only as they feel a touch on their shoulder. The
"touch" may indicate varying lengths of singing time for the
individual and may contact more than one person simultaneously. Class members need to focus their listening on the
song so that each person will be ready to continue singing
the song. As additional challenges, listeners can count how
many voices are heard individually or simultaneously, or
they can identify the singers.
When learning songs, briefly explore from sound-making or speaking to singing so that individual voices are prepared for the vocal challenge of the song. Use the technique also to focus on patterns that need attention for accuracy.
For variety in the approach to new songs, learn the
text through exploration of expressive speaking. Explore
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the expressive nature of the consonants and the vowels.

Avoid mechanical chanting of the text or rhythm syllables
as a means of learning the rhythm of the song. Remember
to use an energized, expressive sound.
Monitor the singing experience that occurs during class.
Notice that many songs sung with accompaniment may lie
within the same, often limited, range. The upper register of
children's voices will not become conditioned, strong, and
comfortably used if it is not used regularly. Sing some
songs unaccompanied so that the key can be changed occasionally. After your students are more knowledgeable
about their voices, use a sports analogy and become the
Vocal Coach. Present a "pregame plan" for singing a song
Point out to students what demands the song is making of
the voice. Your coaching tips and cues can make students
conscious of what the voice needs to do, remind them how
to prepare their voice, and alert them when special places
are approaching in the song.
Many of the children's songs, and folk songs for
younger children, can be sung in different keys at many
different pitch levels. The change of key can add playfulness and interest to the song. Consider the helpful effect of
singing in a key where most of the pitches lie in the upper
register. Sing songs, such as "Bluebird~ in a key where the
song begins in the upper register. When most of the children are ready, introduce some songs in a key that invites
upper register pitches (as long as the higher key still fits the
mood and character of the song). If they are sung in that
key several times, the children will form auditory and sensorimotor memories of the song that will include the pitches
and the motor coordinations that were used in that key.
When playing singing-games in class, the repetitions of the
song can become very tiring for voices. You will notice that
the students' energy and interest in continuing the game is
not evident in their singing Changing the key to higher and
lower pitches will diminish fatigue, provide practice throughout the vocal range, and will breathe new life in the game.
Simple reminders given with gestures or few words
help the beginning singer to stay aware of their voice. Quick
cues before singing begins can feel more helpful than reminders after children have sung. Give reminders to be~n
the song with a light. cushioned feeling (particularly songs
that begin on low pitches).

Cues for breath intake and ease of releasing breath

with the voice aid the child in practice. Allow a child who
has just gained use of the upper register to give the beginning pitch of the song in his or her upper register and then
start singing the song with that same feeling and sound.
Provide many opportunities for children to sing alone.
Consider singing a natural way to give answers in class,
such as when children explain what they heard or give new
ideas for words of a song. Help students take pride in
developing skills for being the song slarler - giving the beginning pitch of a song and starting the class singing. Have
students be leaders for antiphonning a song. That is, two
people or groups sing parts of the complete song. without
repetitions. The leader and the class "pass" the song back
and forth. Antiphonning can be done with partners, small
groups, and by the whole class as individuals "passing the
song" around the circle.
Explore the effects of resonance resulting from changing the mouth openness. Listen to the difference when individuals open their mouth to different degrees. Notice the
effects from too much effort - mouth too big, exaggerated
lip movements. Observe and listen to find the optimum
use.
Guide students to become keen observers and listeners. Involve them in describing in words and gestures what
they hear in a vocal response. Be sure they describe the
sound rather than evaluate it or judge the effort. Expect
and accept descriptions that differ. Student descriptions may
more accurately describe what the listener heard than what
the singer sang. Accept the differences among listeners. These
differences provide important cues for you as the teacher
about individual musical development Children's ability
to discriminate vocal sounds and develop vocabulary to
describe sounds grows quickly. Experiment with asking
questions that elicit a description of sound, such as the following:
Tom, what did you hear Sam's voice do?
Juan, how did Tina's pattern move?
Show (draw in the air) how the sound moved that
What did you hear? (Generally ask for several descriptions of the same vocal response.
How did it sound to you?
How would you describe it?
c h i l d r e n ' s

Notice that children describe many characteristics of

sound and vocal qualities. They are highly attuned to voice
quality, which many times overpowers their awareness of
pitch. Remember that from birth children have acquired
meaning more from the tone of voice than the words. Inviting their observations during our lessons results in a
holistic approach to voice. While this may seem overwhelming initially, the wide range of their observations actually
simplifies the learning process. Students become aware of
the many characteristics of sound and have many opportunities to listen for what others hear. As class experiences
continue, the study can be guided to focus on various aspects within the whole. A dearer; deeper, and broader understanding results.
The teacher's descriptions add music terminology to
the students' vocabulary for vocal sound and leads to more
refined descriptions of sound. Encourage the use of "higher"
and "lower to indicate relative pitch relationship. For example:
The pattern began medium-low then moved higher.
It started medium-high then glided lower to a medium pitch.
First it was soft and then it gained more energy.
Notice that interest in listening to and describing vocal sounds allows the teacher to give informational feedback about the vocal production process, vocal quality, or
aspects of melody and pitch. Encourage and appreciate
student efforts, but avoid habitual use of evaluators or praise
statements. Let excitement generate from the student's thrill
or satisfaction of vocal accomplishments, rather than from
teacher approval. We don't need to say, "That's the sound I
wanted~ "I liked the way you sang that!" or "Now that's a
good sound~ Remember that our tone of voice and facial
expressions can convey our excitement and approval while
our words give information. Explore the various intensity
levels possible with the following feedback:
Aaron, it sounded like your voice flipped into the
upper register that time!
There! You used plenty of breath energy that helped
your voice sail free and clear.
What a gentle, soft sound. And I heard every pitch
and word.

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Keep Musical Study Both

Musical and Healthy
Maintaining consistent vocal awareness and sensitivity is a major challenge for the classroom music teacher.
Frequently, teaching techniques and activities that are used
for motivating student interest and involvement and for
practicing music reading have a negative effect on vocal
production. It is helpful to consider that these useful and
necessary activities have a "flip side" or a point at which
they induce conditions that adversely affect vocal quality
or production, that change from the intended purpose, or
that result in unmusical performance. These rather subtle
differences have a strong effect in the musical art. Their
long range effects can have a great and lasting impact on the
students' musicality.
The key to preventing unintended results from study
activities is the teacher's awareness and sensitivity- awareness of the possibility of negative effects during study, and
sensitivity in listening to vocal quality. All aspects of music
learning should be analyzed from the point of view of
healthy, musically expressive singing. And, on the positive
side, vocal exploration experiences should be examined for
potential music learning benefits.

A Look at the 'Flip Side'

Movement can free singers from tensions and inhibitions. It can energize singing and evoke a quality of singing
expressiveness that descriptions or instructions cannot convey. Movement can have a negative effect when the activity
level, such as that in some singing games, creates a demand
for breath that makes efficient singing difficult or impossible. Some types of movement evoke raucous singing.
Movement or the game can overload the student task so
that focus cannot be given to the song or the singing. Also,
movement for the sake of developing the students' beat
awareness often causes the singing to become heavily beataccented and unmusical.
Clapping, tapping, patsching, walking, and marching
are wonderful motor movements for demonstrating
children's ability to hear, feel or imitate and perform the
beat or rhythm patterns. These types of movements easily
become unmusical when the expressive ways of executing
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each of them are not explored. There is also a tendency to

overemphasize these movements in an effort to "help" the
learners hear and experience the beat or rhythm. This overemphasis may then be expressed in the voice. When rhythm
is ver-y pre-cise-ly ar-tic-u-lat-ed, it results in a loss of
musical shape and ongoing flow. Research finds that rhythm
is more easily discriminated without the presence of words;
therefore, singing on a neutral syllable, such as "du: would
aid the focus of attention on rhythm pattern.
Teachers frequently indicate the melodic line by showing pitch levels with the hand or by using the Kodaly/
Glover/Curwen hand signals. These techniques can indicate how the melody moves and, if the spatial location of
the hand positions are consistent, they can show the relationships between pitches. In the Kodaly/Glover/Curwen
system the tone syllable names also are associated with the
particular shape of the hands. These are very effective means
for leading singing without the use of the teacher's voice.
They also are visual metaphors of pitch movement that
allows children to "see" vocal pitch change.
When children use the hand signals, they have a kinesthetic sense of pitch direction and magnitude of change.
These beneficial tools can work against vocal production
when pitch changes are shown only on a vertical plane.
When the teacher indicates the high pitches (faster frequencies) above his or her neck and head area, a visual as well
as physical sense of "reaching" for high pitches is experienced and often results in sympathetic and inefficient raising of the larynx and squeezing of the vocal folds. The
perception that higher pitches are difficult to produce also
results. Remember: higher pitches are produced by a lengthening of the vocal folds, and that physical action has much
more of a horizontal orientation than a vertical.
Hand signals and levels are often shown in an abrupt,
choppy, precise fashion, rather than in a flow that is expressive of the spirit of the song. Hand signal positions will
evoke more musicality when they are shown relative to the
range of the song rather than in a static position. For example, Do is not always low; let it's spatial position be relative to the range of other pitches in the song, that is, So to
Mi.
On the same topic, pitch need not be represented only
in its relationship to the staff; that is, that high pitches are
up or at the top, and that low pitches are down or at the

bottom. Pitch changes can be explored on other planes

such as the in and out horizontal plane that is most consistent with the action of the vocal folds when changing pitches.
In the world of music, pitches are represented in a wide
variety of spatial planes, so explore pitch changes horizontally left to right, as on the piano, or diagonally as on a
guitar.
Instrumental accompaniment adds to the style and
harmonic elements of a song. It allows students to gain
knowledge from learning to play the instruments. Instrumental accompaniment has detrimental effects on singing
when the playable keys restrict the range of the singing experience over a period of time. During the initial experiences of playing instrumental accompaniments, all songs
may be sung in the same key over several lessons. Keys
chosen for ease of instrumental playing may place songs
totally within the lower register range for the singers and
may contain pitches that are actually below the children's
singing range. Also, songs may be placed where the "developing" singers should change registers, but often cannot
Frequently, the interest and effort demanded by the performance of instrumental accompaniments overshadow giving attention to singing quality. The instrumental sounds
my interfere with the vocal auditory feedback to which the
developing singer is learning to respond. While the drawbacks of using instrumental accompaniments seem overwhelming and present an ongoing challenge for the teacher,
they can be effectively overcome if the teacher manages the
conditions created for the singers.
The piano is essential for choral performances and is
most commonly used for accompaniment in the classroom.
Use of the piano for all classroom singing has a potential
for a multitude of problems. The greatest negative effect
results from playing with a heavy touch. Singers sense that
they must match or surpass the instrument's volume, and
most likely will match the harsh, heavy quality as well.
Another pitfall is that of playing the melody or the exercises
loudly to "help" students hear and, therefore, sing accurately.
This playing typically changes the singing quality of the
musical line. Further, it removes the need to listen and prevents sensitive listening. Also, children are more successful
in matching pitches with a voice than with an instrument
For very young children, the presence of harmony confuses
their singing efforts. Finally, the teacher who plays the pichildren's

ano is physically removed from the singers and the opportunity to hear individuals. The score and the piano become
barriers between the teacher and the singers.
Following notation (notes, marks, dots) is important
for connecting sound to the symbols in the music reading
process. Reading symbols becomes unmusical and affects
singing when each note or beat group is accented or emphasized. The slower tempo that is used to accommodate
reading speed or the motor abilities of children results in
the loss of the musical shape of patterns within the phrase.
Sensitivity to note groupings (expressive units versus
measures) will increase musicality if practiced from the earliest music reading experiences (Thurmond, 1982). These
note groupings (based on words, not measures) are congruent with word phrases in the text as well. The common
method of practicing note reading in measure groupings
distorts the musical sense of small units as well as the phrase.
The rhythm within a single measure usually contains a set
of words that are not expressive units. For example:

sic. sweet-

mu

mu

sic.

prais - es

thy-

we

will

These measure-patterns present the words mu-sic, sweet,

music, thy, and praises we will.

~- j D I r r 0 I zj
0-

sic,

S\Vett -

mu

sic,

8 1J I J J I j

thy -

pr.:lis es

we

wi ll

sing:

If the ana cruses (pick up notes) are included and the

patterns are based on expressive word groups, the wordand-music phrases would be Oh, music, sweet music, thy praises
we will sing. Children would more musically prepared to read
notation if they consistently rehearsed and studied song
units that were congruent with whole word-and-music phrases
within the songs they sing.

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Observing The Elusive Obvious in

Teaching-Learning Situations

4. Analyze the flexibility of voices in speaking exploration. Do

voices produce a variety of pitches? Do voices move with
ease? Do voices utilize the upper register? Are voices "stuck"

Teaching-learning situations present an opportunity

in the lower register? Is there a noticeable shift in muscular

to observe and analyze the complex setting that occurs daily

coordination between registers or is there a smooth, melted

in the music education of children. During singing, some

transition?

teachers may focus only on the pitch accuracy of the vocal

5. Observe the habitual breathing of children during silmce,

outcome. Teachers with some vocal training also may ob-

speaking, and singing. Do shoulders remain still or do they

serve aspects of vocal production. Two very important

considerations of vocal instruction are:

rise with inhalation? Is inhalation silent or does it include

1. how childrm are mgaged in the singing experience; and

and free while singing or do they rise and fall? Do you hear

2. the kind of feedback they receive.

evidence of adequate or inadequate breath energy? Does

Extending and deepening an awareness of, and a sen-

ing?

noticeable air turbulence noise? Do chests remain open

breath energy maintain its flow during buzzes, brrs, and singsitivity to all such events while teaching can become one of

6. Observe the if.fect of movernmt or gestures on vocal produc-

a teacher's career goals. The following guidelines can be ex-

tion. Does movement aid in establishing the comfort of the

tremely helpful for increasing your observation and analy-

singer? Does game movement overload the task of singing

sis skills in teaching-learning situations:

and moving? Does movement help generate breath energy? Do specific gestures aid breath energy flow, easy lar-

Observing and Analyzing Voice

Education in Teaching-Learning
Situations
1. Notice the comfort level of the group. Is it the same for all
individuals? How does it change during group and individual activities? How do individuals respond to the "solo"
singing of others and themselves? Notice an individual
before, during and after "solo" voice experiences. Is there verbal or nonverbal support among the children? How is
willingness or unwillingness to participate communicated?
2 Observe the child's habitual body alignmmt and balance. Is
the weight distributed on both feet or shifted to one foot?
Is the chest area open and free, or dropped with shoulders
rounded forward? Is the head in the easy "pivot" mode or
does the head move forward and down? Is the back delicately lengthened or rounded in a slump? Is the abdominal
area free or compressed in a slump? Do these conditions
change when singing? What changes take place when standing or sitting on a chair or the floor?
3. Listm to the quality and pitch area of the speaking coordinations. Are voices clear, strained, breathy; raspy, or hoarse?
Is the range high, medium, low? Is the vocal production
light or heavy? Is it produced with adequate breath energy?

ynx coordinations, and released open throats and mouths?

Do specific gestures aid the production and awareness of
pitch changes? Do specific gestures suggest reaching for
high pitches (a possibly negative effect)?

7. Track the modeling of vocal sounds and pitch patterns. What

is the quality and character of the teacher's speaking and
singing? When does the teacher model an exact pitch pattern? When does the teacher model an idea to be developed
by the children? When is the teacher silent? When and
how does a child model?
8. Listm to the voice quality and pitch range during individual

and group singing. Is "singing quality" experienced (as opposed to "yelling quality")? Do children sing in heavy, forced
light. weak, raspy, breathy, or clear; free voice? Do children
sing in upper register as well as lower register? Do children
sing pitch patterns accurately (alone, in unison, or in parts)?
9. Notice the teachrrs statemmts. Which are questions,
instructions, praise, or feedback? What are some specific
examples? How are statements worded and how are they
inflected? What is the focus of questions? When and how
are praise statements given? What are the noticeable effects
of the praise? What voice education information is given
through feedback? What information is given through instruction?

812

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Conclusi o n

Rutkowski, J. 0988). The measurement and evaluation of children's singing

voice development. Unpublished manuscript.

The basic principles of voice function are the same at

every age level. What would happen in children's singing if
every music educator were to apply the principles of healthy
vocal production to the teaching of expressive singing? What
would happen if all teachers of children continuously
searched for ways to facilitate rather than impose the skills
of healthy voice production? Our students' lives can be
enhanced today and in the future because of the vocal skills
they acquire in our classrooms, and because of the respectful way that we interact with them. Our manner of working with children and how we use our own voices are a
significant model for how they treat their voices, themselves,
and others for a lifetime.

Ternstrom, S. (1994). Hearing myself with others: Sound levels in choral

performance measured with separation of one's own voice from the rest of
the choir. Journal of Voia, 8(4), 293-302.
Thurmond, ]. M. 0982). Not( Grouping - A M(thod for Achi(Ving Expmsion and
Style in MusicalPnjormana. Camp Hill, PA: JMT Publications.
Welch, G. F. 0979a). Poor pitch singing: A review of the literature. Psychology
of Music, 7 0), 50-58.
Welch, G. F. (1979b). Vocal range and poor pitch singing. Psychology of Music,
7 (2), 13-31.
Welch, G. F. ( 1985). Variability of practice and knowledge of results as factors in learning to sing in tune. Bulletin of th( Council for Rc;wrch in Music
Education, 85, 238-247.
Welch, G. F. 0986). A developmental view of children's singing. British)ournal of Music Education, 3(3), 295-302.

References and
Selected Bibliography
Bennett, P. 0986). A responsibility to young voices. Music Educators Journal.
73 (!), 33-38.
Bennett, P. (1988). The perils and profits of praise. Music Educators Journal. 75
(!), 22-24.

Bennett, P.O., & Bartholomew, O.R. (1997). Songworks I: Singing in th( Education
of Childrm. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.
Bennett, P.O., & Bartholomew, O.R. (1999). Songworks II: Singing in th( Education of Childrm. Belmont. CA: Wadsworth Publishing.
Goetze, M. (1985). Factors Aff(cting Accuracy in Childrm's Singing. Unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, University of Colorado. lDissmation Abstracts IntmationaL
46, 2955A]
Goetze, M., Cooper, N., & Brown, C.J. 0990). Recent research on singing in
the general music classroom. Bulldin of th( Council ofRmarch in Music Education,
No. 100, 16-37.
Goetze, M., & Horii, Y (1989). A comparison of the pitch accuracy of group
and individual singing in you ng children. Bulletin of th( Council of Rc;wrch in
Music Education, No. 99, 57-73.
Langness, A 0986). In critidsm of praise: Looking at both sides of the coin.
Unpublished manuscript, University of Colorado.
Langness, A 0992). A Dc;criptiw Study ofTwcha Rc;ponsc; During th( Twching of
Singing to Childrm. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Colorado.
Langness, A 0992). A Dc;aiptiv( Study ofTwcha Rc;pons(s During th( Twching of
Singing to Childrm. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Colorado.
lDissmation Abstracts Intmational. 53(6)A. 1835-A, Order No. 9232704.]
Rutkowski, J. 0986). The effect of restricted song range on kindergarten
children's use of singing voice and developmen tal music aptitude. Dissmation Abstracts Intmational. 47, 2072A

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