DigestiveSystemLabReport

LAUREN WILLEY

PartI:StructuresoftheMouth
Introduction
Thislabreportaddressesthefunctionsofthemouth,stomach,smallandlargeintestinesand
howtheymakeupthedigestivesystem.Themouthisthefirststopinthedigestionprocess.In
themouth,therearethreemajorsalivaryglands,theparotid,submandibular,andsublingual.
Salivaissecretedbythesalivaryglands,andmoistensfoodthatisingestedtostartthe
chemicaldigestionofcarbohydrates.Salivaalsodissolvesfoodsotheycanbetasted,
neutralizesthepH,andhelpstocleansethemouthandteeth.ThepHiskeptbetween6.5and
7.5whichisidealforsalivaryenzymefunctions,andprotectionforteethagainstacidinfoods.
Onetypeofsecretorycells,serouscells,produceafluidthatcontainsadigestiveenzyme,
salivaryamylase.Thesurfaceofthetongueiscoveredbypapillae,providingfrictionforthe
handlingoffood.Tastebudsarescatteredintheroofofthemouth,theliningsofthecheeks,
andthewallsofthepharynx.Thewayweexperienceflavorsmirrorstheconcentrationof
chemicalsaswellasthesensationofsmell,texture,andtemperature.Ourteethplayarolein
thefirstpartofthedigestionprocessbybreakingupfoodgivingthedigestiveenzymesmore
effectiveinteractionwithnutrientmolecules.Thevariousshapesoftheteethhandlefoodin
differentprocesses.Incisorsbiteofffood,aninesholdandtearfood,andthepremolarsand
molarsgrindfood.Eachtoothhasamainstructureconsistingofthecrownandtheroot.The
shiny,whiteenamel,madeupofcalciumsalts,coversthecrown.Dentinsurroundsthetooths
centralpulpcavitythatcontainsbloodvessels,nervesandconnectivetissue.Theteetharethe
hardeststructuresinthebody,andweremadethatwayforareason.Together,thesalivary
glands,tongue,andteethallworktogethertocompletethefirststepsofthedigestionprocess.

SalivaryGlands:
Figure.1

Figure2.
Howlongdoseittakesalivaryamylasetobreakdownstarchcrackers?
SalivaryAmylaseonStarchQualitativeData
SalivaWater
Start

24hr

48hr

Start

24hr

48hr

Purple
(Positive)

Lesspurple

Lesspurple

Purple
(Positive)

Purple

Purple

Figures1and2bothshowtheexperimentalandcontroltesttubetodeterminetheeffectof
amylaseonstarchcrackers,andthetimeittakestobreakdown.Thecontroltesttubehad
water,howevertheexperimentaltesttubehadsaliva.Thesaliva,whichproducessalivary
amylase,brokedownthestarchinthecracker,whilethecontroldidnothaveanysalivary
amylase,leadingtothecrackernotbeingbrokendown.Sincethecrackerisnotcompletely
brokendownevenintheexperimentaltesttube,therecouldhavebeentoomuchcrackerornot
enoughsaliva.

TasteBuds:
Istaste80%smell?
Figure3
FoodIdentificationQualitativeData
Food:

Placedontongue
(5sec)

Chew
(5sec)

Unplugnose&
chew(5sec)

#1

#2

#3

#4

#5

Figure3showsthetimeittooktoidentifyfivedifferentfoodswithnoaidfromsightorsmell,
unlessthefoodwasundetectableafter10seconds.Researchshowsthat80%oftasteissmell.
Thisexperimentshowedthatonlyonefoodcouldnotbedetermineduntilthenosewas
unplugged.Leadingtotheconclusionthattasteislessthan80%taste.

MammalTeethStructure
Masticationisthefirststepofthedigestionprocesscompletedbyteeth,alsoknownaschewing.
Figure4.Figure5.

Figure6.
Figures4,5,&6showteethfromvariousmammalssuchasajavelinaandhorse.Labeledare
thedifferenttypesofteeth,aswellastheinternalstructures.

PartIIEsophagusandStomach
Introduction
Theesophagusisamusculartubeconnectingthepharynxtothestomach.Atthetopofthe
esophagusistheupperesophagealsphincter,whichisusedwhenbreathing,eating,burping,
andvomiting.Attheendoftheesophagus,whereitmeetsthestomach,isthelower
esophagealsphincterunderinvoluntarycontroltoavoidstomachcontentsandacidfrommoving
backuptheesophagus.Whenperistalticwavesreachthestomach,thosemusclefibersthat
keeptheentranceclosedtemporarilyrelaxandallowfoodtoenter.Mucousglandsarelocated
throughoutthesubmucosaoftheesophagus,moisteningtheinnerlining.Anyfoodintakebuild
upinthestomachbeforebeingdigestedthroughtheintestines,andultimatelyouttherectum.
Thestomachisfoundintheupperleftportionoftheabdominalcavity.Theinteriorofthe
stomachincludesthickfoldscalledrugae.Whenthestomachreceivesfood,itmixesitwith
gastricjuice,digestsproteins,andmovesfoodintothesmallintestine.Thestomachcanhave
threelayersofmusclefibersincludingcircular,oblique,andlongitudinalfibers.Theadditional
layerofobliquefibersstrengthenthestomachwallandthemixingandchurning.Differentareas
ofthestomachincludethecardia,fundus,body,andpylorus.Gastricglandslocatedinsidethe
stomachcontainthreetypesofsecretorycells,includingthemucous,chief,andparietalcells.
Digestiveenzymesaresecretedbychiefcells,andparietalcellsreleaseasolutioncontaining
hydrochloricacid.Together,theseproductsformgastricjuice.Pepsin,themostimportant
digestiveenzyme,formedbypepsinogenandhydrochloricacidcontactandbreakdown.Pepsin
beginsthedigestionofalltypesofdietaryproteinintopolypeptides.Gastricjuiceisproduced
continuously,buttherateiscontrolledbothneurallyandhormonally.Theesophagus,stomach,
andgastricjuicesworktogethertofurtherdigestfood,andsenditontothesmallintestine.

ProteinDigestion

Figure7.


HowlongdoesHydrochloricAcid(HCL)andenzyme,Pepsin,taketobreakdownprotein?
Figure8.
ProteinDegradationQualitativeData

Control

Experimental

Day0

Nocolorchangenosignsof
degradation

PepsinworkswithHCLto
breakdownproteinprotein
wasgone

Day1

Nocolorchangeslight
degradation

Proteingonesolutioninside
stillclear

Day6

Proteingonesolutioninside Proteingonesolutioninside
becomingunclearandcloudy stillclear

Figure7and8showtheprocedureandresultsofanexperimenttodetermineproteindigestion.
Boththecontrolandexperimentaltesttubeshadasmallsliverofaneggwhitecountingasthe
protein,20dropsoftheenzymepepsin,and20dropsofwater.Theexperimentaltesttubealso
includes10dropsofhydrochloricacid.Theexperimentwastoseehowhydrochloricacid(HCL)
workswithPepsintobreakdowntheprotein.IhypothesizedthattheHCLwouldbreakdownthe
proteinquickerthanthatofthetesttubewithoutHCL.Afterjustoneday,theeggwhite/protein
hadbeenbrokendownandwasnolongervisible.IttookthetubewithoutHCLsixdaystobreak
downtheprotein.TheHCLwasveryacidicsoproperprotectiveequipment,likegloves,apron,
andgoggleswerewornatalltimes.

CatEsophagusandStomach

Figures910definevariouspartsofthestomachandliverofacat.

PartIIISmallandLargeIntestines

Introduction:
Thepancreas,liver,andgallbladderareaccessoryorganstothedigestivetract.Thepancreatic
ductconnectswiththeduodenumatthesameplacewherethebileductfromtheliverand
gallbladderjoinstheduodenum.Pancreaticjuicecontainsenzymesthatdigestcarbohydrates,
fats,proteins,andnucleicacids.Thefourmaingastrointestinalhormonesincludegastrin,
secretin,cholecytokinin,andgastricinhibitorypeptide.Thesearestoredintheendocrinecells
throughoutthemucosaofthestomachandsmallintestine.Gastrointestinalactivityand
stimulationcauseshormonereleaseintothebloodstream.Thehormonesthenpassthroughthe
liver,totheheart,andbacktothedigestivesystem.Whengastrinisreleaseditstimulates
parietalcellsthatsecretehydrochloricacid.Whenacidicchymeenterstheduodenum,apeptide
hormone,secretin,stimulatesthepancreastosecretemassfluid.Cholecytokininactivation
resultsinthereleaseofgallbladderbile,andpancreaticdigestiveenzymesfromthepancreas.
Gastricinhibitorypeptide(GIP),thelastoffourhormones,decreasesmotorandsecretory
activityofthestomach.Secretionsfromthepancreasandliveraresenttothesmallintestine.
Thesmallintestinemixesfoodwithbileandpancreaticjuice,carriesoutfinalenzymatic
breakdownoffood,andabsorbsnutrients.Theduodenum,jejunum,andileummakeupthe
5.56meterlongintestine.Theremainingresidueisthentransportedtothelargeintestine.
Remainingwaterandelectrolytesareabsorbedbythelargeintestine.Thecolonhasfourparts
includingtheascending,transverse,descending,andsigmoidcolon.Attheendofthecolonis
therectumwhichleadsintotheanalcanalandistheendofthelargeintestine.

Figures1112definevariouspartsofthesmallandlargeintestineofacat.

Howdovarioushormonesaffectthegastrointestinaltract?
Figure13
ExperimentalData

Control

Unknowns

Dropsoffluidfromsalivaryduct

10

10

10

70

12

pHofthestomach

1.9

1.81

Dropsoffluidfromthepancreatic
duct

77

30

9.5

pHoffluidfromamainpancreatic
duct

7.2

10

7.6

7.2

Dropsoffluidfromcommonbile
duct

64

2.3

2.4

2.4

Motilityofstomach,#of
contractions

3.6

15

3.4

1.0

Motilityofsmallintestine,#of
contractions

15

17

18

30

17

13

Bloodglucoselevel,mg/dl

100

101

100

104

102

60

Strengthofcontraction,mmHg

10

12

12

50

12

Figure13displaysthecontrolsandresultsofexperimentaldataretrievedfromprocedures
involvingthecollectionoffluidsecretedfromglands,determiningpH,andcontentoffluids.

Figure14
ExperimentalData

Unknowns

Dropsoffluidfromsalivaryduct

pHofstomach

Dropsoffluidfrompancreaticduct

pHoffluidfrommainpancreaticduct

Dropsoffluidfromcommonbileduct

Motilityofstomach

Motilityofsmallintestine

Bloodglucoselevel

Strengthofcontraction

Figure14.Comparisonoftheeffectsoftheunknownagentsonthevariousbodilyfunctionsfrom
eachoffivemalerats.

Figure15

UnknownAgent

CCK

Secretin

Acetylcholine(ACh)

Gastrin

GIP

Figure15.Resultsfromusingfigure14tocorrelatewhichfunctionswereaffectedtodetermine
whichagentwasinjected.

Conclusion
Digestionbeginswithfoodenteringtheoralcavity.Thesalivaproducedbytheserous
cellscontainssalivaryamylasewhichisadigestiveenzyme.Thisenzymetakespartinthe
chemicaldigestionofstarchandothercarbohydrates.Thisissupportedinfigures1and2.Next,
thetongueidentifiesthefoodwhichmaysendsignalstoproducemoresalivaortospitthefood
out.Tastebudsarescatteredintheroofofthemouth,theliningsofthecheeks,andthewallsof
thepharynx.Thewayweexperienceflavorsmirrorstheconcentrationofchemicalsaswellas
thesensationofsmell,texture,andtemperature.Datainfigure3showsthatthesenseofsmell
wasnotcrucialintheidentificationofcertainfoods,buttheuseofteethandtonguedid.Once
foodisinthemouth,andcertainlyreadytobeeaten,theteethworktocrush,grind,andtear
apartthefood.Thefoodthentravelsdowntheesophagusintothestomachwherethereare
gastricjuicestofullydigestthefood.Figures7and8showedthatpepsin,anenzymesecreted
inthestomach,andhydrochloricacidworktogethertobreakdownproteinsintoaminoacids.
Oncefoodisdigestedinthestomachitispushedthroughthepyloricsphincterintothesmall
intestine.Theimportanceofthebalanceofgastrointestinalhormonesbeginsinthepancreas.
Figures1315supportthatinjectionsofvarioushormonesaffectthebalanceofnormalGI
functions.Figure14specificallyshowsthatCholecytokinincauseddropsoffluidfromthe
pancreaticandcommonbileducttoincrease.SecretininjectionscauseddropsandpHoffluid

fromthepancreaticducttoincrease.Acetylcholinecauseddropsoffluidfromthesalivaryduct
toincreaseandpHofstomachtodecrease.GastrincausedstomachpHtodecrease.Lastly,
GIPcausedadecreaseinglucoselevelandlessmotilityofthestomachascomparedtothe
controlscollected.Thedigestivesystemismadeupofmanypartswhichareallnecessaryto
intake,andbreakdownfood,gainnutrients,andexcretethebodyofwaste,inturn,keeping
homeostasis.

Figure1315dataretrievedfromVolume21:Number1AdvancesinphysiologyeducationJune1999
Alllabeledphotostakenbystudent.