LESSON

Soil
Guiding Question: What is soil?

Explain three processes by which soil forms.

Describe the horizons that make up a soil profile.
List the four characteristics used to classify soil.

Reading Strategy Before you read, create an outline using

the dark blue, green, and light blue headings in this lesson. As
you read, fill in key phrases about each heading.
Vocabulary soil, parent material, bedrock, weathering,
soil horizon, soil profile, clay, silt, sand, loam

12.1 LESSON PLAN PREVIEW

Real World Students relate

concepts of weathering to their
local environment.
Inquiry Students make a
simple model of soil horizons.
Differentiated Instruction
Less proficient readers create a
tool to help them learn about
soil characteristics.

12.1 RESOURCES
Scientific Method Lab, Testing Soil
Properties Lesson 12.1 Worksheets
Lesson 12.1 Assessment Chapter 12
Overview Presentation

We use about 38 percent of Earths land surface for agriculture.

Our lives depend on agriculturewe must grow most of our food and
fiber. And agriculture depends on fertile soil. But what, exactly, is soil?
You might think of soil as an inconvenienceas dirt that you wash off
your body and clothes. But soil is much more than dirt. It is a complex,
life-filled, life-giving substance. Healthy soil is essential for agriculture,
forestry, the cycles of matter, and the flow of energy that keep Earths
ecosystems running. Some soil microorganisms even provide us with
medicines, such as antibiotics. Soil is a complex plant-supporting system
made up of disintegrated rock, remains and wastes of organisms, water,
gases, nutrients, and microorganisms. Figure 1 describes several factors in involved in soil formation. Soil is a renewable resource; once its
nutrients are used up, it can renew itself over time. But it may take a very
long timehundreds or thousands of years for just one inch of topsoil to
form. So if we deplete soil by using up all its nutrients, we ruin it not just
for ourselves but for generations to come.
Factors That Influence Soil Formation

GUIDING QUESTION

Factor

Effects

FOCUS Show students a small jar

or plastic bag that contains garden
soil or potting soil. Tell students that
many people think of this substance
as dirt, a material with little or no
value. Explain that what you are
holding is soil, and it is one of Earths
most valuable resources.

Climate

Soil forms faster in warm, wet climates. Heat speeds chemical

reactions, weathering, decomposition, and growth of
organisms. Moisture is required for many biological processes
so it speeds weathering.

Organisms

Earthworms and other burrowing animals mix and aerate soil,

add organic matter, and speed decomposition. Plants add
organic matter and affect a soils composition and structure.

Landforms

Hills and valleys affect exposure to sun, wind, and water. Steeper
slopes promote runoff and erosion; they also slow leaching,
accumulation of organic matter, and formation of soil layers.

Parent
material

Chemical and physical attributes of parent material influence

properties of the soil formed from it.

Time

Soil formation takes decades, centuries, or millennia.

Figure 1 Influences on Soil

Formation Soil formation processes

are influenced by outside factors such
as climate, organisms, landforms,
parent material, and time.

352 Lesson 1

Adapted from Jenny, H. 1941. Factors of soil formation: A system of quantitative pedology. New York:
McGraw-Hill, Inc. Reprinted 1994 by Dover Publications, Mineola, New York.

Soil Formation
Soil is a complex substance that forms through weathering,
deposition, and decomposition.
We often overlook the complexity of soil. Though soil is mostly broken
rocks, water, and air, soil also contains a great deal of life (Figure 2). Soil
consists of roughly 45 percent mineral matter and 5 percent organic (living or once-living) matter. Water and air in the spaces, or pores, between
soil particles make up the other 50 percent. The mineral matter in soil is
made up of tiny particles of rock. The organic matter includes decomposing organisms as well as living microorganisms. You might be surprised
to find that one teaspoon of soil can contain millions of bacteria and
thousands of fungi, algae, and protists! Soil also provides a habitat for
larger animals, including hundreds of thousands of invertebrate species,
amphibians, reptiles, and burrowing mammals.
As you recall, the formation of soil
plays a key role in primary succession, which begins when the parent material in an area is exposed.
Parent material is the base geological
Litter
material in a particular location. It
layer
can be lava or volcanic ash; rock or
Snail
sediment deposited by glaciers; sand
dunes; sediments deposited by rivers,
in lakes, or in the ocean; or bedrock.
Bedrock is the continuous mass of
solid rock that makes up Earths crust.
Sowbug
After parent material is exposed to
the air, the processes that form most
soils are weathering, deposition, and
the decomposition of organic matter.
Reading
Checkpoint

L ist five different types

of parent material.

Topsoil

ANSWERS

Reading Checkpoint Any five of the

following: lava, volcanic ash, rock or
sediment deposited by glaciers, sand
dunes, sediments deposited by bodies of water, bedrock

Slug

Cicada
nymph

Mole

Soil
fungi
Earthworm

Beetle grub

Mite

Figure 2 Soil Complexity Soil is a

complex mixture of abiotic and biotic
components, including many organisms
whose actions help keep it fertile. Most
soil organisms, from bacteria to fungi
to insects to earthworms, decompose
organic matter. Many, such as moles and
earthworms, help to aerate the soil. Entire
ecosystems exist in soil.

Protists

Subsoil
Bacteria

Soil and Agriculture 353

Weathering The first process in soil formation is often weathering.

Weathering describes the physical and chemical processes that break
down rocks and minerals into smaller particles.

Anything that touches a rock can cause physical weathering, which is the natural breakup of rock without a chemical
change. Wind and rain are two main causes of physical weathering. Daily
and seasonal temperatures also contribute to physical weathering, since
parent material and rocks weaken as they repeatedly expand with heat
and contract with cold. For this reason, areas with extreme temperature
fluctuations undergo rapid physical weathering. Water that freezes and
expands in cracks in rocks also causes physical weathering. Living things,
such as a tree whose roots break up rocks as they grow, also add to physical weathering.

Physical Weathering

When water and other substances chemically

break down parent material and rocks, transforming them into different
materials, chemical weathering is occurring. Living and once-living things
also cause chemical weathering with chemical products of their life processes and decomposition, such as water and carbon dioxide. Warm, wet
conditions increase chemical weathering.

Chemical Weathering

Deposition Erosion is often viewed as a destructive process. But it

frequently plays a part in soil formation. Erosion may help form soil in
one area by depositing material eroded from another. Deposition, as you
recall, is the drop-off of eroded material at a new location. You will read
more about soil erosion and deposition later in this chapter.

Decomposition The activities of living thingsand the decomposi-

Figure 3 Humus You can tell a lot

about a soils fertility just by looking at
it. Very dark soil has a high proportion
of humus, so it is very fertile.

354 Lesson 1

tion of formerly living thingsalso help form soil. As plants, animals,

and microorganisms deposit waste or die and decompose, nutrients are
incorporated into the soil. Deciduous trees, for example, drop their leaves
each fall. These dead leaves and other vegetation make up leaf litter. Leaf
litter is broken down by decomposers and detritivores, and its nutrients
become part of the soil. Partially decomposed organic matter is known
as humus, a dark, spongy, crumbly mass of material made up of complex organic compounds. Soils with high humus content, such as that in
Figure 3, hold moisture well and contain many plant nutrients.

Soil Horizons
A soil profile consists of layers known as
horizons.

O Horizon
Litter layer

As soon as soil begins to form, wind, water, and

organisms move the particles. Eventually, the soil
is sorted into distinct layers, or soil horizons.
A cross-section of all the soil horizons in a
specific soil, from surface to bedrock, is known
as a soil profile.
The simplest way to categorize soil horizons is
by the A, B, and C horizons, which correspond to
topsoil, subsoil, and weathered parent material,
respectively. However, soil scientists often subdivide those layers. The six major soil horizons are
the O, A, E, B, C, and R horizons (Figure 4). Soils
from different locations vary, and few soil profiles
contain all six of these horizons, but every soil
contains at least some of them.

A Horizon
Topsoil

E Horizon
Leaching Layer

B Horizon
Subsoil

C Horizon
Weathered
parent material
R Horizon
Parent material

Topsoil A crucial horizon for agriculture and

ecosystems is the A horizon, or topsoil. Topsoil

consists mostly of mineral particles such as
weathered parent material mixed with organic
matter and humus from the O horizon. Topsoil
is the horizon that has the most plant nutrients
available. Its loose texture, dark color, and ability
to hold water come from its humus content. The
O horizon, or litter layer, and the A horizon are
home to most of the countless organisms that
give life to soil. For all its vitality, topsoil is fragile.
Agriculture practiced carelessly can deplete the
nutrients in topsoil or erode it, as you will read in
the next lesson.

Figure 4 Soil Horizons Mature soil consists of horizons

that have different compositions and characteristics. The
surface layer is the O horizon, or litter layer, which consists
mostly of organic matter, such as dead leaves. Below it lies the
A horizon, or topsoil, which consists of organic matter mixed
with minerals. Minerals and organic matter tend to leach out
of the E horizon down into the B horizon, or subsoil, where
they accumulate. The C horizon consists largely of weathered
parent material unaltered or only slightly altered by the
processes of soil formation. The C horizon may overlie an
R horizon of parent material.

Lower Horizons Generally, as one moves downward through a soil

profile, the particle size increases and the concentration of organic matter
decreases. Minerals are generally transported downward as a result of
leaching, the process whereby solid particles suspended or dissolved in
liquid are transported to another location. Soil that undergoes leaching is
a bit like the coffee grounds in a filter. When it rains, water filters through
the soil, dissolves some soil components, and carries them downward
into the lower horizons. Minerals commonly leached from the E horizon
include iron, aluminum, and silicate clay. In some soils, minerals may be
leached so rapidly that plants are deprived of nutrients. Substances that
leach from soils may be carried into groundwater, and some can pose
threats to human health.
Reading
Checkpoint

I n which horizon would you expect to find soil like that in

Figure 3?

ANSWERS

Reading Checkpoint The A horizon, or topsoil

Soil and Agriculture 355

Soils can be classified by their color, texture, structure, and pH.

Classifying Soil
safety6 gloves,
7 8
1 While
2 3wearing
4 5

The six horizons presented on the previous page make up a common soil
profile, but soils display great variety. The characteristics of a regions soil
can have as much influence on the regions ecosystems as do the climate,
latitude, and elevation. U.S. soil scientists classify soils into 12 major
groups, based largely on the processes that form the soils. Scientists
further classify soils using properties such as color, texture, structure,
and pH.

Color The color of a soil reveals details about its composition and fertility. Dark soils are usually rich in humus and therefore nutrients, whereas
pale soils often have less humus and nutrients. Long before scientific tests
of soil content were developed, farmers and ranchers often used the color
of topsoil as an indicator of a soils fertility.

Texture Soil texture is based on particle size (Figure 5). Clay consists

of particles less than 0.002 millimeter in diameter, silt consists of particles

0.002 to 0.05 millimeter in diameter, and sand consists mostly of particles
0.05 to 2 millimeters in diameter. Sand particles are large enough to see
individually and do not adhere to one another. Clay particles, in contrast,
adhere easily to one another. Most soils are a combination of clay, silt,
and sand. Soil with a relatively even mixture of the three particle sizes is
known as loam.

Figure 5 Classifying Soil Texture Scientists use this triangular diagram to

classify soil texture. After determining the percentages of sand, silt, and clay
particles in a soil sample, you can trace a line inward from each side of the
triangle: horizontal for clay, diagonally downward for silt, and diagonally upward
to the left for sand. The intersection of the lines reveals the soil texture.
100 0
90

20

70

ANSWERS

30
Clay

60
Sandy
clay

30

Clay loam

Sandy
clay loam

20

Loam
Sandy loam

10

Loamy
0 Sand sand

100

356 Lesson 1

90

80

Silty
clay loam

Clay
(less than 0.002 mm
diameter)

lt

Silty 50
clay

50

40

40

si
nt
rce
Pe

Go Outside For Questions 14,

answers will vary, but should be
consistent with students soil samples
and the content in the text.

Sand
(0.05 2 mm
diameter)

10

80

lay

collect a small handful of soil

from an area chosen by your
teacher.
6 7 the
8 9
2 Close
3 4your5fist around
soil as tightly as you can. Put
the clump on a sheet of white
paper. Observe the speed at
which the clump falls apart.
6 of
7 two8 pen9
3 Using
4 5the tips
cils, separate some of the soil
into groups of similar-sized
particles.
Analyze and Conclude
1. Observe Describe the color of
the soil.
2. Classify Based on particle sizes
in your sample, describe the
relative amounts of clay, silt,
and sand. Which is most common? Would you describe your
sample as loam?
3. Classify Given the behavior
of the soil after you released it,
describe its structure. (Hint:
How clumpy was it?)
4. Predict How do you think
a farmer would describe the
soils workability? Support your
answer with your observations.

Pe
rce
nt
c

Soil Characteristics

Go Outside

60

70
80

Silt loam
Silt

70

60 50 40
Percent sand

30

20

10

90
0

Silt
(0.002 0.05 mm
diameter)
100

Soil texture influences a soils workabilityessentially, how easy it is to

plant in and harvest from. Soil texture also indicates how porous a soil is,
or the size of the spaces between its particles. In general, the finer the particles, the smaller the spaces and the harder it is for water and air to travel
through the soil to roots and soil-nourishing microorganisms. Clay has
the finest particles, so it is the least porous soil. Sandy soils are the most
porous. Silty soils with medium-sized pores, or loamy soils with a mixture
of pore sizes, are generally best for plant growth.
Reading
Checkpoint

 sing Figure 5, classify the texture of a soil that is 40 percent

U
sand, 40 percent silt, and 20 percent clay.

Structure Soil structure describes the arrangement of soil particles.

You can see it in the clumpiness of soil. Clumpy soil may have a great
deal of humus, indicating that the soil is rich in nutrients and able to hold
water. However, soil clumps that become too large or densely compacted,
from heavy equipment (Figure 6) or grazing cattle, for example, can prevent plant roots from growing.

pH A soils acidity or alkalinity affects its ability to support plant growth.

Different plants require different pH levels, and plants die in soils that are
too acidic or alkaline for them. Soil pH varies naturally, but acid precipitation and the subsequent leaching of minerals from the soil can also affect
the pH of soil. Few plants can grow in extremely acidic or alkaline soil.

ANSWERS

Reading Checkpoint Loam

Lesson 1 Assessment
1. Weathering, the physical and
chemical processes that break
down rocks and minerals; deposition, the depositing of soil eroded
from other areas; decomposition,
the breakdown of dead organisms
and wastes
2. A cross-section of all soil horizons
in a specific soil; the A horizon is
topsoil, B is subsoil, and C is weathered parent material.
3. Color indicates the amount of
organic matter in soil; texture
indicates a soils workability and
porosity; structure indicates the
arrangement of soil particles and
how easily roots can penetrate;
pH determines which plants can
survivevery few survive if the pH
is very low or very high.
4. The soil coffee would consist of
water and soil components such
as minerals, nutrients, and other
substances dissolved by water.

Figure 6 Compacted Soil Clumpy

soil with a great deal of humus is good
for most plants. However, clumpy soil
can easily become compactedby
heavy machinery, as in this photo, or
by animals. Compacted soil may be too
dense for plants to grow in.

1
1. Explain Describe three major processes that contribute to the formation of most soils.
2. Review What is a soil profile? Describe the A, B,
and C horizons.
3. Classify What do each of the four characteristics of
soil indicate about its ability to support plant life?

4.

Recall the analogy

between soil and coffee grounds in the section
called Lower Horizons. In this analogy, what do
you think the soil coffee consists of?

Soil and Agriculture 357