Tapinoma Melanocephalum (Ghost Ant)

5/13/2016
Tapinomamelanocephalum(ghostant)
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08January2016
SummaryofInvasiveness
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Description
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DatasheetType(s)
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NaturalEnemy
DistributionTable
PreferredScientificName
HistoryofIntroductionandSpread
Tapinomamelanocephalum
Introductions
RiskofIntroduction
Habitat
Moreinformation
PreferredCommonName
ghostant
HabitatList
TaxonomicTree
Hosts/SpeciesAffected
Domain:Eukaryota
Kingdom:Metazoa
Phylum:Arthropoda
Subphylum:Uniramia
Class:Insecta
HostPlants/PlantsAffected
GrowthStages
Symptoms
SymptomsList
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BiologyandEcology
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ImpactSummary
EconomicImpact
EnvironmentalImpact
T.melanocephalumisasmallant
speciesaround1.5mminlength
originatingfromtheOldWorld
tropics.Itisconsideredaninvasive
andtrampantspecies:widely
associatedwithhumans,ithasbeen
movedaroundthesubtropicaland
tropicalwor...
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More...
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http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/54310
1/18
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Pictures
Picture
Topofpage
Title
Caption
Copyright
Adults
TapinomamelanocephalumadultantsonflowerpetalsinFiji.
PhilipJ.Lester
Adult
TapinomamelanocephalumcloseupofadultonflowerpetalsinFiji.
PhilipJ.Lester
Identity
Topofpage
PreferredScientificName
Tapinomamelanocephalum(Fabricius,1793)
PreferredCommonName
ghostant
OtherScientificNames
FormicafamiliarisF.Smith1860
FormicamelanocephalumFabricius1793
FormicananaJerdon
Myrmica(Monomorium)pellucidaF.Smith1857
Tapinomamelanocephalumvar.australeSantschi1928
Tapinomamelanocephalumvar.australisSantschi1928
InternationalCommonNames
English:trampant
LocalCommonNames
Cuba:hormigabottegaria
Japan:awatekonukaari
PuertoRico:albaricoque
USA:blackheadedanthouseinfestinganttinyyellowhouseant
EPPOcode
TAPIME(Tapinomamelanocephalum)
Topofpage
T.melanocephalumisasmallantspeciesaround1.5mminlengthoriginatingfromtheOldWorldtropics.Itisconsideredaninvasiveand
trampantspecies:widelyassociatedwithhumans,ithasbeenmovedaroundthesubtropicalandtropicalworldbyhumanactivity.Thisantis
alsorecordedinheatedbuildingsinareassuchasCanadaandFinland.Itisprimarilyahouseholdpest,nestinginhousingandconsuming
householdfood.InareassuchasFloridaitisconsideredoneofthemostimportanthouseinfestingpests.Howeverithasbeenknowntoaffect
agriculturalproductioninsituationssuchasgreenhouses,especiallyifittendshoneydewproducinginsectsandprotectsthesepestsfrom
biologicalcontrolorganisms.T.melanocephalumisthoughttobecapableoftransportingpathogenicmicrobesandisoftenabundantin
hospitals.Somepeoplecansufferaslight,redirritationoftheskinfollowingcontactwiththisant.ThisantislistedontheISSGglobalinvasive
speciesdatabase.
TaxonomicTree
Topofpage
Domain:Eukaryota
Kingdom:Metazoa
Phylum:Arthropoda
Subphylum:Uniramia
Class:Insecta
Order:Hymenoptera
Family:Formicidae
Genus:Tapinoma
Species:Tapinomamelanocephalum
NotesonTaxonomyandNomenclature
Topofpage
ThisantwasoriginallydescribedasFormicamelanocephalumbyFabriciusin1793.Thisnamewaschangedin1857toMyrmicapellucidaafter
F.SmithwasgivencollectionsfromAsiabythefamousA.R.WallaceSmithgavethesameantasecondgenusandspeciesnameofFormica
familiarisin1860.AroundthistimeitwasalsogiventhenameFormicananabyT.C.JerdonaftercollectingitinsouthernIndia.Thereare63
antspeciesinthegenusTapinoma.TheonlyothersignificantandrelativelywidespreadpestspeciesamongsttheseisTapinomasessile(Say)
ortheodoroushouseant.
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5/13/2016
SomeauthorshaveconsideredvarietiesorsubspeciesofT.melanocephalumtoexist.Twoearlyattemptsatdescribingvarietieswere
Tapinoma(Micromyrma)melanocephalumvar.australeSantschiandTapinoma(Micromyrma)melanocephalumvar.australisSantschi,but
thesehavebeensubsequentlyconsideredinvalidnames.CurrentpossiblesubspeciesnamesoccasionallyusedareTapinoma
melanocephalumvar.coronatumForel,andTapinomamelanocephalumvar.malesianumForel.Itremainstobedeterminedhowappropriate
thesesubspeciesdesignationsareopinionsvarysubstantiallyamongsttaxonomists.
Description
Topofpage
AgeneraldescriptionsuitableforquarantinepurposesisgivenbyHarrisetal.(2005),andissummarizedhere.
Asopposedtootherinvasiveants,T.melanocephalumismonomorphicwithanaveragetotallengtharound1.5mm,rangingbetween1.3and
1.9mm.Itisdistinctivelybicoloured(seepictures).Thehead(includingantennae,exceptforfirst2segments),andsidesofalitrunk(orupper
thorax)areblackishbrownwhilethedorsalalitrunk(lowerthorax)andlegsareapaleyellow.Thegaster(abdomen)ismostlypale,sometimes
withbrownpatches.
Amoretechnicaldescriptionsuitableforquarantinepurposesisasfollows.Antennaeare12segmented.Firstantennalsegment(scape)is
long,surpassingtheposteriorborderofhead.Eyesarelarge,with910ommatidiainthelongestrow.Mandibleseachhave3largeteethand
about7smalldenticles,withthemandiblesurfacecontainingtheteethandthatneartheclypeusroundinggraduallyintooneanother(basal
angleabsent).Theclypeusiswithoutlongitudinalcarinaewiththeanteriormarginslightlyconcaveinthealitrunkinprofileandalmostsmoothly
convex,butwithaslightmetanotaldepression.Thepropodeumiswithoutspinestheuppersurfaceisshorterthantherearsurface.One
rudimentarynode(petiole)ispresent,whichlacksadistinctforwardfaceandispartiallyorcompletelyconcealedwhenviewedfromaboveby
forwardprojectionofthefirstsegmentofthegaster.Thegasterhasfoursegmentsonitsuppersurface.Thereisadensefinepubescenceall
overtheant,witherectsetaeonclypeusandgastralapexonly.Stingerandacidoporeareabsent.
Distribution
Topofpage
ThenativerangeofT.melanocephalumisgenerallythoughttobetheOldWorldtropics(Deyrupetal.,2000).However,ithasbeenspreadby
humanssowidelythatitisunclearifitsnativerangeisAfricaorAsia(WilsonandTaylor,1967).Molecularphylogeniesneedtobeconstructed
toaidintheestimationofitsnativerange.Itisaprominenttrampspeciesthathasbecomewidelydistributedinthetropicalandsubtropical
zonesoftheworld,uptoabout28Nand23S,andisoftenincloseassociationwithhumansettlement.Itisalsorecordedinanumberof
temperatelocationswhereitispresent(eithertemporarilyorpermanently)inheatedbuildings(e.g.,Germany(Steinbrink,1987),Canada
(Francoeur,1977),andFinland(Sorvari,2002)).Itwouldbeunlikelytosurviveoutsidethesebuildingsinthesecountries.
DistributionTable
Topofpage
Thedistributioninthissummarytableisbasedonalltheinformationavailable.Whenseveralreferencesarecited,theymaygiveconflicting
informationonthestatus.FurtherdetailsmaybeavailableforindividualreferencesintheDistributionTableDetailssectionwhichcanbe
selectedbygoingtoGenerateReport.
Country
Distribution
Last
Reported
Origin
First
Reported
Invasive
References
Notes
ASIA
Bangladesh
Present
Wetterer,2009
Cambodia
Present
Wetterer,2009
China
Present
Guizhou
Present
ChristmasIsland
(IndianOcean)
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
CocosIslands
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
India
Present
Wetterer,2009
Lokeshwarietal.,2015
IndianPunjab
Present
Bharti&Singh,2003
Indonesia
Present
Wetterer,2009
Iraq
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Japan
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Korea,DPR
Present
Introduced
ISSG,2012
Korea,Republicof
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Kuwait
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Introduced
1921
Wetterer,2009
Zhengetal.,2007
Malaysia
PeninsularMalaysia
Widespread
Invasive
Loke&Lee,2004
Myanmar
Present
Oman
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Pakistan
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Philippines
Widespread
OnPenangIslandinuniversity
dormitories
Wetterer,2009
Invasive
Wayetal.,1998
Presentinricefields
RussianFederation
Russia(Asia)
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
SaudiArabia
Present
Introduced
Collingwood&Agosti,
1996
Singapore
Widespread
SriLanka
Present
Invasive
Introduced
Lee&Kooi,2004
Householdandurbanpest
Wetterer,2009
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5/13/2016
Taiwan
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Thailand
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
UnitedArabEmirates
Present
Introduced
Vietnam
Present
Yemen
Present
Invasive
Collingwoodetal.,1997
Commoninhousesinseveraltowns
Wetterer,2009
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
AFRICA
Cameroon
Widespread
Invasive
Dejeanetal.,1994
CapeVerde
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Comoros
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
EquatorialGuinea
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Gabon
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Gambia
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Ghana
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Guinea
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Kenya
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Madagascar
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Mauritius
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Nigeria
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Runion
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
SaintHelena
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Seychelles
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
SierraLeone
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Somalia
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Tanzania
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Manitoba
Present,few
occurrences
Introduced
Ontario
Present
Introduced
Quebec
Localised
Introduced
Mexico
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
USA
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Florida
Widespread
Introduced
Invasive
Clouse,1999
Hawaii
Widespread
Introduced
Invasive
Clagg,1957
Kansas
Present
Introduced
Dubois&Danoffburg,1994
Texas
Present
Introduced
Cooketal.,1994
Presentinsecondaryrainforest
NORTHAMERICA
Canada
Not
invasive
Ayre,1977
Onlyindoors
Wetterer,2009
Not
invasive
Francoeur,1977
Recordsareonlyfromwithinheated
buildings
Inagriculture
CitedasunlikelytosurviveKansas
winters
CENTRALAMERICAANDCARIBBEAN
Anguilla
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
AntiguaandBarbuda
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Aruba
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Bahamas
Widespread
Introduced
Barbados
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Belize
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
CaymanIslands
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
CostaRica
Unconfirmed
record
Cuba
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Dominica
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
DominicanRepublic
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Guadeloupe
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Haiti
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Honduras
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Jamaica
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Martinique
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Nicaragua
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Panama
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
PuertoRico
Present
Introduced
Smith,1965
SaintKittsandNevis
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
SaintLucia
Present
Introduced
Invasive
Deyrup,1994
Wetterer,2009Shepard&
Gibson,1972
Invasive
Associatedwithrottencoconutsand
feedingoninsects
Wetterer,2009ISSG,2012
4/18
5/13/2016
SaintVincentandthe
Grenadines
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
TrinidadandTobago
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
UnitedStatesVirgin
Islands
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Bahia
Widespread
Introduced
Invasive
Delabieetal.,1995
Pestswithinhouses
MinasGerais
Widespread
Introduced
Invasive
Rodovalhoetal.,2007
Abacterialvectorwithinhospitals
RioGrandedoNorte
Present
Introduced
Invasive
Morinietal.,2007
SaoPaulo
Widespread
Introduced
Invasive
Fowleretal.,1990
Colombia
Present
Introduced
GalapagosIslands
Present
Introduced
Guyana
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Paraguay
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Peru
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Suriname
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Venezuela
Present
Introduced
GomezNunez,1971
Austria
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Belgium
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
CzechRepublic
Present
Denmark
Present
Introduced
Finland
Present
Introduced
France
Present
Introduced
Germany
Present
Introduced
Italy
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Netherlands
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Norway
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Romania
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Russia(Europe)
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Spain
Present
Introduced
Collingwood,1976
Sweden
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Switzerland
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
UK
Present
Introduced
VipinShahetal.,1999
Inbuildings
Widespread
Introduced
Vargo,2000
Presentinforestlitterbutdominated
byotherants
AustralianNorthern
Territory
Present
Introduced
Andersen&Reichel,1994
HolmesJungle,Tropicforest
NewSouthWales
Present
Introduced
Shattuck&Barnett,2001
Queensland
Present
Introduced
WesternAustralia
Present
Introduced
Burbidgeetal.,1992
CookIslands
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Fiji
Widespread
Introduced
Invasive
Ward&Wetterer,2006
FrenchPolynesia
Widespread
Introduced
Invasive
Wilson&Taylor,1967
Kiribati
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
MarshallIslands
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Micronesia,Federated
statesof
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
NewCaledonia
Widespread
Introduced
NewZealand
Present
NorthernMariana
Islands
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Palau
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
PapuaNewGuinea
Present
PitcairnIsland
Present
SOUTHAMERICA
Brazil
Associatedwithscaleinsectson
bananacrops
Wetterer,2009
Ecuador
Invasive
Aesch&Cherix,2005
Observedpreyingonadisease
spreadingbug
EUROPE
Klimes&Okrouhlk,2015
CeskBude?jovice
Wetterer,2009
Not
invasive
Sorvari,2002
Onlyobservedinheatedbuildings
Wetterer,2009
Not
invasive
Steinbrink,1987
Presentonlyinheatedbuildings
RussianFederation
OCEANIA
AmericanSamoa
Australia
Invasive
Invasive
Shattuck&Barnett,2001
Throughoutislands
Wilson&Taylor,1967
Peacock,2012Harriset
al.,2005
Wetterer,2009
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
5/18
5/13/2016
Samoa
Widespread
Introduced
Invasive
Wilson&Taylor,1967
Innativeforest,housesandbanana
plantations
SolomonIslands
Widespread
Introduced
BROWN,1959
Incoconutplantations
Tokelau
Widespread
Introduced
Invasive
Lester&Tavite,2004
Primarilyinandaroundhouses
Tonga
Widespread
Introduced
Invasive
Wilson&Taylor,1967
USMinorOutlying
Islands
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
Vanuatu
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
WallisandFutuna
Islands
Present
Introduced
Wetterer,2009
HistoryofIntroductionandSpread
Topofpage
T.melanocephalumisacommontrampspeciesfrequentlyinterceptedandspreadthroughtradeforwelloveracentury.Itspreadtomuchofits
introducedrangewellbeforepeoplestartingrecordingitsintroductionsorworryingaboutecologicalimpacts.Forexample,Mayr(1876)records
thisantinTongawhichiswelloutsideofitsassumedAfricanorOrientalorigin.
Introductions
Introduced
to
Introduced
from
Topofpage
Year
Reason
Introduced
by
Establishedinwildthrough
Natural
reproduction
Florida
Texas
Florida
References
Notes
Continuous
restocking
1930
Yes
Deyrupet
al.,2000
Unintentional
1994
Yes
Cooketal.,
1994
Unintentional.Probablyarrivedonashipmentof
plantsfromFlorida.
RiskofIntroduction
Topofpage
Allknownintroductionsofthisanthavebeenunintentional.BecauseofthesmallsizeofT.melanocephalumanditsabilitytonestinavarietyof
materials(e.g.,pottedplants,cutflowers,andluggage),itcaneasilybetransportedfromonelocationtoanother(Appeletal.,2004).Colonies
havebeenfoundinawidevarietyofsituations,includingcupboards,instrumentcaselining,andpilesofdiscardedclothing(Harada,1990),
meaningthattheantislikelytobeassociatedwithawidevarietyoffreighttypes.Detailedintroductionhistoryinformationisavailablefrom
areassuchasNewZealand(Harrisetal.,2005Lester,2005).T.melanocephalumwasinterceptedattheNewZealandborder51times
between1997andtheendof2002,andafurther36interceptionsattheborderbetweenJanuary2003andMarch2004.Interceptionsrange
fromfreshproducetoelectronicequipment.Themostprevalentpathwaysforthisantappeartobefreshproduce(53%)andpersonaleffects
(17%),withthePacific(75%),particularlyFijiandTonga,beingthepredominantoriginofinterceptionsintoNewZealand.Interceptionsfromair
freight(>39%)andassociatedwithairpassengers(>29%)areparticularlycommonforthisant(Harrisetal.,2005).
Habitat
Topofpage
T.melanocephalumappearsextremelyflexibleinthehabitatsitoccupies,althoughitoftenappearstoneedsomeformofdisturbancetosurvive
inthepresenceofbehaviourallydominantspecies.Itcommonlynestsintemporaryorunstablehabitatssuchasplantstemsorclumpsofdry
grass(Passera,1994).Ithasbeensamplednestingatgroundlevelandintrees.Inthecoolertemperateregionsitisonlyassociatedwith
greenhousesandheatedbuildings(Smith,1965Francoeur,1977).
T.melanocephalumappearstobeadisturbancespecialistandinmanylocationsisabsentfromundisturbednaturalhabitat(e.g.Fowleretal.,
1994Deyrupetal.,2000).Whereitdoesoccurinnaturalorseminaturaldisturbedvegetationorremnants,itappearstobeaminor
componentofthecommunityandisneverbehaviourallyornumericallydominant(e.g.AndersenandReichel,1994Dejeanetal.,1994Wayet
al.,1998Vargo,2000LesterandTavite,2004).
HabitatList
Topofpage
Category
Habitat
Presence
Status
Littoral
Coastalareas
Principalhabitat
Natural
Other
Storedproducts
Principalhabitat
Harmful(pestorinvasive)
Terrestrialmanaged
Buildings
Principalhabitat
Cultivated/agriculturalland
Principalhabitat
Disturbedareas
Principalhabitat
Industrial/intensivelivestockproductionsystems
Secondary/toleratedhabitat
Managedforests,plantationsandorchards
Principalhabitat
Protectedagriculture(e.g.glasshouseproduction)
Principalhabitat
Urban/periurbanareas
Principalhabitat
Naturalforests
Natural
Riverbanks
Natural
Rockyareas/lavaflows
Natural
Scrub/shrublands
Principalhabitat
Natural
Terrestrialnatural/seminatural
Hosts/SpeciesAffected
Topofpage
6/18
5/13/2016
ItisimportanttonotethatnoreportswerefoundofT.melanocephalumbeingconsideredasignificantpestofagricultureorhorticulture.In
cropsitisconsideredasecondarypest:ratherthanbeingapestitself,itcantendorfarmmealybug,scaleoraphidpopulations,protecting
thesepestsfromtheirnaturalenemies(Fowleretal.,1990Appeletal.,2004).Thisprotectioncanresultinlargeherbivorepopulations.Unlike
otherinvasiveants,however,theresultsofsuchtendingbehaviourintermsofeconomicdamagehavenotbeenquantified.T.melanocephalum
isalsoknowntoconsumesugaryfoodsinstorageandnectarfromplants.
HostPlants/PlantsAffected
Topofpage
Family
Plantname
Context
Arecaceae
Cocosnucifera(coconut)
Other
Musaceae
Musa(banana)
Other
Poaceae
Oryza(rice(genericlevel))
Other
Poaceae
Saccharum
Other
GrowthStages
Topofpage
Fruitingstage,Postharvest
Symptoms
Topofpage
IncropsT.melanocephalumisconsideredasecondarypest:ratherthanbeingapestitself,itcantendorfarmmealybug,scaleoraphid
populations,protectingthesepestsfromtheirnaturalenemies(Fowleretal.,1990Appeletal.,2004).Thisprotectioncanresultinlarge
herbivorepopulations.Thespecificeffectsandsymptomsoneachcroparedependentonthespecificmealybug,scaleoraphidspeciesbeing
tended.
SymptomsList
Sign
Topofpage
LifeStages
Type
Fruit
abnormalshape
discoloration
externalfeeding
honeydeworsootymould
lesions:blackorbrown
prematuredrop
Growingpoint
discoloration
distortion
externalfeeding
wilt
Leaves
abnormalcolours
abnormalleaffall
externalfeeding
fungalgrowth
leavesrolledorfolded
necroticareas
wilting
yellowedordead
Roots
externalfeeding
Stems
discolorationofbark
externalfeeding
Wholeplant
discoloration
earlysenescence
plantdeaddieback
wilt
7/18
5/13/2016
BiologyandEcology
Topofpage
ReproductiveBiology
T.melanocephalumhaspolygyne(multiplequeened)andunicolonial(separatebutcooperativelyinteractingnests)coloniesthatcanbuildup
largenumbers(Smith,1965).Nestsarefoundinthesoil,rottenwood,decayingpartsoftreesorunderbark,inplantcavities,houses,andin
greenhouses(Smith,1965).Intropicalenvironmentstheantswillprimarilynestoutdoors,insmallprotectedareas,forexample,inandunder
pottedplants,indeadtreelimbs,understones,inpalmfronds,andinorganicdebris(Appeletal.,2004).Individualnestsmaycontain1001000
individuals(Harada,1990)andhavenumerousreproductivefemales.Newcoloniesareprobablyformedbythemigrationofoneormore
reproductivefemalesaccompaniedbyanumberofworkers.NuptialflightshavenotbeenreportedforthisT.melanocephalum.Almostno
infightingbetweenmembersofdifferentcoloniesornestshasbeenobserved,atleastwhentheyoriginatefromthesamearea(Bustosand
Cherix,1998).ColoniesarealmostalwaysindisturbedareasandinandaroundbuildingsinFlorida(Deyrupetal.,2000).Theyoftenoccupy
temporaryhabitats(plantstems,clumpsofdriedgrass,debris)andreadilymigrateifdisturbedorifconditionsbecomeunfavourable(Passera,
1994).
MassurettideJesusandCorreaBueno(2007)haverecentlyexaminedthephenologyofT.melanocephaluminsomedetail.T.
melanocephalumhavefourlarvalinstarsfromegghatchingtoadult.Thedevelopmentofworkersfromeggtoadultlasted1652dayswiththe
embryonicdevelopmentlongerthanlarval,prepupalorpupalstages.Thehighesteggproductionwas5.3eggs/day/queen,whichisrelatively
slowcomparedtootherantspecies.However,duetothenumberofqueensinacolony,thecoloniesmaygrowsubstantiallyfasterthanother
trampantspecies.
Nutrition
Theantshaveanomnivorousdiettypicalofmanytrampandpestantspecies.InPuertoRico,Pimentel(1955)observedworkerantsdestroying
eggsandfirststagelarvaeofthehouseflyMuscadomestica.Otherarthropodsthattheyhavebeenobservedtoconsumearediamondback
mothlarvaeinIndia(ChelliahandSrinivasan,1986),adiseasespreadingbuginVenezuela(GomezNunez,1971),twospottedspidermites
(Tetranychusurticae)andaphidsinglasshousesinFlorida(Osborneetal.,1995),westernflowerthripsandEcinothripsamericanus(Osborne
etal.,1995),andfleaeggsandlarvae(TamsittandFox,1966).T.melanocephalumhasbeenfrequentlyobservedtotendhoneydewproducing
homopterans(Appeletal.,2004),includingrootscales(Smith,1955)andfruitscalesonbananas(Fowleretal.,1990).InCuba,theyareknown
todisperseagrassrootmealybugontherootsofsugarcane(Smith,1965).Althoughtheantsfeeduponmanydifferenthouseholdfoods,they
seemtoshowapreferenceforsweets,havingbeenobservedfeedingonsugar,cakes,andsyrup.Theyarethusconsideredanimportant
housepest(Smith,1955Klotzetal.,1995).
Associations
Asreportedabove,thereareavarietyofaphids,scaleandmealybuginsectstendedbyandassociatedwithT.melanocephalum.Shepardand
Gibson(1972)reportedanassociationbetweenT.melanocephalumandasalticidspider(Continusasp.)thatresemblestheant.Thespider
buildssilkenretreatsattheperipheryofnests,seemstoemigratewiththehost,andisprobablyasymbiont(ShepardandGibson,1972).The
spidersappeartoprovidetheantswithprotectionfrompredatorsandparasites,whiletheantnestisusedasafoundationforwebconstruction.
AnadditionalassociationhasrecentlybeenreportedbetweenthestateendangeredMiamibluebutterfly,Cyclargusthomasibethunebakeri
(Lepidoptera)andT.melanocephalum,wheretheantisoneofseveralspeciesobservedtendingthebutterflylarvae(SaarinenandDaniels,
2006).
EnvironmentalRequirements
VerylimitedinformationisavailablerelatingtoenvironmentalrequirementsandtemperaturetolerancesofT.melanocephalum.Appeletal.
(2004)investigatedlaboratorytolerancesofworkersmaintainedatarangeofhumiditesandtemperaturerangingfrom1545C.Lowmortality
ofT.melanocephalumwasobservedat15Cirrespectiveofthehumidity,buttheantwassensitivetodesiccationattemperaturesof25Cand
above.IntheUnitedStatestheyarefoundoutsideofbuildingstructuresonlyinsouthFlorida(belowaboutlatitude2912N),withpopulations
recordedinnorthernstatesonlyinglasshousesandotherhumanstructures(Thompson,1990Deyrupetal.,2000).InHawaii,T.
melanocephalumisrestrictedtothedrylowlands(<900m)(Reimer,1994).ClimatemodellingworkhasindicatedthatT.melanocephalum
couldonlybecomeestablishedintemperatecountriessuchasNewZealandwithinheatedbuildings,asrecordedinothertemperateclimates
(e.g.DuboisandDanoffburg,1994).
Climate
Topofpage
Climate
Status
Description
Remark
AfTropicalrainforestclimate
Preferred
>60mmprecipitationpermonth
AmTropicalmonsoonclimate
Preferred
Tropicalmonsoonclimate(<60mmprecipitationdriestmonthbut>(100[totalannual
precipitation(mm}/25]))
AsTropicalsavannaclimatewithdry
summer
Preferred
<60mmprecipitationdriestmonth(insummer)and<(100[totalannualprecipitation{mm}/25])
AwTropicalwetanddrysavanna
climate
Preferred
<60mmprecipitationdriestmonth(inwinter)and<(100[totalannualprecipitation{mm}/25])
CfWarmtemperateclimate,wetallyear
Preferred
Warmaveragetemp.>10C,Coldaveragetemp.>0C,wetallyear
CsWarmtemperateclimatewithdry
summer
Tolerated
Warmaveragetemp.>10C,Coldaveragetemp.>0C,drysummers
CwWarmtemperateclimatewithdry
winter
Tolerated
Warmtemperateclimatewithdrywinter(Warmaveragetemp.>10C,Coldaveragetemp.>0C,
drywinters)
AirTemperature
Topofpage
Parameter
Lowerlimit
Absoluteminimumtemperature(C)
13
Meanannualtemperature(C)
25.0
29.2
Meanmaximumtemperatureofhottestmonth(C)
30.5
33.2
Meanminimumtemperatureofcoldestmonth(C)
18.4
25.8
Upperlimit
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Rainfall
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Parameter
Lowerlimit
Upperlimit
Description
Dryseasonduration
12
numberofconsecutivemonthswith<40mmrainfall
Meanannualrainfall
17
4780
mmlower/upperlimits
PathwayCauses
Topofpage
Cause
Notes
Long
Distance
Local
References
Agriculture
MostfrequentlyobservedenteringNewZealandonfreshproduce,suchascoconuts
Yes
Yes
Harrisetal.,2005
Cutflowertrade
MayhavebeentransportedtoTexasoncutflowers
Yes
Yes
Cooketal.,1994
Disturbance
Colonieswillrelocateifdisturbed,andtheyareassociatedwithdisturbed
environments
Yes
Yes
Deyrupetal.,2000Passera,
1994
Food
MostfrequentlyobservedenteringNewZealandonfreshproducesuchascoconuts
Yes
Yes
Harrisetal.,2005
Forestry
Observedinforestenvironmentsthoughinlownumbers
Yes
Yes
Lester&Tavite,2004
Harvesting
fur/wool/hair
ObservedassociatedwithwoolexportsinNewZealand
Yes
Yes
Harrisetal.,2005
Hitchhiker
Inallthereportedinterceptions,itisassociatedasahitchhikerwithequipmentora
crop
Yes
Yes
Harrisetal.,2005
Horticulture
DuetotheassociationofT.melanocephalumwithpestsofhorticulture,horticulture
mustbeconside
Yes
Yes
Fowleretal.,1990
Nurserytrade
Duetoitstendencytonestinpottedplants,thesemustbeconsideredarisk
Yes
Yes
Appeletal.,2004
Selfpropelled
Theseantswillmigratebywalkingintonewareaslocally,especiallyifdisturbed
Yes
Passera,1994
Timbertrade
ObservedassociatedwithcuttimberimportsenteringNewZealand
Yes
Harrisetal.,2005
Yes
PathwayVectors
Topofpage
Vector
Notes
Long
Distance
Local
References
Aircraft
Observedwithproduceonaircraft
Yes
Yes
Harrisetal.,
2005
Bulkfreight/cargo
ObservedassociatedwithmetalcontainersandexportsintoNewZealand
Yes
Yes
Harrisetal.,
2005
Clothing/footwearandpossessions
ObservedassociatedinthepersonalluggageofpeopleenteringNew
Zealand
Yes
Yes
Containersandpackaging(non
wood)
ObservedassociatedwithmetalcontainersandexportsintoNewZealand
Yes
Yes
Harrisetal.,
2005
Hides/trophies/feathers
ObservedassociatedwithwoolexportsinNewZealand
Yes
Yes
Harrisetal.,
2005
Luggage(incl.sailorsseachests)
ObservedassociatedinthepersonalluggageofpeopleenteringNew
Zealand
Yes
Yes
Harrisetal.,
2005
Plantsorpartsofplants
T.melanocephalummayhavebeentransportedtoTexasoncutflowers
Yes
Yes
Cooketal.,1994
PlantTrade
Topofpage
Plantpartsliabletocarrythepestin
trade/transport
Peststages
Borne
internally
Bark
adultseggslarvae
pupae
Yes
Flowers,Inflorescences,Cones,Calyx
adults
No
Yes
Pestorsymptomsusuallyvisibletothenaked
eye
Fruits(inc.pods)
adults
No
Yes
eye
Growingmediumaccompanyingplants
adultseggslarvae
pupae
Yes
Leaves
adults
No
Yes
eye
Roots
adults
No
Yes
eye
Seedlings,Micropropagatedplants
adults
No
Yes
eye
Stems(aboveground),Shoots,Trunks,Branches
adults
No
Yes
eye
Trueseeds(inc.grain)
adultseggslarvae
pupae
Yes
Yes
eye
Wood
adultseggslarvae
pupae
Yes
Yes
eye
ImpactSummary
Borne
externally
Visibilityofpestorsymptoms
eye
eye
Topofpage
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Category
Impact
Cultural/amenity
Negative
Economic/livelihood
Positiveandnegative
Environment(generally)
Positiveandnegative
Humanhealth
Positiveandnegative
EconomicImpact
Topofpage
T.melanocephalumseconomicinfluenceisprimarilythroughitstendinghoneydewproducinghomopterans(Appeletal.,2004).These
homopteranassociationshaveincludedrootscales(Smith,1936citedinFowleretal.,1990)andfruitscalesonbananas(Fowleretal.,1990),
andagrassrootmealybugontherootsofsugarcane(Smith,1965).IntendingtheseinsectsT.melanocephalumprotectsthemfromnatural
enemiesandreceivesarewardofhoneydew.Largepestpopulationsmaydevelop.However,noworkhasbeenundertakentoquantifyits
economicimpactandnoreportshavebeenpublishedindicatingittobeasignificantpestofhorticulture.
Alternatively,T.melanocephalumhasaroleasapredatorofotherpestanddiseasespreadingspecies.Theseantshavebeenobserved
attackingdiamondbackmothlarvaeinIndia(ChelliahandSrinivasan,1986),preyingonadiseasespreadingbuginVenezuela(GomezNunez,
1971),destroyingeggsandlarvaeofhousefliesinPuertoRico(Pimental,1955),andconsumingtwospottedspidermites(Tetranychusurticae),
aphids,westernflowerthripsandEcinothripsamericanusinglasshousesinFlorida(Osborneetal.,1995).Again,however,noworkhasbeen
undertakentoquantifythepositiveeconomicbenefitsofthispredationofplantpests.
EnvironmentalImpact
Topofpage
PreviousreviewsofpestantsinNorthAmericaincludeT.melanocephalumasapestonlyinrelationtourbanareas(Smith,1965Thompson,
1990Deyrupetal.,2000).T.melanocephalumappearsbeconfinedtodisturbedhabitatandinmanylocationsisabsentfromundisturbed
naturalhabitatsuchasinFlorida(Deyrupetal.,2000)orBrazil(Fowleretal.,1994).Whereitdoesoccurinnaturalorseminaturaldisturbed
vegetationorremnantsitappearstobeaminorcomponentofthecommunityandisnevernumericallyorbehaviourallydominant.Forexample,
inTokelauitispresentinlowdensitiesinforestsbutisdominatedbyotherants(LesterandTavite,2004).
Inregardtoitsinfluenceonotherantspecies,T.melanocephalumhaspoorinterspecificcompetitiveabilitiesandisunlikelytodisplaceother
antspeciesinnaturalenvironments(AeschandCherix,2005).InSoPaulo,Brazil,bananaplantationswithT.melanocephalumhadfewer
otherantspeciesthanthosewithoutT.melanocephalum(Fowleretal.,1994).However,itwaslikelythatdifferentmanagementpractices
allowedT.melanocephalumtobecomeestablishedinsomeorchardsratherthanT.melanocephalumextirpatingotherants.T.
melanocephalumisarapidcoloniserandmaybenefitfromcontrolofotherinvasiveantspecies(Lee,2002).
AtleastonepositiveimpactofT.melanocephalumhasbeenobservedforbiodiversity.SaarinenandDaniels(2006)foundthatthisantisoneof
severalspeciestohavebeenassociatedwiththestateendangeredMiamibluebutterfly,Cyclargusthomasibethunebakeri(Lepidoptera).This
butterflyrequiresantstotendthelarvae.ThepresenceofT.melanocephalummayactuallybenefitCyclargusinthissituation.
SocialImpact
Topofpage
ThesocialimpactofT.melanocephalummaybethroughitsassociationwithfoodsupplies,orthroughhealtheffects.
T.melanocephalumhasbeenobservedasasignificanturbanpestcapableofinfestingresidentialkitchensandcommercialfoodoutletsinlarge
numbers(Lee,2002).Itcanenterbuildingsthroughscreensandsmallcracksandbeageneralannoyance(Deyrupetal.,2000).Inastudyof
theantcommunityinfestinghousesofsouthernBahia,Brazil,T.melanocephalumwasoneofthetwomostcommonantspeciesinfesting
houses(Delabieetal.,1995).ItwasalsooneofthethreecommonspeciesinsoutheasternBrazil(FowlerandBueno,1995).InHonolulu,
Hawaii,T.melanocephalumwasreportedasacommonhouseholdpestinthe1940s,butwasseldomcollectedduringthe1950s(Clagg,1957).
Noreportswerefoundofitdamagingwiringoranyotherstructureswithinbuildings.InFlorida,T.melanocephalumisconsideredoneofthe
mostimportanthouseinfestingpestscomplaintswereprimarilyduetoitbeingageneralnuisance(80%)orinfestingfood(15%)(Klotzetal.,
1995).
ThehealthimpactsofT.melanocephalumvarytremendously.SomepeoplesufferaslightirritationoftheskinfollowingcontactwithT.
melanocephalum(Collingwoodetal.,1997).T.melanocephalummayalsohavearoleindiseasetransmission.Itisabundantinhospitalsin
SouthAmerica,andcapableoftransportingpathogenicmicrobesincludingseventypesofbacteria,suchasEnterobactercloacaeand
Staphylococcussp.(OlayaandChacon,2001citedinUlloaChaconandJaramillo,2003Fowleretal.,1993).However,justasinhorticulture,
T.melanocephalummayhavepositiveimpactsforhealth.ItwasfoundtobetheprimarypredatoroftheeggsofRhodniusprolixus,thevectorof
ChagasdiseaseincoastalVenezuela(GomezNunez,1971).ChagasdiseaseiscausedbyTrypanosomacruziandisaseriouspublichealth
probleminLatinAmerica(Gutierrezetal.,2003).ThispredationonR.prolixuspopulationsbyT.melanocephalummayaccountfortheabsence
ofR.prolixusassociateddiseasesinthisareaofVenezuela(GomezNunez,1971).T.melanocephalummayalsofeedonfleaeggsandlarvae
(TamsittandFox,1966).
RiskandImpactFactors
Topofpage
Impactmechanisms
Causesallergicresponses
Herbivory/grazing/browsing
Induceshypersensitivity
Interactionwithotherinvasivespecies
Pestanddiseasetransmission
Predation
Impactoutcomes
Hostdamage
Increasesvulnerabilitytoinvasions
Lossofmedicinalresources
Negativelyimpactsagriculture
Negativelyimpactscultural/traditionalpractices
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Negativelyimpactshumanhealth
Negativelyimpactslivelihoods
Invasiveness
Benefitsfromhumanassociation(i.e.itisahumancommensal)
Capableofsecuringandingestingawiderangeoffood
Fastgrowing
Gregarious
Hashighreproductivepotential
Highlymobilelocally
Isahabitatgeneralist
Longlived
Pioneeringindisturbedareas
Provedinvasiveoutsideitsnativerange
Tolerantofshade
Tolerates,orbenefitsfrom,cultivation,browsingpressure,mutilation,fireetc
Likelihoodofentry/control
Difficulttoidentify/detectasacommoditycontaminant
Difficulttoidentify/detectinthefield
Highlylikelytobetransportedinternationallyaccidentally
UsesList
Topofpage
Environmental
Biologicalcontrol
Diagnosis
Topofpage
Atechnicaldescriptionsuitableforquarantinepurposesisasfollows.Antennaeare12segmented.Firstantennalsegment(scape)islong,
surpassingtheposteriorborderofthehead.Eyesarelarge,with910ommatidiainthelongestrow.Mandibleseachhave3largeteethand
about7smalldenticles,withthemandiblesurfacecontainingtheteethandthatneartheclypeusroundinggraduallyintooneanother(basal
angleabsent).Theclypeusiswithoutlongitudinalcarinaewiththeanteriormarginslightlyconcaveinthealitrunkinprofileandalmostsmoothly
convex,butwithaslightmetanotaldepression.Thepropodeumiswithoutspinestheuppersurfaceisshorterthantherearsurface.One
rudimentarynode(petiole)ispresent,whichlacksadistinctforwardfaceandispartiallyorcompletelyconcealedwhenviewedfromaboveby
forwardprojectionofthefirstsegmentofthegaster.Thegasterhasfoursegmentsonitsuppersurface.Thereisadensefinepubescenceall
overtheant,witherectsetaeonclypeusandgastralapexonly.Stingerandacidoporeareabsent.
DetectionandInspection
Topofpage
OneofthebestmethodsfordetectinginvasiveantsincludingT.melanocephalumisviabaits.Theyappeartoespeciallylikesugaryfood.Clark
etal.(1982)foundthatT.melanocephalumwasfrequentlytheonlyantpresentonsugarwaterbaits,butalsothespeciesmostoftenreplaced,
suggestingarapidutilizationforagingstrategy.Foragerslocateandrecruittofoodquickly(Clarketal.,1982Lee,2002).However,theyare
alsooftendisplacedwhendominantantsdiscoverfoodresources(Clarketal.,1982),soobservationsmayneedtobemadeofspecies
dynamicsatbaits.
ThePacificInvasiveAntKey(PIAKey)manualPacificInvasiveAntsTaxonomyWorkshopManualcanbothbeusedinidentifyinginvasiveantsin
thePacificregion.
SimilaritiestoOtherSpecies/Conditions
Topofpage
T.melanocephaluminurbanareascanbeconfusedwithanothercommonhouseholdantofsimilarsize,Monomoriumpharaonis(pharaohant).
However,T.melanocephalumhasadistinctivelylighterabdomenthanthoraxandhead,whilethepharaohanthasadarkerabdomenthan
thoraxandhead.Also,unlikeT.melanocephalum,M.pharaonishasapostpetiole,althoughthiswouldbedifficulttoseewithoutmagnification.
PreventionandControl
Topofpage
Prevention
Thisisaclassictrampspecies,whichhaslongbeencommonlyassociatedwiththemovementofhumansandhumanproducearoundthe
globe.Thisanthasbeenassociatedwithhumansandmovingingoodsforsuchalongtimethatitislikelytohavealreadyspreadtomuchofits
potentialglobalrange.RecentincursionsintoareassuchasFinland(Sorvari,2002)arelikelytocontinue,butinsuchareasT.melanocephalum
willberestrictedtobuildingsandfacilitiessuchasheatedgreenhouses.
Aswithallinvasivespecies,preventionisbetterandgenerallymucheasierthancure.Managementofinvasionpathwaysandgoodslikelytobe
infestedisprobablythebestmethodforinhibitinginvasion.Inspectionsofcargoandgoodspreviouslyknowntobeinfestediskeytoprevention.
Suchamonitoringsystemwouldenableanearlydetectionsystem.
AkeyisbeingdevelopedforinvasiveantsinthePacificbyMrEliSarnat,fromtheUniversityofCaliforniaatDavis.Whencompletedthekeywill
beausefulfirststepinalertingquarantineauthoritiestothepossiblepresenceofT.melanocephalum,butaknowledgeableanttaxonomist
shouldbeconsultedtoconfirmthepresenceofthisantspecies.
Control
ThissectionmakesextensiveuseofthereviewofbaitingbyStanley(2004)andHarrisetal.(2005).
TherearenoknownordocumentedreportsoferadicationofpopulationsofT.melanocephalum(Stanley,2004).However,eradicationhasbeen
undertakenforseveralotherantspecies(HoffmanandOConnor,2004LesterandKeall,2005).Thetechniquesusedforthosespeciesmay
beapplicableandeffectiveforT.melanocephalum,althoughsomeauthorshavehaddifficultiesindeterminingattractiveandeffectivebaitsfor
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thisant(e.g.Hedges,1996).Keytothemajorityofanteradicationworkistherepeatedhighdensityapplicationofahighlyattractivebaitlaced
withatoxicant.Theantstakethebaitbacktothenestanddistributeittoallcolonymembersincludingthequeen.
ResearchontheuseofchemicaltoxicantsforthemanagementofinfestationswithinurbanareashasgenerallybeenwhereT.
melanocephalumisoneofseveralpestants.Undersuchascenario,otherantspeciesmayinitiallyexcludeT.melanocephalumfrombaitsdue
tothepoorcompetitiveabilitiesofT.melanocephalum(AeschandCherix,2005Zhengetal.,2006).Ifabletoaccessbaits,T.melanocephalum
willtakebaitsbutitcanbedifficultachievingeffectivecontrol(Lee,2002).InMalaysia,T.melanocephalumwasattractedtobothpeanutbutter
andhoney(Lee,2002).LeeandKooi(2004)recommendusingsugarbasedattractantsinliquidorgelbaitstotargetT.melanocephalum,
althoughproteinandoilbasedfoodsmayalsobeattractive.Lee(2002)reportedlimitedsuccessusingpasteandgranularbaitformulationsto
controlT.melanocephalumandHedges(1996)alsoreportsdifficultiestryingtocontrolthisspecieswithtoxicbaits.Boricacidinsucrosewater
waseffectiveateliminatingT.melanocephaluminlaboratorycolonieswithin812weeks(KlotzandWilliams,1996Klotzetal.,1996).Inthe
samelaboratorytrial,Maxforce(hydramethylnoninsilkwormpupaeproteinmatrix)hadlittleornoeffectonworkersorcoloniesbecausevery
littlewasconsumed(Klotzetal.,1996).Inlaboratorytrialsusinghydrmethylnonathigherconcentrations(Siege)orDimlin(diflubenzuron)in
sucroseliquidbaits,onlylimitedcontrolofT.melanocephalumcolonieswasachievedafter9weeks(UlloaChaconandJaramillo,2003).In
contrast,fipronilinsucroseliquidbaitskilledalllaboratorycolonieswithinaweek(UlloaChaconandJaramillo,2003).
ClearlybaitswithahighsugarconcentrationarepreferredbyT.melanocephalumandarelikelytobethemosteffectivecarrieroftoxicants.
Sucrosewaterexploitsthenaturalfeedinghabitsofhoneydewcollectingantsandalsoprovidesmoisture(Klotzetal.,1996).However,liquid
baitsarenotsuitableforbroadcastbaiting,andmustbeavailablecontinuously,makingcontrolverylabourintensive(Klotzetal.,1998).Non
targetissuesarealsogreaterwhenusingsweetbaits,butthisislessofanissuewithinbuildings.
TherearenoknownbiologicalcontrolagentsforT.melanocephalum.Biologicalcontrolagentsexistforants,suchasphoridflies(Vazquezet
al.,2006),andmayoccurforT.melanocephalum.Howevertheinfluenceofsuchagentsinregulatinganyantpopulationisyettobe
demonstratedandnoneareknownforT.melanocephalum.Antsarethoughttobecommonlyregulatedbyinterspecificinteractionswithother
antspecies(e.g.Dunnetal.,2007)andthiscertainlyappearstobethecasewithT.melanocephalum,whichappearstobeexcludedfrom
habitatswithhighantdiversity(e.g.Fowleretal.,1994).Enhancingantdiversitywithinaparticularhabitatmayinhibitorrestrictthe
establishmentofT.melanocephalum.
GapsinKnowledge/ResearchNeeds
Topofpage
ClearlymuchlessisknownaboutthebiologyandcontrolofT.melanocephalumthanformanyotherantsorpestspecies.Suchagapinour
knowledgemayindicatethatT.melanocephalumisoflowrelativeimportanceasapestspecies.However,keyareasforfutureworkregarding
T.melanocephalumwillbe:
1.Establishingthedirectorindirect(e.g.throughtendingscaleinsectpopulations)economicimpactofthisantspecies,orperhapsthehealth
impactsofT.melanocephalumthroughitspresenceinhospitalenvironments
2.Determiningitsnativerangeandorigin,whichwouldbehelpfulforselectingbiologicalcontrolagentsifhealthoreconomiceffectsare
observed.Moleculartechniquescouldbeusefulforsuchwork
3.Examiningthenativerangeforbiologicalcontrolagents,suchasphoridfliesormicrobialbiologicalcontrolagents
4.Furtherdevelopingbestpracticesamplingtechniquestodeterminethepresenceofthisspecies
5.IdentifyingeffectivechemicalcontrolandbaitdeliverymethodsforT.melanocephalum.
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LinkstoWebsites
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Website
URL
Comment
InvasiveSpecies
SpecialistGroup(ISSG)
http://www.issg.org
TheISSGispartoftheSpeciesSurvivalCommission(SSC)ofThe
WorldConservationUnion(IUCN).Itisaglobalgroupof146
scientificandpolicyexpertsoninvasivespeciesfrom41countries
andprovidesadviceonthreatsfrominvasivesandcontrolor
eradicationmethodstoIUCNmembers,conservationpractitioners,
andpolicymakers.
Harrisetal.2005.Pest
www.biosecurity.govt.nz/files/pestsdiseases/animals/invasive
14/18
5/13/2016
riskassessmentfor
Tapinoma
melanocephaluminNew
Zealand
ants/ghostantsriskassessment.pdf
FloridaDepartmentof
Agricultureand
ConsumerServicessite
onT.melanocephalum
http://entnemdept.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/urban/ants/ghost_ant.htm
Antweb(forpicturesand
identificationassistance)
http://antweb.org
Contributors
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31/01/08Originaltextby:
PhilipLester,VictoriaUniversityofWellington,SchoolofBiologicalSciences,Room413,NewKirkBuilding,KelburnPde,KelburnCampus,P.O.
Box600,Wellington,NewZealand
DistributionMaps
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=Present,nofurtherdetails
=Widespread
=Localised
=Confinedandsubjecttoquarantine
=Occasionalorfewreports
DownloadKMLfile
=Evidenceofpathogen
=Lastreported
=Presenceunconfirmed
=Seeregionalmapfordistributionwithinthecountry
DownloadCSVfile
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