Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PRELIMINARIES
Sets
Set Theory
A set is a well-defined collection of objects; that is, it is defined in
such a manner that we can determine for any given object x whether or
not x belongs to the set. The objects that belong to a set are called its
elements or members. We will denote sets by capital letters, such as A
or X; if a is an element of the set A, we write a
A.
following:
= { n : n is a natural number } = { 1, 2, 3, . . . };
= { n : n is an integer} = { . . . , 1, 0, 1, 2, . . . };
where q
0};
CHAPTER 1
R
C
= { x : x is a real number};
= { z : z is a complex number}.
B or B
A, if every
{ 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 }
and
C .
A but B
B; for example, { 4, 7, 9 }
B and B
A.
the union A
B={x:x
A or x
B };
B={x:x
A and x
B }:
B = { 1, 2, 3, 5, 9 } and A
B = { 1, 3 }.
2
CHAPTER 1
We can consider the union and the intersection of more than two
sets. In this case we write
n
Ai = A1
...
Ai = A1
...
An
i=1
and
n
An
i=1
for the union and intersection, respectively, of the sets A1, . . . , An.
When two sets have no elements in common, they are said to be
disjoint; for example, if E is the set of even integers and O is the set of
odd integers, then E and O are disjoint. Two sets A and B are disjoint
exactly when A
B=
to be the set
A = { x : x
U and x
A }.
Example 1. Let
A={x
B = { x : x
A and x
B }.
3 } and B = { x
:2
x < 4 }.
Then
CHAPTER 1
B={x
B={x
A = { x
A\B={x
:2
3}
:0<x<4}
:0<x<2}
: x _ 0 or x > 3 }.
2. A
3. A
(B
B)
A = A, A
= A and A \
A = A, and A \ A =
C) = (A
B)
C and A
(B
C) = (A
C;
4. A
B=B
5. A
(B
C) = (A
6. A
(B
C) = (A
A and A
B=B
A;
B)
(A
C);
B)
(A
C).
Proof. We prove (1) and (3) and leave the remaining results to be proven
in the exercises.
(1) Observe that
A
A={x:x
={x:x
A or x
A}
A}
=A
and
A
A={x:x
={x:x
A and x
A}
A}
CHAPTER 1
=A
Also, A \ A = A
A =
(B
C) = A
{x:x
={x:x
A or x
B, or x
={x:x
A or x
B}
C) = (A
= (A
B)
C}
C}
C.
B or x
(B
B)
C.
B) = A
B;
2. (A
B) = A
B.
B. Let x
(A
B and (A
B). Then x
B)
B)
B. So x is
B and we have (A
B)
A and x
B. Therefore, x
A and x
B, and so x
(A
B and so x
B) = A
A and x
B). Hence, (A
B.
B)
B. Thus x
B. Then
B and so (A
B.
CHAPTER 1
Example 2. Other relations between sets often hold true. For example,
(A \ B)
(B \ A) =
(B n A) = (A
=A
B)
(B
A)
= .
Equivalence Relations
A fundamental notion in mathematics is that of equality. We can
generalize equality with the introduction of equivalence relations and
equivalence classes. An equivalence relation on a set X is a relation
R
X
(x, x)
X such that
R for all x
X (reflexive property);
(x, y) R implies (y, x) R (symmetric property);
(x, y) and (y; z) R imply (x, z) R (transitive property).
Given an equivalence relation R on a set X, we usually write x
y instead of (x, y)
, or
notation.
CHAPTER 1
is reflexive and
t/u.
Functions
B, called the
B = { (a, b) : a
A and b
Example 4. If A = { x, y }, B = { 1, 2, 3 }, and C =
B }.
, then A
B is
the set
{ (x, 1), (x, 2), (x, 3), (y, 1), (y, 2), (y, 3) }
and
A
C=
...
An = { (a1, . . . , an) : ai
Ai for i = 1, . . . , n }.
7
CHAPTER 1
or function f
consists of
. ..
write f(a) = b or f : a
B, we
f(A) = { f(a) : a
A}
B
f
B
g
8
CHAPTER 1
not because 1
x3.
Binary Operations
A binary operation
into S. For each (a, b)
b)) of S by a
((a,
on
b of S.
9
CHAPTER 1
R .
R . In this
C ,
Z ,
, or
.
Note that we require a binary operation on a set S to be defined for
A binary operation
b=b
a for all a, b
A binary operation
(b
c) for all a, b
S.
on a set S is associative if (a
b)
c = a
S.
Division Algorithm
An application of the Principle of Well-Ordering that we use often is
the division algorithm.
r < b.
10
CHAPTER 1
If 0
bk : k
and a
bk
0 }.
2b)
b0
S. In either case S
. By the Well-
S. If a < 0, then a
bq.
b. Then
a
b(q + 1) = a
bq
b=r
b > 0.
b. Since 0
S, r
and so r < b.
Uniqueness of q and r. Suppose there exist integers r, r, q, and q
such that
a = bq + r, 0
r < b and a = bq + r, 0
q ' ) = r
r < b.
11
CHAPTER 1
and 0
r = 0.
Hence, r = r and q = q.
Let a and b be integers. If b = ak for some integer k, we write a
b.
An integer d is called a common divisor of a and b if d
a and d
b. The
12