Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Elements
Physical Properties
Compounds
Formulae
Metals
Displacement Reactions
11
12
Electrolysis - Aluminium
13
Uses of Metals
15
Nano Science
16
18
Uses of non-metals
20
21
Acid Reactions
23
27
28
Cracking
30
Making Plastics(Polymerisation)
31
Properties of Plastics
31
32
The Atmosphere
35
Global Warming
37
Acid Rain
38
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Elements
Element
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na
Atom
Nucleus
(positive)
Shell
Proton
Protons are positive, neutrons
are neutral (no charge). This is
why the nucleus has an overall
positive charge
Neutron
Group
down
across
Period
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Describing Position
Sodium is in Group 1, Period 3
Helium is in Group 0, Period 1
Beryllium is in Group 2, Period 2
2
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Ductile
Metals
Malleable
High
Melting point
Boiling point
Conduct
Heat
Conduct
Electricity
Physical Properties
Non
Metals
Not ductile
Not malleable
Low
Melting point
Boiling point
Does not
conduct
heat
Does not
conduct
Electricity
Elements change from being metals to non-metals on going from left to right across the Periodic Table
Metals
Non-Metals
Periodic Table
Scientists as far back as 1817 found patterns in the reactivity
of elements; however it was Mendelev (1869) who first
arranged the elements in a layout recognisable as a Periodic
Table.
is due to Mendelev
He placed the elements into 8 groups, in each group elements
reacted similarly. Elements were arranged according to
1. Increasing atomic mass (top number)
2. Similar chemical properties
Confident in his work he left gaps predicting that some
elements that were not discovered at the time should be
placed there as they would have similar properties
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Compounds
Number of elements = 2
Formula
Hydrogen
H2O
H
H2O
Elements
Oxygen
Atoms
2 Hydrogen
1 Oxygen
Number of atoms = 3
Compound
Formula
No. of atoms
NaCl
No. of
elements
2
Sodium Chloride
Sodium Hydroxide
NaOH
3 (1 Na, 1 O, 1 H)
Sodium Oxide
Na2O
3 (2 Na, 1 O)
Sodium Sulfate
Na2SO4
7 (2 Na, 1 S, 4 O)
Calcium Carbonate
CaCO3
5 (1 Ca, 1 C, 3 O)
Chemical Reactions
2 (1 Na, 1 Cl)
e.g.
Mg
2HCl
MgCl2
H2
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Ionic Compounds
When a chemical reaction takes place new bonds are formed. Ionic compounds
form by the transfer of electrons from metal to non-metal atom. Charged
particles called ions are formed
e.g.
When sodium chloride (NaCl) forms, one electron is transferred from sodium to
chlorine. This will form a full stable outer shell (like noble gasses) for the two
particles
METAL
NON-METAL
Electron
Transfer
One electron
lost
One electron
gained
POSITIVE ION
NEGATIVE ION
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Potassium = K+
Calcium = Ca2+
Sodium
Chloride
Na+
Magnesium
Oxide
Cl-
Mg
Ions cancel
Sulfate= SO42--
Mg2+
Na+
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Mg2+
ClCl-
Ions cancel
Ions cancel
Li2O
MgCl2
Nitrate = NO3-
Lithium
Oxide
Li+
Mg(OH)2
OH-
Calcium
Carbonate
Ca2
+
CO32
--
O2-
Li2O
Sodium
Carbonate
Na+
CO32
--
Ions cancel
Ions cancel
Na2CO3
O2-
Ions cancel
Sodium
Carbonate
--
Magnesium
Chloride
Quick method
OH-
Two sets of
(brackets used)
CO32
Lithium
Oxide
Carbonate = CO32--
OH-
Ions cancel
Na+
iodide = I-
Li+
Magnesium
Hydroxide
Sodium
Hydroxide
NaOH
sulfide = S2-
Li+
2-
MgO
Hydroxide= OH-
OH-
bromide = Br-
Ions cancel
NaCl
Na+
2+
oxide = O2-
CaCO3
GCSE Science: Chemistry 1
Na2CO3
Extraction of Metals
Ores Metals are found in compounds in rocks which make up the Earths crust, these
are called ores
Ore
Bauxite
Formula
Al2O3
Metal extracted
Aluminium
Haematite
Fe2O3
Iron
Extraction is the term for getting pure metal out of the ore; there are two methods of
extracting metals which depend on their reactivity
Reduction is the process of removing oxygen from the ore using carbon
Electrolysis is the process of using electricity to extract a metal
Reactivity Series metals are placed in order of reactivity by reacting them with
oxygen, water and acid. From this data a reactivity series is produced
The Reactivity
Series
Extraction Method
Increasing Reactivity
Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
ELECTROLYSIS
Aluminium
(Carbon)
Zinc
Iron
Lead
Hydrogen
Copper
Silver
Gold
elements (NATIVE)
At the top metals naturally bond to oxygen stronger which makes it difficult to remove.
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Displacement Reactions
Reduction is the loss of oxygen from a compound
Oxidation is the gain of oxygen to form a compound
Magnesium and copper oxide
Mg + CuO
MgO + Cu
oxidation
Heat
reduction
Fe2O3 + 3CO
3CO2 + 2Fe
oxidation
Heat
reduction
Fe2O3 + 2Al
Al2O3 + 2Fe
oxidation
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Displacement Examples
Iron and copper chloride
Fe + CuCl2
Cu + FeCl2
Cu + 2AgNO3
2Ag + Cu(NO3)2
Zn + CuSO4
Cu + ZnSO4
10
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Raw Materials
1. Iron ore
2. Limestone
3. Coke
Waste gases
1600C
4. Hot air
(raw material)
slag
Molten iron
Carbon (coke) and oxygen (from the hot air) produce carbon monoxide and gives off
heat. Reduction is achieved by Carbon monoxide at a high temperature
Iron oxide + carbon monoxide
Fe2O3 +
3 CO
3 CO2
Getting the furnace up to temperature takes a lot of time and costs a lot. As a result
raw materials are constantly added and products removed the process is continuous.
At the factory in Port Talbot iron ore, limestone and coke are imported from other
countries even though they are available in Wales. Using raw materials from Wales is
not sustainable due to cost and the effect it could have on the environment
(quarrying).
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11
Br2
The positive ions Pb2+ move towards the cathode where they gain electrons
The negative ions Br move towards the anode where they lose electrons
12
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3+
O2-
Al3+
2-
O22-
Al3+
O2-
negative
electrode
O2-
Positive
electrode
Electrolyte
oxygen gas
molten aluminium
oxide (electrolyte)
molten aluminium
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13
Reaction at the
positive electrode
anode
aluminium atoms
Al3+ + 3e Al
Property
Resistant to corrosion
Electrical conductivity
Heat conduction
Low density
14
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Uses of metals
Copper
Copper has many uses due to its physical properties
Uses
Property
Jewellery
electrical Wires
saucepans
pipes
Electrical wires
Shiny
Electrical conduction
Heat conduction
Malleability ( create sheets )
Ductility ( create wires )
Titanium
Titanium is important as an alloying agent with aluminum,
manganese, iron, and other metals. Alloys of titanium
are principally used for aircraft and missiles where
lightweight strength and ability to withstand
extremes of temperature are important.
Titanium is as strong as steel, but 45% lighter. It is 60%
heavier than aluminium, but twice as strong. Does not
corrode in water. 1660 C M.pt
molybdenum,
An alloy is a mixture
made by mixing
molten metals; the
properties can be
changed by altering
the amount of each
metal
Steel
Steels are a large family of metals. All of them are alloys in which iron is
mixed with carbon and other elements. Steels are described as mild, mediumor high-carbon steels according to the percentage of carbon they contain,
although this is never greater than about 1.5%.
Type of steel
Percentage of carbon
Strength
Mild steel
Up to 0.25%
hard
0.25% to 0.45%
harder
0.45% to 1.50%
hardest
The metal in the scissors contains nearly twenty times as much carbon and is
many times harder than the steel in a drinking can.
Steel is recycled on a large scale.
Recycling steel saves 50% of the energy used in the extraction of iron.
Recycling helps to conserve iron ore
Recycling cuts down on the emission of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide)
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15
Nanoscience
Scientists have a great interest in the nano range because the properties of materials can be
different than when they are at a larger scale. The properties change from 100 nm downwards.
H
O
Many new materials are possible with this technology of building materials from atoms.
16
In sterilising sprays.
In fridges
A layer of silver
atoms kill
bacteria, fungus
and viruses.
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Nanoscience
The new properties of these materials will allow people to create many new products.
Sun screen
There are nano particles in sun
screens to prevent ultraviolet
radiation damage to skin cells
causing cancer.
Self-cleaning glass
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17
Non-metals
Oxygen = 21%
Noble Gases = 0.9%
Nitrogen = 78%
Water
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Hydrogen is made at
the cathode
18
2H2O (l)
2H2 (g)
O2 (g)
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Hydrogen Test
If a lighted splint is placed in
hydrogen it will create a
squeaky pop sound.
Oxygen Test
Oxygen will re-light a glowing
splint
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19
Hydrogen as a fuel
Hydrogen burns in air to make only water. The reaction is exothermic and produces a lot of
energy. [exothermic releases energy]
Hydrogen + Oxygen
2 H2 (g) +
Water
2 H2O (l)
O2 (g)
Advantages
Only water is produced and no carbon
dioxide released therefore it does not
contribute to global warming.
Disadvantages
Large amount of electricity needed to
produce hydrogen in the first place
NOTE: In order for the process to remain green Hydrogen must be made by the
electrolysis of water using renewable energy (solar/wind)
20
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Physical Properties
Non metals
Seawater compounds
e.g.
Sodium chloride
Magnesium chloride
Magnesium sulfate
Sodium Iodide
the concentration of
chlorine compounds
is more than iodine
compounds.
Element
Use
Chlorine
treatment of
water supplies
Quantities of chlorine
controlled and
monitored to kill bacteria
and sterilise the water,
without causing any harm
to us.
Properties
poisonous/toxic,
kills bacteria
making household
cleaners
antiseptic following
hospital procedures
Helium
To fill weather
balloons
Argon
To fill light
bulbs
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treatment of
swimming pool
Iodine
Neon
Advertising
lights
GCSE Science: Chemistry 1
low density,
very unreactive
very unreactive
inert atmosphere
emits light
when electric
current passes
through it
21
Strengthens
childrens
teeth
Addition of
fluoride
compounds to
water supply
Collecting evidence
Questionnaire data of the state of childrens teeth are collected by counting the
number of fillings, loss of teeth and decayed teeth children of all ages have.
The data is reliable because all the children of the school are tested with exception
of absent pupils.
The comparison of areas which have been fluoridated with unfluoridated areas can be
unfair without the consideration to other factors (e.g. social and economic) which are
important for those areas.
22
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Sulfuric Acid
Acid Reactions
Form salts
Indicator
Nitric Acid
H2SO4
HNO3
Sulfate
Nitrate
Hydrochloric Acid
HCl
Chloride
Strong Acid
Weak Acid
Sulfuric Acid
Orange
10 11 12 13
14
Neutral
Weak Alkali
Strong Alkali
Pure
water
Soap
Oven cleaner
Sodium Hydroxide
Base
Na O
NEUTRALISATION REACTIONS
1. Acid + Alkali
ACID
Hydrochloric Acid
HCl (aq)
NaOH (aq)
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2NaOH (aq)
+ Sodium Hydroxide
+
NaOH (aq)
SALT
WATER
H2O (l)
23
alkali
pH 3.4
pH meter
Volume of alkali added / cm3
25 cm3 acid
24
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3. Acid + Base
ACID
BASE
SALT
Copper oxide
CuO (s)
CuSO4 (aq) +
Hydrochloric Acid +
Copper oxide
2HCl (aq)
CuO (s)
Sulfuric Acid
H2SO4 (aq)
2. Acid + Carbonate
ACID
Carbonate
H2SO4 (aq)
WATER
H2O (l)
CuCl2 (aq) +
H2O (l)
CuCO3 (s)
CuSO4 (aq) +
H2O (l)
+ CO2 (g)
Na2CO3 (s)
Na2SO4 (aq) +
2HCl (aq)
2NaCl (aq) +
Na2CO3 (s)
Carbonate test
When acid reacts
with a carbonate
fizzing is observed.
Bubbles are seen as
CO2 is a gas
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H2O (l)
+ CO2 (g)
25
4. Metal + Acid
METAL
Magnesium
Mg (s)
Zinc
Zn (s)
ACID
SALT
+ hydrochloric acid
HYDROGEN
2HCl (aq)
MgCl2 (aq) +
sulfuric acid
+
H2 (g)
H2SO4 (aq)
ZnSO4 (aq) +
H2 (g)
Hydrogen Test
If a lighted splint is placed in
hydrogen it will create a squeaky
pop sound.
Acid
Hydrochloric
Sulfuric
Nitric
Salt
Chloride
Sulfate
Nitrate
Metal
Salt
+ Water
Alkali
Acid
Base (Metal
Carbonate)
Salt
Carbon Dioxide
Water
Base
(Metal Oxide)
Salt + Water
26
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unreacted
Stage 1: Excess base (copper oxide) is added to the dilute acid to make sure all the acid
has been reacted and used up. Heat and stirring will assist the process
Stage 2: The excess (unreacted) base is removed by the process of filtration, using a filter
funnel and filter paper
Stage 3: Salt is obtained by evaporation water evaporates and crystals of salt left
behind. Water can be evaporated slowly near a window or with additional heating using a
Bunsen Burner, 1/3 of the solution should be left behind to evaporate naturally.
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27
Remains of simple
marine organisms
Natural
gas(e.g. CH4)
Pressure
Heat
Millions of Years
There is a limit to coal, crude oil (petroleum) and natural gas life as they will run out over
time they are finite or non-renewable.
Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are compounds that contain the elements hydrogen and carbon only.
Example of a
hydrocarbon
C C C C
H
Some other
substances are
also present
Carbon has the ability to form bonds with other carbon atoms resulting in the formation
of carbon atom chains, e.g.
H
H
C C C C
H
C C C C
H
H
H
C C C
H
H
H
C C
H
28
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Boiling point
range / C
14
-160 to 25
petrol
4 12
40 to 100
naphtha
7 14
100 to 150
11 15
150 to 250
15 19
250 to 350
20 30
over 350
Fraction
Gas
Fractionating
column
paraffin/kerosine
diesel oil
Lubricating oil
Hot crude oil
Bitumen
over 400
Fractions contain hydrocarbons with boiling points in the same range, e.g. the petrol
fraction has hydrocarbons with boiling points in the range 40-100 C
Long chain hydrocarbons are at the bottom of the column as they do not boil until a
very high temperature
Some of the fractions are used as fuels (e.g. Kerosine aeroplane fuel) others are further
processed by cracking. (see next page)
Global Warming
NO2
CO
Incomplete combustion
C
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29
Cracking
At high temperature long hydrocarbon chains are broken down into smaller, more
useful hydrocarbons.
This can create ethene.
Decane
Shorter
more useful
Octane
Ethene
Creating Plastics
polymer
30
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Properties of Plastics
There are many types of plastics, all made by polymerisation, e.g. polythene, PVC, PTFE
(Teflon) and polystyrene.
Electrical insulator /
flexible
Thermal
insulator
Strong /
low density
Transparent /
flexible
Strong /
low density
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31
Geology
Tectonic Plates The lithosphere has been split up into pieces called tectonic
plates which move very slowly in different directions as seen in the diagram.
Constructive plate
Destructive plate
32
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Ocean
Alfred Wegener suggested that
the Earth's continents were
once joined
He said the continents had
moved apart to their present
positions;
Continent
Coastline
Mantle
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33
34
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Atmosphere
Atmosphere creation
The composition of the air was different 4000 million years ago. Most Scientists agree
that the initial atmosphere came from volcanoes.
Volcanoes releasing
carbon dioxide,
ammonia and water
vapour (steam)
creating the first
atmosphere
Photosynthesising
bacteria form in the
oceans. Carbon
dioxide levels
decrease.
E
Bacteria releases
oxygen in the
atmosphere. Oxygen
levels increase.
Oxygen combines to
form ozone. It
prevents ultraviolet
light from entering
the Earth. It helps to
prevent skin cancer.
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35
Atmosphere
Carbon Cycle
The levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide have remained fairly constant for many years
due to the carbon cycle.
Dros
Overmiliynau
millionsoofflynyddoedd
years
Resbiradaeth
Respiration
Oxygen
Photosynthesis
Resbiradaeth
Combustion
Carbon dioxide
Oxygen
Respiration
Photosynthesis
Combustion
Oil
Coal
Burning fossil fuels
Global Warming
36
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Atmosphere
Global Warming
Heat is kept in
Carbon capture
Scientists are thinking of
storing the CO2 produced by
burning fossil fuels under the
sea or underground in
geological formations
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37
Acid Rain
In fuels such as oil and petrol there are impurities (i.e. oil is not pure hydrocarbons),
compounds such as sulphur and nitrogen are present.
When these burn they form polluting gases, such as sulfur dioxide and oxides of
nitrogen.
Acid rain forms when sulfur dioxide is released from factories. Acid rain forms when
sulfur dioxide reacts with rain to form sulfuric acid.
It kills plants (forests) and aquatic life such as fish. It also damages buildings and statues
made of limestone (calcium carbonate) and metals e.g. bridges.
Sulfur dioxide
Acid rain
Acid rain
lowers pH of
lakes
Sulfur Scrubbing
The process of removing
sulphur dioxide from
exhaust flue gases of
fossil fuel powered
plants
38
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POSITIVE IONS
NEGATIVE IONS
Name
Formula
Name
Formula
Aluminium
Al3+
Bromide
Br
Ammonium
NH 4+
Carbonate
CO32
Barium
Ba2+
Chloride
Cl
Calcium
Ca2+
Fluoride
Copper(II)
Cu2+
Hydroxide
OH
Hydrogen
H+
Iodide
Iron(II)
Fe2+
Nitrate
NO3
Iron(III)
Fe3+
Oxide
O2
Lithium
Li+
Sulphate
SO42
Magnesium
Mg2+
Nickel
Ni2+
Potassium
K+
Silver
Ag+
Sodium
Na+
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39
40
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48
22
Ti
51
23
52
24
Cr
55
25
Mn
56
26
Fe
59
27
Co
59
28
Ni
64
29
Cu
65
30
Zn
Mg
40
20
Ca
Magnesium
24
12
Rb
88
38
Sr
Ra
Francium Radium
Fr
226
88
Ba
223
87
137
56
Barium
Cs
Caesium
133
55
Rubidium Strontium
86
37
91
40
Zr
93
41
Nb
96
42
Mo
99
43
Tc
101
44
Ru
Iron
Pd
106
46
103
45
Rh
Nickel
Cobalt
La
179
72
Hf
Ac
Actinium
227
89
Lanthanum Hafnium
139
57
Ta
Tantalum
181
73
Tungsten
184
74
Re
Os
Ir
195
78
Pt
Name
Platinum
Atomic number
Iridium
192
77
Osmium
190
76
Mass number
Key:
Rhenium
186
75
89
39
39
19
Sodium
Na
Ag
Au
Cd
Hg
73
32
Ge
Silicon
Si
In
204
81
Tl
Indium
115
49
Sn
Pb
Lead
207
82
Tin
119
50
32
16
Oxygen
16
8
75
33
As
Sb
128
52
Te
Bi
Cl
80
35
Br
Chlorine
35
17
210
84
Po
210
85
At
Iodine
127
53
209
83
Antimony Tellurium
122
51
Se
F
Fluorine
19
9
Selenium Bromine
79
34
Phosphorus Sulphur
31
15
Nitrogen
14
7
Ga
Mercury Thallium
201
80
Cadmium
112
48
Zinc
Element Symbol
Gold
197
79
Silver
108
47
Copper
70
31
Aluminium
Al
28
14
12
6
27
13
23
11
11
5
Carbon
Sc
Hydrogen
1
1
Boron
45
21
Group
Lithium Beryllium
Be
9
4
7
3
Li
He
Ne
Ar
Kr
Xe
Rn
Radon
222
86
Xenon
131
54
Krypton
84
36
Argon
40
18
Neon
20
10
Helium
4
2