Professional Documents
Culture Documents
B. Tech (IV)
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Year 2009 -2010
Mr. M. A. MULLA
1
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report titled “Power Factor Improvement USING
”submitted by Babloo Kumar (U06EE508), Raj Rakesh (U06EE542), Subhash Reddy
(U06EE569) and Vikas Kumar (U06EE579) is a record of bonafide work carried out by
them, in fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of
Technology.
Date: 14-05-2010
GUIDE HOD
(Mr. M. A. Mulla) (Prof. Mrs. V. A. Shah)
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
1
We would like to express our deep sense of gratitude to our guide Mr. M. A. Mulla
(Lecturer, EED, SVNIT, SURAT) for his valuable guidance and motivation and for his
extreme cooperation to complete the project work successfully.
We would like to express our sincere respect and profound gratitude to Prof. V. A. Shah,
Head of Electrical Engineering Department for supporting us and providing the facilities for
the project work.
We appreciate all our colleagues whose direct and indirect contribution helped a lot to
accomplish this project work.
We would also like to thank all the teaching and non teaching staff for cooperating with us
and providing valuable advice which helped us in the completion of this project.
Abstract
Today’s commonly used power converters have a poor input power factor and rich harmonic
current, which deteriorates the power line quality and may interfere with other power
2
electronic equipment. This project report is targeted on the prevailing method of power factor
control in industries. The present trend is to use facts (flexible ac transmission system)
devices. The static var compensator is a thyristor based facts device.
To improve the input power factor of current power converters, stringent input power factor
regulations such as IEC 1000 have recently been enacted. Therefore, power factor correction
techniques have been very popular topics in recent years’ power electronic research. Because
the addition power factor converter will increase the cost of the overall system, the integrated
single-stage power factor correction techniques become attractive especially in low-power
cost-effective applications.
Contents
Chapters
1. Introduction……………………………………………….…………..1
2
2. Power Factor
2.1. Power Factor……………………………………………………….2
2.2. Disadvantages of Low Power Factor……………………………...2
2.3. Benefits of Power Factor Correction…………………………… 3
2.4. Need for Power Factor Correction………………………………3
4. Boost Converters
4.1. Boost Converter………………………………………………….16
4.2. Circuit Analysis…………………………………………………..16
4.3. Modes of Operation
4.3.1. Continuous Mode………………………………………….17
4.3.2. Discontinuous Mode………………………………………19
2
7. MATLAB Simulations
7.1. Basic Boost Implementation……………………………………31
7.2. Power Factor Improvement By Boost Converter
With Firing MOSFET By PWM……………………………….32
7.3. PFC With Boost Convertor By Firing MOSFET
With Voltage and Current Closed Loop Control…………….35
7.4. Hardware Implementation of Boost Convertor
Using LM3524…………………………………………………..38
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………..40
References……………………………………………………………………41
:: LIST OF FIGURES ::
1
3.2 THYRISTOR CONTROLLED REACTOR 7
1
Chapter 1: Introduction
Power Factor Improvement is the growing issue of concern. Within power quality
framework, one of the important aspects is reactive power control. Consumer load requires
reactive power that varies incessantly and increases transmission losses while affecting
voltage in the transmission network. To prevent unacceptably high voltage fluctuations or the
power failures that can result, this reactive power must be compensated and kept in balance.
This function has always been performed by passive elements such as reactors or capacitor,
as well as combination of the two that supply inductive or capacitive reactive power. The
more quickly and precisely the reactive power can be compensated, the more efficiently the
various characteristics of transmissions can be controlled.
Since most loads in modern electrical distribution systems are inductive, there is an ongoing
interest in improving power factor. The low power factor of inductive loads robs a system of
capacity and can adversely affect voltage level. As such, power factor correction through the
application of capacitors, synchronous Alternators, TCR SVC , Power Electronic DC-DC
convertors etc. is widely practiced at all system voltages. As utilities increase penalties they
charge customers for low power factor, system performance will not be the only
consideration. The installation of power factor correction circuits improves system
performance and saves money.
2
In order to ensure most favourable condition for a supply system from engineering and
economical standpoint it is important to have power factor as close to unity as possible.
Linear loads with low power factor (such as induction motors) can be corrected with a
passive network of capacitors or inductors. Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the
current drawn from the system. In such cases, active or passive power factor correction may
be used to counteract the distortion and raise power factor. The devices for correction of
power factor may be at a central substation, or spread out over a distribution system, or built
into power-consuming equipment.
2. 1.Power Factor
Power Factor is the ratio between the real power (kW) and apparent power (kVA) drawn by
an electrical load. It is a measure of how effectively the current is being converted into useful
work output and a good indicator of the effect of the load current on the efficiency of the
supply system. Poor power factor results in increase load current draw that causes additional
losses in the supply and distribution systems.
Power factor can also be measured as the cosine of the phase difference between the voltage
and the current, however, where the current is distorted such as with electronic equipment
loads, this may not be a true indication of the power factor.
Power factors range from zero (0) to unity (1) with a typical power factor being between 0.8
and 0.95. The power factor can also be leading or lagging depending on whether the load is
predominantly capacitive or inductive in nature.
3
Poor power factors are typically due to the effect of inductive or capacitive loads such as with
a motor or with long cables providing capacitive coupling. Poor power factor due to distorted
current waveforms such as with high harmonic content caused by electronic equipment
cannot normally be corrected with PFC alone and will typically require complex or costly
filtering.
2. Conductor size increases. To transmit the same amount of power at low power factor
at constant voltage needs to carry high current. So to keep the current density constant
conductor area increases.
4. Voltage regulation becomes poor. Current at low lagging power factor causes greater
voltage drop in alternators, transformers and transmission lines causing to have low
power supply at the receiving end.
2. Avoidance of Network Service Provider (NSP) penalties for low power factor,
including restricted access to more suitable tariffs (minimum of 0.9 for large and high
voltage supply establishments in most states).
3. Reduced losses.
5. Stabilized site voltage levels by reducing the inductive effect of the connected load.
The payback for PFC installations can be very reasonable and should not be over
looked when considering PFC for existing installations
Power factor correction shall be provided under the following circumstances for new,
upgraded or refurbished buildings:
1. To meet the NSP requirements for minimum power factor.
2
2. At defense establishments with a high voltage tariff, any new building refurbished or
upgraded building with a power factor less than 0.9.
Where assessment of the natural power factor confirms it will remain within the prescribed
range (e.g. above 0.9) and it is unlikely that the facility will require PFC at a later stage, PFC
or provision suitable space is not required.
Where assessment of the natural power factor cannot confirm suitability, however, there is
some uncertainty as to the need for PFC, the PFC equipment may be omitted provided
adequate space is allowed in the design of the building to incorporate PFC equipment as a
future requirement. This would also apply to buildings where it would be reasonable to
assume that PFC may be required at a later stage.
When allowing for future PFC installations the designer shall make all practical provisions
for the installation and connection of the future PFC equipment.
Existing Installations
PFC shall be considered for existing buildings to comply with the NSP requirements for
minimum power factor to avoid disconnection of supply, costly penalties, tariff restrictions or
where the feasibility assessment determines a worthwhile cost benefit or greenhouse
reduction measure. The funding of power factor correction works for existing buildings shall
be in accordance with regional funding and prioritising arrangements.
New Equipment
Equipment performance, both individual performance and the cumulative effect of non PFC
equipment needs to be considered as part of the design and also for equipment specifications.
Ensure that all equipment meets appropriate standards for harmonic content and that the
equipment power factor performance is considered to avoid the need for PFC or expensive
filtering in the first instance.
1
Chapter 3: Power Factor Correction
2
Advantages of using capacitor banks
1. They have low losses.
2. They require little or no maintenance as there is no rotating parts.
3. They can be easily installed as they are light and do not require foundation.
4. They can work under ordinary atmospheric condition.
Disadvantages of using capacitor banks
1. They have short life span of 8-10 years.
2. They get easily damaged if exceed the rated value.
3. Once damaged, they have to be removed as their repairing is uneconomical.
Increasing the device's field excitation results in its furnishing magnetizing power (kVAR) to
the system. Its principal advantage is the ease with which the amount of correction can be
adjusted. The energy stored in the rotor of the machine can also help stabilize a power system
during short circuits or rapidly fluctuating loads such as electric arc furnaces. Large
installations of synchronous condensers are sometimes used in association with high-voltage
direct current converter stations to supply reactive power.
Unlike a capacitor bank, the value of reactive power can be continuously adjusted. However,
the synchronous condenser does have higher losses than a static capacitor bank. The motor
windings are thermally stable to short circuit current and faults can be easily removed. They
produce noise and have high maintenance cost.
Most synchronous condensers connected to electrical grids are rated between 20 MVAR and
200 MVAR and are hydrogen cooled.
2
Static thyristor controlled reactors are connected in parallel with load for the control of
reactive power flow. With increase in the size of industrial connected loads, fast reactive
power compensation has become necessary. For such loads, thyristor controlled reactors are
now becoming increasingly popular.
2
Fig.3.3. Matlab Model of Thyristor Controlled Reactor
2
Fig.3.4. Simulation Result at Firing Angle 90 Degrees
1
Fig.3.5. Simulation Result at Firing Angle 126 Degrees
1
A Static VAR Compensator (or SVC) is an electrical device for providing fast-acting reactive
power compensation on high-voltage electricity transmission networks. SVCs are part of the
Flexible AC transmission system device family, regulating voltage and stabilizing the system.
The term "static" refers to the fact that the SVC has no moving parts (other than circuit
breakers and disconnects, which do not move under normal SVC operation). Prior to the
invention of the SVC, power factor compensation was the preserve of large rotating machines
such as synchronous condensers.
The SVC is an automated impedance matching device, designed to bring the system closer to
unity power factor. If the power system's reactive load is capacitive (leading), the SVC will
use reactors to consume VARs from the system, lowering the system voltage. Under
inductive (lagging) conditions, the capacitor banks are automatically switched in, thus
providing a higher system voltage. They also may be placed near high and rapidly varying
loads, such as arc furnaces, where they can smooth flicker voltage.
3.5.1. Principle of Operation
Typically, a SVC comprises a bank of individually switched capacitors in conjunction with a
thyristor-controlled air- or iron-core reactor. By means of phase angle modulation switched
by the thyristors, the reactor may be variably switched into the circuit, and so provide a
continuously variable MVAr injection (or absorption) to the electrical network. In this
configuration, coarse voltage control is provided by the capacitors; the thyristor-controlled
reactor is to provide smooth control. Smoother control and more flexibility can be provided
with thyristor-controlled capacitor switching.
The thyristors are electronically controlled. Thyristors, like all semiconductors, generate heat,
and deionized water is commonly used to cool them. Chopping reactive load into the circuit
in this manner injects undesirable odd-order harmonics, and so banks of high-power filters
are usually provided to smooth the waveform. Since the filters themselves are capacitive,
they also export MVARs to the power system.
3.5.2. Connection
Generally, static VAR compensation is not done at line voltage; a bank of transformers steps
the transmission voltage (for example, 230 kV) down to a much lower level (for example, 9.5
kV).This reduces the size and number of components needed in the SVC, although the
conductors must be very large to handle the high currents associated with the lower voltage.
2
3.5.3. Modelling and Simulation
2
Fig.3.8. Simulation Result at Firing Angle 90 Degrees
1
Fig.3.9. Simulation Result at Firing Angle 126 Degrees
3.5.4. Advantages
1
The main advantage of SVCs over simple mechanically-switched compensation schemes is
their near-instantaneous response to changes in the system voltage. For this reason they are
often operated at close to their zero-point in order to maximize the reactive power correction
they can rapidly provide when required.
They are in general cheaper, higher-capacity, faster, and more reliable than dynamic
compensation schemes such as synchronous condensers.
2
A boost converter (step-up converter) is a power converter with an output DC voltage greater
than its input DC voltage. It is a class of switching-mode power supply (SMPS) containing at
least two semiconductor switches (a diode and a transistor) and at least one energy storage
element. Filters made of capacitors (sometimes in combination with inductors) are normally
added to the output of the converter to reduce output voltage ripple. A boost converter is
sometimes called a step-up converter since it “steps up” the source voltage. Since power (P =
VI) must be conserved, the output current is lower than the source current.
3
Fig.4.3. Two Configurations Of A Boost Converter, Depending On The State Of Switch S
Fig.4.4 Voltage and Current Waveforms of Boost Converter Operating In Continuous Mode
When a boost converter operates in continuous mode, the current through the inductor (IL)
never falls to zero. Above figure shows the typical waveforms of currents and voltages in a
converter operating in this mode. The output voltage can be calculated as follows, in the case
1
of an ideal converter (i.e. using components with an ideal behaviour) operating in steady
conditions:
During the On-state, the switch S is closed, which makes the input voltage (Vi) appear across
the inductor, which causes a change in current (IL) flowing through the inductor during a time
period (t) by the formula:
D is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the commutation period T during which the
switch is ON. Therefore D ranges between 0 (S is never on) and 1 (S is always on).
During the Off-state, the switch S is open, so the inductor current flows through the load. If
we consider zero voltage drop in the diode, and a capacitor large enough for its voltage to
remain constant, the evolution of IL is:
As we consider that the converter operates in steady-state conditions, the amount of energy
stored in each of its components has to be the same at the beginning and at the end of a
commutation cycle. In particular, the energy stored in the inductor is given by:
So, the inductor current has to be the same at the start and end of the commutation cycle. This
means the overall change in the current (the sum of the changes) is zero:
…………………Eqn 7.1
This in turns reveals the duty cycle to be:
…………………Eqn 7.2
2
From the above expression it can be seen that the output voltage is always higher than the
input voltage (as the duty cycle goes from 0 to 1), and that it increases with D, theoretically to
infinity as D approaches 1. This is why this converter is sometimes referred to as a step-up
converter.
4.3.2 Discontinuous mode
The load current Io is equal to the average diode current (ID). As can be seen on figure 4, the
diode current is equal to the inductor current during the off-state. Therefore the output current
can be written as:
2
Replacing ILmax and δ by their respective expressions yields:
………..Eqn 7.3
Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as flow:
………………………………...….Eqn 7.4
Compared to the expression of the output voltage for the continuous mode, this expression is
much more complicated. Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the output voltage gain not
only depends on the duty cycle, but also on the inductor value, the input voltage, the
switching frequency, and the output current.
2
Fig.5.1. Flyback Action of Inductor
Voltage (VL) across it increases exponentially until it stabilizes at VIN. Notice the polarity of
the voltage across the inductor, as it is defined by the current direction (inflow side is
positive). When the switch opens causing the current to change from Imax to zero (which is a
decrease, or a negative slope). Looking at it mathematically:
Or L times the change in current per unit time, the voltage approaches negative infinity (the
inductor reverses polarity).Because the inductor is not ideal, it contains some amount of
series resistance, which loads this “infinite” voltage to afinite number. With the switch open,
and the inductor dis-charging, the voltage across it reverses and becomes additive with the
source voltage VIN. If a diode and capacitor were connected to the output of this circuit, the
capacitor would charge to this high voltage (perhaps after many switch cycles). This is how
boost converters boost voltage, as shown in Figure below.
3
Fig.5.2. PFC Boost Pre-regulator
The input to the converter is the full-rectified AC line voltage. No bulk filtering is applied
following the bridge rectifier, so the input voltage to the boost converter ranges (at twice line
frequency) from zero volts to the peak value of the AC input and back to zero. The boost
converter must meet two simultaneous conditions:
1. The output voltage of the boost converter must be set higher than the peak
value (hence the word boost) of the line voltage (a commonly used value is
385VDC to allow for a high line of 270VACrms).
2. The current drawn from the line at any given instant must be proportional to
the line voltage.
Without using power factor correction a typical switched mode power supply would have a
power factor of around0.6, therefore having considerable odd-order harmonic distortion
(sometimes with the third harmonic as large as the fundamental). Having a power factor of
less than 1 along with harmonics from peaky loads reduces the real power available to run the
device. In order to operate a device with these inefficiencies, the power company must supply
additional power to make up for the loss. This increase in power causes the power companies
to use heavier supply lines, otherwise self-heating can cause burnout in the neutral line con-
ductor. The harmonic distortion can cause an increase in operating temperature of the
generation facility, which reduces the life of equipment including rotating machines,cables,
transformers, capacitors, fuses, switching contacts, and surge suppressors. Problems are
caused by the harmonics creating additional losses and dielectric stresses in capacitors and
cables, increasing currents in windings of rotating machinery and transformers and noise
emissions in many products, and bringing about early failure of fuses and other safety
components. They also can cause skin effect, which creates problems in cables, transformers,
and rotating machinery. This is why power companies are concerned with the growth of
SMPS, electronic voltage regulators, and converters that will cause THD levels to increase to
unacceptable levels. Having the boost preconverter voltage higher than the input voltage
forces the load to draw current in phase with the ac main line voltage that, in turn, rids
harmonic emissions.
4
2. Continuous mode
Discontinuous mode can be used for SMPS that have power levels of 300W or less. In
comparison with continuous mode devices, discontinuous ones use larger cores and have
higher I2R and skin effect losses due to the larger inductor current swings. With the increased
swing a larger input filter is also required. On the positive side, since discontinuous mode
devices switch the boost MOSFET on when the inductor current is at zero, there is no reverse
recovery current (IRR) specification required on the boost diode. This means that less
expensive diodes can be used.
Continuous mode typically suits SMPS power levels greater than 300W. This is where the
boost converter’s MOSFET does not switch on when the boost inductor is at zero current,
instead the current in the energy transfer inductor never reaches zero during the switching
cycle (Figure 10).With this in mind, the voltage swing is less than in discontinuous mode—
resulting in lower I2R losses—and the lower ripple current results in lower inductor core
losses. Less voltage swing also reduces EMI and allows for a smaller input filter to be used.
Since the MOSFET is not being turned on when the boost inductor’s current is at zero, a very
fast reverse recovery diode is required to keep losses to a minimum.
1
Fig.5.4. Continuous Mode of Operation
In AC lines Io=0.
2
We can also derive the relationship between PF and THD,
Where,
θ1: the phase angle between the voltage Vs (t) and the fundamental component of Is (t).
Is1, rms: rms value of the fundamental component in line current.
Is, rms: total rms value of line current.
kdist = Is1, rms /Is, rms: distortion factor.
kdisp = cosθ1: displacement factor.
2
Over many years, different current mode control techniques were developed. Some of the
very well adopted methods are:
1. Average Current Control.
2. Variable Frequency Peak Current Control.
3. Hysteresis Control.
Figure below shows a boost PFC circuit using average current control strategy. In the feed-
forward loop, a low value resistor Rs is used to sense the line current. Through the op -amp
network formed by Ri, Rimo, Rf, Cp, Cz, and A2, average line current is detected and
compared with the command current signal, icmd, which is generated by the product of line
voltage signal and the output voltage error signal
There is a common issue in CCM shaping technique, i.e. when the line voltage increases, the
line voltage sensor provides an increased sinusoidal reference for the feed-forward loop.
Since the response of feedback loop is much slow than the feed-forward loop, both the line
voltage and the line current increase, i.e. the line current is heading to wrong changing
direction (with the line voltage increasing, the line current should decrease). This results in
excessive input power, causing overshoot in the output voltage. The square block, x2, in the
line voltage-sensing loop shown in Figure below provides a typical solution for this problem.
It squares the output of the low-pass filter (LPF), which is in proportion to the amplitude of
the line voltage, and provides the divider (A ∗ B)/C with a squared line voltage signal for its
denominator. As a result, the amplitude of the sinusoidal reference icmd is negatively
proportional to the line voltage, i.e. when the line voltage changes, the control circuit leads
the line current to change in the opposite direction, which is the desired situation. As it can be
seen, the average current control is a very complicated control strategy. It requires sensing the
inductor current, the input voltage, and the output voltage. An amplifier for calculating the
average current and a multiplier are needed. However, because of today’s advances made in
IC technology, these circuits can be integrated in a single chip.
3
Fig.6.1. Boost PFC Using Average Current Control
Although the average current control is a more desired strategy, the peak current control has
been widely accepted because it improves the converter efficiency and has a simpler control
circuit. In variable frequency peak control strategy, shown in Figure below, the output error
signal k(t) is fed back through its outer loop. This signal is multiplied by the line voltage
signal αv1(t) to form a line current command signal icmd (t) (icmd (t) = αk(t ) · v1(t)). The
command signal icmd (t) is the desired line current shape since it follows the shape of the line
voltage. The actual line current is sensed by a transducer, resulting in signal βi1(t) that must
be reshaped to follow icmd (t) by feeding it back through the inner loop. After comparing the
line current signal βi1(t) with the command signal icmd (t), the following control strategies
can be realized, depending on its logic circuit:
2
Fig.6.2. Block Diagram For Variable Frequency Peak Current Control
Fig.6.3. Input Current Waveforms for Variable Frequency Peak Current Control In Constant
On-Time Control
3
➢ At t = tk when βi1(tk ) = icmd (tk ), S is turned off.
Fig.6.4. Input Current Waveforms for Variable Frequency Peak Current Control In Constant
Off-Time Control
Like the above mentioned peak current control methods, the hysteresis control method has
simpler implementation, enhanced system stability, and increased reliability and response
speed. In addition, it has better control accuracy than that the peak current control methods
have. However, this improvement is achieved on the penalty of wide range of variation in the
1
switching frequency. It is also possible to improve the hysteresis control in a constant
frequency operation, but usually this will increase the complexity of the control circuit.
2
The following Matlab simulations have been implemented and the corresponding outputs
obtained are shown below
Observations :
3
MOSFET By PWM
Fig.7.2. Matlab simulation for PFC with boost convertor (Firing by PWM)
2
Fig.7.3. (I) Modified Input Current (II) Input Voltage
(III) Current after rectification (IV) Voltage after rectification
1
Fig.7.4. (I) Output Current with resistive load
(II) Output Voltage with resistive load
7.3. PFC With Boost Convertor By Firing MOSFET With Voltage And
1
Current Closed Loop Control
2
Fig 7.6 : (I) Input Voltage in Pink color and current in Yellow color
(II) Input voltage (III) Current after rectification
1
Fig 7.7: Output voltage of the Boost convertor
1
Many Integrated Chips are available in the market these which have all the circuits in build in
them.
Some of the Integrated Chips of same sort are
1. LM3524
2. SG3524N
3. LM5001
4. UC5696
Every IC has its own application of power factor improvement. All the above IC’s are used
with Boost convertor for power factor correction.
We have used SG3524N with the boost convertor.
Features of SG3524N
2
v
Calculations:
Rf = 100k ohm
Fosc = 212.765 kHz
L1= 1.65mh
C0=4.7microF
I0 max = 15mA
2
Conclusion
The key factor is that power factor correction and most other concepts are not new from the
point of view of formal circuit theory. The question is how the problem can be best
understood from the basics and then tackled in the best possible way.
PFC is rapidly becoming a mandatory feature in AC power sources because IEC 6100-3-2
requires the use of PFC circuits. Active and passive PFC circuits are designed to bring the PF
of a system closer to unity (PF = 1.0). While no system is 100% efficient, most PFC
technology makes the power factor of a system greater than 0.95. Highly efficient electrical
systems have the advantage of supplying less current to drive a load. This is beneficial to
customers that have low power factor problems because utilities sometimes charge penalties
for low power factor. While cost savings from PFC on small AC sources isn’t nearly as
noticeable as money saved from PFC on large systems, in the long run PFC will provide
reduced costs for high energy consumers.
References
3
Power Factor Correction Circuits by Issa Batarseh, Ph.D.and Huai Wei Ph.D.university of
central florida USA.
Circuit theory and design of Power Factor Correction circuits by Prof. Chi. K.
Tse,department of electronics and information engg., Hongkong polytechnic university