UPRATING OF OVERHEAD LINES

ROSHAN BHATTARAI
13.K., M.Tcch. (Electrical Engineering)

T hesis su b m itted to C a rd iff U n iv e rsity in c a n d id a tu re for the d egree o f

D octor o f P hilosophy

S chool o f E n g in e erin g
C a rd iff U n iv e rsity , C a rd iff

2011

UMI Number: U585483

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I w o u ld like to ex p ress m y sin cere gratitude and th an k s to m y su p erv iso rs P ro fe sso r A.

(M a n u ) H addad and Dr. H uw G riffith s for their reg u lar guidance, en co u ra g e m e n t and
a d v ic e throu g h o u t m y PhD . I w ould also like to thank Dr. N oureddine H arid for his
a d v ice and support.

M y sincere th an k goes to the E n g in e erin g and Physical S ciences R esearch C ouncil

(E P S R C ) for th e financial su p p o rt to th is project. I w ould also like to thank the
H igher E ducation F u n d in g C ouncil fo r W ales (H E F C W ) for su p porting m y stu d y
under O verseas R esearch S tu d en ts A w a rd S c h e m e (O R S A S).

I w ould like to th an k N atio n al G rid, E D F E n erg y , E -O n, SP Pow er S ystem L im ited, and

B alfour B etty P o w er N etw o rk s for p ro v id in g in v a lu a b le input and feedback thro u g h o u t
the duration o f th is project.

T hanks to all m y friends w ith in H igh V o ltag e E n erg y S y stem s R esearch G roup for th eir
friendship and c o n tin u o u s su p p o rt th ro u g h d isc u ssio n s. T hanks to Dr. R azib R ashedin,
Dr. M aurizio A lbano, Dr. V en k atesan S re e ra n g a c h e tty and, Dr. A thanasios D im o p o u lo s
for their valuable input in m y research w ork.

M y special th an k s go to m y p aren ts, b ro th e r and siste r for th eir p rolonged su p p o rt and

encouragem ent. Last but not the least, I w o u ld like to thank and dedicate this th esis to
my beloved w ife (Sanju) and m y tw o little b o y s (B ib h u and B ishesh) for th eir p atien ce,
continuous support and e n c o u ra g e m e n t th ro u g h o u t the good and bad d ay s o f m y
research.

ABSTRACT

T his th esis establishes a rigorous pro ced u re for o v erh ead line u p rating w ith g u id an ce fo r
c a lc u la tin g the in crease in vo ltag e rating that m ay be achieved for given c o n fig u ratio n s.
It in itia lly in v estig ates differen t technical issues and conventional m eth o d s o f v o ltag e
u p ratin g o f o v erh ead tran sm issio n lines. V arious issues such as clearance, in su latio n ,
p o llu tio n , tra n sie n t overv o ltag es, surge arresters; and its com binations w ere stu d ied fo r
optim ised in sulation co o rd in atio n o f voltage uprated transm ission sy stem s w ith
reference to intern atio n al stan d ard IEC 60071 and B ritish standard B SEN 50341. It then
considers a case o f e x istin g 2 7 5kV line in L 3 structures to analyse th ese issues and
propose a p p ro p riate p ro ce ss for its p o ssib le uprating to 400kV system .
In this in v estigation, o v e rh e a d line u p ratin g techniques used by d ifferent u tilities a ro u n d
the w orld, as p u b lish e d in the literatu re w ere analysed. It w as found that, the d ecision to
uprate overhead lines is in flu en ced by tech n ical, institutional and financial issues. In
this thesis, issues such as c o n d u c to r a ir clearance, insulation electrical strength and
o vervoltages are in v estig ated and tak en into account to dev elo p an ap p ro p riate
m ethodology. F or u p ratin g o v e rh e a d lines, an ex em p lar case study o f u p ratin g an L3,
275kV line to 4 0 0kV w as used, in tro d u c in g m in im u m structural changes to the tow er.
The selection o f the L3 to w e r is m ad e on the basis that it is not read ily upratable to
4 0 0kV due to restricted a ir c le a ra n c e s it o ffers.
T his w ork has d e m o n stra ted that the v o lta g e u p ratin g o f overhead tran sm issio n lines is
possible w ith m inim al m o d ificatio n to the e x istin g line. In this case, the p h ase-to -earth
clearance w as found to be the critical fa c to r w h ic h determ in es the level to w hich the
voltage level o f the line can be in creased . C o m p u tatio n s o f overvoltages due to
sw itching and lig h tn in g p h e n o m e n a w e re c o n d u c te d to estim ate o vervoltage levels and
optim ise the p ro tectio n sch em e req u ired to m in im ise the required m inim um electrical
clearances. E m p lo y in g g ap less m e ta l-o x id e line su rg e arresters w ere p roposed to be the
m ost effective solution to control the o v e rv o ltag e s, th ereb y reducing the m inim um
phase-to-earth clearan ce req u irem en ts. T h is so lu tio n is preferred to m od ify in g the to w e r
structure in o rd er to ach ie v e the req u ired c le a ra n c e for 400kV system . T he stu d y o f
lightning and sw itch in g su rg e p e rfo rm a n c e s a lo n g the line under d ifferent a rre ste r
configurations w a s carried out so th at the a p p ro p riate surge arrester c o n fig u ratio n co u ld
be selected to m ain tain o v e rv o ltag e lev els w ith in the targeted w ithstand level for the
line. The e x ten siv e tran sien t sim u la tio n s p e rfo rm e d in this w ork id entified that, for a
double circuit o v erh ead tra n sm issio n line as u sed on the U K system , the to p -m o st ph ase
conductors are prone to sh ie ld in g failu re lig h tn in g strik es w hilst the b o tto m -m o st p h ase
conductors are likely to be su b jected to b a c k fla sh o v e r surges for the case o f high to w e r
footing resistance.
The assessm ent o f electric and m ag n e tic field p ro file s o f a 275kV line up rated to 4 0 0 k V
was com puted. It show ed that, the field in te n sitie s o f voltage uprated lines are w ith in
the lim its adopted by national and in te rn atio n a l stan d ard s and requires no ad d itio n al
w ayleave for uprating.

iv

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

1.

R. B hattarai. A. H addad, H. G riffiths, and N. Harid, V oltage U p ra tin g o f

O verhead

T ran sm issio n

L ines,

in

45th

International

University'

P ow er

Engineering C onference ( UPEC ), C ardiff, U K , A ug.-Sep. 2010.

2.

R. B hattarai. H. G riffith s, N. H arid, and A. Haddad, C alculation o f E n erg y

Stress on S u rg e A rreste rs in 2 7 5 k V T ransm ission L ines, in 16th International

Sym posium on H igh Voltage E ngineering (ISH), C ape T ow n, South A frica, A ug.
2009.
3.

R. B hattarai, N. H arid, H. G riffith s, and A. H addad, A pplicatio n o f Surge

A rresters for L ig h tn in g P ro tectio n o f 33 k V W ood Pole D istribution L ines, in 20th

International C onference a n d E xhibition on Electricity D istribution (C lRED ),

Prague, C zech R epublic, Jun. 2009.
4.

R. B hattarai. R. R ash ed in , S. V e n k a tesa n , A. H addad, H. G riffiths, and N. H arid,

L ig htning P erfo rm an ce o f 2 7 5 k V T ra n sm issio n L ines, in 43rd International

U niversity Pow er E ngineering C onference (U PEC), Padova, Italy, Sep. 2008.

5.

S. V enkatesan, R. B h attarai, M . O sb o rn e , A. H ad d ad , H. G riffiths, an d N. H arid,

A C ase Study on

V oltage

U p ra tin g o f O v erh ead Lines -

A ir C learan ce

R eq u irem en ts, in 45th In ternational U niversity Pow er Engineering C onference

(UPEC), C ardiff, U K , A u g .-S ep . 2010.

6.

S. V enkatesan, R. R a sh e d d in , R. B h attarai, A. H addad, N . H arid, a n d H.

G riffiths, S ignificance o f S w itc h in g Im pulse B reakdow n V oltage C h a ra cte ristic s
in voltage U p ratin g , in X V II International C onference on Gas D ischarge a n d

their Application (GD), C ard iff, U K , Sep. 2008.

G l o s s a r y o f T erm s

AAAC

All A lu m in iu m A lloy C o n d u c to r

ACSR

A lum inium C o n d u cto r Steel R einforced

ATP

A lternative T ran sien ts Program

B FR

B ack flash o v er R ate

BS

B ritish S tan d ard

BSEN

B ritish S tan d ard E uropean N orm

CEU

C o u n cil o f the E u ro p ean U nion

CFO

C ritical F la sh o v e r V o ltag e

C IG R E

In tern atio n al C o u n c il on L arge Electric System s

C R IE PI

C entral R esearch In stitu te o f E lectric P ow er Industry

DE

D isru p tiv e E ffect

EG M

E le ctro g e o m e tric M odel

EFIV

E xtra H igh V o ltag e

EIA

E nergy In fo rm atio n A d m in istra tio n

EM F

E lectro m ag n etic F ield

EM TP

E lectro m ag n etic T ra n sie n ts P rogram

EN A

E nergy N etw o rk A sso c ia tio n

EPRI

E lectric P o w er R e se a rc h Institute

EPSRC

E n g in eerin g and P h y sical S cien ces R esearch C ouncil

EXB

E xpanded B undle

G FD

G round Flash D en sity

GPS

G eo g rap h ic P o sitio n in g S ystem

HSIL

H igh Surge Im p ed an ce L o ad in g

HTLS

H igh T em p eratu re L ow Sag

HVAC

H igh V o ltag e A ltern atin g C urrent

HVDC

H igh V o ltag e D irect C urrent

IC N IR P

International C o m m issio n on N o n -Io n izin g R ad iatio n P rotection

IE A

International E nergy A gency

IEC

International E lectrotechnical C om m ission

IE E E

In stitu te o f E lectrical a n d E lectronics E ngineers

MCOV

M ax im u m C o n tin u o u s O perating V oltage

N ESC

N atio n al E lectrical S afety C ode

NG

N atio n al G rid

NNA

N a tio n a l N o rm ativ e A spects

N R PB

N a tio n a l R ad io lo g ical P rotection Board

O fgem

O ffice o f the G as and E lectricity M arket

(R ) U S C D

(R e fe re n ce ) U n ifie d S p ecific C reepage D istance

SA G E

S ta k eh o ld e r A d v iso ry G ro u p on E x trem ely L ow F requency

E lectric and M ag n etic F ield

SFFR

S h ie ld in g F ailure F la sh o v e r R ate

SIL

Surge Im pedance L o ad in g

SPS

S ite P o llu tio n S ev erity

UK

U n ited K ingdom

USA

U n ited S tates o f A m e ric a

W oC

W idth o f C o rrid o r

TABLE OF CONTENTS
C h a p t e r 1 . I n t r o d u c t i o n ...........................................................................................................

1-1

l . I A i m s a n d O b j e c t i v e s ...............................................................................................................................

I -4

l .2 C o n t r i b u t i o n o f P r e s e n t W o r k ..................................................................................................

I -6

l .3 T h e s i s C o n t e n t ...........................................................................................................................................

I -6

A R e v ie w ....................................................

2-1

2 . 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n .................................................................................................................................................

2-1

2 . 2 O v e r h e a d L i n e I n c r e a s e d U t i l i s a t i o n O p t i o n s .........................................................

2-2

2 . 2 . 1 R e v i e w o f D e f i n i t i o n s ..................................................................................................................

2-4

2 . 2 . 2 C I G R E D e f i n i t i o n s ..........................................................................................................................

2-5

2 . 3 C o n s t r a i n t s o f O v e r h e a d L i n e U p r a t i n g .........................................................................

2-5

2 . 3 . 1 T h e r m a l C o n s t r a i n t s ........................................................................................................................

2-6

2 . 3 . 2 V o l t a g e C o n s t r a i n t s .........................................................................................................................

2-7

2 . 4 R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r O v e r h e a d L i n e U p r a t i n g ................................................................

2-8

2 . 4 . 1 D e c i s i o n M a k i n g P r o c e s s ...........................................................................................................

2-9

2 . 5 M e t h o d s f o r U p r a t i n g O v e r h e a d L i n e s ............................................................................

2-11

2 . 5 . 1 C u r r e n t U p r a t i n g ...............................................................................................................................

2-13

2 . 5 . 1.1 Re-conductoring M eth o d .............................................................................................

2-13

2 . 5 . 1.2 Deterministic M eth o d .....................................................................................................

2-15

2 . 5 . 1.3 Probabilistic M eth o d .......................................................................................................

2-16

2 . 5 . 1.4 Real-time Monitoring M eth o d ..................................................................................

2-16

2 . 5 . 1.5 High Surge Impedance Loading M eth o d ...........................................................

2-18

2 . 5 . 2 V o l t a g e U p r a t i n g ...............................................................................................................................

2-20

2 . 5 . 2.1 Conductor A ir C learance ............................................................................................

2-20

2 . 5 . 2.2 Insulation Electrical S tren g th ..................................................................

2-24

2 . 5 . 3 S u p p l e m e n t a r y M e t h o d s ..............................................................................................................

2-25

2 . 6 E n v i r o n m e n t a l I m p a c t s o f U p r a t i n g ....................................................................................

2-27

C h a p t e r 2. U p r a t in g o f O v e r h e a d L in es :

2.7 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f O v e r h e a d

L ine

U prating

W o r k s in

D ifferent

C o u n t r i e s ...........................................................................................................................................................

2-30

2 . 8 C o n c l u s i o n s ....................................................................................................................................................

2-34

viii

C h a p t e r 3. Im p o r t a n t A s p e c t s o f In s u l a t i o n C o o r d i n a t i o n f o r V o l t a g e
U p r a t i n g ...........................................................................................................................

3-1

3.1

I n t r o d u c t i o n ....................................................................................................................

3-1

3.2

O v e r v o l t a g e s .................................................................................................................

3-2

3.3

I n s u l a t i o n C o o r d i n a t i o n P r o c e s s a n d R i s k o f F a i l u r e .............................

3-4

3.3.1 Transient Overvoltage and Risk o f Failure C o n c e p t .....................................

3-4

3.3.2 Low Frequency O v e r v o lta g e ...............................................................................

3-7

C l e a r a n c e E n v e l o p e ...................................................................................................

3-7

3.4
3.5

St a n d a r d

Recom m endations

for

E lectrical C learance

D istance

BSEN 50423 ................................................................

3-9

3.5.1 Approach for Lightning Overvoltages C a lc u la tio n .......................................

3-9

Based on

BSEN 50341

and

3.5.2 Approach for Switching Overvoltages C a lc u la tio n ....................................... 3-11

3.5.3 Approach for Pow er Frequency Overvoltages C a lc u la tio n ......................... 3-13
3.6

A ppraisal of

CRIEP1

Electrical C l e ar an ce

D ista nc es C a l c u l a t e d usinc
V a l u e s ......................................

3-14

3.6.1 Calculation o f Range I V oltages ........................................................................

3-15

3.6.2 Calculation o f Range II V o l t a g e s .......................................................................

3-16

3.7

I n s u l a t i o n E l e c t r i c a l S t r e n g t h A c c o u n t i n g f o r P o l l u t i o n .................

3-23

3.8

C o n c l u s i o n s .......................................................................................................................

3-25

Eq u a t io n s with

C h a p t e r 4. A n a l y s i s

of

IEC 60071 S p e c if ie d

E l e c t r i c a l C l e a r a n c e s .................................................................

4.1

I n t r o d u c t i o n .....................................................................................................................

4.2

D etails of the S elected 2 7 5 k V O v e r h e a d L i n e

4.3

4-1

4-1

.............................................

4-1

4.2.1 Tow er Structure and Conductor G e o m e t r y .....................................................

4-3

4.2.2 Conductor S p e c if ic a tio n s ......................................................................................

4-4

4.2.3 Insulator String S p e c if ic a tio n s ............................................................................

4-4

A n a l y s i s o f C o n d u c t o r A i r C l e a r a n c e s ...........................................................

4-5

4.3.1 Clearances under Still A i r ....................................................................................

4-6

43.1.1

Phase to Ground C learances ................................................................

4-8

4.3.1.2 Phase to Earth Wire C learances ............................................................

4-9

4.3.1.3 Phase to Phase Clearances ....................................................................... 4-10

4.3.1.4 Phase to Tower Structure (Phase to Earth) Clearances .....................

4-10

4.3.2 Clearances under Wind L o a d i n g ......................................................................... 4-11

4.4

A n a l y s i s o f In s u l a t o r E l e c t r i c a l S t r e n g t h

.................................................

4-14
IX

4.4.1 Estimation o f Additional Creepage for Uprated 400kV S y s t e m ................ 4-15

4.5

R e d u c t i o n of t h e R e q u i r e d M i n i m u m P h a s e -t o - E a r t h C l e a r a n c e s

4.6

L i m i t a t i o n o f Im p u l s e W i t h s t a n d L e v e l

4.7

C o n c l u s i o n s .....................................................................................................................

4-19

C h a p t e r 5. C o m p u t a t i o n o f T r a n s i e n t O v e r v o l t a g e s o n S e l e c t e d N e t w o r k
f o r V o l t a g e U p r a t i n g ..............................................................................................

5-1

5 . 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n ....................................................................................................................

5-1

5.2

...................................................................

5-2

5 .2 .1 Line Parameters .......................................................................................................

5-2

5.2.2 Transm ission Line Model for EMTP S im u la tio n ..........................................

5-2

5.2.3 EM TP Surge Arrester Model ...............................................................................

5-3

5.2.4 Analysis P r in c i p le s .................................................................................................

5-4

5.2.5 Statistical Switching A n a l y s i s ............................................................................

5-6

5.2.6 Limitation o f Switching Surges on Overhead Lines using Surge Arrestei

5-7

5.3

A n a l y s i s o f L i g h t n i n g O v e r v o l t a g e s .................................................................

5-9

5.4

S im ulation Tools for Ligh tning S t u d y

.............................................................

5-10

C ontrol

of

S w itch in g O v e r v o l t a g e

....

4-17

............................................................ 4-18

5.4.1 S I G M A - S lp ................................................................................................................ 5-10

5.4.2 T F l a s h .........................................................................................................................
5.5

L ine M o d e l l i n g f o r C o m p u t a t i o n o f L i g h t n i n g O v e r v o l t a g e

5.5.1 Line M o d e l ................................................................................................................

5-11
5-12
5-12

5.5.2 Tow er Model ............................................................................................................. 5-12

5.5.3 Tow er Footing Resistance Model ....................................................................... 5-14
5.5.4 Insulator Flashover Model .................................................................................... 5-14
5.5.5 Lightning Stroke Model ......................................................................................... 5-15
5.5.6 Stroke Attraction Model ........................................................................................
5.6

5-16

D eter m in atio n of Lightning

S t r o k e T er m in at io n Statistics usin g

The E le c tr o g e o m e tr ic M o d e l

.............................................................................. 5_17

5.6.1 Distribution o f Lightning Strikes to the L3 Overhead Line using

S I G M A - S lp ............................................................................................................... 5_i g
5.6.2 Distribution o f Lightning Strikes to the L3 Overhead Line using
T F l a s h ......................................................................................................................... 5-20
5.7

L i g h t n i n g O v e r v o l t a g e s in t h e U p r a t e d

L3

Lin e

.........................................

5-21

5.7.1 Stroke to Phase Conductors on the Uprated L3L i n e ...................................... 5-21

5.7.2 Stroke to Tow er Top or Shield Wire on the Uprated L3 L i n e .....................

5-23
x

5 . 8 C o n c l u s i o n s ................................................................................................................................................................ 5 - 25

C h a p t e r 6. A p p l i c a t i o n o f S u r g e A r r e s t e r s f o r L ig h t n in g O v e r v o l t a g e
C o n t r o l o n U p r a t e d L i n e s ....................................................................................

6-1

6 . 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n .................................................................................................................................................

6-1

6.2

S u r g e A r r e s t e r S p e c i f i c a t i o n .................................................................................

6-2

6.3

L i m i t a t i o n o f L i g h t n i n g O v e r v o l t a g e ...............................................................................

6-2

6.3 .1 Limitation o f Overvoltage due to Shielding F a i lu r e ...................................

6-3

6.3.2 Limitation o f Overvoltage due to B a c k f la s h .................................................

6-6

6.4

Lightning

Lin e : S tatistical

6.5

L3 O v e r h e a d
A n a l y s i s ........................................................................................ 6 - 11

Flashover

P e r f o r m a n c e of T he U p r ate d

6 .4 .1 Analysis in S I G M A - S l p ........................................................................................

6-12

6.4.2 Analysis in TFlash ..................................................................................................

6-14

E n e r g y S t r e s s o n S u r g e A r r e s t e r s ......................................................................

6-16

6 .5 .1 Distribution o f Energy Stress ..............................................................................

6-16

6.5.2 Parametric A n a l y s i s ...............................................................................................

6-17

6.5.2.1 Influence o f Arresters in Neighbouring Towers ...................................

6-17

6.5.2.2 Influence o f Tower Footing R esistance .................................................. 6-19

6.5.2.3 Influence o f Power Frequency Voltage A n g le ......................................

6-21

6.5.2.4 Influence o f Stroke Peak Current M agnitude .......................................

6-21

6.5.2.5 Influence o f Stroke Front T im e ................................................................

6-22

6.5.2.6 Influence o f Stroke Tail T im e ..................................................................

6-23

6.6

A r r e s t e r F a i l u r e P e r f o r m a n c e ................................................................................................

6-24

6.7

C u m u l a t i v e F r e q u e n c y D i s t r i b u t i o n o f A r r e s t e r E n e r g y ...........................

6-27

6.8

C o n c l u s i o n s ......................................................................................................................

6-29

C h a p t e r 7. E l e c t r i c

and

Ma g n e t i c F i e l d P r o f i l e s

for

Up r a t e d Li n e

7-1

7 .1 In t r o d u c t i o n ....................................................................................................................

7-1

7.2

L i m i t s o n E x p o s u r e t o E l e c t r i c a n d M a g n e t i c F i e l d s ........................................

7-2

7.3

L ine M o d e l for C o m p u t a t i o n o f E l e c t r i c a n d M a g n e t i c F i e l d s

7-4

7.4

C o m p u t a t i o n o f E l e c t r i c F i e l d ..................................................................................................

7-5

7.4.1 Electric Field Profiles at Different Positions along the L i n e ......................

7-6

7.4.2 Effect o f Conductor-to-Ground C l e a r a n c e ......................................................

7-9

xi

7. 4. 3 Electric Field C o n t o u r s ...................................................................................................

7.5 C o m p u t a t i o n

of

7-10

M a g n e t i c F i e l d .................................................................................. 7-13

7.5.1 M agn etic Field Profiles at D ifferent P osition s along the L i n e ....................

7-14

7.5.2 Effect o f C o n d u cto r-to -G ro u n d C l e a r a n c e ..........................................................

7-16

7.5.3 M a g n e tic Field C o n t o u r s ............................................................................................

7-17

7.6 C o n c l u s i o n s ............................................................................................................................. 7-19

C h a p t e r 8. G e n e r a l D i s c u s s i o n s , C o n c l u s i o n s

and,

F u t u r e W o r k .....................

8-1

8 . 1 F u t u r e W o r k ..........................................................................................................................

8-6

R e f e r e n c e s ...............................................................................................................................................

C h a p t e r 1 ...........................................................................................................................................

C h a p t e r 2 ...................................................................................................................................................................

ii

C h a p t e r 3 ...................................................................................................................................................................

ix

C h a p t e r 4 ...........................................................................................................................................

C h a p t e r 5 ...................................................................................................................................................................

x ii

C h a p t e r 6 ...................................................................................................................................................................

x jv

C h a p t e r 7 ...........................................................................................................................................

xv

A p p e n d i x A ..................................................................................................................................................

XV1

A p p e n d i x B ..................................................................................................................................................

xvii

A p p e n d i x C ..................................................................................................................................................

xix

A p p e n d i x D .................................................................................................................................................

xx

A p p e n d i x E ..................................................................................................................................................

xxii

xii

C h a p te r 1
In t r o d u c t i o n

T h e dev elo p m en t in tec h n o lo g y and increase in the quality o f life, w hich the m ost
industrialised an d d e v e lo p e d co u n tries in the w orld have experienced in recen t d ecad es,
have led to an in cre asin g d e m a n d for electrical pow er. A ccording to the E nergy
Inform ation A d m in istra tio n (E lA ), U .S. D epartm ent o f E nergy [ l . I ] , the p ro jected
grow th o f w orld net e le c tric ity g e n e ra tio n o v er the next 20 years w ill be 2.4% p e r year.
The statistics p rese n ted in EIA and In tern atio n al E nergy A gency (IE A ) reports [ l . l , l . 2]
show that the grow th rate for e le c tric ity g en e ra tio n varies from l% to 3% p er annum in
the d ev elo p ed co u n tries to 4 % to 17% p e r an n u m in the developing countries.

In the case o f d ev elo p ed co u n tries, th e e le c trica l p o w e r tran sm issio n and distrib u tio n
in frastru ctu res are 50 to 60 years old. T h e d e sig n life o f m ost o f the in frastructure being
50 years, th ey are now m atu red b e y o n d th e ir e n g in e e rin g perform ance and econom ic
life [ l . 3]. W ith the increase in g e n e ra tio n c a p a c ity o f the system to m eet in creasin g
dem and and the grow th o f tra n sm issio n c a p a c ity often lim ited due to physical o r
en v iro n m en tal co n strain ts, there is a n eed to tra n sm it g rea ter quantities o f b ulk electrical
pow er th ro u g h

the

ex istin g

tra n sm issio n

stru ctu re.

F urtherm ore, due

to

g rea ter

unevenness in gen eratio n , d istrib u tio n , e.g. o ff-sh o re w ind, existing tra n sm issio n
system s are b ein g p ro g ressiv ely m ore co n g ested .

In the U nited K ingdom (U K ), the tra n sm issio n system operated by N atio n al G rid
com prises a p p ro x im ately 15,000 circu it k ilo m etres o f 275kV and 400kV o v e rh e a d lines
supported by m ore than 26,000 tra n sm issio n to w e rs [1.4, 1.5]. T his netw o rk o f p o w e r
lines w as constructed m ain ly du rin g the 1950s and 1960s, and m uch o f the system is
alm ost at the end o f its a n ticip ated tech n ical life [1.6, 1.7]. A ccording to N atio n al G rid,

1-1

the p e a k u n restric te d dem and on the national e le c tricity tran sm issio n system in 'a v e ra g e
c o ld s p e ll co n d itio n s w ill rise from 57.6G W in 2 0 0 9 /1 0 to 62.8G W by 2 0 1 6 /1 7 w ith an
av e ra g e grow th rate o f 1.2% per annum [1.8]. O n the o th er hand, to m eet the B ritish
G o v e rn m e n ts 2 0 2 0 target on clim ate change and ren ew ab le energy, a m ajo r c h an g e in
gen eratio n c a p ac ity is req u ired that m ay add an add itio n al 32G W g en eratio n from w ind
and

17GW from n ew n o n -ren ew ab le generation, and this w ill be req u ired to be

transm itted th ro u g h the grid [1.8, 1.9]. Such changes m ean the size and location o f
generation c o n n e cte d to th e grid w ill change considerably. T he a d v a n ce m en t in
technology w ith the p o ssib le in tro d u c tio n o f dem and m anagem ent could also lead the
electricity d em an d p a tte rn to change. T o acco m m o d ate these changes in g en eratio n and
dem and, there w ill be a need for an e le c tric ity g rid w ith larger capacity and the ab ility to
m anage g rea ter flu ctu atio n s in e le c tric ity d e m a n d and supply. H ow ever, the m ajo rity o f
the lines in the ex istin g 5 0-60 y ears old n e tw o rk in U K are ru nning at th eir full cap acity
and therefore, m ay not be able to m a n a g e fu tu re scenarios. In general, the m ajo r po w er
flow on the U K tran sm issio n system is from N o rth to South. T he lines betw een S cotland
and E ngland are op eratin g at th eir full c a p a c ity and also a num bers o f 2 7 5kV lines
w ithin the S co ttish P ow er T ra n sm issio n n e tw o rk are h ig h ly strained [1.9]. O th er circuits
w ithin the U K n etw ork are o v e rlo a d ed d u e to in cre asin g clustering o f g en erato rs in
p articular areas. For exam ple, sig n ific a n t g e n e ra tio n dev elo p m en t is p ro p o sed in E ast
A nglia that is ex p ected to co n n ect 8 .4 G W b e tw e en 2011 and 2021 [1.10]. A d d itio n al
5GW from w in d farm s (2 0 1 4 -2 0 2 0 ) m ay also c o n n e c t to the existing system in E ast
Anglia. T he tran sm issio n circu its in th is p a rt o f the grid are already ru n n in g c lo se to
their full cap acity and c h an g es w ill be req u ired to accom m odate this new g en eratio n
[1.10]. Figure 1.1 show s the ex p ected c h an g e in p o w e r flow pattern in the U K p o w er
netw ork betw een 2010/11 and 201 6 /1 7 [1.8]. A s can be seen in the figure, the line

1-2

UPPCRNOKTtl

24*77

2010/11 flo w s

2016/17 flo w s

Figure 1.1: Changes in power flow pattern in the United Kingdom |1.8|.

betw een north and south Scotland and betw een south-east (estuary) to central England is
predicted to increase its loading.
The solution to this m arked increase in p redicted pow er flow is to either to construct
new lines or to increase transm ission capacity b y uprating or upgrading the existing line.
In the UK , there are on-going projects to construct new lines (e.g. B eauly-D enny 400kV
system [1.9]) in Scotland. In addition, the m ain Scotland - England interconnections are
proposed to be uprated (e.g. O verhead line betw een Stella W est and Eccles, Stella W est
and Spennym oor [1.11]) and som e lines to upgrade (e.g. D ounreay-B eauly-K intore
275kV upgrade [1.9]).
In a global context, w ith the increase in population and urban expansion, the
construction o f new transm ission grid is lim ited to a certain extent. C onstructing new

1-3

o v e rh e a d

lines

is b e co m in g m ore d ifficu lt d u e

to the

fo llow ing

co n cern s

and

im p e d im e n ts [ 1 .1 2 - 1.14]:

G ro w in g d ifficu lties for obtaining new w a y le av e s due to

-

visual im p act

property d ev alu atio n

ecological im pact

e le c tro m ag n e tic field (E M F ) co n cern s to public health

e n v iro n m en tal im p act on line co n stru c tio n and m aintenance

Institutional d iffic u lty in o b tain in g essen tial authorisation

L ack o f inv esto rs in te rested in fin a n c in g the p roject as they get b etter return from
o th er lucrative pro jects

In the future, u tilities are ex p e ctin g g ro w in g p ressu res from regulators and are looking
for d ifferen t w ay s to m in im ise th eir costs. T h e o p p o rtu n ity to increase the tran sm issio n
cap acity by u p ratin g ex istin g lines is th ere fo re o f interest because it can be done at
sig n ifican tly less cost than b u ild in g a n ew o v e rh e a d line and w ith a shorter lead-tim e.

1.1

A im s

and

O b j e c t iv e s

The aim s and o b jectives o f this th esis are to find up ratin g solutions to increase the
capacity o f e x istin g o v erh ead lines. T o a c h ie v e this, three different ap p ro ach es are
available.

Increase c u rren t carry in g cap acity o f line co n d u c to rs

C onvert line o peration from A C into H V D C

Increase v o ltage rating o f the line

Previously, m uch research w as carried out to find tech n ical and econom ical so lu tio n s to
increased transm ission cap acity req u irem en ts. M an y utilities around the w o rld have

1-4

in cre ase d the cap acity o f o v erhead lines by im p ro v in g current carry in g cap acity [1.15 1.20].

In the U nited K ingdom , N ational G rid (N G ) has increased the cu rren t c a rry in g

c a p a c ity o f lines through the installation o f high tem p eratu re low sag c o n d u c to r [1.21].
H o w ev er, to in cre ase the current carry in g c a p ac ity o f lines, the m ajo rity o f the
techniques req u ire the structural m o d ification o f the line or change in ex istin g c o n d u c to r
w ith high tem p e ra tu re low sag c o n d u c to r [1.22] to g eth e r w ith longer outage problem .

On the other han d , even th o u g h the c o n v ersio n o f a long AC transm ission line to H V D C
is econom ical an d tec h n ica lly feasib le and can offer benefits in term s o f system stab ility
and control, the o v erall co st for a H V D C line up to certain distance (breakeven distan ce)
is high due to the high cost o f term in al e q u ip m e n ts used in converter stations [1.23,
1.24]. T h erefo re, this m eth o d is not e c o n o m ic a lly su itab le for short and m edium lines.

W hile cu rren t up ratin g and H V D C so lu tio n s are b e in g adopted, there has been less
attention given to voltage u prating. T h e m a jo r c h a llen g e in this approach is the need to
raise an d /o r m o d ify tra n sm issio n line stru c tu re s/su p p o rts in order to com ply w ith the
m inim um

safety distances.

W ith v o lta g e u p ratin g , the challenge to increase the

insulation stren g th o f the line req u ires b e tte r in su la tio n coordination techniques. A t the
sam e tim e, lig h tn in g and sw itch in g o v e rv o lta g e s req u ire additional air clearances in the
system . T h erefo re, it is req u ired to h av e n ew , im proved insulation c o o rd in atio n
techniques as w ell as the o ptim al a p p lic atio n o f o v e rv o ltag e protective devices to en su re
safe o peration o f the up rated line, th e re b y m in im isin g structural m o d ificatio n o f the
existing line. A ccordingly, the tw o m ain o b je c tiv e s o f this research are;

To qu an tify the effect on o v e rv o ltag e levels an d protection m arg in s o f v arious

system p aram eters such as clearan ce, in su la tio n , pollution, transient o v erv o ltag es,
surge arresters; and th eir c o m b in a tio n s for o p tim ise d insulation co o rd in atio n o f
voltage-uprated overhead tran sm issio n system s.
1-5

T o e sta b lish a rigorous procedure fo r fu tu re o v erh ead line u p rating p ro jects w ith
g u id a n c e for calcu latin g the increase in v o lta g e rating that m ay be ach iev ed from
v a rio u s m easures.

1 .2

C o n t r ib u t io n

of

Present W ork

T h e im portant c o n trib u tio n s achieved du rin g the co u rse o f this research w ork are as
follow s.

E xtensive critical rev iew o f d iffe re n t u prating m ethods and associated tech n iq u es
researched

a n d /o r

im p lem e n te d

in clu d in g

cases

o f uprated

lines

in d ifferen t

countries.

O p tim ised insu latio n co o rd in a tio n p ro ce ss for tran sien t and tem porary overv o ltag es
for d eterm in atio n

o f risk

o f failu re

fo llo w in g

voltage u prating

o f o v erhead

tran sm issio n system s.

N ovel an aly sis o f electrical c le a ra n c e issu es an d insu latio n electrical strength o f an

ex istin g line to establish a p p o site te c h n iq u e fo r o v e rh e a d line uprating.

C o m p u tatio n o f o v erv o ltag es d u e to sw itc h in g a n d lightning phenom ena to estim ate

overv o ltag e level and o p tim isa tio n o f the p ro te c tio n schem e required to m in im ise the
required m in im u m electrical c le aran ces.

R eco m m en d atio n s o f cost e ffectiv e a p p ro p ria te surge arrester co n fig u ratio n for
effective co n tro l o f lig h tn in g o v e rv o lta g e w ith in th e targeted w ithstand level.

A ssessm ent o f electric and m ag n etic field s in voltag e-u p rated line to en su re pu b lic
safety and to identify req u irem en ts for a d d itio n a l w ayleave.

1.3

T h e s is C o n t e n t

An extensive review o f d ifferen t m eth o d s and te c h n iq u e s investigated and p racticed by

researchers and utilities aro u n d the w o rld are p re se n te d in C hapter 2. T he rev iew co v ers

1-6

d iffe re n t o p tio n s o f in creasing utilisatio n

and differen tiates up ratin g

from

o th er

a v a ilab le o p tio n s such as upgrading, refu rb ish m en t, life extension, and exp an sio n . T his
c h a p te r also p rese n ts an overview o f d ev e lo p m en ts in overhead line u p ratin g to g eth e r
w ith a listing o f u p ratin g projects around the w orld.
In C hapter 3, th e insu latio n coordination pro cess required for vo ltag e u p ratin g is
theoretically a n aly sed . T he co o rd in atio n process is explained for both tran sien t and
tem porary o v e rv o ltag e s to id en tify c learan ce req u irem en ts for the standard in sulation
level under d iffe re n t o v e rv o ltag e s. Insu latio n levels are also assessed based on d ifferen t
pollution levels.

C h ap ter 4 d eals w ith the d e te rm in a tio n o f the a v ailab le electrical clearances in the case
o f an ex istin g 2 7 5kV o v e rh e a d tra n sm issio n line, and com pares the values w ith required
electrical clearan ces for u p ratin g to a 4 0 0 k V sy stem . T he requirem ents for additional
insulation and c o n d u c to r a ir c le aran ces fo r v o lta g e u p ratin g are identified.

T o p ro v id e ad d itio n al c learan ces for an u p ra te d v o lta g e level, the option o f m o d ification

o f an e x istin g structure is rep laced b y the a lte rn a tiv e approach o f reducing the
overvoltage level in the system so th a t the re q u ire d m inim um clearance d istan ce for
uprated v o ltag e level its e lf is red u ced . In o rd e r to e x p lo re this possibility, co m p u tatio n
o f sw itch in g and lightning o v e rv o ltag e s is in clu d e d in C hapter 5. In this chapter,
application o f an ap p ro p riate line su rg e a rre s te r c o n fig u ratio n for an effective sw itc h in g
overvoltage control is also show n.
In C hapter 6, th e app ro p riate surge a rre ste r c o n fig u ratio n for the control o f lig h tn in g
overvoltage u n d er sh ield in g failure and b a c k flash is covered. The effect o f to w e r
footing resistance on o v erv o ltag e w hich can d ire c tly influence the p ro p o sed altern ativ e
concept o f voltage u p rating by red u c in g req u ired m inim um clearance d istan ce is

1-7

d isc u sse d in the chapter. L ightning p e rfo rm a n c e an aly sis o f a 275kV tra n sm issio n line
u p rate d to 4 0 0 k V is perform ed together w ith a rre ste r en erg y duty and its risk o f failure.

In C h a p te r 7, in o rd er to identify any p o tential env iro n m en tal and public h ealth effect,
electric and m ag n e tic fields are com puted for p ro p o sed uprated line. T he v alu es are
co m p ared w ith th o se p ro d u ced prior to uprating and also another con v en tio n al line o f
the sam e voltage level. T he field profiles for the uprated line are ch eck ed ag ain st the
lim its o f electric an d m ag n etic field ex p o su re in the UK .

1-8

C h a p te r 2
U p ra tin g

of

O verhead Lines: A Review

T he term uprating is derived from the w ord rating (noun) w hich in the E nglish
language ap p ears

as a classificatio n

or ranking

based on q uality,

standard,

or

perform ance [2.1]. In the general co ntext o f electrical term s, rating m eans the load
w hich a m ach in e or a p p a ra tu s is desig n ed to carry under specified co n d itio n s, w hich
varies a c co rd in g to the kind o f ratin g in question [2.2], In the context o f this specific
w ork, the rating is the a p p a re n t p o w e r cap acity o f the line. T herefore, the term uprating
should be u n d ersto o d as in cre asin g the p o w e r cap acity o f the line.

2.1

I n t r o d u c t io n

In recent years, in creasin g p o w e r tra n s fe r c a p a b ility o f overhead lines has b ecom e o f

interest to electric u tilities all o v er the w o rld to deal w ith increasing dem an d for pow er.
T here are v ario u s tech n iq u es u sed a ro u n d the w o rld to increase the p o w er tran sfer
capability o f overh ead lines. P o w er b e in g m u ltip le o f current and voltage, all these
adopted tech n iq u es e ith er resu lt in in c re a sin g the overhead line cu rren t capability,
voltage cap ab ility , or both. T he se le c tio n o f an ap p ro p riate technique for u p ratin g a
p articular o v erh ead line is n o t an easy task.

It d ep en d s upon the future req u irem e n t o f

the line capacity, the ex istin g line p a ra m e te rs to g e th e r w ith line design and co n stru ctio n
m ethods. C o n sid eratio n m u st be giv en n o t o n ly to electrical lim itations but also to
physical lim itations, o p erato r c o n stra in ts an d eco n o m ics.
An ultim ate purp o se o f this th esis

is to c o n trib u te tow ards d e v e lo p m en t o f a

com prehensive and inn o v ativ e p ro ce d u re for v o lta g e uprating o f overh ead tra n sm issio n
lines that helps increase u tilisation o f ex istin g sy ste m s w ith careful co n sid eratio n o f the
costs. Initially, how ever, it is essential to sc ru tin ise o th er different availab le tec h n iq u es
2-1

for in cre asin g utilisation o f existing tran sm issio n system s. T h erefo re, the first part o f
th is c h a p te r review s differen t options for in creasin g u tilisation and d ifferen tiates
u p ratin g from o th e r available options.
N ext, the v ario u s co n strain ts on the p o w er tra n sfe r capability o f o v erh ead lines and
requirem ents fo r o v e rh e a d line uprating are co n sid ered . T herm al, vo ltag e and o p eratio n
related co nstraints are d isc u sse d in detail. D ifferent factors that influence the decisio n
m aking for u p ratin g e x istin g lines as o p posed to b u ild in g a new line are considered.
In the fo llo w in g sectio n , d iffe re n t u p ratin g m ethods investigated and practised by
researchers and u tilitie s aro u n d the w o rld are ex ten siv ely review ed. B oth cu rren t and
voltage u p ratin g te c h n iq u e s are d isc u sse d to g eth e r w ith exam ples o f application o f such
techniques in several cases o f u p ratin g in d iffe re n t countries. E nvironm ental effects o f
overhead line u p ratin g are also d isc u sse d . F inally, a b rie f history o f o v erhead line
uprating is p rese n ted in clu d in g a list o f u p ra tin g w o rk s around the w orld.

2 .2

O v e r h e a d L in e I n c r e a s e d U t il is a t io n O p t io n s

U prating is o n e option for in cre asin g u tilisa tio n o f ex istin g assets. In the co ntext o f
overhead lines, there are several o p tio n s fo r in cre asin g utilisation. C IG R E T echnical
B rochure 353 [2.3] gives o p tio n s for in c re a sin g u tilisa tio n o f overhead tran sm issio n line
as show n in F igure 2.1. T his b ro ch u re also p ro v id e s guidelines for eco n o m ic and
technical co n sid eratio n s for tra n sm issio n line a sse t renew al and any c o m b in a tio n o f
uprating, u p g rad in g , refu rb ish m en t an d a sse t e x p a n sio n .
The choice o f the a p p ro p riate m eth o d to in cre ase the utilisation o f ex istin g o v e rh e a d
lines is influenced by d ifferen t factors. T h e lim ita tio n o f the existing o v erh ead line and
its future needs are the tw o key issues to be ad d ressed . If the lim itation is due to v o ltage
control, stability or m axim um p o w er flow , then uprating could be the b est choice.
H ow ever, u p grading is done to im p ro v e the re liab ility o f the ex istin g line and
2-2

re fu rb ish m e n t is done to restore or extend the w o rk in g life o f the line. T ab le 2.1 gives a
g e n e ra l o v erv iew o f each option, and c learly d ifferentiates up ratin g from the o th er
o p tio n s o f in creasin g u tilisation [2.3].

T ran sm issio n line

increased utilisatio n

U prating

R efurbishm ent
or
Life extension

U p g rad in g

E xpansion

Figure 2.1: Transm ission line increased utilisation options |2.3|.

Uprating

Improving
reliability

Driver

increase thermal
rating by

Action

Proposition

installing

higher capacity conductors

additional conductors
active line rating systems

increasing

conductor tension
conductor attachment height

adopting

probabilistic ratings

Increasing
capacity

Upgrading

Failure consequence, C

Definition

Failure probability, P

Terminology

Failure risk, ( R - P x C )

Table 2.1: O verview o f transm ission line increased utilisation options |2.3]. Symbols shown are
represented as: increased (T), decreased ( i ) , unchanged (=).

redesign

high surge impedance performance

increase voltage
rating by

increasing

insulation electrical strength

conductor attachment height

improve
structural
performance by

increasing

structure strength
foundation strength

improving

insulation pollution performance

lightning performance by improving
insulation
lightning performance by improving
earthing
lightning performance by installing
earth wires

reducing

structure potential rise

electrical induction

installing

lightning arresters

improve
electrical
performance by

2-3

Refurbishment

Restoring to
design
working life

Life Extension

Repairing
without
restoring to
original
design life
4,

2.2.1

restoring

structure strength
foundation strength
conductor strength and capacity
insulation pollution performance
fitting strength
lightning performance

arrest
degradation by

repairing

structures
foundations
conductors
insulators
fittings
earthing
earth wires

improve
availability by

increasing

maintainability by adopting live line

techniques

provide third
party access by

installing

telecommunication equipment
fibre optic

1
arrest
degradation by

Expansion

T T

Review of Definitions

In rev iew in g certain p u b lish e d literatu re [2.4 - 2.7], it has been found that it is d ifficult
to d ifferen tiate b e tw e en the o p tio n s for in creasin g utilisation o f o v erhead lines. For
exam ple, sim ila r m ea n in g s are p ro v id e d fo r u p ratin g and upgrading. In m any cases
[2.7], life ex ten sio n , refu rb ish m en t, an d ex p a n sio n s are considered all w ithin u p rating or
u pg rad in g p ro cesses. T h e E lectric P o w er R e se a rc h Institute (E P R I)s tran sm issio n line
uprating guide [2.8] defin es u p ratin g as In crease in the p o w er transm ission cap acity o f
overhead lin e s . In C IG R E T ech n ical B ro ch u re N o. 175 [2.9] uprating is defined as
Im proving electrical c h a ra c te ristic s o f an o v e rh e a d lin e and upgrading is defined as
S tren g th en in g line c o m p o n e n ts . H o w ev er, C IG R E T echnical B rochure No. 294 [2.10]
provides the fo llo w in g d efin itio n o f u p ratin g and u pgrading.

U prating o f a line is the in crease in its tra n sm issio n capacity

U p g rading o f a line m ean s im p ro v e m e n t o f its structural reliability

This d o cum ent also d ifferen tiates re fu rb ish m e n t from life extension and ex p ansion. A
m ore recently p u blished C IG R E T ech n ical B ro ch u re No. 353 [2.3] p ro v id es the m ost
com prehensive defin itio n s and c la ssifica tio n o f all o p tions for increasing u tilisatio n o f
overhead lines.

2-4

2.2.2

CIGRE Definitions

C IG R E T ech n ical B rochure No. 353 [2.3] p ro v id es the follow ing d e fin itio n s for
d ifferen t o p tio n s u sed in increasing utilisatio n o f o v erh ead lines.

Uprating:

Increasing the electrical ch aracteristics o f a line due to, for

exam ple, a req u irem e n t for h ig h er electrical capacity or large clearances.

U prating w ill in crease the electrical cap acity o f the line thereby p o ten tia lly
in creasing the c o n seq u e n c e s o f a failure.

Upgrading:

In creasin g the orig in al m echanical strength o f an item due to, for

ex am p le, a req u irem e n t for h ig h e r m eteo ro lo g ical actions. U pgrading does not
change the c o n seq u e n c e s o f failu re but d ecrease p robability o f failure.

Refurbishment: E x ten siv e ren o v a tio n o r rep air o f an item to restore their
intended design

w o rk in g

life.

R e fu rb ish m e n t results in a decrease o f the

p ro b ab ility o f failu re and no ch a n g e to the co n seq u en ce o f failure.

Life Extension: E x ten siv e re n o v a tio n o r re p a ir o f an item w ithout restoring their

original design w o rk in g life. If the o rig in a l d esig n w orking life is restored, life
ex ten sio n b ecom es refu rb ish m en t. L ife e x te n sio n results in a decrease o f the
p ro b ab ility o f failure and no c h a n g e to the c o n seq u en ce o f failure.

Expansion: Increasing the fu n c tio n a lity o f tra n sm issio n line com ponents.

T herefore, u p ratin g o f overh ead lines m ea n s in cre asin g its M V A capacity w ith o u t any
w holesale stru ctu ral m o d ificatio n s, re c o n stru c tio n , or replacem ent o f existing structures.

2 .3

C o n s t r a in t s

of

O v e r h e a d L in e U p r a t in g

Pow er b ein g m ultiple o f current and v o lta g e , p o w e r tra n sfe r capability o f o v erh ead line
is lim ited eith er by co n strain ts related to cu rre n t (th erm al) or the co nstraints related to
voltage.

2-5

2.3.1

Thermal Constraints

T h e rm a l co n strain ts are related to the cu rren t flo w in g in the line and e n v iro n m en tal
co n d itio n s. T he m ag n itu d e o f current c o n tin u a lly flow ing over tim e d issip ates heat. In
the case o f d istrib u tio n lines, and short and m ed iu m transm ission lines, ex cessiv e
current will o v e rh e a t the line conductors resu ltin g in therm al expansion that p ro d u ce
alum inium a n n e a lin g and ex cessiv e sag. T he co n seq u en ce o f increase in sag is that the
m inim um g ro u n d c le a ra n c e for line co n d u c to r m ay be violated. T herefore, the p o w e r
transfer ca p ab ility o f a line is lim ited b y its therm al lim it w hich is related to the current
carrying c a p ac ity (cu rren t ratin g ) o f the line. A cco rd in g to EPRI G uide [2.8], although
the therm al lim it is not a fu n ctio n o f tra n sm issio n line length, the po w er tran sfer
capability o f lines that are sh o rte r than 50 m iles in length are m ore affected by its
therm al lim it as bey o n d th is length tra n sie n t sta b ility restrict po w er transfer. L onger
lines w ith high tra n sfe r rea c ta n c e are p ro n e to instability. For short lines, w here line
reactance is sm all, the m ax im u m p e rm issib le p o w e r tra n sfe r to satisfy tran sien t stability
req u irem en ts

co u ld

ex ceed

the

lin e s c u rre n t

carry in g

capacity (therm al

lim it).

C onversely, for long lines, the sta b ility lim it m ay be reach ed before the therm al lim it o f
the line.
F igure 2.2 sho w s the load in g c a p a b ility o f a ty p ical high voltage tran sm issio n line
co n sid erin g b oth system stab ility and th erm al lim its [2.8, 2 .11]. The figure show s the
am ount o f p o w e r tran sm itted for 45 p h a se shift b etw een sending and receiv in g end
voltage (d) for a typical tran sm issio n line in p e r unit (p.u) o f Surge Im pedance L o ading
(SIL). It is c le a r from the figure that for sh o rt tran sm issio n lines, the therm al lim it
applies w hereas above a certain length, the sta b ility lim it restricts. EPR I G u id e [2.8]
defines SIL as a product o f the term in a tio n bus vo ltag es divided by the c h aracteristic
im pedance o f the line. SIL is M W lo ad in g o f a transm ission line at w hich natural

2-6

reactiv e p o w e r balance o ccu rs betw een the c a p ac itiv e and inductive elem en ts o f the line

[2 . 12 ].
4 -i

T>
0)

3 -

g
{2 (0

T herm al limit

2*5
3

oS

*
o
Q.

Stability Limit
S - 45

100

200

300

400

600

500

111"1
700

8 00

Line Length (miles)

Figure 2.2: M aximum power flow considering system stability |2.8, 2.11].

2.3.2

Voltage constraints

T he p o w e r tra n sfe r cap acity o f o v erh ead lines is a lso lim ited by co nstraints related to
voltage. T h e p o w e r tra n sfe r lim it is fixed b y the m ax im u m operating n o m in al system
v o ltage w ith so m e variations. N orm ally, the a llo w a b le variation in transm ission system
v o ltage is lim ited to 5 % o f n om inal sy stem v o lta g e . T he upper lim it o f sy stem vo ltag e
d ep en d s upo n d ifferen t line param eters. O v e rv o lta g e in the system can cause short
circuits, rad io interference and corona, w h ile un d erv o ltag e can cau se in ad eq u ate
o peration o f eq u ip m en ts on the c o n su m e rs side [2.13]. To sum m arise, the v o ltage
related c o n stra in ts for o v erh ead line p o w e r tra n sfe r c a p ab ility are governed by [2.14]:

O v erv o ltag es in the system (lightning, sw itc h in g and pow er frequency)

E lectrical clearances

In sulation levels

S tru ctu re designs

2-7

C o ro n a and noise

E lectro m ag n etic interference

T h e im p u lse w ith sta n d level o f a system is d iffe re n t for each voltage class. A n increase
in the voltage class w ill result in an increased req u ired w ithstand level o f the system and
accordingly all o th e r d esig n param eters w ill vary. T he International E lectro tech n ical
C om m ission (IE C ) stan d ard on Insulation C o o rd in atio n (IE C -6 0 0 7 1-1) [2.15] details
the w ithstand levels for system voltages b etw een
clearance req u irem e n ts

lk V and 800kV and m in im u m

for electrical safety. E nergy N etw ork A sso ciatio n (E N A )

T echnical S p ecificatio n 43 -8 [2.16] also gives clearances required for o v erh ead lines
in clu d in g gro u n d c learan ce req u irem e n ts. B ritish Standard (B SEN 50341) [2.17, 2.18]
ap p lies for new o v erh ead lines o p e ra tin g at 45 k V and above. An increase in o v erv o ltag e
w ith stan d level increases the m in im u m req u ired clearances [2.16, 2.19] resu ltin g in
m o d ificatio n to oth er system p a ra m ete rs su ch as insu latio n levels and structural designs.
A n increase in op eratin g vo ltag e w ill resu lt in in creased risk o f corona th at p ro d u ces
au d ib le noise. T he electro m ag n etic field s resu ltin g from corona discharge m ay create
radio

freq u en cy

noise

cau sin g

p o ssib le

in terferen ce

w ith

radio

freq u en cy

c o m m u n ic a tio n system s. For tra n sm issio n lines ab o v e 500kV , audible noise m u st be

co n sid ered in the design [2.20].

2 .4

R e q u ir e m e n t s

fo r

O v e r h e a d L in e U p r a t in g

U tility o p erato rs frequently are faced w ith d e c isio n s o f w hether to upgrade o r uprate
tran sm issio n lines for im proving p o w e r tra n sfe r c a p ab ility o r reliability. T h e d ecisio n is
guided by technical, financial and e n v iro n m en ta l issu es together w ith the ch aracteristics
o f the ex istin g system . For exam ple, in the U n ited K ingdom and o th er E uropean
countries, additional tran sm issio n cap acity is n ow req u ired to deal w ith the a n ticip ated
grow th in renew able en ergy g e n eratio n s [2.21, 2.22]. D etailed system d esig n stu d ies o f
2-8

th ese

fu tu re

planned

netw orks

enable

stu d y

o f line

p erfo rm an ce,

tran sm issio n

c a p ab ility , vo ltag e drop, fault, line loss etc. T h e o utcom e o f such studies can help
p red ic t the req u irem en ts for future overh ead lines and accordingly facilitate p lan n in g
the system .

2.4.1

Decision Making Process

T he EPRI G u id e on T ra n sm issio n Line U prating [2.8] sets out the decision m ak in g

process on in cre asin g c a p ac ity o f overh ead lines. T h e process is based on a question:
w h eth er to bu ild new lines o r to d e v e lo p a facility o f getting an additional cap acity
from e x istin g lin e . T he ch o ic e b e tw e en these tw o options is based on the fo llo w in g
im p o rtan t factors [2.8]:

C ause o f present lim itatio n s

m ax im u m po w er flow
vo ltage control
stab ility
reliab ility o f service

R eq u irem en t for base load o r peak load

R eq u irem en t for seasonal load o r a n n u al load

L im itatio n in sm all area or large are a o f the n e tw o rk

S ystem req u irem en ts o f the line an d o p e ra to rs p o licy

P o ssib ility o f line outage

P hysical (line design and co n stru ctio n ) and in stitu tio n al considerations

Financial characteristics and eco n o m ic factors

T he p o w er flow lim itation due to sy stem sta b ility and voltage control can be im p ro v ed
by reducing the p er unit im pedance o f the line o r by increasing voltage. S hort-term

2-9

lo ad in g c o n tin g e n cy can be tackled by detailed an aly sis o f the therm al ratin g o f the line,
real tim e m o n ito rin g and, dynam ic line ratin g [2.8]. P ow er flow lim itation due to
re lia b ility o f the service can be addressed b y im p ro v in g the lig h tn in g / sw itch in g
p e rfo rm an ce in c o m b in a tio n w ith im proved g allo p in g and vibration p erfo rm an ce [2.23].
In general, m ajo r lines in a netw ork cannot be taken out o f service for long p erio d s o f
tim e. T herefore, the d e c isio n o f uprating such lines is also influenced by line o utage
lim itations. In such case, the m eth o d s that require long outage can be p o stp o n e d and
o th er short-term m easu res can be tak en into account. For exam ple, if the line is to be
u p rated by m eans o f p ro b ab ilistic an d d y n am ic uprating m ethods in co m b in atio n o f rec o n d u cto rin g , then the first tw o m eth o d s can be used as a tem porary m eth o d befo re rec o n d u c to rin g is done. In som e cases, at d istrib u tio n level w here co n d u cto r clearan ce is
not an issue, voltage u prating can be a c h ie v e d by rep lacin g insulators un d er live line
co nditions.
F urther, the decisio n o f u p ratin g o v e rh e a d lines is also strongly affected by the
institu tio n al and physical constraints. O b ta in in g w a y leav es for the construction o f a new
line m ay be d ifficu lt, and this can be an in ce n tiv e to im prove capacity o f ex istin g lines
[2.23]. S om etim es, g o v ern m en t strateg y an d re g u la to ry bodies (e.g. Ofgem in U K ) can
p lay sig n ifican t role in th e d ecision m ak in g p ro ce ss.

Physical constraints are linked to

the structural perfo rm an ce cap ab ilities o f an e x istin g line. C onstraints such as the
m ech an ical strength o f ex istin g sup p o rt stru c tu re s, foundations, conductor p o sitio n s in
the structure, av ailab le c o n d u c to r air c learan ce, c o n d u c to r size, and insulation electrical
strength are im portant.
In som e cases, financial and eco n o m ic factors are dom inant. C ost includes ad d itio n al
w ayleave, m aterials, co n stru ctio n , m ain ten an ce and operation o f the uprated line [2.13,
2.23], B efore m aking any d ecisio n , the o v erall cost o f line u prating is n o rm ally

2-10

c o m p a red

w ith

the cost o f other m eth o d s

o f increased

u tilisatio n

an d /o r new

c o n stru c tio n . Baldick and O Neill [2.24], Shankle [2.14], and Piernot and Leahy [2.25]
co m p are the cost o f num ber o f c o n v e n tio n al a n d em erging transm ission line up ratin g
tech n iq u es w ith the cost o f b u ild in g a n e w line, and based on the tech n ical and
eco n o m ic facto rs, th ey recom m end u p ratin g e x istin g lines rather than b u ild in g n ew lines
to increase p o w e r flow capacity. S o m etim es, a lte rn a tiv e and technically feasible o p tio n s
are available for u p ratin g , e.g. different c o n d u c to r types for reconductoring m ay o ffe r
differen t u p ratin g c a p ac itie s at d ifferent c o sts. In such cases, the econom ics o f the
p ro ject m ay d ictate the c o n d u c to r selection.

2 .5

M etho ds

fo r

U p r a t in g O v e r h e a d L in e s

T here are n u m ero u s m eth o d s and tec h n iq u es th a t h av e been applied to uprate o v erhead
lines. T h e selection o f the m o st suitable m e th o d fo r line uprating m ay vary from case to
case, and w ill d ep en d upon the location, c h a ra c te ristic s and perform ance o f the existing
line. B y d efin itio n , up ratin g an o v e rh e a d lin e in v o lv es increasing its p o w er tran sfer
ca p ab ility w hich requires eith er in cre asin g its:

cu rren t ratin g (C urrent U p ratin g ) a n d / o r

v o ltage level (V oltage U prating)

E xam p les o f cu rre n t uprating o f lines in Ire lan d , U K , South A frica, and Israel are given
in [2.22, 2 .26 - 2.28] w hile pro jects in v o lv in g v o ltag e uprating in South A frica, U S A ,
and Japan are d escrib ed in [2.5, 2.29, 2 .3 0 ]. A n u m b er o f publications d escrib e m eth o d s
and tec h n iq u es for current up ratin g [2.4, 2 .1 3 , 2.31 - 2.33] and voltage u p ratin g [2.13,
2.33].

C IG R E

W orking G ro u p

B 2 .0 6 ,

in T echnical B rochure 294

[2.10], has

su m m arised the m ain m ethods and to o ls to u p rate overhead lines, and fu rth er d etails on
up ratin g have been p u b lish ed by W o rk in g G ro u p B2.13 in T echnical B rochure 353
[2.3]. B ased on these p u b licatio n s, T a b le 2.2 lists the m ost com m on cu rren t and voltage
2-11

u prating m ethods together w ith the associated techniques and processes [2.3, 2.4, 2.10,
2 .1 3 ,2 .3 3 ,2 .3 4 ].

Table 2.2: Methods for overhead line uprating |2.3, 2.4, 2.10, 2.13, 2.33, 2.34|.

U p ra tin g

M e th o d

T e c h n iq u e

Reco n ductoring
M ethod

C onductor
replacem ent
M odify rating
criteria
Increase conductor
tension

D eterm inistic
\ rtf U H
ivieinou
n

In c re a sin g
c u rre n t
r a te
(C u rre n t
U p ra tin g )

Increase conductor
attachm ent height

Probabilistic
M ethod

A ccount for actual

load profile
M odify rating
criteria

R eal-tim e
m onitoring
M ethod

Line therm al, sag,

ten sio n and/or
clim atic conditions
m easurem ent

High surge
im pedance
loading
M ethod

C o n ductor bundling
and geom etry

Increasing
conductor
attachm ent height
In c re a sin g
v o ltag e
level

C onductor air
clearance

Insulation
electrical
strength

Increased conductivity area

High tem perature conductors
C om posite conductor system s
M etrological study
Increase tension
N egative sag device
Structure body extension
Insulator crossarm
Interspaced structures
T em porary increase in rating
Probability based m etrological
study
Line sag or tension m onitor
C onductor distributed
tem perature sensing
W eather station

Physical configuration

Re-tensioning
Sag adjustm ent
Increasing conductor height at
attachm ent point
Extension o f structure height
Terrain countering
Re-tensioning

Increasing phase-tophase clearance

(V o ltag e
U p ra tin g )

P rocess

R e-insulation

Line com paction

Inter-phase spacer
D ouble-circuit line to high
voltage single-circuit line
Adding / substituting insulators
U se o f polym eric insulator
Cross-arm m odification

2-12

2.5.1

Current Uprating

C u rren t u p ra tin g is the m ost com m on o p tion for o v erhead line uprating. It is effectiv e
for short tra n sm issio n lines w h ere the line lo ad in g is lim ited by the therm al c a p ac ity o f
the

co n d u cto rs.

An

in cre ase

in cu rren t rating m eans an increase

in c o n d u c to r

tem p eratu re and, hence, the m eth o d is also know n as Am pacity Uprating o r Therm al

U p r a t i n g A s defin ed in [2 .3 5 ], The am pacity o f a conductor is that m axim um

constant current which w ill m eet the design, security a n d safety criteria o f a pa rticu la r
line on which the conductor is u s e d a n d Therm al R ating is The m axim um electrical
current, which can he safely ca rried in an overhead transmission line (same m eaning as
ampacity').
D ifferen t m eth o d s to ach iev e c u rre n t u p ratin g are explained in the fo llow ing su b
sections.

2.5.1.1

Re-conductoring Method

R e -c o n d u cto rin g is the m ost c o m m o n a n d e ffectiv e m ethod o f current u prating that

req u ires

m inim al

m o d ificatio n s

o f e x istin g

structure.

A lthough

this

m eth o d

is

c o m p a rativ ely expensive than any o th e r c u rre n t uprating m ethod, it is ch eap er than
b u ild in g a new line [2.24, 2.26]. R e p la c e m e n t b y a conductor w ith a slightly high cross
sectional area (sam e c o n d u c to r w e ig h t) o r b y H igh Tem perature Low Sag (H T L S )
c o n d u cto rs can p ro v id e sig n ifican t c u rre n t u p ratin g w ith o u t any structural m o d ificatio n .
F or ex am p le, th e rep la ce m e n t o f A lu m in iu m C o n d u cto r Steel R einforced (A C S R ) by
A ll A lu m in iu m A llo y C o n d u c to r (A A A C ) o f sam e cross-sectional area can im p ro v e the
therm al rating up to 40% [2.35]. In th e U K , A A A C is extensively used to rep lace A C S R
w hich allo w s an increase in m ax im u m o p e ra tin g tem perature from 50 C to 75 C, w ith
a c o rre sp o n d in g 25% increase in th erm al ratin g [2.32, 2.36].
S om e c o m m ercially av ailab le H T L S co n d u c to rs are show n in Figure 2.3 [2.35]. T he

2-1 3

Extra high-tensile
Thermal resistant
ealvanised steel core
resistant grease

aluminium allov
Galvanised

TA1 orZ T A l (compact shape)

steel wire

TA1 orZ T A l (round shape)

a) TACSR

b) GTACSR

(Extra) Thermal

Annealed aluminium

resistant aluminium
Zinc-coated invar

Steel core

alloy or Aluminium

c) TACIR

e) ACCR

(photo:3M USA)

0 ACCC

(photo:

composite technology)

g) CRAC (Composite
Reinforced Aluminium
Conductor) (photo: California
Energy Commission)

Figure 2.3: Commercially available HTLS conductors [2.35].

H T LS conductor has com paratively low sag to conductor tem perature ratio i.e. the rate
o f increase o f sag w ith increase in co n d u cto r tem perature is low. Therefore, for the sam e
sag, these conductors can operate at h ig h er tem peratures (above 100C) thereby
increasing the therm al rating o f the ov erh ead lines. Low sag at high tem perature helps
m aintain required clearances w ithout any structural m odification. Figure 2.4 show s the
final sag and conductor tem perature relationship for different HTLS conductors based
on a case study [2.35]. From the figure, it can be seen that G ZTA C SR has the low est
sag. A ccording to a 2002 C IG R E report [2.37], around 20,000km o f H TLS conductors
had been installed around the w orld at that tim e. Exam ples o f line uprating using H TLS

2- 14

T
s

u.

Conductor Temp - deg C

| 430-GCTACSR

A3Q-ZTAC1R o - ZafarACSR -*-49& A C S S nW l

Figure 2.4: Sag variation with temperature for original Zebra ACSR and ACSS/TW, TACIR and
GZTACSR replacement conductors |2.35.|

conductors are given in [2.22, 2.26, 2.38 - 2.41]. In the UK, N ational Grid, has replaced
A C SR w ith G Z T A C SR resulting in a 130% increase in therm al rating [2.26]. Sim ilarly,
in Spain, G Z T A C SR has been used to increase therm al rating by 70% [2.39]. In Brazil,
a 50% increase in therm al rating w as achieved using TA C SR and TA CIR [2.38]. W hile,
replacem ent by A C SS/TW in the U SA resulted in a 70% increase in line rating [2.41].
Technical and financial evaluations o f d ifferent HTLS conductors was carried out for
projects in R om ania [2.40] and Ireland [2.22] and recom m ended ACSS and G T A C S R
respectively.

2.5.1.2

Determ inistic Method

By use o f this m ethod, current u prating can be achieved by increasing conductor

tem perature m aintaining ground clearance. T his technique m akes use o f w eather
conditions (w ind speed, w ind direction, am bient tem perature, and solar radiation) to
calculate current rating considering the m axim um allowable conductor tem perature
[2.4]. C alculations can follow the m ethods recom m ended by IE E E [2.42] or C IG R E

[2.43] b ased on the w orst-case w eath er co n d itio n for a line (high am bient tem p eratu re,
low w ind sp eed , full solar radiation and m ax im u m load current). In this m ethod,
c o n d u c to r te m p e ra tu re m ay exceed the design tem perature resulting into co n d u cto r
an n ealin g and v io la tio n o f sa fe ty clearance. T h erefo re, this m ethod can o nly be used
w ith p ro p er an aly sis o f risk d u e to high current. P rovided w ith sufficient w e a th er data o f
the area, an overh ead line w ith lo w -ra ted tem p eratu re can be uprated using this m ethod.
T he tem p latin g tem perature (te m p e ra tu re lim it for a given clearance) can be increased
by in creasin g co n d u cto r ten sio n an d c o n d u c to r attachm ent height. T his can be d one by
re-ten sio n in g , using a n eg ativ e sag d e v ic e , e x ten d in g line structures, using insulated
cro ss-arm s, and m id-span stru c tu re s [2.3]. A n exam ple o f the application o f the
d eterm in istic m eth o d (re -te n sio n in g an d to w e r w aist-ex ten sio n ) is d escribed in a case
stu d y o f a 138kV , double circu it line in C a n a d a [2.44].

2.5.1.3

Probabilistic Method

In o rd er to determ in e the risk o f an u n sa fe co n d itio n occurring and to calculate the

a m o u n t o f tim e allow able for a c o n d u c to r tem p eratu re to exceed its lim it,

the

p ro b ab ilistic m eth o d m akes use o f actu al w e a th e r conditions o f the geographical area

w h ere the line is located [2.4, 2 .3 1]. A n e x a m p le o f the application o f this m eth o d to
d eterm in e the p ro b ab ility o f an u n safe c o n d itio n fo r a given current value is given in
[2.45], and d ifferen t pro b ab ilistic m e th o d s are d escrib ed in [2.46]. U sing this m ethod,
the risk level can be kept c o n sta n t at a d e fin e d exceedence level w h ilst v a ry in g the
am pacity. T he distrib u tio n o f a m p a c ity at d iffe re n t exceedence levels, vario u s seasons
o r tem p latin g tem p eratu res can also be d e te rm in e d [2.47].

2.5.1.4

Real-time Monitoring Method

In this m ethod, the actual co n d itio n o f the o v erh ead line is m onitored online. A ctual
co n d u c to r p o sition is d eterm in ed by m ea su rin g co n d u cto r tension, tem p eratu re, sag or
2-16

the w eather condition. R eal-tim e m onitoring helps system operators to develop and
apply the line ratings in real tim e, based on actual conductor position. V arious m ethods
and new technologies are used for online condition m onitoring o f overhead lines.
W eather stations, tem perature sensors, load cells, cellular or radio com m unications,
G eographic Positioning S ystem (G PS) technology are some o f the techniques used for
line m onitoring.
U sing this m ethod, conductor tem perature rarely exceeds the design tem perature and,
hence, the risk o f exceeding the an n ealin g tem perature o f the alum inium is reduced
[2.31]. In com parison w ith the rated cap acity (static rating), this m ethod provides higher
line capability for 98% o f the tim e and provides around 15% to 30% additional
capability for over 95% o f the tim e as can be seen in Figure 2.5 reproduced from [2.3].
T his m ethod w as applied to obtain the dynam ic therm al ratings o f 400kV lines in Spain
[2.48] and 1 15kV line in the U SA by m easu rin g am bient conditions in real tim e using
w eather stations [2.49]. A co m bination o f a laser survey (for conductor catenary

Capability (MVA)

200 250 -

Actual real time rating

100 200

00:00
>

150 -

00:00

12:00
Time of day

Additional available capability

Risk with
static rating

100

Capability with static rating

50 -

40

60

100

Percent of time (%)

Figure 2.5: Additional available capability with overhead line monitoring real-time rating |2.3].

2- 17

m easurem ent), span-by-span sag adjustm ent and conductor tem perature m easurem ents
w ere used to obtain a 30% increase in am pacity rating o f a 230kV line in the U SA
[2.50]. O ther exam ples o f tension and sag m easurem ent are described in [2.51] and
[2.52]. Figure 2.6 illustrates som e techniques used for real-tim e m onitoring o f overhead
lines [2.3, 2.50].

Figure 2.6: Techniques for real-time monitoring (a) Truck-based laser survey system (2.50] (b)
Temperature measuring device on a 230kV line (2.50] (c) Conductor tension monitor (2.3] (d)
conductor sag monitor |2.3|.

2.5.1.5

High Surge Im pedance Loading Method

A s described earlier, the pow er tran sfer cap acity o f short transm ission lines is lim ited
m ainly by therm al capacity. H ow ever, the rating o f long Extra High V oltage (EH V )
lines m ainly falls below its therm al lim it and can be restricted by system stability lim its
that confines loading up to the Surge Im pedance Loading (SIL) level [2.12]. W ith
developm ent in technology, increase in po w er transfer capability is possible by
increasing the SIL level i.e. low ering the characteristic im pedance o f the line. This
concept is called High Surge Im pedance L oading (H SIL).
A pplication o f E xpanded B undle (E X B ) and

H SIL-EX B configuration that uses

expanded asym m etrical disposition o f sub-conductors in a bundle as show n in Figure

2.7 (reconstructed from [2.53]) has increased the SIL close to its therm al lim it. The
HSIL technique also helps to im prove voltage regulation and can reduce the electric
2-18

field intensity at the surface o f the conductor [2.53]. A case study m ade on a 400kV
quadruple bundle conductor line in India indicated 22% increase in SIL level w ith EXB
configuration [2.12]. This im provem ent in SIL level increases transm ission capacity o f
the line. As show n in Figure 2.8, H SIL/EX B technique has been adopted for uprating a
230kV and a 500kV line in B razil [2.53, 2.54]. A 38% increase in transm ission capacity
was obtained for the 230kV line uprating.

>

H SIL-EX B

A *

Expanded Bundle (EX B )

CD

C onventional Bundle

O
A

O Q
B
O O

B.

c

o

O
c

Figure 2.7: Cross section view o f different bundle configurations used for increasing surge
impedance loading (reconstructed from |2.53|).

Figure 2.8: Lines in Brazil (a) 230kV HSIL line prototype (2.3] (b) 500kV HSIL-EXB line (2.53).

2-19

Voltage Uprating

2.5.2

C o m p ared w ith c u rren t uprating, very few cases o f uprating the line by in creasin g its
v o ltage ratin g are found in the literature. A cco rd in g to a survey carried ou t by C IG R E
[2.10], out o f 40 u p ratin g cases th ro u g h o u t the w orld, only 10 cases w ere found for
vo ltag e uprating. T his m ay be b e c au se voltage u p rating is m ore expensive than cu rren t
u p ratin g d u e to the req u irem e n t o f m o d ificatio n s o f term inal substation equipm ents.
H ow ever, voltage uprating

can

p o te n tia lly

achieve m uch higher p o w er tra n sfe r

c ap ab ility w ith reduced electrical lo sses than in the case w ith current uprating. T his
m eth o d can be su itab ly used w ith m in im u m line m odification for overhead lines w here
p o w e r tra n sfe r cap ab ility is in flu e n ce d b y v o ltag e regulation or stability co n sid eratio n s
[2.13].
Increasing the voltage rating o f o v e rh e a d lines is possible if sufficient electrical
clearan ce is achieved. In o rd er to a c h ie v e th is clearance, tw o areas o f studies are
required. First, to identify the a v a ila b ility o f the req u ired air clearances for a hig h er
vo ltag e in an ex istin g structure and, se co n d , to assess the insulation level required to
w ith sta n d o v erv o ltag es due to p o w e r fre q u e n c y , lig h tn in g im pulse and sw itching surge.

2.5.2 .1

Conductor Air Clearance

O ne c o m m o n practice to achieve sa tisfa c to ry e lectrical clearance for voltage u p rating o f

o v erh ead lines is to p rovide su fficie n t a ir c le a ra n c e for the higher uprated voltage level.
T his clearan ce in cludes [2.3]:

C learan ces to ground and o th er su p p o rtin g and adjacent structures

C o n d u c to r p h ase-to -p h ase c le a ra n c e

C learan ce betw een c o n d u c to rs and earth w ires

C learan ce for live line m ain te n a n c e

W hen in creasing the v o ltage level, the a v a ilab le clearance in an ex istin g line m ust be
2-20

su fficien t to w ith sta n d o vervoltages w ith p o w e r frequency, sw itching and lig h tn in g

a ctiv ities at th e u p rate d v o ltage level as stated in regulatory guidelines and in dustrial
codes o f p ractice. D iffe ren t countries follow d ifferen t guidelines for this purpose. F or
ex am p le, the N ational E lectrical S afety C ode (N E S C ) [2.55] applies in the U S A
w h ereas IEC 60071 [2.15, 2 .1 9 , 2.56] is used in Europe. In the U K , 'B S E N 50341
[2.17, 2.18] and B SEN 50423 [2.57] are used to g eth er w ith IEC 60071 and an ind u stry
stan d ard E N A T S 43-8 [2.16]. T h e se sta n d a rd s specify values o f clearances for d iffe re n t
o v erv o ltag e w ithstand levels (p o w e r frequency, lightning and sw itching). T ab le 2.3
show s the standard insulation lev els fo r 2 7 5 k V and 400kV nom inal system voltages
[2.15], and T able 2.4 co m p ares e le c tric a l clearance requirem ents specified in IEC
60071-2 w ith those given in a N a tio n a l G rid standard [2.58] and EN A T ech n ical
S p ecificatio n [2.16].

Table 2.3: Standard insulation levels for transm ission systems [2.15]. Values in bold are standard
withstand level considered for overhead line design in the UK.

Nominal
Voltage
(kVnns)

Highest
System
Voltage
(kVfms)

Standard Sw itching Impulse Withstand

Voltage
Longitudinal
Insulation
(kVpealc)

Phase-toearth
(kVpeak)

Phase-to-phase
(ratio to the
phase-to-earth
peak value)

750

750

1.50

Standard
Rated
Lightning
Impulse
Withstand
Voltage
(kVoeak)
850
950

275

300

950
750

850

1.50

1050
1050
850

850

1.60
1175
1175

400

420

950

950

1.50
1300
1300

950

1050

1.50

1425
1 B ShN s are Hnglish language version ofliuropean Standards (liN s)

2-21

T a b le 2 .4 : C o m p a r i s o n o f w it h s t a n d v o lt a g e a n d e le c t r ic a l c le a r a n c e

Withstand Level (kVpcak)

&
Electrical Clearances (m)

For 275kV system

(Highest system v o lta g e :
300kV)
IEC 60071
UK
T2.15,2.191
standards
Min.
[2.16, 2.58]
Max.

For 400kV system

(Highest system v o lta g e :
420kV)
IEC 60071
UK
[2.15,2.19]
standards
Min.
Max.
[2.16, 2.58]

Switching Impulse Level

750

850

850

850

1050

1050

Lightning Impulse Level

850

1050

1050

1050

1425

1425

Phase-to-earth Clearance

1.6*

1.8*

2.1

1.8*

2.6*

2.8

2.3**

2.6**

2.4

2 9**

3.6**

3.6

Phase-to-phase
Clearance

N ote: All clearances are based on sw itching im pu lse level. * conductor-structure, ** conductor-conductor

In m ost o f cases, the o p p o rtu n ity to in cre ase the voltage level o f an overhead line is
d eterm in ed by phase-to -earth clearan ce. In so m e cases, it is also n ecessary to exam ine
and satisfy the clearance req u irem en ts fo r p a rtic u la r w eather conditions such as w ind
and snow .
D ifferent tech n iq u es are used to in cre ase c o n d u c to r a ir clearance and these are d escrib ed
by Daconti and Lawry [2.13] :-

F or k eep in g appropriate c o n d u c to r-to -g ro u n d clearances:

R e-tensioning the ex istin g c o n d u c to rs
P erfo rm in g sag a d ju stm e n ts (c u ttin g ou t co n d u cto r lengths)
In creasin g the co n d u c to r h e ig h t at the attachm ent support (co n v ertin g
susp en sio n strings to p se u d o d e a d -e n d string)
In creasin g the a ttach m en t su p p o rt heig h t
R aisin g and / or m o v in g to w e rs
Inserting additional to w ers
P erform ing terrain c o n to u rin g in rural areas

D ifferent line com p actio n te c h n iq u e s for adjusting phase-to-phase clearance:

R ed ucing d istan ce b e tw e en p h ase conductors
2-22

Increasing distance betw een subconductors in a bundle

C onverting low voltage double circuit line to high voltage single circuit line

A pplication o f V -string insulators to prevent sw inging o f suspension strings

E xam ples o f structural extension for achieving appropriate conductor air clearance for
cases o f voltage uprating in the USA are described in [2.59 - 2.61]. In Japan, insulatorsupported ju m p e r devices and com pact phase-to-phase spacers were developed for
ensuring clearances for the uprating o f a 66kV line to 154kV operation [2.30]. O ther
exam ples o f application o f phase-to-phase spacers are in use in Canada, G erm any and
the U SA [2.3, 2.29] w hile com posite insulators w ere used in Brazil for a com pact line
solution o f voltage uprating [2.62]. The A m erican Electric Pow er C om pany has
introduced an outw ard extending conductor loop, nam ed U pgrade-Loop for increasing
electrical clearances o f conductors from ground and tow er structure w ithout any
m odification in the existing structures [2.63]. F igure 2.9 shows exam ples o f different
techniques applied for ensuring electrical clearance in overhead lines.
C IG R E Technical Brochure 294 [2.10] describes a project where increased clearance
w as achieved in uprating a 69kV double circuit line to a single circuit 138kV line in

Post insulator with

fixed joint to hold up
the conductor loop

Figure 2.9: Different techniques for ensuring conductor air clearance (a) phase-to-phase spacer in
161 kV line [2.3] (b) insulating crossarm in 230kV line |2.62] (c) view of an Upgrade-Loop [2.63|.

2-23

B razil and, [2.5] describes application o f a V -string insulator for uprating a 275kV line
to 400kV in South A frica, as show n in Figure 2.10.

9 ISSUUT03S
146 * 2i4

Figure 2.10: (a) uprating 69kV double circuit line to l38kV single circuit line in Brazil [2.10] (b)
use o f V-string insulator for uprating 275kV line to 400kV in South Africa (2.51.

2.5.2.2

Insulation Electrical Strength

A nother solution to achieve adequate electrical clearance is through the evaluation o f

electrical strength o f available insulation. D eterm ining the actual strength o f the
insulators o f an overhead line requires assessm ent o f voltage stresses under the
follow ing conditions [2.19]:

Pow er frequency,

L ightning im pulse and,

Sw itching surges

The basic objective o f the assessm ent is to establish sufficient clearance to m eet the
increased required m inim um creepage and basic insulation level for uprated voltage
[2.3]. The required insulation electrical strength for pow er frequency can be determ ined
by evaluating the insulation level based on a pollution level that determ ines the

2-24

m in im u m req u ired creepage for insulators. IEC 60815 [2.64] defines d ifferen t Site
P o llu tio n S ev erity (SPS) classes and specifies specific creepage for each class.
T he req u ired in su latio n strength for h ig h er vo ltag e lines or lines w ith low earth
resista n c e o r in reg io n s o f low keraunic levels is determ ined by sw itch in g surges
w h ereas lig h tn in g su rg e c o n d itio n s d eterm ine the req u ired insulation strength for low er
voltage lines or lines w ith high earth resistance o r in regions o f high k eraunic levels
[2.3],
In o rd er to m in im ise the n e e d o f in creased clearances, the selection o f a p articu lar
in sulation is p rim arily d e te rm in e d by th e e v alu atio n o f the conductor co n fig u ratio n on
the structure. A part from this, in su la to r nu m b ers and geom etry (I-strut, vertical and
h o rizontal V -string, ten sio n , p o st etc.) p lay s a m ajo r role in the process. F urther,
clim atic factors such as air d e n sity , h u m id ity , p recipitation, pollution, tem perature and,
ice d e p o sitio n have to be c o n sid e red [2.3].
R e-in su latio n is the fu n d am en tal te c h n iq u e u sed for ensuring insulation electrical
strength for v o ltage uprating. T h is te c h n iq u e in cludes adding or substituting insulators,
rep la cin g stan d ard insulators b y p o ly m e ric o r an ti-fo g units, I-string converted to Vstrings and in som e cases use o f in su la te d c ro ss-arm s [2.13]. E xam ples o f app licatio n o f
these tech n iq u es for voltage u p ratin g in co u n tries such as South A frica, U S A , B razil,
and A u stralia are d escribed in [2.5, 2 .5 9 , 2 .6 2 , 2.65].

2.5.3

Supplementary Methods

O th e r m eth o d s to increase p o w e r tra n s fe r c a p ab ility o f their overhead lines are as

follow s:
C o n v ersio n o f 3-phase line to m u ltip h a se (> 3-phase) line
-

H V A C line to H V D C line
H V A C line to hybrid A C -D C line
2- 25

R esearch w as carried out to investigate m u ltip h ase technology for e n h an cem en t o f

p o w e r tra n sfe r capability o f overhead lines and 6 -p h ase and 12-phase tec h n o lo g y w ere
found quite p ro m isin g [2.66]. A study o f a 138kV double circuit, 3-phase line in the
U SA show ed the p o ssib ility o f uprating the line to 6-phase operation w ith o u t deg rad in g
its reliab ility and en v iro n m en tal perfo rm ance [2.67]. H ow ever, this m ethod is not
w idely ad o p ted d u e to c o m p a ra tiv e ly high cost o f changes in the substation eq u ip m en ts
and layout than any o th e r u p ratin g m ethod. Further, m ultiphase operation o f a 3-phase
system produces ad d itio n al a u d ib le noise, radio noise and increases electric field
m ag n itu d e at ground level [2.67]. T h erefo re the m ethod is not suitable for any line
passin g th rough an urban area.
E xisting A C lines m ay also be c o n v e rte d to tran sm it DC pow er for increasing pow er
tra n sfe r cap ab ility o f o v erhead lines w ith a d v an tag es for stability, co ntrolled em ergency
support

and

no

contribution

to

sh o rt

circu it

level.

R esearch

e n h an cem en ts in pow er tra n sfe r c a p a c ity by con v ertin g A C

show s

significant

lines to b ip o lar or

m o n o p o la r D C operation. A stu d y in S p a in in d icated that, up to 175% increase in

cap acity w as possible w ith o u t any c h a n g e o f line com ponents w hile a 500% increase
w as ach iev ed w ith 6 crossarm in A C sy ste m m o d ified to 2, longer and stro n g er
crossarm , and w ith replacing I-strin g in su la to rs to V -string [2.68]. S im ilarly, [2.69]
d em o n strates the po ssib ility o f a 350% in cre ase in transm ission capacity by con v ertin g
an A C line to H V D C .
R ecently, a new concept o f a h ybrid A C -D C p o w e r transm ission as show n in Figure
2.11 has been p roposed for up ratin g o v e rh e a d lines and involves sim ultaneous A C -D C
p o w er tran sm issio n in a sam e line. S tu d ies m ad e in Sw eden [2.70] and in India [2.71]
dem o n strate the feasibility o f c o n v e rtin g d o u b le circu it A C lines into A C -D C co m p o site
lines by u tilising one o f the circuits as a b ip o la r DC w ithout any m ajor alteratio n to the

2-26

ex istin g structure. T he Indian study [2.71] d e m o n stra ted that an 83% increase in line
capacity w as ach iev ab le.

Double
circuit AC

Hybrid
AC/DC

AC

DC

Figure 2.11: Conversion of double circuit AC line to hybrid AC/DC line |2.70].

2 .6

E n v ir o n m e n t a l I m p a c t s

of

U p r a t in g

T here are v ario u s environm ental im p acts o f o v erh ead lines. A survey b y EPR I show ed
that the m ajo rity o f people oppose o v e rh e a d lines due to visual effect, p roperty
de v a lu a tio n and concern about health and sa fe ty [2.8]. W hile uprating w here existing
lines are still in use, the visual im pact re m a in s the sam e. H ow ever, the health and safety
issue is a sso ciated w ith the electric and m a g n e tic fields, and these w ill be affected by
uprating.
T he vo ltag e u p ratin g m ay be lim ited to c e rtain e x te n t by an increase in electrical field
m ag n itu d es, resu ltin g in the risk o f c o ro n a effect, w hereas an increase in m ag n etic field
can lim it the current uprating process. W ith o u t the change in conductor co o rd in ates, the
increase in the nom inal voltage leads to an increase o f the electric field in the
su rroundings. T he E lectrical field, if h ig h e r than threshold, starts p ro d u cin g co ro n a
resu ltin g in audio noise, visible light and radio interference. A lso, the change in
co n d u cto r co ordinates d uring v o ltage u p ratin g has a significant effect on m agnetic fields
produced around the line. T he e le c tro m ag n e tic field issue, therefore, sh o u ld be analysed
2-27

w h en u p ratin g voltage o r current to ensure th at electric and m agnetic fields v alues are
w ith in the lim its dictated by different g u id elin es. In the UK, N ational R adiological
P ro tectio n B oard (N R P B ) specifies lim its o f ex p o su re to electrom agnetic fields [2.72]
and ad o p ts the g u id elin es o f the International C o m m issio n on N on-Io n izin g R adiation
P rotection (IC N IR P ) [2.73] and supports the recom m endation o f the C ouncil o f the
E uropean U nion (C E U ) [2.74] on lim iting ex p o su re o f the general public. W ith
reference to th ese g u id elin e s, N ational G rid [2.75] lists the exposure lim its o f electric
and m agnetic fields (h ig h e r than IC N IR P lim its) applicable in the UK , as show n in
T able 2.5. T he IC N IR P and N atio n al G rid lim its w ill be com pared in C hap ter 7. T ypical
groun d -lev el U K field levels from o v e rh e a d p o w er lines o f different voltage levels are
show n in T able 2.6 [2.76].

Table 2.5: Electric and magnetic field exposure lim its applicable in the UK |2.75|.

P u b lic E x p o su re

O ccupational E xp o su re

E lectric Field

M agnetic F ield

E lectric Field

M agnetic Field

9 kV /m

360 p T

46 kV /m

1800 pT

Table 2.6: Typical ground-level UK field levels from overhead power lines of different voltage levels
|2.76|.

O v e rh e ad L ines
V o ltag e L evel
T h e larg est steel
pylo n s
(2 7 5 k V & 4 0 0 k V )
S m allest steel
p y lo n s a n d larg e st
w o o d en p o les
(1 3 2 k V )

W o o d en p o les
( l l k V & 33kV )

F ield

E lectric Field
(kV /m )

M ag n etic F ield
(p T )

M axim um field (u n d e r line)

11

100

3 -5

5 -1 0

T ypical field (2 5 m to side)

0 .2 - 0 . 5

1 -2

M axim um field (u n d e r line)

40

1 -2

0 .5 - 2

0.1 - 0 . 2

0.05 - 0.2

M axim um field (u n d e r line)

0.7

T ypical field (u n d e r line)

0.2

0 .2 - 0 .5

0 .0 1 - 0 .0 2

0.01 - 0 . 0 5

T ypical field (u n d e r line)

T ypical field (u n d e r line)

T ypical field (2 5 m to side)

T ypical field (2 5 m to side)

2-28

T h e electric and m agnetic fields produced aro u n d a line are d eterm ined by param eters
such as o p e ra tin g voltage, co n d u cto r spacing, diam eters, bundle con fig u ratio n , and the
n u m b er o f su b -co n d u cto rs in the bundle. T able 2.7 show s the effect o f ad ju stm en ts to
line g eo m e try on d iffe re n t environm ental issues [2.3].

Table 2.7: Influence o f different param eters |2.3|.

Electric
Field

Param eter

P hase-to-phase c learan ce

C o n d u c to r height ab o v e g ro u n d

N u m b er o f su b -co n d u cto rs
(for a given total cro ss-sectio n )

S u b -co n d u cto r spacing

T otal co n d u c to r cro ss-sectio n

M agnetic
Fields

Radio
Interfere
nee

Audio
Noise

S trong increase

Strong d ecrease

Slight increase

Slight d ec rease

No significant effect

T ech n iq u es can be used to m in im ise the electric and m agnetic fields w hile up ratin g
overh ead lines. T he use o f b u n d led c o n d u c to rs o r m odifying the bundle con fig u ratio n
can help in red u cin g both electric and m ag n e tic field effects together w ith co n sid erab le
red u ctio n in au d io noise. C o n v e rsio n o f low v o ltage m ulti-circuit (m ore than tw o
circuit) line to high voltage sin g le o r d o u b le circ u it line can help voltage u p ratin g w ith
less audio noise. In G erm any, a fo u r-c irc u it 2 2 0 k V tw in bundle line w as co n v erted to a
tw o -circu it 380kV triple bu n d le and a tw o -c irc u it 220kV tw in bundle line to do u b le the
p o w er tra n sfe r cap ab ility [2.77], L ik ew ise, radio interference and audio noise w ere
m in im ised by uprating a 3 -p h ase d o u b le circ u it line by converting it into a 6 -phase
single circuit line [2.67].
2-29

2 .7

C h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f O v e r h e a d
D if f e r e n t C o u n t r ie s

L in e U p r a t in g W o r k s

in

O v erh ead line u p ratin g w ork has been carried out in different co u n tries around the
globe. T he n e c essity o f in creasin g u tilisation o f ex istin g overhead line w as realised in
the fifties. In 1955; O n ta rio H ydro in C anada up rated 50 m iles o f an ex istin g 115kV
w ood pole line for o p eratio n at 2 3 0kV by sim ply adding tw o insulator units in ex istin g
strings [2.78]. In the m id six ties, v ario u s utilities in the USA carried out ex p erim en tal
and inv estig ativ e w ork to id en tify p o ssib ility o f uprating their lines [2.79, 2.80]. In m id
sixties, in C anada, O tter Tail P o w er C o m p a n y in the U nited States carried out u p rating a
90 m iles section o f a 115kV w o o d p o le line to 230kV operation [2.7]. Since then,
v arious cases o f uprating o v e rh e a d lines are found. H ow ever, literatures show that the
u p rating w orks w ere ex ten siv ely c a rrie d o u t o n ly after late eighties.
B ased on the responses to the q u e stio n n a ire sent abroad, C IG R E W orking G roup B 2.06
[2.10] w as able to collect and c o m p a re p ra c tic e s an d experiences o f uprating / upgrading
p ro ject in 20 d ifferen t countries. In a d d itio n to that, several uprating projects in other
d ifferen t co u n tries w ere found. S u m m a ry o f the uprating w orks listed in C IG R E
T ech n ical B rochure 294 [2.10] and o th e r literatu res are presented here in alphabetical
o rd er o f c o u n try nam e.
In A u stralia, differen t m ethods o f u p ra tin g are u se d to achieve greater line ratings. In the
past, 33kV and 66kV lines w ere u p rate d to 1 lO kV and 132kV. Synthetic co m p o site line
p ost insulators w ere used [2.65]. In re c e n t y ears, a few 330kV lines w ere up rated and
v arious 66kV and 330kV lines are p ro p o se d to uprate to 132kV and 500kV resp e c tiv e ly
[2.81, 2.82]. Sim ilarly, to c o m p e n sa te high su m m er dem and, a few 132kV lines w ere
p roposed for u p rating by in creasin g c o n d u c to r op eratin g tem peratures (49 C to 60 C to
75 C) w ith a sm all n u m b er o f re p la c e m e n t o f ex istin g structures [2.83, 2.84].
In B elgium , d u rin g the p erio d 1999-2002, 10 lines w ere therm ally uprated by in creasin g
2-30

the therm al ra tin g from 40 C to 75 C [2.10]. C o p p e r conductors w ere rep laced w ith
A A A C co n d u c to rs o f sim ilar w eight. In recen t years, various lines are e x am in ed for the
p o ssib ility o f u p ratin g , an d a few 220kV lines are pro p o sed to uprate its therm al ratings.
In B razil, m an y cases o f v o lta g e and therm al u p ratin g w ere found. C o n v ertin g 69kV
d o u b le circuit line to 138kV sin g le circuit line by regrouping the sam e c o n d u cto rs in
tw in b undle has helped in cre ase the line cap acity at relatively low cost [2.10]. A 50%
in crease in line cap acity w as o b tain e d by replacing A C SR conductors w ith high
tem p e ra tu re low sag c o n d u c to rs (T A C S R ) [2.38]. In recent years, use o f co m p o site
in su lato rs and EX B tech n o lo g ies are u sed in in creasin g transfer capacity o f 230kV and
500kV lines [2.53, 2.62],
A s m en tio n ed earlier, C an ad a has lo n g h isto ry o f uprating overhead lines. In recent
years, this w ork is m ore focussed on re lia b ility issues due to failures caused by ice
load in g [2.10]. T herefore, u tilities are m o re fo cu ssed on upgrading rath er than uprating
th eir lines. H ow ever, a few cases o f c u rre n t u p ratin g o f 230kV line by replacing A C S R
c o n d u c to rs w ith A C SS co n d u cto rs w ith so m e stru ctu ral m odifications are know n [2.10].
In France, du rin g the early eig h ties, a 3 0 k V o v erh ead line built in late fifties w as
c o n v e rted to 90kV by use o f a lu m in iu m a llo y conductors and triangular co n d u cto r
c o n fig u ratio n fo r sufficient c learan ce. T h e tra n sm issio n capacity increased 9 tim es
to g eth e r w ith 300% increase in th erm al c a p a b ility [2.85].
A 220kV fo u r-circu it line in stalled in 1965 in G erm an y had its transm ission cap acity
in creased by a p p ro x im ately 1600M W b y c o n v e rtin g it into two 380kV and tw o 1 lOkV
circuits. In this case, tw in b u n d le A C S R 240 /4 0 conductors w ere rep laced by triple
bu n d le A C S R 380/50 c o n d u c to rs [2.77]. R ep lacin g tw in bundle w ith q u ad ru p le b undle
co n d u cto rs has helped in cre asin g th e c a p ac ity by 31% and considerable red u ctio n in
corona and audible noise [2.77].

2-31

In Italy, u p ratin g o f a few 70kV and 132kV lines w ere possible by reco n d u cto rin g w ith
new co n d u cto rs w ith high cross sectional area [2.10].
R equirem ent o f u p ratin g m o re than 1000 km o f 220kV netw ork in Ireland is identified.
In vestigation show ed th at the H T L S co n d u c to r (G T A C S R ) is preferred and co u ld be
utilised to uprate the e x istin g 2 2 0 k V n etw o rk [2.22],
A p ilo t uprating project o f a few 161kV lines in Israel w as carried out in the y ear 2000.
T h e am p acity o f the line w ith e x istin g A C S R and A A A C conductors w as lim ited by
gro u n d clearance. Tw o m eth o d s o f u p ratin g w ere chosen. First is to toughen co n d u cto r
ten sio n and second is to sh o rten th e su sp en sio n low ering the conductor under the
crossarm o f a suspension pole by re p la c in g p o rcelain insulators w ith shorter synthetic
ones or m o v in g to V -shaped su sp en sio n in su la to rs [2.28].
For use o f e x istin g 66kV lines for 154kV o p e ra tio n in Japan, insulator-supported ju m p e r
devices to increase co n d u c to r-to -to w e r c le a ra n c e and com pact phase-to-phase spacers to
increase ph ase-to -p h ase clearan ce at h ig h e r v o ltag e level w ere used [2.30], Line
co m p actio n w ith the ap plication o f th e se d e v ic e s helped to increase the transm ission
c a p ac ity to g eth e r w ith im proved m ag n e tic field in the surroundings.
In N orw ay, several 132kV d o u b le -c irc u it lines w ere converted to single-circuit 300kV
line. T ran sm issio n capacity w as in c re a se d fo u r tim es by using original conductors in
tw in b undle co n fig u ratio n [2.10].
T ran sm issio n cap acity o f a 2 2 0 k V line in P o lan d w as doubled by use o f reco n d u cto rin g
tech n iq u es o f uprating [2.10]. E x istin g A C S R conductors operating at 55C w as
rep laced by H T L S co n d u cto rs o p e ra tin g at 106C.
For u prating 220kV d o u b le c irc u it line w ith A C S R conductor in R om ania, after
thorough analysis o f d iffe re n t H T L S co n d u cto rs, A C SS conductor w as found suitable
from technical and e co n o m ical p o in t o f view [2.40]. A C SS conductor w as found ch eap

2-32

and it co n sid e rab ly red u ced p o w er losses in the sy stem thereby m inim ising the cost.
S im ilarly, in S erb ia and M o n tenegro, rep lacin g e x istin g conductors w ith co n d u cto rs o f
large cross sectional area, h elp ed w ith therm al u p ratin g o f 1 lOkV lines [2.10].
In South A frica, cases o f u p ratin g 66kV , 275kV and 400kV lines w ere cited [2.5, 2.10,
2.27]. T herm al uprating o f 2 7 5 k V and 4 0 0 k V lines w as done by increasing tem p latin g
tem p eratu re. A irborne L aser S u rv e y w as carried out on the entire line and a P L S -C A D D
m odel w as built to d eterm ine the real p o sitio n o f the conductors [2.27]. Increasing the
ratin g o f a 275kV line to 4 0 0kV w as p o ssib le by re-insulation [2.5]. It m ainly involved
the rep lacem en t o f existing U 120 an d U 135 ty p e cup-and-pin insulators w ith U 160 type
glass in su lato rs having high sp ecific c re e p a g e and sim ilar diam eter. In order to obtain
required cond u cto r-to -earth clearan ce, in su la tio n in central phase w as changed to VS tring

assem b ly .

Sim ilarly,

u p ra tin g

66kV

line

to

132kV

w as

possible

w ith

m o d ificatio n s to the attachm ent and in su la tio n o f the ex istin g structures [2.10].
In S pain, m an y 220kV and 4 0 0 k V

lines w e re up rated by increasing tem plating

tem p e ra tu re from 50 C to 80 C w ith p o w e r in crease from 30% to 50% [2.10]. In the

4 0 0 k V rin g o f M adrid, a d ynam ic th erm al ra tin g w as obtained in real-tim e by using
w e a th er stations [2.48]. A stu d y on A lc ira -G a n d ia , 132kV line in Spain show s the
p o ssib ility o f increasing am p acity ra tin g b y 70 % w ith the use o f H T LS conductors
[2.39, 2.86].
S everal lines b u ilt during the fifties an d six ties in the U nited K ingdom w ere up rated
du rin g late eighties and nineties. In 1986, a 2 7 5 k V interconnection betw een S cotland
and E ngland w as uprated to 4 0 0 k V o p e ra tio n [2.87, 2.88]. The transm ission cap acity o f
a n u m b er o f lines in E ngland and W ales are lim ited due to insufficient therm al capacity.
It has been possible to uprate so m e A C S R lines from 50 C to 75 C w ith an increase in
rating by n early 25% [2.32]. F u rth er im p ro v em en t in line rating (up to 130% co m p ared

2- 3 3

to original

A CSR

conductor) w as ob tain ed

by application o f gap type

A CSR

(G Z T A C S R ) co n d u c to rs in ex istin g 275kV and 4 0 0 k V system s [2.26].

In recent year, O fg em

has identified tw o interconnections betw een E n gland and

S cotland to be u p rate d fo r w h o le sale electricity m arket. Further, requirem ent for vo ltag e
up rating o f e x istin g o v e rh e a d lines are identified. To com pensate the im pact o f
c o n n ectin g additional g e n e ra tio n in the ex istin g system , it is proposed to increase
tran sm issio n cap acity by u p ratin g the e x istin g double circuit 275kV line betw een Blyth
to H aw thorn Pit su b statio n s alo n g the N orth E ast coast o f E ngland [2.89]. U prating
275kV S tella W est to S p e n n y m o o r o v e rh e a d line to 400kV is due to com m ence in
O cto b er 2011 [2.89],
O v er the last 55 years, su b sta n tia l ca se s o f increase in the transm ission capacity o f
o v erhead lines in the U n ited S tates o f A m e ric a w ere reported. R ange o f techniques for
cu rren t and v o ltage u p ratin g w as used. O tte r T ail P ow er C om pany has perform ed
several in v estig ativ e w orks and hav e e x p e rie n c e o f uprating th eir overhead lines [2.29,
2.61]. S argent & L u n d y , has p ro v id e d n u m ero u s engineering services to different
co m p an ies in the U SA for u p ratin g th e ir o v e rh e a d lines. These include uprating 69kV to
138kV by rep lacin g c o p p e r c o n d u c to r w ith A C S R conductors [2.60], 115kV double
circu it up ratin g to 2 3 0kV u sin g d iffe re n t v o lta g e u p rating techniques [2.59] and several
o th er therm al and vo ltag e u p ratin g p ro je c ts on 46kV , 138kV, 161kV and 2 3 0kV
o v erh ead lines [2.90].

2 .8

C o n c l u s io n s

In this ch ap ter, an ex te n siv e literatu re rev iew on uprating overhead lines w as carried out
w ith p a rticu la r focus on tech n iq u es o f current and voltage uprating. T he d em arcatio n
betw een u p ra tin g and o th er o p tio n s o f increased utilisation o f o v erhead line w as
clarified. U p ratin g o f o v erh ead lines is co n sid ered as increasing its M V A cap acity
2-34

w ith o u t any w holesale stru ctu ral m o d ificatio n s, reconstruction, or rep lacem en t o f
ex istin g stru ctu res .
C o n strain ts for increasing p o w e r tra n sfe r cap ab ility w ere described. It w as show n that
in creasin g p o w er transfer c ap ab ility b y in creasin g current rating is m ain ly related to the
c o n d u c to r therm al lim it. H ow ever, in cre asin g voltage level o f the line is lim ited by
c o n stra in ts related to overvoltage, e le c trica l clearances, insulation levels, structural
design and o th er environm ental im pacts such as electrom agnetic field and audio noise.
T o increase the capacity o f the line, it is im p o rta n t to decide w hether to build a new line
o r to u p rate the existing line. T he d e c isio n m ak in g process is influenced by technical,
in stitu tio n al and financial issues. A rev iew o f several cases in w hich these issues had
influenced

the decision m aking p ro ce ss

re v e a le d that institutional and financial

co n strain ts p lay a decisive role. T he c u rre n t-u p ra tin g process being com p arativ ely
ch eap er than voltage-uprating, in the rev ie w p ro ce ss, m ore cases o f current-uprating
w ere id en tified than for voltage-uprating.
D ifferen t m eth o d s and techniques for u p ra tin g o v e rh e a d lines w ere review ed. C urrentuprated

line used new conductors, o n lin e

c o n d itio n m onitoring techniques and,

im p ro v ed line surge im pedance level to a c h ie v e adequate therm al lim it w hereas,

vo ltag e-u p rated lines used in sulating c ro ssa rm , in ter-p h ase spaces, new insulators and
cro ssarm m o d ificatio n s to achieve a d e q u ate a ir clearance and insulation electrical
strength. It w as found that the tech n iq u es su ita b le fo r uprating overhead lines d iffer case
to case. T he selection o f a p a rticu la r tec h n iq u e depends upon the lin e s electrical
param eters to g eth e r w ith its physical an d su rro u n d in g environm ental co nditions. It is,
th erefo re, d ifficu lt to dev elo p a c o m m o n tec h n iq u e applicable to uprate all k inds o f
o v erhead lines. A separate study o f each case is n ecessary to decide for any tech n ically
and eco n o m ically feasible m eth o d o f uprating.

2-3 5

C hapter 3
Im p o r t a n t A s p e c t s
for

3.1

of

In s u l a t i o n C o o r d i n a t i o n

V o l t a g e U p r a t in g

I n t r o d u c t io n

In sulation coordination, a c co rd in g to IEC 60071-1 [3.1], is defined as selection o f the

dielectric strength o f equipment in relation to the operating voltages and overvoltages

which can appear on the system fo r which the equipment is intended and taking into
account the service environment and the characteristics o f the available preventing and
protective devices . T he ob jectiv e o f in su la tio n co o rdination is to ensure th at any
insulation failure is self-resto rin g and the failu re p ro b ab ility to fall w ithin the acceptable
lim it. Insulation coordination o f o v e rh e a d lines is based on the estim ation o f m ost
severe o v erv o ltag e produced due to p o w e r fre q u e n c y , sw itching and lightning activities
w hich then is used to d eterm ine m a x im u m tem p o rary , slow front and fast front
o v erv o ltag es respectively. T h ese o v e rv o lta g e s

are then related to the insulation

b reak d o w n characteristics through re le v a n t m arg in s to obtain w ithstand voltages for the

netw o rk com p o n en ts for a given sta tistic a l risk o f insulation failure. T he w ithstand
v o ltage is then used to id en tify the m in im u m electrical clearance requirem ent and the
in sulation electrical strength.
T he u p rating pro cess requires the stu d y o f in su la tio n coordination o f overhead lines at
its voltage ratin g based on co m b in ed c o n sid e ratio n o f stress applied to the line and its
electrical strength. In this chapter, in su la tio n coordination for voltage up ratin g is
th eo retically analysed. T he insu latio n co o rd in a tio n process is explained for tran sien t and
tem p o rary overv o ltag es so that the risk o f failure can be determ ined. T he values and
relevant eq u atio n s d eriv ed from d iffe re n t international and British stan d ard s such as
3-1

IEC 60071 [3.1 - 3.3], IEC 61865 [3.4], B S E N 50341 [3.5, 3.6], and B SEN 50423 [3.7]
are used to calculate and com pare electrical c learan ce distances for standard insulation
levels un d er different overvoltages. F inally, insu latio n levels o f overhead lines are
assessed b ased on different p o llution levels.

3 .2

O vervoltages

O v e rv o lta g es in overhead transm ission and d istrib u tio n system s are generated due to
sudden c h an g es in operating conditions. T h ese c h a n g es are due to sw itching o p erations,
lightning stro k es or faults in the system . T he m a g n itu d e o f these generated overvoltages
are key for d e term in in g the voltage rating o f sy ste m com ponents, their risk o f failure
and the selectio n o f the required w ith stan d level for equipm ent as w ell as air gap
insulation for transm ission and d istrib u tio n to w e rs / poles. A m ethodical analysis o f
o v erv o ltag es on the existing system is req u ired so th at the possibility o f choosing a
red u ced w ith sta n d voltage level can be ex p lo red , th ereb y , achieving a reduced clearance
level, n o tin g also that the shape o f o v e rv o lta g e across the air gap determ ines the
d ielectric strength o f the gap. W ith referen ce to F ig u re 3.1 [3.3], IEC 60071-4 classifies
o v erv o ltag es as;

T e m p o ra ry overvoltages,
S lo w -fro n t overvoltages and,
F ast-fro n t overvoltages
In the vo ltag e uprating process, c o n sid e ratio n o f slow -front and fast-front overv o ltag es
are m ore im portant to identify the a d d itio n a l a ir clearance requirem ents for up rated
voltage. T he influence o f a p a rtic u la r o v e rv o ltag e in the process d ep en d s on several
p aram eters such as line voltage level, earth resistance, and keraunic level o f the area
w here the line is located. T ab le 3.1

show s the classes and shapes o f d ifferen t

overv o ltag es [3.3].

3-2

Lightning overvoltages (FFO)

0)
o>
(0
*-<
O

Switching overvoltages (SFO)

>

Temporary overvoltages (TOV)

System voltage
i

Vs

ms

Duration

Figure 3.1: Overvoltages types |3.3|.

Table 3.1: Different overvoltage shapes and their standard shapes [3.3j.

Low Frequency

Transient

C lass
Continuous

T em porary

Slow -front

Fast-front

20 ps < Jp
< 5 000 ps

0.1 ps < Ft
< 20 ps

72 < 20 ms

72 ^ 300 ps

TP = 250 ps

7*1 = 1.2 ps

r 2 = 2 500 ps

T2 = 50 ps

d.

00

/ = 50 Hz or
60 Hz

10 Hz
< 500

</
Hz

Tt 3 600 s
0,03 s < Tt
< 3 600 S

/ = 50 Hz
or 60 Hz
Tt : to be specified

CO

48 HZ < /
< 62 HZ

Tx = 60 s

3-3

D ue to the statistical natu re o f ov erv o ltag es, the electrical clearance d istan ce ( Dei) is
ev alu ated for m axim um value o f o v erv o ltag e or overvoltage w ith a p ro b ab ility o f 2% o f
b ein g ex ceed ed [3.4]. IEC 61472 [3.8] outlin es a m ethod to derive the 2 % v alu e from
the m ax im u m value o f o v erv o ltag e and gives the follow ing general ex p ressio n s
a p p lic ab le to all types o f overvoltages.

W here,

Ue2 and UP 2 are phase-to-earth an d p h a se -to -p h a se statistical o vervoltage (2%

o v e rv o ltag e ) respectively; and uej and uP2 are th e ir corresponding values in p er unit.

Us is the h ig h est system voltage.

3 .3

I n s u l a t io n C o o r d in a t io n P r o c e s s

and

R is k

of

F a il u r e

For v o ltage u p rating o f an o v erhead line, the o v ervoltages generated by d ifferent

sources each have a significant role in d e fin in g the w ithstand voltage level and
c o rre sp o n d in g required electrical d ista n c e (A /)-

3.3.1

Transient Overvoltage and Risk of Failure Concept

T he in sulation coordination for tra n sie n t (sw itc h in g / lightning) o v ervoltages in an

overh ead line is based on the d e te rm in a tio n o f risk o f failure. R isk o f insulation failure
due to tran sien t overvoltage d ep en d s u p o n d ifferen t param eters such as freq u en cy o f
occu rren ce o f the tran sien t p h e n o m e n o n , the overvoltage probability o f this event and
the pro b ab ility o f insulation failure [3.2]. If the probability o f occurrence o f ov erv o ltag e
(stress) is defined by P(x) and the insu latio n failure (strength) pro b ab ility by P(y), then
3-4

the risk o f failure (R) o f the insu latio n is o btained by m ultiplying stress and strength as
given in E quation (3.3).

R = P(x) x P ( y )

(3 -3 )

O v e rv o lta g es in the line are ran d o m p h e n o m e n a and, hence, presented statistically in

term s o f a frequency distribution fu n ctio n /

(V). In this case, the p ro b ab ility o f

o cc u rre n ce o f overvoltages in a sm all v o lta g e interval dV is:

P ( x ) = f ( V ) dV

(3-4 )

H ere, in su latio n failure probability, P ( y f f r an im pulse value o f V becom es P{V)

p resen tin g the risk o f failure for sm all in terv al as:

dR = f ( V ) P{V ) dV

(3 -5 )

N ow , the total risk o f failure (R) in an in su la to r due to the entire range o f overvoltage
m ag n itu d e is giv en by integrating E q u atio n (3 .5 ) w h ic h is p resented in E quation (3.6).

(3 .6 )

Figure 3.2 illustrates the risk o f failure. In th is figure, the shaded area represents the risk
o f failure w hich

is obtained by m u ltip ly in g tw o curves representing freq u en cy

distrib u tio n o f overvoltage and the p ro b a b ility o f insulation failure. T he in su latio n

co o rd in atio n for transient o v ervoltage fo r a n y electrical system is based on these curves.
A sim p lified statistical m ethod o f in su la tio n co o rdination for sw itching overv o ltag es as
stated in IEC 60071-2 d efines the d istrib u tio n o f overvoltages and insulation strength by
points on each o f the curves rep re sen te d b y f ( V ) and P(V) as show n in Figure 3.2. T he
risk o f failure in an insulation is u n a v o id a b le because it is im possible to obtain suitable
3-5

90% withstand f P ( V )
probability I

Risk o f failure

\f

2% overvoltage
probability

Figure 3.2: Evaluation of risk of failure for insulation coordination.

insulation such that the f (V) and P(V) do not overlap. Therefore, the insulation is
selected such that the 2% overvoltage prob ab ility (denoted by Ve2 o n / ( F ) , know n as
coordination overvoltage) coincides w ith the 90% w ithstand (10% failure) probability
(denoted by V ^ on P(V), known as co o rdination w ithstand voltage) as recom m ended
by IEC and show n in Figure 3.2. W ith the insulation coordination for lightning
overvoltages, the frequency distribution o f overvoltage is calculated by dividing the
return rate by the total num ber o f overvoltages and the distribution function, f (V), is
obtained by the derivative o f the result so th at risk o f failure is calculated using
E quation (3.6) [3.2].
The probability o f occurrence o f overvoltage can be m inim ised by different overvoltage
control techniques and the m inim um req u ired insulation withstand level can be changed
by use o f appropriate insulation in the line. T herefore, the control o f these param eters
represented by the f (K) and P(V) curve in Figure 3.2 can solve different technical issues
for voltage uprating and, hence, the control m ay possibly produce the opportunity for
voltage uprating o f overhead lines.
3-6

3.3.2

Low Frequency Overvoltage

T he w ith stan d voltage for p o w er frequency o v e rv o ltag e is generally co n sid ered as the
m ax im u m system voltage for phase-to -p h ase insulation. Pow er frequency overv o ltag es
are

also

statistical

in

nature

and

are

rep resen ted

by

frequency

distrib u tio n

characteristics. T he co o rd in atio n w ithstand v o ltage corresponds to the value for 1

m inute d u ratio n o f w ith stan d characteristics o f insulation [3.2].
T he insulation c o o rd in a tio n for low frequency overvoltages for overhead p o w er lines is
based on the d eg ree o f p o llu tio n level on the in sulator surface, and this dictates the
d esign o f insulation [3.2]. F o r p ro p e r c o o rd in atio n , a pollution severity m easure m ust be
d eterm in ed for each in su la to r to be used. D ifferent Site Pollution Severity (SPS) classes
w ith th eir specific c reep ag es as d e fin e d in IEC 60815 [3.9, 3.10] and the effect o f
pollu tio n on insulation strength w ill be e x p la in ed in detail in Section 3.7.

3 .4

C learance E nvelo pe

A s p rev io u sly stated, o v erhead line in su la tio n is subjected to different types o f

o verv o ltag es p ro d u ced as a resu lt o f p o w e r frequency, lightning and sw itching
p henom ena. E ach class o f o v e rv o ltag e m u st be considered separately to assess the
p o ssib ility o f voltage uprating w h ich req u ires confirm ation o f available electrical
clearance. T he electrical clearance re q u ire m e n ts for a particular line voltage level are
d eriv ed from fundam ental b reak d o w n v o lta g e characteristics w hich d eterm ine the
req u ired clearan ce envelope for p o w e r freq u en cy , lightning and sw itching overvoltages.
T h e geo m etry o f these clearance e n v e lo p e s is influenced by the insulator sw ing angle
due to w ind in the case o f both p o w e r fre q u e n c y and sw itching conditions [3.11]. In the
case o f a lightning surge, it also d e p e n d s on the nature o f the backflashovers on the line.
T he clearance envelopes for an o v e rh e a d tran sm issio n line under different o v ervoltages
are show n in Figure 3.3, rep ro d u ced from [3.11].
3 -7

Lightning
Overvoltage

Switching
Overvoltage

Power Frequency
Voltage

Figure 3.3: Electrical clearance envelope for different overvoltages (reproduced from |3.11]).
Dotted lines show envelope for lower flashover rate (lightning), lower flashover probability
(switching) and higher pollution level (power frequency).

In the case o f a lightning stroke hitting the earth w ire, the distance that the surge travels
along the line is less with tow ers o f low footing resistance (norm ally < 30 U).
Therefore, un d er such conditions overvoltages are likely to occur at tow ers near to the
stroke position. On the other hand, it is very unlikely to have wind conditions that
produce a large sw ing angle exactly at the tim e o f stroke and around the striking area
[3.5]. T herefore, the effect o f sw ing angle under lightning is neglected. As a result, the
ideal geom etry o f the electrical clearance envelope for lighting overvoltage is circular in
shape as show n in Figure 3.3. The radius o f this circular envelope is a function o f the
flashover rate (flashes/ lOOkm/per year) and the radius o f the circle is inversely
proportional to the flashover rate [3.11].
Unlike lighting surge propagation along the earth wire, a switching surge voltage can
travel a long distance along the line w ith relatively little attenuation. This results in
stress applied to m ultiple tow ers along the line. Due to this, there is a higher possibility

3-8

o f fla sh o v e r in any one in su lato r w ith a sig n ific a n t sw ing angle due to w ind. T herefore,
in th is case, w ind sw ing and the c o rre sp o n d in g d ev iation angle can have significant
in flu en ce on clearance requirem ents g iv in g rise to a non-circular shaped clearance
en v e lo p e as show n in Figure 3.3. T he cle a ra n c e en v elo p e size in this case is function o f
p ro b a b ility o f flashover due to sw itching, an d is in v ersely proportional to the p ro b ab ility
o f fla sh o v e r [3.11].
T he m ag n itu d e o f the pow er frequency v o ltag e is m uch less than transient overvoltages.
H ow ever, the v o ltage under norm al o p e ra tin g c o n d itio n s m ay be sufficient to cause
flash o v er d u e to extrem e w ind sw ing that red u c e s air clearance in the line. Even though
the clea ra n c e req u irem en t in this case is m u ch lo w er than the case w ith transient
o v erv o ltag e; the envelope here is highly e lo n g a te d as show n in Figure 3.3 to account for
ex trem e w in d sw in g angle. In addition, the ideal clearance envelope under pow er
freq u en cy is a lso determ ined by the in su la to r strin g g eom etry and its contam ination
level.

3.5

S t a n d a r d R e co m m en d atio n s f o r E l e c t r i c a l C le a r a n c e
D is ta n c e B ased on BSEN 50341 a n d BSEN 50423

T his sectio n addresses m ethods for c a lc u la tin g electrical clearance distances for
o v erv o ltag e s u n d e r lightning, sw itch in g an d p o w e r frequency. The m ethod d escrib ed
h ere is b ased on B SEN 50341-1 [3.5] for v o lta g e s g reater than 45kV and B S E N 50423
[3.7] for d istrib u tio n system voltages up to 4 5 k V . B S E N 50341-1 uses the sam e m eth o d
p ro p o se d by C entral R esearch Institute o f E lectric P ow er Industry (C R IE P I) [3.12].

3.5.1

Approach for Lightning Overvoltages Calculation

T he U H V -A C transm ission co m m ittee o f C R IE P I has proposed E quation (3.7) to

calcu late the app ro x im ate break d o w n stren g th in air under positive p o larity stan d ard
lightning im p u lses ( l .2/50) app licab le to ro d -p lan e gap distance (d) up to 10 m etres.
3-9

^5o%rpjf 5 3 0 . d

(3 .7 )

W here, U^orpjgr *s the 50% w ith sta n d voltage o f a rod-plane gap for fast front
o v erv o ltag es in kV and d is the gap d istan ce in m etre.
T his eq u atio n does not account for the statistical scatter o f data, the actual o v erhead line
gap g eo m e try or geographical c o n d itio n s. In o rd er to account for these param eters,
factors such as the statistical d ev iatio n facto r

the gap factor

and the

altitu d e co rrectio n factor (Ka) are in tro d u ced . V alues o f these factors are given in B SE N
50341-1 [3.5]. For determ ination o f e lectrical clearan ce under lightning, the o v ervoltage
to be co n sid ered is assum ed to create a su rg e th at propagates beyond a few tow ers from
the point o f the lightning strike. A c c o rd in g to B S E N 50341-1, the 9 0 % lightning
im pulse w ith sta n d voltage o f the in su lato r strin g s (U 9 o%//j s) installed on a line need to
be c o n sid ered fo r calculating p h ase-to -earth clearan ce. T he required electrical clearance
distance ( Dei) o f a phase-to-earth c o n fig u ratio n for lightning overvoltage m ay then be
calculated u sin g E quation (3.8) [3.5],

/-)

_________ ^ 9 0 % _ f f _ i s _________

o~\

5 3 0 . Ka . Kzj f . K g j f

S im ilarly, for phase-to-phase clearance, the w ith sta n d voltage o f the in su lato r strings
ac co rd in g to B SE N 50341-1 is co n sid e red 2 0 % m ore than that o f phase-to -earth
clearance, i.e. the w ithstand voltage in th is case is taken as 1.2 Ugo%j iS. T herefore, for
the p h ase-to -p h ase configuration, the req u ired electrical clearance d istance ( Dpp) is
calcu lated usin g E quation (3.9) [3.5], R efer to the next section for calculated results.

Dpp =

1.2 U9QQ/0J f J s
5 3 0 . Ka . Kz J f . Kg-------Jf
m n

( 3 -9 )

3 -1 0

3.5.2

Approach for Switching Overvoltages Calculation

C o m p ared to

lightning o v erv o ltag e perfo rm an ce, for a given gap distance, the

break d o w n strength o f s e lf resto rin g in su latio n un d er sw itching o v ervoltage is low . It is

w ell e sta b lish e d that air clearances n e e d ed for sw itching im pulse w ith stan d levels are
hig h er than those required for the sam e m ag n itu d e lightning im pulse w ith stan d level
[3.2]. IEC 6 0 071-2 uses a sem i-em pirical e q u a tio n proposed by Paris (E q u atio n (3.10))
[3.13] to calc u la te the air gap d istance fo r 50 % w ith stan d voltage (C%%).

Uso% = 5 0 0 d 0 6

(3 .1 0 )

B SEN 50341-1 [3.5] uses a different eq u atio n , p ro p o sed by C R IE PI, to calculate the
sam e clearan ce.

E quation (3.11) ex p re sse s the 50% breakdow n strength (6%%^.*/)

under p o sitiv e p o larity sw itching im p u lse ap p lic ab le to rod-plane gaps (d) o f up to 25

m.

^ 5 0 %rp_sf

1 0 8 0 /n (0 .4 6 d -1-1)

(3 .1 1 )

A n u m b er o f research studies [3.13 - 3.17] hav e p roduced experim ental results o f the
b reak d o w n stren g th o f air gaps u n d e r d iffe re n t electrode configurations and gap
d istance (d) u sin g sw itching overvoltages. In [3.18], different equations d e scrib in g the
b reak d o w n vo ltag e w ere com pared and rea so n a b ly close agreem ent w ith the p u b lish ed
e x p erim en tal results was found. A sim p le lin e a r equation is proposed here to describe
the break d o w n voltage in the range 2m to 7m as given in Equation (3.12) [3.18].

^ 5 0 % Q - d + C2

( 3 .1 2 )

C o efficients C/ and C2 w ere calcu lated to o btain a best curve fit w ith m in im u m least
square error. F or rod-plane gaps w ith p o sitiv e polarity im pulse shape, values o f C / and

C2 are 173.9 and 422.1 respectively.

3-11

In Figure 3.4, P ariss equation (E quation (3.10)), CRIEPI equation (Equation (3.11)),
and the proposed linear equation (E quation (3.12)) are compared. The figure show s that
the breakdow n strength predicted by the three equations are quite close to each other in
the gap distance range 2m to 7m , w hich is sufficient for determ ining insulation
requirem ents for 275kV and 400kV system s. H ence, use o f any o f the three equations in
determ ining the required clearance for the system considered in this study is justified.
CR IEPI equation is used to determ ine clearance values in this work.
Sim ilarly to the case o f lighting overvoltage, to account for the statistical nature o f
breakdow n, the actual overhead line gap geom etry and geographical conditions, a
statistical deviation factor (Kz s/), a gap factor (Kg sj) and an altitude correction factor
( Ka) are used. T he applicable overvoltage in this case is the value having 2% probability
o f being exceeded, as denoted by U2 % s/. T he breakdow n strength {Usoo/orp sj) in the
CR IEPI equation is then obtained by m ultiplying Ue2 %_sf by the statistical coordination
factor ( Kcs) to account for the risk o f failure [3.5]. The required electrical clearance

1800
1600
Paris Equation

1400

^
O)
<S

1200
Linear Equation

1000
800
600 CRIEPI Equation

400 -

200

G ap D istan ce (m)
Figure 3.4: Comparison of switching impulse breakdown strength predicted by three different
equations.

3-12

distance o f a phase-to-earth c o n fig u ratio n ( Dei) for sw itching overv o ltag e is then
derived u sin g E quation (3.11) as show n in E q u atio n (3.13) [3.5].

1080 .

Ka . k

(3 .1 3 )

Sim ilarly, for phase-to-phase clearance, the w ith sta n d voltage as per B SEN 50341-1 is
c o n sid ered 4 0 % m ore than that o f p h a se -to -e a rth configuration, i.e. the w ith stan d
voltage

in

this

case

is taken

as

\.4Ue2% .>/. T herefore, for the p hase-to-phase

co n fig u ratio n , the required electrical c le a ra n c e d istan ce ( Dpp) is calculated using

E quation 3.14 [3.5]. R efer to the next sectio n fo r calcu lated results.

1080 .

3.5.3

Ka . K

( 3 .1 4 )

Approach for Power Frequency Overvoltages Calculation

For p o w e r fre q u e n c y overvoltages, the 50 % b rea k d o w n voltage ( Uso%rPj}j) for a rodplane gap can be approxim ated by:

^ 5 0 % rp_p/

= 750.

V2. t n ( l + 0 .5 5 d 1-2)

(3 .1 5 )

T he 50% b reak d o w n voltage in this case is c o n sid e red constant and equals to the peak
v alu e o f the system voltage ( t/,). i.e.

(V2 . Us) fo r phase-to-phase and ( ( V 2 /V 3 ) . Us )

for p h ase-to -earth configurations. A s w ith the lig h tn in g and sw itching o vervoltages, a
statistical dev iatio n factor ( Kz pf), a gap fa c to r ( Kg pf), and an altitude correction factor

(Ka) are ap plied to yield the req u ired e lectrical clearance distance o f a ph ase-to -earth
con fig u ratio n (Dc/ pj) and a p h a se-to -p h a se config u ratio n (Dpp pj) for p o w er frequency
overv o ltag e using E quation (3.15) as sh o w n in Equation (3.16) and (3.17) resp ectiv ely
[3.5].
3 -1 3

3.6

A p p r a is a l
of
E le c tr ic a l
C le a r a n c e
C a l c u l a t e d U s in g CRIEPI E q u a tio n s w ith
S p e c ifie d V a lu e s

U sing th e C R IE P I eq u atio n s from

D is ta n c e s

IEC 60071

S ection 3.5, electrical clearance d istances are

calculated for standard insu latio n levels specified in IEC 60071-1. T he calculated
clearances

are

com pared

w ith

the

p u b lish e d

clearances given

in IEC

60071-2

corresp o n d in g to all standard lig h tn in g a n d sw itch in g w ithstand levels for d ifferent

system voltages.
IEC 60071-1 classifies the standard m ax im u m r.m .s. value o f system voltages ( Us) in to
tw o ranges [3.1].

R ange I : 1kV < Us < 2 4 5kV (co v ers tra n sm issio n and distribution system s)
R ange II : Us > 245kV (covers h ig h er v o lta g e transm ission system s)
A cco rd in g to B S E N 50341-1, the electrical c le a ra n c e distance in system s in R ange I is
m ainly g o v e rn e d by overvoltage due to lig h tn in g a n d fo r the system s in R ange II, it is
governed by b o th lightning and sw itching o v erv o ltag e s [3.5]. The clearance req u irem en t
for p o w er freq u en cy voltages is sig n ifican tly less com pared to the req u irem en t for
transient overvoltages. T herefore, the electrical clearan ces determ ined by tran sien t
o v ervoltages also cover the req u irem en ts due to p o w e r frequency voltage. T he po w erfrequency w ithstand voltage for system s in R ange I can be ignored w hen the ratio o f the
lightning im pulse to the p o w er frequency w ith stan d voltage is greater than 1.7 [3.2].

S ince, the sy stem s considered in this study fall w ithin the stated category, the
calcu latio n s m ad e here are based on the lightning and sw itching overvoltages only.

3.6.1

Calculation of Range I Voltages

In this range, c le a ra n c e is m ain ly governed b y lightning overvoltage. T herefore, the

clearance req u irem en ts for five stan d ard lightning im pulse w ithstand voltage levels (60,
75, 95, 145 and 170kV ) c o rre sp o n d in g to m axim um system voltage o f 12kV and 36kV
are calculated usin g E q u a tio n s (3.8) and (3.9).
T he follow ing assu m p tio n s as rec o m m e n d e d by B SEN 50341-1 have been m ade.

up to the 200kV w ith sta n d level; a v alu e o f altitude correction factor, Ka = 0.938
is assum ed for an a ltitu d e 1000m ,
the statistical d ev iatio n fac to r fo r lig h tn in g overvoltage, Kzj =
the gap factor for lig h tn in g o v e rv o ltag e , Kgj

0.961,

= (0.74 + 0.26 Kg) = 1.117 (for

co n d u cto r-stru ctu re g e o m e try c o n sid e rin g Kg = 1.45) and Kgj

= 1.156 (for

co n d u c to r-c o n d u c to r g e o m e try c o n sid e rin g Kg = 1.6).

T he calculated p h a se-to -e a rth c le a ra n c e (u sin g E quation (3.8)) and phase-to-phase
clearance (using E q u atio n (3 .9 )) fo r w ith sta n d voltage levels specified above are show n
in T able 3.2. IEC 60071-1 sp ecifies lig h tn in g im pulse voltage level o f 145kV and
170kV for a 36kV m ax im u m sy stem voltage. It can be seen from Table 3.2 that for
low er value o f w ith sta n d level (14 5 k V ), the m inim um clearance o f 0.27m and 0.31m
resp ectiv ely for p h a se-to -e a rth and ph ase-to -p h ase is required for uprating a line to a
m ax im u m system v o lta g e o f 36kV . Figure 3.5 com pares the calculated phase-to -earth
clearance

v alu es

w ith

co rresp o n d in g

clearances

specified in IEC

60071-2.

T he

calculated v a lu e s a p p e ar to correspond quite closely w ith the IEC specified values. T he

m ax im u m e rro r o f 18.2% is found at 60kV w ithstand voltage. At 145kV, erro r is 0% .

3-1 5

Table 3.2: C alculated electrical clearance values for IEC 60071-2 specified lightning im pulse
w ithstand levels corresponding to system voltages o f 12kV and 36kV in Range I

M axim um System
V oltage

12kV

36kV

L ightning im pulse
w ithstand voltage

60kV

75kV

95kV

145kV

170kV

Phase-Earth clearance
(m )

0.11

0.14

0.17

0.27

0.31

Phase-Phase clearance
(m)

0.13

0.16

0.20

0.31

0.36

C a lc u la te d

IEC 60071 S p e c ifie d

L ig h tn in g I m p u l s e W ith s ta n d V o lta g e (kV)

Figure 3.5: Comparison of calculated electrical clearance values (phase-to-earth) with clearance
specified in IEC 60071-2 for specified lightning impulse level corresponding to system voltage of
12kV and 36kV in Range I. Values in parenthesis are percentage error.

3.6.2 Calculation of Range II Voltages

In this range, the calculations focus on a 275kV transm ission line and its possible
voltage uprating to 400kV . C learance in R ange II is governed by both the lightning and
sw itching transient overvoltages. T herefore, calculations are done for all standard
lightning and sw itching im pulse w ithstand levels as shown in Table 3.3 for 275kV (Us =
300kV ) and 400kV ( Us = 420kV ) system specified in IEC 60071-1.
3-16

Table 3.3: IEC 60071-1 specified standard lightning and switching impulse withstand levels for
275kV and 400kV system (3.11-

N om inal System
V oltage

(kVr.m.s.)

M axim um
System Voltage

m
(kV r.m.s.)

Standard Im pulse W ithstand Level (kVpeak)

Sw itching

L ightning

850
750
950
275kV

300kV
950
850
1050
1050
850
1175
1175

400kV

420kV

950
1300
1300
1050
1425

The clearance requirem ents for standard lightning im pulse w ithstand voltage levels are
calculated using Equations (3.8) and (3.9); and clearances required for standard
sw itching im pulse w ithstand voltage levels are calculated separately using E quations
(3.13)

and (3.14). The calculated clearance values for each w ithstand level are then

com pared w ith corresponding IEC specified clearances.

T he assum ptions m ade for calculating clearances in this study are as follows:

values o f altitude correction factor (K a) for an altitude 1000m are:

Ka = 0.970 (for w ithstand level betw een 701kV and 1 lOOkV)

Ka = 0.978 (for w ithstand level above 1 lOOkV)
-

the statistical deviation factor for lightning, Kzjr = 0.961 and for sw itching, Kzsf
= 0.922,
3-17

the gap factor for lightning overvoltage, Kgj - = (0.74 + 0.26 Kg) = 1.117 (for
conductor-structure geom etry considering Kg = 1.45) and Kgj r

= 1.156 (for

conductor-conductor geom etry considering Kg = 1.6)

the gap factor for sw itching overvoltage, Kg sf

= Kg = 1.45 (for conductor-

structure geom etry) and Kg sf = Kg = 1.6 (for conductor-conductor geom etry)

Table 3.4 show s the calculated clearance values for phase-to-earth and phase-to-phase
clearances for different lightning im pulse w ithstand levels, and Figure 3.6 show s a
com parison o f these clearances w ith IEC 60071-2 specified values. As can be seen in
Figure 3.6a, the calculated phase-to-earth clearance value equals IEC specified value at
950, 1050, and 1425kV w ithstand voltage. The m axim um error o f 6.6% is found at
850kV. The calculated phase-to-phase clearance values as shown in Figure 3.6b is
found to have m axim um error o f 4.5% at w ithstand voltage o f 1050kV.

Table 3.4: Calculated electrical clearance values for IEC 60071-1 specified lightning impulse
withstand levels corresponding to system voltage of 300kV and 420kV in Range II

Lightning im pulse
w ithstand voltage

850kV

950kV

1050kV

1175kV

1300kV

1425kV

Phase-Earth
clearance (m )

1.5

1.7

1.9

2.1

2.3

2.6

P hase-Phase
clearance (m )

1.7

1.9

2.2

2.4

2.7

2.9

3-18

Calculated

(0%) I

( 6 .6 % )!,

850

IEC 60071 Specified

950

%
1050

1175

1300

1425

Lightning Im pulse Withstand Voltage (kV)

a)

Calculated

P h a s e -to -e a r th

IEC 60071 Specified

2.7

2^ ? 85

r
(4.5%)
850

950

1050

(3.7%)
1175

1300

1425

Lightning Im pulse Withstand Voltage (kV)

b)

P h a s e - to - p h a s e

Figure 3.6: Comparison of calculated electrical clearance values with clearance specified in IEC
60071-2 for specific lightning impulse level corresponding to system voltages of 300kV and 420kV
in Range II. Values in parenthesis are percentage error.

Sim ilarly, T able 3.5 sum m arises calculated clearance values for phase-to-earth and
phase-to-phase clearances for different sw itching im pulse w ithstand levels, and Figure
3.7 com pares these clearance values w ith IEC specified values. As can be seen in Figure
3.7a, the calculated phase-to-earth clearance value has 5.2% error at 850kV. At all other
w ithstand level; the calculated values are sam e as that o f IEC specified values. In case
o f phase-to-phase clearance (Figure 3.7b), the calculated values differ w ith IEC
specified values w ith m inim um error o f 1.7% to m axim um error o f 3.7%.

3-19

T able 3.5: C alculated electrical clearance values for IEC 60071-1 specified sw itching im pulse
w ithstand levels corresponding to system voltage of 300kV and 420kV in Range 11

Sw itching Im pulse
w ithstand voltage

750kV

850kV

950kV

1050kV

Phase-E arth clearance (m )

1.6

1.9

2.2

2.6

Phase-Phase clearance (m )

2.26

2.7

3.19

3.7

Calculated

IEC 60071

Specified

(5.2%)
750

850

950

1050

Switching Im pulse Withstand Voltage (kV)

a)

P h a s e - to - e a r th

IEC 60071 Specified

750

850

950

1050

Switching Im pulse Withstand Voltage (kV)

b)

P h a s e - to - p h a s e

Figure 3.7: Comparison o f calculated electrical clearance values with clearance specified in IEC
60071-2 for specified switching impulse level corresponding to system voltages of 300kV and
420kV in Range II. Values in parenthesis are percentage error.

3-2 0

T he calcu lated values o f clearances for lig h tn in g and sw itching o v erv o ltag es are
im p o rtan t in voltage uprating process. T hese v alu es satisfy the specifications c o m m o n ly
u sed by u tilities in the U nited K ingdom . In the U K , w ithstand voltage levels o f 1050kV
/ 850kV (lig h tn in g / sw itching) are ad o p ted for 275kV line. A 400kV line adopts
w ith sta n d level o f 1425kV / 1050kV (lig h tn in g / sw itching). In order to uprate an
ex istin g 275kV line to 400 k V , these w ith stan d level increases require a considerable
increase in electrical c learan ce values w hich m ay not be physically available in an
ex istin g line. F or a 4 0 0 k V line, IEC 60071-1 specifies four different lightning w ithstand
levels (1050, 1175, 1300 and 1425kV ) and three sw itching w ithstand levels (850, 950
and 1050kV ). In o rd er to satisfy the c learan ce requirem ent for uprating an existing
275kV line to 4 0 0 k V , it is p o ssib le to a d o p t any specified com bination o f lightning and
sw itching w ith sta n d levels for 4 0 0 k V system . Figure 3.8 show s the IEC 60071-2
specified clearan ce req u irem e n ts [3.2] fo r six p o ssib le com binations o f w ithstand levels
for a 400kV line for p h a se-to -e a rth and p h a se-to -p h a se clearance.
It can be seen from the figure th at the p h a se-to -e a rth clearance requirem ents could be
d ictated so m etim es b y lig h tn in g and so m etim es by sw itching overvoltage, depending
upon the ch o sen c o m b in a tio n o f w ith sta n d level.

O ut o f six possible com binations o f

lightning and sw itc h in g o v e rv o ltag e levels show n, the phase-to-earth clearance value for
five differen t co m b in a tio n s are e ith e r d o m in ated so lely by lightning overvoltage or have
equal influence to th at o f sw itch in g overv o ltag e level. It is also observed that for phaseto-earth cle a ra n c e , lig h tn in g o v erv o ltag e d ictates the clearance requirem ent w hen the
ratio o f lig h tn in g to sw itch in g overv o ltag e is greater than or equal to 1.23. H ow ever, as
show n in F ig u re 3.8b, for any com b in atio n o f w ithstand voltages, the phase-to -p h ase
clearance req u irem e n t is solely dictated by the sw itching overvoltages. In this case, a
sw itching o v e rv o ltag e requires m ore clearance than the lightning overvoltage. A d o pting

3-21

different com binations o f overvoltage level for a 400kV system could effectively reduce
the clearance requirem ent for an uprated line. In order to consider w hich levels to adopt,
it is necessary to exam ine available clearance in an existing system. C hapter 4 considers
th is issue in detail for a case o f uprating an L 3 type construction 275kV overhead
tran sm issio n for uprating to 400kV .

'Clearance for Lightning Overvoltage

Clearance fo r Switching Overvoltage

Q
u)

_n
a>
>

O
cr

a>

or

1050&850

1175&850

1175&950

1300&950

1300&1050 1425&1050

L ig h tn in g & S w itc h in g Im p u lse W ith stan d V o lta g es (kV)

a)

P h a s e - to - e a r th

Clearance fo r Lightning Overvoltage

Clearance for Switching Overvoltage

0)
uc

2CO

_QJ

O
T3
Q)
'5

cr
CD

cr

1050&850

1175&850

1175&950

1300&950

1300&1050 1425&1050

L ig h tn in g & S w itc h in g Im p u lse W ithstand V oltages (kV)

b)

P h a s e - to - p h a s e

Figure 3.8: Clearance requirements for IEC 60071-2 specified combination of lighting and
switching overvoltage levels for 420kV highest system voltage.

3-22

3 .7

I n s u l a t io n
P o l l u t io n

E l e c t r ic a l

S treng th

A c c o u n t in g

fo r

In v o ltage u prating, apart from electrical clearan ce distance, the insulation electrical
stren g th also plays significant role. A ny increase in voltage level o f an ex istin g system
d e m a n d s increase in electrical strength o f the existing insulation system . T his m ay
require in su lato r en h an cem en t or the substitution o f insulators to provide sufficient
strength for up rated voltage level. T he new insulation system m ust satisfy the m inim um
required creep ag e d istan ce for the uprated voltage level w hich is determ ined by the
pollu tio n sev erity level co rre sp o n d in g to the overhead line site. Five classes o f site
pollu tio n se v erity (S P S ) levels are d efin ed in IEC 60815-1 [3.9] as show n below :
(i)

a - V e r y light

(ii)

b -L ig h t

(iii)

c - M edium

(iv)

d -H e a v y

(v)

e - V ery heavy

R anges o f v alues o f specific c re e p a g e d istan ce in each SPS class are based on the
typical en v iro n m en tal co n d itio n s and the level o f pollution. The R eference U nified
Specific C re e p ag e D ista n c e (R U S C D ) fo r each SPS class, based on the phase-to-earth
value o f m ax im u m sy stem vo ltag e ( l / s / V 3 ) is show n in Figure 3.9 [3.10].
U sing the R U S C D v a lu e s sh o w n in F igure 3.9, the required m inim um creepage d istance
for a 275kV an d a 4 0 0 k V system for each SPS class is calculated and show n in T able
3.6. It is cle a r that, w h en in creasing the voltage level o f the system , the required
m inim um cre e p a g e d ista n c e needs to be increased. H ow ever, it should be noted that, for
the sam e in cre ase in voltage level, the d egree o f increase in the required m inim um
creepage d ista n c e varies according to SPS class. The relative increase in m in im u m
creepage d ista n c e is g reater m oving from very lig h t to very h eav y SPS class.
3-2 3

60.0
55,0
>

50.0

45.0

40.0

%
D

35.0

30.0

25.0
20.0
a

e
SPS Class

Figure 3.9: RUSCD as a function of SPS class |3.10|.

Table 3.6: Calculated value o f required minimum creepage distance for 275kV and 400kV line
insulators under different pollution levels

RU SCD

M inim um R equired Creepage D istance (mm )

[RUSCD x U/V3]

SPS C lass
(m m /kV )

275kV line
(Us = 300kV )

400kV line
(Us = 420k V)

22.0

3810

5335

27.8

4815

6741

34.7

6010

8414

43.3

7500

10500

53.7

9301

13021

T his is g rap h ically illustrated in Figure 3.10. As can be seen in the figure, for uprating
the voltage level from 275kV to 400kV , the additional required m inim um creepage
distance varies from 1525m m in very lig h t SPS class to 3720m m in very h eav y SPS
class. If a conventional cap and pin insulator string is used, the voltage uprating m ay
require an in crease in the insulator length by adding m ore discs. Figure 3.10 also show s
the n u m b er o f discs required to be added in an existing 275kV insulator string for

3 -2 4

3720

ro ro

S P S C la ss
Figure 3.10: Additional required minimum creepage distance and number of glass insulator discs
for increasing voltage from 275kV to 400kV under different pollution severity levels.

uprating it to 400kV system u n d er d ifferent pollution levels. The num bers are calculated
assum ing glass insulator discs each having creepage distance o f 540m m used in the
275kV system . H ow ever, adding m ore discs to an existing insulator string increases its
length thereby reducing the phase-to -earth clearance o f the line w hich w ould not be
acceptable in the voltage upratin g process as greater clearances are required.
D ifferent techniques th at p rovide high creepage w ithin the same or shorter insulator
lengths are required to be investigated to ensure insulation electrical strength for voltage
uprating. R eplacing existing insulators w ith com posite insulators can provide high
specific creepage en suring air clearance in the line and could offer a solution to this
problem . C hap ter 4 considers such options for increasing creepage w hile uprating a
275kV o v erhead line to 400kV .

3.8 Conclusions
The insulation coordination process for voltage uprating was theoretically analysed for
tem porary and transient overvoltages. It w as show n that the probability o f occurrence o f
3-25

overv o ltag e at a p articu la r im pulse voltage V can be m inim ised by the control o f
frequency d istrib u tio n c u rv e f ( V ) and failure pro b ab ility curve P{V). A co m p ariso n o f
im pulse b reak d o w n stre n g th pred icted by d ifferent equations has show n satisfacto ry
agreem ent o v er

a 2m

to

7m

gap

distance

suitable for determ ining

insulation

requirem ents and e lectrical c le a ra n c e for up to 400kV transm ission system . It has been
show n that the ca lc u la te d c le a ra n c e req u irem en t for overhead lines using the C R IE P I
equation for IEC 60071-1 sp e cifie d stan d ard insulation levels com pares w ell to the
co rresp o n d in g p u blished IEC c le a ra n c e s values.
A nalysing the clearance re q u ire m e n ts for six d ifferent com bination o f IEC specified
lightning and sw itching o v e rv o lta g e levels fo r a 400kV system , it w as found that the
phase-to-earth clearance req u irem e n t fo r m ajo rity (5 out o f 6) o f the com binations are
either dictated by lig h tn in g o v e rv o lta g e o r have equal influence to that o f sw itching
overvoltage. H ow ever, the p h a se -to -p h a se c learan ce requirem ent w as found to be solely
dictated

by the

sw itch in g

o v erv o ltag e s.

T he

o p p ortunity to

select a p articular

com b in atio n o f w ith stan d v o lta g e s w as id en tified to increase the possibility for uprating.
It w as show n that to sa tisfy in su la tio n e lectrical strength w hile uprating a 275kV line to
400kV requires add itio n al cre e p a g e ran g in g from 1525m m to 3720m m depending on
the class o f p o llu tio n levels o f the tra n sm issio n line environm ent. The sim ple concept o f
increasing electrical stre n g th b y in cre asin g in su lato r length was discarded due to the
consequent red u c tio n in c le a ra n c e s w h ich w ould further restrict options for uprating in
term s o f w ith sta n d v o lta g e levels.

3 -2 6

C h a p te r 4
A n a l y s is

4 .1

of

E l e c t r ic a l C l e a r a n c e s

I n t r o d u c t io n

A voltage uprating study n e c essita te s identification o f the new voltage level in w hich
th e existing line will uphold its reliab ility . T o increase the pow er transfer cap ability o f
o v e rh e a d lines by voltage u p ratin g , d iffe re n t design criteria need to be addressed. T hese
in c lu d e technical, financial and e n v iro n m en ta l issues. In C hapter 3, one o f the m ost
im p o rta n t technical issues to be a sse sse d in vo ltag e uprating w as found to be the
e le c trica l clearance, and this is a c h a lle n g in g task and is fundam ental to ensure
sa tisfa c to ry p erform ance for p o w e r fre q u e n c y , lightning and sw itching overvoltages
c o rre sp o n d in g to the uprated vo ltag e level.
In this chapter, an extensive an aly sis o f the electrical clearance issues for voltage
u p ra tin g o f a transm ission line is c a rrie d out. Initially, the available clearances o f the
e x is tin g line are thoroughly e x a m in ed so th at any insufficiencies in the clearances for
h ig h e r voltage level are identified. T h en , tech n iq u es are explored for satisfying the
c le a ra n c e s requirem ents w ith u p ratin g the line. T he electrical clearance aspects o f
v o lta g e uprating are in v estig ated b a se d on an operational 275kV transm ission line w ith
a stan d ard L 3 to w er structure w h ic h is selected for possible voltage uprating to 400kV .
Issu e s such as co n d u cto r air c le a ra n c e and insulation electrical strength are taken into
a c c o u n t to identify an a p p ro p riate m eth o d o lo g y for uprating the line to 400kV .

4 .2

D e t a ils

of

t h e S e le c t e d 2 7 5 k V O v e rh e a d Line

T h e line under c o n sid e ratio n for uprating is a 35km long, double circuit 275kV line o f
L 3 steel co n stru ctio n . F o r this type o f construction, the height o f the steel lattice to w er
is 36.88m [4.1]. T h e line is assum ed to be located on flat terrain w ith an av erage span
4-1

length o f 300m . Figure 4.1 show s a section o f a typical 275kV line in L 3 tow er
structure.
T he phase co n d u cto rs o f the line com prise tw in 175m m A C SR (A lum inium C onductor
Steel R einforced) L y n x conductor, and a single L ynx conductor is used for the earth
w ire. Som e o f the ex istin g 275kV lines in the U K have had the A C SR conductors
replaced w ith U p a s A A A C (A ll A lum inium A lloy Conductors) to increase pow er
transfer capability o f th e line [4.2, 4.3]. H ow ever, m ost o f the 275kV lines w ere
designed and co n stru cted in the 1950s and 1960s to accom m odate A C SR L ynx
conductors. T herefore, th e L y n x co n d u cto r is selected in this study to represent the
scenario o f the ex istin g system for w hich the line w as initially designed [4.4]. W ith
L ynx conductors, the p hase and earth conductors have a 7.05m and 6.66m m id-span
sag respectively u n d er norm al w e a th er (no w ind and ice loading w ith average
surrounding tem p eratu re o f 5 C) co n d itio n s [4.1].

Sp*n 300 m

Figure 4.1: Section o f a 275kV overhead transmission line in L3 tower structures.

4 -2

4.2.1

Tow er Structure and Conductor Geometry

A typical L 3 ty p e standard suspension tow er can support loading tension up to 72kN.

Each crossarm o f the to w er can support m axim um w eight o f 30kN. Figure 4.2 show s
the structure o f such an L 3 to w er labelled w ith coordinates o f the conductors [4.1].
The values in the p a re n th ese s are m idspan heights o f conductors. C onductors Aj, Z?/, C/
on left are phase co n d u cto rs o f the first circuit and A 2 , B2 , C2 on right correspond to the
second circuit w ith the p h asin g arrangem ents as show n in the figure. The shielding
angle o f the earth w ire is 34.5.

2.15 m

6.09 m

4.03m
30.48 cm

6.09 m
4.26m

36.88 m
(30.22) m
,57m
31.42 m
(24.37) m
25.33 m
(18.28) m
22.55 m
19.24 m
(12.19) m

Figure 4.2: A typical L3 lattice tower showing its key dimensions and conductor positions. Values
in parentheses show the midspan height o f conductors.

4 -3

4.2.2

Conductor Specifications

The sp ecificatio n s for the conductors are show n in Table 4.1 [4 .1 ,4 .4 , 4.5].

Table 4.1: Specifications for the phase and earth conductors |4 .1 ,4.4,4.51.

D escription

P aram eters
C onductor

Lynx (A C SR )

C ross-sectional area

175m m 2

D iam eter

19.53m m

N um ber o f su b -co n d u cto rs in a bundle

2 (for phase) and 1 (for earth)

B undle spacing

30.48cm

B reaking load

79.80kN

4.2.3

Insulator String Specifications

T he insulator string co n sid ered for this system follow s the N ational G rid specification
for a 275kV o v erhead tran sm issio n in su lato r set for L 3 tow ers [4.6]. T he L 3 tow er is
designed to accom m odate an overall m axim um insulator string length o f 3.46m
including a steel attachm ent suitable fo r the tw in bundle configuration o f conductors
[4.7]. H ow ever, a string length o f 3.31m is considered in this study as per the EN A
recom m endation [4.8] and the N ational G rid specifications [4.6] as show n in Figure 4.3.
The specifications used for suspension insulator strings are shown in Table 4.2.

3311
ARC GAPS

1Q6

20 6 8 .5

429
57.5

(gSED IV ER (SEVES) INSULATORS 125Kn 170mm 6fl 22

' 170 ~ 16~ U N ITSV 2 7 2 0 m n T

MINIMUM TOTAL CREEPA G E = 8640mnV
MATERIAL = GLASS

W EIGHT PE R UNIT = 11.0 kg

K

Figure 4.3: 275kV suspension insulator set for L3 towers (Reconstructed from [4.6])

4-4

T a b le 4 .2 : S p e c i f ic a t i o n s f o r s u s p e n s io n in s u la t o r s

D escription

P a ram e te rs
D isc m aterial

G lass

N u m b er o f d iscs in a strin g

16

N om inal spacing

170m m (each disc)

M inim um creepage

540m m (each disc)

M inim um total creep ag e

8640m m

S tring in su lato r length

3 3 1 1mm

M inim um failing load

125kN

T otal W eight o f the strin g

206kg

4 .3

A n a l y s is

of

C o n d u c t o r A ir C l e a r a n c e s

T he available c o n d u c to r air c le a ra n c e s in the L 3 275kV overhead line are exam ined

for d ifferent lo ad in g cases as sp e cifie d in B S E N 50341-1 [4.9]:

Still air (w ith m a x im u m c o n d u c to r tem p eratu re or ice load)

W ind load
T hese c o n d itio n s are c o n sid e red as the general approach for

loading in the U nited

K ingdom sp e cifie d in th e N atio n al N o rm ativ e A spects (N N A ) for the U nited K ingdom

and N orthern Ire lan d fo r o v erh ead electrical lines exceeding AC 45kV [4.10]. In o rder
to in crease the v o lta g e level, su fficien t clearance m ust be achieved betw een the m id
span o f lo w est p h ase and ground, ph ase-to -p h ase, phase-to-earth structure / w ire, and
for live line m ain te n a n c e [4.11].

4 -5

4.3.1

Clearances under Still Air (Normal

Conductor Temperature I Ice Load)

Load I Maximum

C o n d u c to r a ir c le a ra n c e in still air is calculated for the L 3 275kV system operating

un d er th ree d iffe re n t loads:

(i)

n o rm al load,

(ii)

m ax im u m load an d m ax im u m co n d u cto r tem perature, and

(iii)

ice loading.

In all the cases, u n d e r still a ir c o n d itio n , the req u ired m inim um clearance is determ ined
by Dei (fo r p h a se-to -e a rth c le a ra n c e ) an d Dpp (fo r phase-to-phase clearance) as defined
in S ection 3.5 o f this th esis. T h e sta n d a rd co n d itio n s specified in the N N A [4.10] are
adopted for the d ifferen t lo ad in g c o n d itio n s in still air (w ind speed less than 0.6m /s) and
is d escribed in T ab le 4.3:

Table 4.3: NNA specified still air loading condition [4.10].

D escription

P a ram e te rs
N om inal altitu d e load in g

1000m

A verage su rro u n d in g tem p e ra tu re

5C

C o n d u cto r tem p e ra tu re fo r n o rm al load

50 C

A ir tem p e ra tu re for m a x im u m load

20 C

W in d speed

0.6 m /s perpendicular to tow er and

con d u cto r (N orm al to all)

R adial ice th ic k n e ss

55m m

Ice d e n sity

5 k N /m 3 at -10 C for ice load

In su lato r sw in g

4-6

T he L 3 ' 2 7 5kV line considered in this study operates w ith lightning and sw itching
im pulse w ith stan d vo ltag e level o f 1050kV and 850kV respectively. S im ilarly, for a
400kV system , w ith sta n d v o ltag e level o f 1425kV / 1050kV (lightning / sw itching) is
generally used in the U K . T h erefo re, the m inim um required clearances for 275kV and
400kV system s for the ab o v e m en tio n e d w ithstand voltage levels are calculated using
E quations (3.8) and (3.9) fo r lig h tn in g overvoltage; Equations (3.13) and (3.14) for
sw itching overvoltage and; E q u atio n s (3.16) and (3.17) for pow er frequency voltage
(see C hapter 3 for further d e ta ils o f a b o v e equations). The calculated values that are
applicable to clearances at to w ers an d w ith in the spans are show n in T able 4.4. It can be
seen that there is a significant in crease in clearan ces w hen uprating the line from 275kV
to 400kV system .

Table 4.4: Calculated values o f m inim um required clearances (in meter) under still air condition
for 275kV and 400kV overhead line.

400kVO H

2 7 5 k V O H L in e
C learance
T ype

P hase-toEarth

L in e

Pow er
Frequency

S w itch in g
Im pulse

L ig h tn in g
Im pulse

P ow er
F requency

S w itching
Im pulse

L ightning
Im pulse

300kV

850kV

1050kV

420kV

1050kV

1425kV

0.51

1.9

1.9

0.69

2.6

2.6

0.83

2.7

2.2

1.16

3.7

2.9

(A-,)
Phase-toPhase

(A)
G round

1.0*

7.3*

* The value is according to the N N A specificatio n for UK and Northern Ireland [4.10].

T he p h ase-to-phase and p h a se-to -e a rth clearances available for the existing 275kV line
are show n in Figure 4.4. T h e g round clearances at the tow er attachm ent points and at
m idspan are sh o w n in F igure 4.2. A s expected, the design o f the 275kV line satisfies all
clearance req u irem e n ts betw een conductors and conductor-earth to p rev en t flash o v er
4-7

3.31m
7.7 1 m

3.10m

*
2.49m
6.05m

8.17m

3.14m

*
2.48m

8.79m

a) P h a se -to -p h a se

3.11m

b) P h a se -to -e a rth s tr u c tu r e

Figure 4.4: Available air clearances between critical points for standard L3 275kV line with
normal suspension in still air.

due to all types o f overvoltages. T he available clearances are exceeding the m inim um
required clearances for operation at 27 5 k V system . If the line is uprated to 400kV ,
satisfactory clearance should be achieved betw een phase and ground, phase to phase,
phase to earth wire and, phase to to w e r structure.

4.3.1.1

Phase to Ground Clearances

T he available m inim um phase-to -g ro u n d clearance w ithin the span is 12.19m for the
low est tw o phase conductors (F igure 4.2). This value is significantly greater than the
required ground clearance for the 400kV system by 4.89m under norm al loading
condition. The excess o f 4 .8 9 m clearance provides sufficient room for further sag due to
increase in tem perature up to m axim um therm al loading conditions. A parallel research
w ithin the project on the sam e line has show n no violation o f ground clearance for
bottom con ductors up to therm al loading o f 90 C as show n in Figure 4.5 [4.12].
4-8

Figure 4.5: PLS-CADD simulation of conductors at various temperatures. Earth wire () and
phase conductors {A and B) are at 65 C. Bottom phase conductor (C) is in temperature range from
- 5 C to 9 0 C [4.12].

4.3.1.2

Phase to Earth Wire Clearances

The clearance betw een the earth w ire and top phase conductors at the tow er attachm ent
position and at m idspan, are show n in F igure 4.6. The values o f clearance are

6 .6 6 m

at

the tow er attachm ent position and 6 .9 8m at m idspan w hich are significantly higher than

E arth
C o n d u c to r
Earth
C onductor

6.66m

5.46m

U pper p h a s e
co n d u cto rs

v
6.98m

5.85m

U pper p h a se
conductors

3.85m

o 4

3.85m

36.88m

31.42m

30.22m

24.37m

G round
a) A t to w e r a tta c h m e n t

Ground
b) A t m idspan

Figure 4.6: Clearances between the top phase conductors and earth wire at a) tower attachment
point and b) midspan.

4- 9

th e req u ired p h a se-to -e a rth clearance (2.6m fo r sw itching) for the 400kV system .

4.3.1.3
The

Phase to Phase Clearances

m in im u m

a v a ilab le

ho rizo n tal

clearances

betw een

phases

(phase-to-phase

c le a ra n c e ) for th e 2 7 5 k V lin e in still a ir co ndition are 7 .7 1m, 8 .17m and 8.79m across
th e top, m iddle and b o tto m p h a ses respectively. Sim ilarly, m inim um vertical clearances
b e tw e en the phases at the to w e r an d w ith in th e span are 6.05m (Figure 4.4 a). As show n
in T able 4.4, the m in im u m req u ired p h ase-to -p h ase clearances are 2.7m for a 275kV
sy ste m and 3.7m for a 4 0 0 k V sy stem . T h e available phase-to-phase clearance in an
e x istin g 275kV line in still air c o n d itio n show s that there are adequate air clearances
b e tw e en the phases fo r u p ratin g to a 4 0 0 k V system . T he clearances are alm ost double
th e m ost onerous req u ired cle a ra n c e o f 3 .7m needed to w ithstand sw itching im pulse
v o lta g e for 4 0 0kV o p eratio n .

4.3.1.4

Phase to Tower Structure (Phase to Earth) Clearances

A s seen in Figure 4.4 b, the m in im u m av ailab le phase-to-earth clearances for the 275kV
lin e are o n ly 2 .48m b e tw e e n the m id d le p h ase a n d low er crossarm , and 2.49m betw een
th e top phase an d the m id d le cro ssarm . F rom T able 4.4, it can be seen that the available
cle a ra n c e s are n o t su ffic ie n t to fulfil the required m inim um clearance o f

2 .6 m

to

w ith sta n d th e lig h tn in g an d sw itch in g overv o ltag e level for a 400kV system . T herefore,
a

voltage u p ratin g o f 2 7 5 k V

line

in L 3 to w er w ould be im possible w ithout

m o d ific a tio n to the e x istin g line to satisfy the m in im u m required clearances for 400kV
sy stem .
T h e h o rizo n tal c le a ra n c e s b etw een the phase conductor and tow er structure, as show n in
F ig u re 4 .4 b are 3.1 0 m , 3 . 14m and 3 .1 lm b etw een tow er structure and top, m iddle, and
b o tto m p h a ses respectively. T hese horizontal clearance values are higher than the
re q u ire d m in im u m ph ase-to -earth clearance (2.6m ) for 400kV system . H ow ever, these
4-10

p h ase-to -earth cle a ra n c e s (betw een phase and to w er structure) are for a still air
condition w h e re th ere is no sw in g in the in su lato r string. The effect o f sw ing angle on
clearances is c o n sid e re d next.

4.3.2
T he

Clearances under Wind Loading

follow ing

tw o

c o n d itio n s

are

considered

as

per

B SEN

50341-1

[4.9]

recom m endation to a sse ss c o n d u c to r air clearance under w ind load.

W ind load for 3 y ears retu rn p e rio d : D esign w ind load for determ ination o f
electrical cle a ra n c e s (N o rm a l w ind)
W ind load w ith 50 y ears retu rn p erio d : W ind load for gust conditions (E xtrem e
w ind)
In case o f norm al w ind load, sim ila r to th at o f still air condition, the m inim um required
air clearances are m ain ly g o v e rn e d b y lig h tn in g and sw itching overvoltages. H ow ever,
the required clearan ces u n d e r th is case m a y be less than that o f the still air condition due
to the low p ro b ab ility o f o v e rv o lta g e c a u sin g any risk o f failure [4.9]. T herefore, the
p h ase-to-earth and p h a se -to -p h a se cle a ra n c e s req u ired for lightning and sw itching
o vervoltage u n d e r n o rm al w in d load is o b tain ed by reducing corresponding required
clearances ( Dei and Dpp) u n d e r still a ir b y a facto r ki, know n as the reduction factor for
electrical c le a ra n c e s, [4.10].
T he ideal g e o m e try o f the cle a ra n c e envelopes for different overvoltages described in
S ection 3.4 in d ic a te d th a t in su la to r sw in g due to w ind load has a significant effect on
flash o v er u n d e r p o w e r fre q u e n c y overvoltage. U nder extrem e w ind, it is less likely to
have a tra n sie n t o v erv o ltag e s o ccurring sim u ltan eo u sly w hen the conductor sw ings due
to w in d load and the clearan ces should only w ithstand the highest system voltage
(p o w er fre q u e n c y ) [4.9]. T herefore, the phase-to-earth and phase-to-phase clearance

4-11

requirem ent in this case is governed m ainly by the pow er frequency overvoltage and the
values are the sam e as those o f still air condition represented by Deij,f and DPPJ)f
(Equation (3.16) and (3.17)).
Table 4.5 show s the calculated values o f m inim um required clearances for 275kV and
400kV operation under norm al and extrem e w ind conditions. For norm al w ind, the
calculated Dei and Dpp values show n in T able 4.4 are m ultiplied by clearance reduction
factor ki = 0.7 as recom m ended b y N N A for the U K and N orthern Ireland.

Table 4.5: Calculated values of minimum required clearances (in meter) under wind load (normal
wind & extreme wind) for 275kV and 400kV overhead line under different overvoltages

C learances

N o rm al
W in d

P hase-to-earth
C
ke*lD)
Phase-to-phase

2 7 5 k V O H L in e

400kV O H L ine

S w itching
Im pulse

L ightning
Im pulse

Sw itching
Impulse

Lightning
Im pulse

850kV

1050kV

1050kV

1425kV

1.33

1.33

1.82

1.82

1.89

1.54

2.59

2.03

( k i* D p p )

E x tre m e
W in d

P hase-to-earth
(D e l_ p f

P hase-to-phase

P o w er F requency

Pow er Frequency

300kV

420kV

0.51

0.69

0.83

1.16

( D p p jp j )

Figure 4.7 show s the co n d u cto r air clearances during norm al swing (under norm al wind,
show n on the left hand circuit) and extrem e sw ing (under extrem e wind, show n on right
hand circuit). T he norm al sw ing angle assum ed to be 20 and the extrem e sw ing angle is
35. (The L 3 to w e r w as initially designed for 30 sw ing angle).
The m inim um available phase-to-earth (phase-to-crossarm ) clearances during norm al

4-12

19.8'
,34m
2 .3 6 m

19.8

i*

,41m

2 .4 5 m

1.38m

Figure 4.7: Available air clearance for standard L3 275kV line with normal suspension in wind
load. Left hand side phases under normal swing and right hand side phases under extreme swing.

w ind load are 2.36m and 2.4 5 m for the top and m iddle phase conductors respectively.
C om pared to the still air co n d itio n (sh o w n in F igure 4.4), these clearances decrease by
0.13m for the top phase and 0.03m in the b o tto m phase. The reduction in the clearance
is due to the insulator sw ing and the m inim um clearances occur at 19.8 sw ing angle.
C om paring these reduced clearan ces d ue to norm al sw ing (2.36m and 2.45m ) w ith the
required m inim um clearances sh o w n in T able 4.5, it is seen that the available phase-tocrossarm clearances in b o th the p hases o f the existing 275kV line satisfies the required
m inim um clearances o f 1.82m for 400 k V system .
U nder extrem e w in d load, (35 sw ing angle) the available clearances in all phases
exceed 1.3m. W ith referen ce to the required m inim um values under extrem e w ind as
show n in T able 4.5, it can be seen that the available clearances are sufficient to operate
at 400kV .

4-13

4 .4

A n a l y s is

of

I n s u l a t o r E l e c t r ic a l S t r e n g t h

From the c o n d u c to r a ir clearan ce poin t o f view , an im portant conclusion draw n w as that

the p h a se -to -e a rth c le a ra n c e o f the ex istin g 275kV line is not sufficient for still air
co ndition w h en u p ra tin g th e line to 400kV . If this clearance is satisfied, the line w ill
have no c le a ra n c e issu e fo r its op eratio n at 400 k V .O n e solution to this restriction w ould
be to m o d ify the to w e r stru c tu re e ith e r by ad justing the crossarm position and/or
crossarm length. A d ju stm e n t to the cro ssarm could provide adequate earth clearance
betw een the c o n d u c to r a n d cro ssa rm at the top and m iddle phase positions. H ow ever,
the m ethod w o u ld req u ire c h a n g es to all to w e r structures and w ould involve a long outo f-service perio d . T h e refo re, th is m eth o d m ay not be considered as an econom ically
realistic option for up ratin g .
A nother so lu tio n to a c h ie v e a d e q u ate p h a se-to -e a rth clearance could be achieved by
ad justing the in su la to r ax ial len g th an d its creepage. The required phase-to-earth
clearance o f 2 .6 m for 4 0 0 k V o p e ra tio n u n d e r still air can be obtained by reducing the
length o f in su la to r strin g from its c u rre n t length o f 3.31m to 3.2m . Figure 4.8 show s the
p roposed p h a se -to -e a rth c le a ra n c e w ith a 3.2m in sulator string.
Increasing the v o lta g e ra tin g o f the line adds to the creepage requirem ent o f an existing
insulator. T h e refo re, red u c tio n o f the in su la to r length is only possible if the reduced
in su lato r len g th can p ro v id e a h ig h er creep ag e value required for the uprated voltage
level. T h is c o u ld p ro b a b ly be ach iev ed by replacing the existing glass insulators by
altern ativ e p o ly m e ric in su lato rs that can p rovide hig h er value o f unified specific
creep ag e d ista n c e (U S C D ). In o rd er to investigate this solution, it is necessary to
estim ate th e ad d itio n a l creep ag e req u ired for the increased voltage level w hich is
d e te rm in e d by th e o v erh ead line site p o llu tio n severity level (SPS).

4-14

3.2 m
in su la to r
string

3.12m

2 .6 4 m

3.16m
2 .6 3 m

3.12m
Figure 4.8: Phase-to-earth clearances obtained with 3.2m insulator string.

4.4.1

Estimation
System

of

Additional

Creepage

for

Uprated

400kV

T he existing 275kV glass in su lato r strin g has a total creepage o f 8640 m m [4.6]. This
gives a m inim um u n ified specific creep ag e distance o f 49.883 m m /kV betw een phase
and earth related to the p h a se-to -e a rth highest system voltage

( U S/ V T )

for a system

voltage o f 275kV a c co rd in g to IEC 60815-1 [4.13]. T his value, according to Figure 3.9
in C hapter 3, is ad eq u ate fo r a site p o llu tio n severity (SPS) betw een H eav y and V ery
h e a v y levels th at req u ire av erag e values o f U S C D o f 43.3 m m /kV and 53.7 m m /kV
respectively. T o m ain tain the sam e SPS class and the sam e corresponding U SCD , the
insulators o f the u p rate d line at 400kV system w ould require a m inim um creepage o f
4 9 .8 8 3 x 7 =- = 1 2 0 9 6 m m . T herefore, to obtain 2.6m phase-to-earth clearance, a 3.2m
v3

insulator strin g w ith a m inim um creepage o f 12096 m m is required. In other w ords, a

shorter in su la to r w ith high creepage distance is necessary. The application o f a
c o m posite p o ly m e r in sulator could provide the solution. Light w eight polym er

4-15

insulators can p ro v id e high specific creepage and, hence, the required creep ag e for
400kV system co u ld be ach iev ab le w ith shorter insulator string thereby in creasin g the
phase-to-earth cle a ra n c e s [4.14]. In the U K , such insulators are already in trial use on
the 400kV system p ro v id in g b e tte r u n ified specific creepage distance [4.15]. H ow ever,
the com m ercial av a ilab ility o f a 3.2m long com posite insulator w ith creepage length o f
12096m m or m ore is a n o th e r a sp ec t to be considered. Table 4.6 show s exam ples o f few
com m ercially available c o m p o site in su lato rs m anufactured in C hina [4.16]. It can be
seen that the required c re e p a g e is sa tisfie d on ly by insulators longer than 3.2m . T he
additional benefit o f p o ly m e ric in su la to rs is th eir superior perform ance under pollution
conditions due to th eir h y d ro p h o b ic ity p ro p erties. Such perform ance helps since the
specific creepage used is th at rec o m m e n d e d by the standards for porcelain insulators.
T he use o f high voltage c re e p a g e e x te n d e rs in glass insulator discs could also be an
option for the uprated line. S uch e x te n d e rs in crease the creepage length o f the insulator
string and im prove the electrical stre n g th b y red u c in g leakage current and surface stress
[4.17], T his m ay help in red u c in g fla sh o v e r d u e to transients in the line. H ow ever, this
w ould require laboratory tests and is b e y o n d the scope o f this thesis.

Table 4.6: Examples o f few com m ercially available composite insulators [4.16].

System
V oltage
(kV )

N o. o f
S heds

In su la to r L en g th
(m )

D ry A rc Length
(m )

C reepage L ength
(m m )

345

65

3.22

3.0

10100

345

65

3.32

3.0

11010

345

65

3.32

3.0

8970

400

81

3.92

3.7

12540

400

73

4.02

3.7

12690

400

81

4.02

3.7

11130

400

81

4.05

3.7

11130
4-16

The solutions d e scrib ed , so far, have focused on satisfying the m inim um req u ired phaseto-earth clearances at 4 0 0 k V system as p resen ted in T able 4.4. A n alternative solution to
this problem could be a p p ro a c h e d in the reverse w ay.

Instead o f satisfying the

m inim um required c le a ra n c e fo r a sp ecified o vervoltage level, the value o f m inim um

required clearance its e lf co u ld be red u c e d by selectin g a set o f overvoltage w ithstand
levels low er than 1425 / 1050kV (lig h tn in g / sw itching) com m only used for 400kV
system in the UK. T his w o u ld o n ly be p o ssib le i f the m agnitude o f overvoltages due to
transients in the system co u ld be red u ced . In the follow ing section, the opportunity to
apply this unique altern ativ e a p p ro a c h o f red u c in g the requirem ent o f air clearance in
the line is investigated.

4 .5

R e d u c t io n o f
C learances

the

R e q u ir e d

M in im u m

P h a s e - t o -E a r t h

As prev io u sly stated, the re q u ire d p h a se -to -e a rth clearance o f an overhead line is
d eterm ined m ainly by the m ag n itu d e o f o v e rv o ltag e s produced by lightning surges and
sw itching events [4.18], an d the o v e rv o ltag e considerations for transm ission lines
operation above 245kV are g o v e rn e d m a in ly b y sw itching surges [4.9, 4.19]. H ow ever,
this general rule m ay n o t alw ay s a p p ly as the electrical clearances for overhead lines
above 245kV m ay also be in flu e n ce d b y the lightning surges. T he extent o f influence o f
the lightning and sw itc h in g o v e rv o ltag e s depends upon the selected com bination o f
lightning and sw itc h in g w ith sta n d v o ltage levels. A s outlined in Section 3.6.2, there are
six possible d iffe re n t co m b in a tio n s o f lightning and sw itching w ithstand levels for
400kV system .
For the case c o n sid e red here for u p rating 275kV line w ith 1050kV / 850kV (lightning /
sw itching) w ith sta n d level to 400kV system , one set o f overvoltage level m ust therefore

4-17

be selected from th ese six different com binations. A s seen in Figure 3.8 (C h ap ter 3),
phase-to-phase c le a ra n c e req u irem en ts for 400kV system are dictated only b y sw itch in g
overvoltage.

H ow ever,

for a w ith stan d level o f 1425kV / 1050kV (lightning /

sw itching), w hich is g e n e ra lly u sed in the U K for 400kV system , the phase-to-earth
clearance is eq ually d icta te d by sw itc h in g and lightning overvoltages. T he 275kV line
considered here has a c ritical p h a se-to -e a rth clearance requirem ent for uprating, and
therefore, both the lig h tn in g and sw itc h in g overvoltages should be considered w hile
determ ining clearance req u irem e n ts.
T he m inim um required p h a se -to -e a rth cle a ra n c e is 2.6m for 400kV system as given in
T able 4.4 based on the w ith sta n d v o lta g e level o f 1425kV and 1050kV for lightning and
sw itching overvoltage resp ectiv ely . H o w ev er, i f the lightning w ithstand level is reduced
to 1300kV, the clearance req u irem e n t fo r lig h tn in g overvoltage reduces from 2.6m to
2.4m . Furtherm ore, if the sw itc h in g o v e rv o ltag e level is reduced to 950kV , the
clearance can be reduced to 2.2m . In th is case, by reducing w ithstand voltage level to
1300kV / 950kV (lig h tn in g / sw itc h in g ) o r b elo w , the required phase-to-earth clearance
can be reduced to values less th an or equal to 2.4m . T he available m inim um phase-toearth clearance o f 2.48m in 2 7 5 k V line w o u ld be sufficient for uprating to 400kV i f this
co m bination o f o v erv o ltag e w ith sta n d level is adopted.

4 .6

L im it a t io n

of

Im p u l s e W

it h s t a n d

Level

T he overv o ltag e w ith sta n d level on a system can be lim ited by control o f overvoltages
due to lightning su rg es an d sw itch in g events. T raditionally, lightning overvoltages are
co ntrolled by a d d in g a sh ield w ire, reducing ground resistance, adding counterpoise
earth electro d es o r in cre asin g insulation in the system [4.20]. Sw itching overvoltages
are c o n v e n tio n a lly c o n tro lle d by using the point-on-w ave sw itching technique or by the
use o f p re-in se rtio n resisto rs in parallel w ith the line circuit breakers. H ow ever, these
4-18

resisto rs m ake the c irc u it b rea k e r m echanically m ore com plex and, therefore, are n o t so
p o p u lar due to co n c ern s o v e r circu it b reak er reliability [4.21]. A lso, the use o f sw itch
synch relays can red u c e the sw itch in g overvoltage to som e extent [4.22, 4.23].
H ow ever, this m eth o d is n o t alw ay s capable o f reducing overvoltage level b elo w the
sw itch in g im pulse w ith sta n d level [4.22]. A n alternate solution is the application o f line
su rg e arresters along the line for lim itation o f overvoltages to below the system
sw itch in g and lightning o v e rv o lta g e w ith stan d levels [4.24, 4.25]. The application o f
su rg e arresters along th e line to control lightning and sw itching overvoltages is
in v estig ated in the fo llo w in g c h ap ters; the com putation o f netw ork overvoltages
(C h a p te r 5) and ap p licatio n o f su rg e arresters (C h ap ter 6).

4 .7

C o n c l u s io n s

In this chapter, electrical c le a ra n c e

issu es for voltage uprating o f an overhead

tra n sm issio n line w ere in v estig ated . A p a rtic u la r d esig n o f 275kV transm ission line used
in the U K pow er netw o rk w as se lected fo r its p o ssib le uprating to 400kV . It w as found
th at the available p h a se -to -e a rth c le a ra n c e in a still air condition w as the lim iting
co n d itio n for u p rating the line to 4 0 0 k V system . R eplacem ent o f an insulator w ith the
sam e length as a sta n d a rd 4 0 0 k V in su la to r o r in creasin g the length o f existing insulator
strin g by ad d in g m o re in su la to r d iscs to p ro v id e additional creepage w ould infringe
c learan ce requirem ents.
A solu tio n w as p ro p o se d in v o lv in g the ap p licatio n o f a 3.2m insulator to replace the
ex istin g

3.31m

w h ic h

w o u ld

p ro v id e

sufficient clearance for 400kV

operation.

H ow ever, the p ro p o se d sh o rte r in su lato r w ould require an additional creepage o f

3 4 5 6 m m . T he use o f a co m p o site po ly m er insulator w hich can provide high creepage
w a s p ro p o sed as p ractical solu tio n to this problem .
A s an a lte rn a te so lu tio n , it w as p roposed to lim it the overvoltage level allow ing a low er
4-19

standard lig h tn in g / sw itch in g w ith stan d level and a correspondingly low er clearance
requirem ent. F o r in cre ase d reliab ility o f the line and to lim it the overvoltage o f the
system , a p p licatio n o f line su rg e arresters w as recom m ended.

4-20

C h a pt e r 5
C o m p u ta tio n o f T r a n s ie n t O v e r v o lta g e s o n
S e l e c t e d N e tw o r k f o r V o lta g e U p ra tin g

5.1

I n t r o d u c t io n

In C hapter 4, it w as p ro p o se d to u p rate an o v erhead line by reducing its overvoltage

level w ith the help o f su rg e a rresters. In p a rticu lar, the application o f line surge arresters
w ould be to control the o v e rv o lta g e to red u ce the m inim um phase-to-earth clearance.
M etal oxide surge a rre ste rs w e re d e v e lo p e d in

1980s, and are w idely used for

overvoltage pro tectio n o f p o w e r sy stem s. E xam p les o f surge arrester applications to

im prove lightning and sw itc h in g p e rfo rm a n c e s can be found in [5.1 - 5.6]. H ow ever,
the application o f surge arre ste rs fo r u p ra tin g o f overh ead lines is not reported in the
literature.
In this chapter, the o v erv o ltag e s p ro d u c e d as a resu lt o f sw itching operations and
lightning strikes are in v estig ated . F irstly , the a p p licatio n o f surge arresters for sw itching
o vervoltage control is co n sid ered . T h e resu lts ob tain ed from a parallel collaborative
study on surge a rre ste r a p p lic a tio n fo r c o n tro l o f sw itching overvoltage (under the sam e
E ngineering and P h y sical S cien ces R e search C o u n cil (E PSR C ) project on U prating o f
O verhead L in es ) is p rese n ted . T h en , the o v erh ead line is m odelled for com putation o f
lightning o v e rv o ltag e s an d the a p p licatio n s o f line surge arresters are investigated. The
e le ctro g eo m etric m odel is used to d eterm in e lightning term ination statistics. The
lightning o v e rv o ltag e m ag n itu d e, the im pulse w aveshape due to shielding failure and
b ack flash o v e r are co m p u ted .

5-1

5 .2

C ontrol

of

S w it c h in g O v e r v o l t a g e

T he sw itch in g o v e rv o ltag e studies w ere carried out on the 275kV overhead transm ission
line

u n d er

stu d y

u sin g

the

A T P /E M T P

(A lternative

T ransients

P rogram

E lectrom agnetic T ra n sie n t P ro g ram ) [5.8]. T he p rogram allow s m odelling a large

nu m b er o f p o w e r sy stem c o m p o n e n ts and perfo rm in g d ifferent transient analyses.

5.2.1

Line Parameters

T he sam e doub le circu it 2 7 5 k V line is c o n sid ered in this study as described in Section
4.2.1. H ow ever, L 3 to w e rs o f d iffe re n t h eights are used here in different sections o f
the line to represent m o re c lo se ly the actu al o p eratio n al line. The line is 35km long w ith
an average span o f 300m . T h e line is m o d elle d w ith tw in 300m m

U p a s A A A C

conductors for the p h ase c o n d u c to rs an d a 160m m 2 A A C S R conductor for the earth

w ire. G lass in su lato r d iscs w ith to tal in su la to r string length o f 3.31m are assum ed.

5.2.2

Transmission Line Model for EMTP Simulation

T he tran sm issio n line m o d el is d iv id e d into 8 sections o f different length based on the

height o f the L 3 tow er. T ab le 5.1 sh o w s the details o f the tow er type and length o f
each section in the line. T h e stru c tu re o f som e typical interm ediate tow ers (L 3D E 16,
L 3D E 8, L 3D S tan d ard ) in the line is sh o w n in F igure 5.1.
T he E M T P m o d el o f the line uses the J. M arti m odel [5.9] w hich is the m ost com m only
used m odel fo r tra n sie n t sim u latio n . T he freq u en cy dependent J. M arti m odel for
tran sm issio n line a p p ro x im ate s the line surge im pedance and the propagation constant
by a rational fu n ctio n [5.9].

5-2

Table 5.1: D escrip tion o f line sections used for sim ulating 35km long transm ission line.

Line S ection

T ype o f L3 T ow er

H eight o f the
T ow er

L ength o f Line
Section (km )

L3 D Standard

33.6

5.00

L3 D S tandard

33.6

5.66

L3 D E 8

38.7

5.97

L3 DIO

37.3

2.63

L3 D 30

36.8

3.18

L3 D E 16

42.0

5.19

L3 D E 24

42.0

1.03

O th e r S tan d ard L3

46.7

6.00

L3D E16

L3D E8

L3 D Standard

Figure 5.1: Structure of few L3 intermediate towers listed in Table 5.1 (PLS-CADD Model).

5.2.3

EMTP Surge Arrester Model

T he line surge arre ste rs are m odelled in E M T P as per their V -I characteristics. Polym erhoused m eta l-o x id e surge arresters w ith the A B B specifications as show n in Table 5.2
w ere u sed [5.10]. T he voltage-current characteristic o f the arrester is show n in Figure
5.2.
5-3

Table 5.2: S p ecification s for the m etal oxide surge arresters [5.101.

D escription

P aram eters
N om inal d isc h a rg e c u rren t

10 kApeak

R ated voltage

360 kV

M axim um C o n tin u o u s O p e ra tin g V oltage (M C O V )

291kV

E nergy capability

7.8 kJ/kV o f rated voltage

1000

900 800 700

600 -

So
re

500 -

400 300 200

100

0 0.

C urrent (kA)

Figure 5.2: Line surge arrester V-I characteristic.

5.2.4

Analysis Principles

Figure 5.3 show s the E M T P m o d el o f th e transm ission line used for the sw itching
overvoltage study [5.7]. T h e co m p u tatio n s are based on recom m endations specified in
IEC 60071-2 [5.11].
Sw itching o v e rv o ltag e s on tra n sm issio n line are produced due to opening and closing
o perations o f c irc u it b reak ers u n d er fault and also on line energisation and re
energisation. L ine re-e n e rg isatio n w ith trapped charge w ill produce the w orst case
o vervoltages. T h e refo re, to obtain the w orst case scenario, the three-phase circuit
b reak er clo sin g is m o d elled such that the closing occurs at voltage peak and m axim um
trap p ed c h a rg e w ith o p posite polarities in all three phases. T he circuit breaker closing is
5-4

N1

N2

N3

N4

NS

N6

N7

N8

N9

Figure 5.3: EM TP model for the switching analysis |5.7l.

done using sy stem atic sw itc h e s w h ich operate in constant tim e interval from m axim um
to m inim um v alu e in sy stem v o ltag e w aveform .
T o provide trap p ed c h arg e d u rin g en erg isatio n , the DC trapped charge o f 1 pu (1 pu =
400 x V2/V3 = 3 2 6 .6 k V ) is a p p lied on one end o f the line before energising the other
end w ith 4 00kV A C v o ltag e. T h e sw itc h in g overvoltage in each phase is determ ined for
trapped charge valu es in th e ran g e o f -1 to 1 pu. T he m axim um overvoltage w as found
for trapped ch arg e v alu es o f -1, 1 and -1 pu in phases A , B and C respectively, and
therefore is c o n sid e red as a w o rst case scen ario for sim ulation. The variation o f the
trapped charge fo r th e 4 0 0 k V tra n sm issio n line for w orst case is show n in Figure 5.4.

400
300 -

Phase B

200

-100

-200

iase C

Phase A
-300

-400
0.00

0.02

0 .0 4

0 .0 6

0 .0 8

0.10

Time [s]

Figure 5.4: Trapped charge modelling for worst case scenario using EMTP (reconstructed from
|5.7|).

5-5

5.2.5

Statistical Switching Analysis

E M T P sw itc h in g o p e ra tio n s are m o d elled statistically using system atic sw itches in all
three phases. T h e o v e rv o ltag e p ro d u ced in the line depends upon the point on voltage
w ave at w hich th e line is en ergised. T he frequency o f occurrence o f overvoltages is
show n in Figure 5.5 w ith sw itch clo sin g tim e varying from 0 to 6.67m s in 10 steps in
each phase g iv in g rise to total o f 1000 sw itching operation for l/3 rd o f the voltage
w aveshape [5.7]. T h e m ax im u m o v erv o ltag e o f 3.5pu and the m inim um overvoltage o f
1.3pu are observed. T he m ax im u m overv o ltag e occurs at phase B w hile closing the

Vmax. F igure 5.6 sh o w s the o vervoltage w aveshape for the m axim um

sw itch at

overv o ltag e o b tain ed in th is case [5.7]. T his overvoltage occurs w ith the system atic
sw itch closing tim e as sh o w n below :

Phase A : 15.36m s

Phase B : 16.03m s

Phase C : 15.36m s

T he m axim um o v e rv o ltag e o b ta in e d h ere is 3.5pu x 326.6 = 1143kV. T his value

exceeds the sw itc h in g o v e rv o lta g e p ro te c tio n level o f 1050kV norm ally adopted for

600 t

500

200

C lass (p.u)

Figure 5.5: Distribution o f overvoltage along the line (Trapped charge = -1 pu) [5.71.

5-6

600-

Ph. B
(1pu trapped charge)

Ph. B

Ph. A

400200-

000 -

= *

O)

Ph. A& C
(-1pu trapped charge)

TO -200

-400-

-600 -

0)

Ph. C

-800-

1 000 -

Ph. B

-1200
20

25

30

35

40

Time (ms)
Figure 5.6: O vervoltage w aveshape in three phases (reconstructed from |5.7]).

designing 400kV sy stem in th e U K . In practical situation, the trapped charge m ay go up

to 1.25pu. T he m ax im u m sw itc h in g o v e rv o ltag e in this case w ill further rise. T herefore,
it is essential to lim it th ese o v erv o ltag e s.

5.2.6

Limitation of Switching Surges on Overhead Lines using

Surge Arrester

T he ap plication o f tra n sm issio n line surge arresters offers an efficient alternative to

other con v en tio n al m eth o d s o f sw itc h in g o vervoltage control. From the econom ic point
o f view , it is im p o rta n t to id en tify the appropriate locations and configuration o f
arresters on the line so th a t the req u ired control o f the overvoltage can be obtained w ith
the m in im u m n u m b e r o f a rre ste r units. T he overvoltages along the line are calculated
for d iffe re n t a rre ste r c o n fig u ratio n s to o ptim ise the num ber o f surge arresters. The
fo llo w in g a rre ste r co n fig u ratio n s are considered.

C o n fig u ra tio n A

N o arresters

C o n fig u ra tio n B

A rresters only at the line ends ( N odes N1 and N9)

5- 1

C o n fig u ra tio n C

A rresters at line ends and in the m iddle o f the line

(N odes N l, N9 and N5)

C on fig u ratio n D

A rresters at every alternate node

(N odes N l, N3, N5 , N7 and N9)

T he line is en ergised at n o d e N l a n d the m axim um overvoltages are recorded at all the

nodes along the line and p lo tte d in F igure 5.7 [5.7]. T he sw itching conditions rem ain the
sam e as explained in S e c tio n 5.2.5 and the sim ulations w ere carried out w ith trapped
charge in the system re p re se n tin g w o rst case scenario. W hen the line is not protected
w ith arresters (co n fig u ratio n A ), it is o b serv ed that the sw itching overvoltage m agnitude
increases along the line as it g ets c lo se to the open end and reaches m axim um value o f
3.5pu at node N9. T he o p tim u m o v e rv o ltag e red u ctio n at each node is obtained w ith
arresters at every alternate node. In this case, ex cep t node N8, overvoltages in all other
nodes are reduced dow n to 1.7pu.
W ith reference to Figure 5.7, the m a x im u m sw itch in g overvoltage can be reduced from
3.5pu ( 1 143kV ) to 2.0 5 p u (6 6 9 .5k V ) in c o n fig u ratio n B , i.e. w ith surge arresters applied

3.5

3
Q.
o) 2.5

1.5

Conf. A

Conf. B

Conf. C

0.5

Conf. D

N2

N3

N4

N5

N6

N7

N8

N9

N o d es

Figure 5.7: O vervoltage along the line for different arrester configurations (reconstructed from

|5.7l

5-8

at the line ends only. T his w o uld be sufficient to allow a sw itching im pulse w ithstand
level o f 850kV for the u p rate d 400kV application and, thereby, allow ing a reduction in
the m inim um p h ase-to -earth clearan ce requirem ents from 2.6m to 1.8m for sw itching
overvoltages. T he p o ssib ility o f 850kV w ith stan d level is even better than targeted value
o f reducing required c le aran ces to 2 .2m by controlling w ithstand level to 950kV . By
adding one m ore set o f arresters in the m id d le o f the line (C onfiguration C) o r w ith
arresters at alternate tow ers (C o n fig u ra tio n D ), the overvoltages are not further reduced
significantly com pared w ith c o n fig u ra tio n B. T herefore, it w ould be uneconom ical to
choose configuration C or D.
A ccordingly, configuration B is the b e st c h o ice for control o f sw itching overvoltages.
H ow ever, surge arresters ap p lied at line en d s alone w ill not help to control lightning
overvoltages along the line. It is e x p e cte d th at low er values o f lightning w ithstand level
can on ly be adopted w hen the line is p ro te c te d by closely spaced surge arresters
th ro u g h o u t the line [5.12]. H o w ev er, ap p lic atio n o f large num bers o f surge arresters
along the line m ay not be eco n o m ical. In the follow ing sections, an investigation o f
lightning overvoltage is carried out. C o n tro l o f lightning overvoltage using optim um
num ber and p lacem ent o f surge arre ste rs alo n g the line is investigated in C hapter 6.

5 .3

A n a l y s is

of

L ig h t n in g O v e r v o l t a g e s

L ightning is a random n a tu ra l p h e n o m e n o n , and a com prehensive study o f the

p erform ance o f a line stru c k b y lig h tn in g requires a probabilistic approach. Several
standards and g u idelines are a v a ilab le to assist w ith such study [5.13 - 5.15].
H ere, a lig h tn in g o v e rv o ltag e in v estig atio n is perform ed for the existing 275kV L 3
line. T he o v erv o ltag e lev els are determ ined in the line for energisation at 400kV . T he
line insulators are a ssu m e d to have a length o f 3.3m and to have to provide sufficient
creepage for 4 0 0 k V operation.
5- 9

The lightning events p ro d u cin g overvoltages in the line are as a result o f a stroke
hitting:

a tow er / earth w ire (b ack flash o v er) or,

direct strike to the phase c o n d u c to r (sh ield in g failure)

The application o f line surge arresters is co n sid e red to control the overvoltages.

5 .4

S im u l a t io n T o o l s

for

L ig h t n in g S t u d y

D ifferent softw are is available for stu d y in g lig h tn in g and its perform ance in overhead
pow er line. T hese include IEEE FL A S H , A n d e rso n and T hom psons digital w eather
m odel D C O R T L , SIG M A -Slp, EPRI T F lash , an d the E lectrom agnetic transient program
EM TP. In this study, the SIG M A -S lp [5.16] and the EPR I program , T Flash [5.17] are
used.

5.4.1

SIGMA-Slp [5.16]

S IG M A -S lp

is

w indow s-based

so ftw are

d e sig n e d

for

the

determ ination

of

transm ission line electrical p erform ance w ith special reference to the application o f
surge arresters. This program is used b e c au se it can m odel single and m ultiple circuit
lines using M onte-C arlo sim ulation (see A p p e n d ix A ) o f lightning perform ance [5.16]
and uses the E lectrogeom etric m odel (E G M ) fo r determ ination o f stroke term ination.
E lectrom agnetic transients on the line are c o m p u te d by the m ultiphase travelling w ave
m ethod. T he calculation technique in th is p ro g ra m follow s recom m endations m ade by
C IG R E W G 33-01 [5.14]

and IE E E W o rk in g G roup [5.18, 5.19]. The program can

sim ulate line perform ance o f both sh ie ld e d and unshielded transm ission line. T he
softw are is specially designed to p e rm it rap id and sim ple determ ination o f an optim um
line surge arrester installation

schem e.

T he program

output provides

statistical

representation o f expected line fla sh o v e r p erform ance and expected energy ab sorption

5-1 0

by the arresters. Shielding failure sim u latio n is based on graphical representation o f the
conductor striking distances. S IG M A -S lp can also calculate electric and m agnetic field
profiles for the conductor co n figurations.

5.4.2

TFlash [5.15]

TFlash is a com prehensive tran sm issio n line lig h tn in g perform ance sim ulation program
developed by EPRI. The program e v alu ates all aspects o f lightning reliability and
includes a large library o f line g eo m etries, in su la to r types, arresters, conductors,
grounding, transm ission voltage etc. T h e so ftw a re can sim ulate m ultiple lines on a
single w ayleave and has the facility to use the E G M o r the EPR I stroke attraction m odel
(see A ppendix

B). W ith reference to

F ig u re

5.8, the program

has tw o m ajor

com ponents. The first com ponent is w h ere u sers b u ild a m odel o f the line to be

Project
Parameters

c
o
c

o
a

o
u

Tow er M odels

C omponent Data

T o w tr
Param eters

Line Voltage,
Lightning
Parameters,
etc.

CFO, MCOV,
Line S izes

Line M odel
File

Statistics Setup
& Control

Oscillograph
Setup

<N
C

Traveling Wave
Simulation

(J
c

E
o
U
Oscillograms

Statistics Reports

Figure 5.8: TFlash program structure [5.15].

5-11

analysed. T he second co m ponent takes d ata from the line m odel and builds the electrical
m odel for the travelling w ave sim u latio n and creates reports.

5 .5

L in e
M o d e l l in g
O vervoltage

fo r

C o m p u t a t io n

of

L ig h t n in g

M uch literature has been published c o n c e rn in g the m odelling o f transm ission line
com ponents for lightning overvoltage sim u latio n [5.14, 5.18 - 5.23]. In this study,
m odels o f the existing 275kV line c o m p o n e n ts w ere set up in SIG M A -Slp and TFlash.
T he m odels require the selection o f to w ers, c o n d u cto rs, insulators, earth type and
arresters. U sing this data, electrical m odels o f a sh o rt section o f the line are constructed.
T he program s sim ulate lightning current a tta c h m e n t to the line and the propagation o f
the current along the line and tow ers. T he d e ta ils o f m o d ellin g process are explained in
the follow ing sections.

5.5.1

Line M odel

Each span on the transm ission line is re p re sen te d as a m ultiphase untransposed

d istributed param eter line section. In o rd er to av o id reflectio n s in the line, a sufficiently
long section is added to each side o f the line length considered for sim ulation. In
addition, at the line ends, SIG M A -Slp c o n n e cts co u p lin g m atrices w hile T Flash adds
m atching im pedances. Each sim ulated span se ctio n is further divided into shorter sub
sections to enable stroke sim ulation at a n u m b e r o f p o in ts along the span.

5.5.2

T o w e r Model

T he EPR I T F lash program m odels a high v o lta g e transm ission tow er as a netw ork o f
short tran sm issio n lines carrying tra n sie n t cu rre n t from its top to the earth and its
reflection back tow ards the top [5.15]. T h e refo re, in TFlash, tow er is m odelled as a
short vertical transm ission line section w ith co nstant surge im pedance and earthed

5- 12

through its footing resistance at the end. In SIG M A -Slp, the tow er is m o d elled by a
sim ple propagation elem ent m odel rep re sen te d by the tow er surge im pedance ( Z j ) and
its propagation length (lprop) as show n in F ig u re 5.9a. The propagation length is equal to
the height o f the tow er (hT).
T he surge im pedance o f the steel lattice to w e r u sed in both program s is calculated u sin g
the sam e C IG R E m odel show n in F igure 5.9b u sin g E quations (5.1) and (5.2) [5.14].

Zr = 60 In c o t 0.5 ta n

r-i

Tavg ~

ravg

(5 .1 )

V/ii + h2)

h2 +r2
(h j +
(h, + h2)

h2)+

r3h
K

>

W here,

Z j is tow er surge im pedance and ravg is th e w e ig h te d average tow er radius, hi and h 2 are
the tow er height from base to m idsection an d m id se c tio n to tow er top respectively, rj,
0

, and r j are the radii at the top, m id sectio n and b ase o f the tow er respectively. Figure

5.9b show s these dim ensions w ith c o rre sp o n d in g valu es for the L 3 tow er structure.
T he com puted value o f tow er surge im p ed an ce is 1 7 3 .1U.

Tower top node

Osl
'prop

3.57 m

Propagation
section element

7 777

7777

<

(b)
Figure 5.9 : Tower models a) Sim ple propagation element model in SIGMA-Slp and b) Assumed
model geometry for computation o f tower surge impedance in both SIGMA-Slp and TFlash.

5-13

5.5.3

Tow er Footing Resistance Model

A n on-linear to w e r fo o tin g resistance m odel as show n in Figure 5.10 is used in b o th

S IG M A -Slp and T F lash. The footing resistan ce (R j) is calculated using W e e k s
equation, as given in E quation (5.3) [5.24].

R0
R t =

(5.3)

w here;

Ro = Low current to w er footing resista n c e (Q )

I = L ightning stroke current through to w e r fo o tin g im pedance (2)
Ig = soil ionisation lim iting current (k A ) a n d is c a lcu lated using Equation (5.4)
E oP _

to

( 5 '4 )

w here;

p = soil resistivity (2-m),

Eo = soil ionisation critical electrical field (4 k V /cm )

Figure 5.10 : Non-linear tower footing resistance model.

5.5.4

Insulator Flashover Model

In T F lash, the D isruptive Effect (D E ) m ethod [5.25] is used as the default in su la to r

flash o v er m odel w h ereas SIG M A -Slp, uses a leader progression m ethod as ad o p ted by
C IG R E [5.14].
5-14

T he D E m e th o d d efin es the disru p tiv e index by:

DE =

(5 .5 )

W here, V(t) is the in sta n ta n e o u s value o f the im pulse voltage, and A and B are constants.

A represents the m in im u m v o ltage b elo w w hich breakdow n cannot occur and B is a

coefficient in d ic a tin g th a t the b reak d o w n p ro cess is not linear. W hen the disruptive
index reaches a critical v alu e, b rea k d o w n w ould occur.
The leader p ro g re ssio n m eth o d is rep re sen te d by:

V, = 1 7 0 d

u (t)
d -L

E0 e

0 .0 0 1 5

(5 .6 )

W here, Vt is the leader v e lo c ity , d th e g a p d istan ce, // the leader length, u(t) the applied
voltage and, E() the vo ltag e g rad ie n t (5 2 0 k V /m ). In th is m odel, the flashover m echanism
follow s three steps: co ro n a in ce p tio n fo llo w e d by stream er propagation and leader
progression. W hen the lea d e r c ro sse s the p h a se-to -e a rth air gap, flashover occurs.

5.5.5

L ig htnin g S tro k e M odel

In both above p ro g ram s, the lig h tn in g stro k e is m o d elled as an ideal current source w ith
a parallel in fin ite im p e d a n ce (N o rto n s source). T he polarity and m agnitude o f any
lightning flashes are ran d o m in n ature. T he po sitiv e polarity lightning strokes being
very rare (h ard ly e x c ee d in g 10% o f the total gro u n d flash [5.26]), the lightning current
w aveform m o d el o f a n e g a tiv e retu rn stroke ap p roxim ated by C IG R E [5.14] and IEEE
[5.26], as rep ro d u c e d in F ig u re 5.11, is used in this study. T able 5.3 show s the statistical
p aram eters o f the n e g a tiv e return stroke used [5.14, 5.26].

5-15

100
'90

th

time

Figure 5. II : Negative return stroke lightning waveform.

Table 5.3: Statistical param eter o f negative return stroke [5.14, 5.26].

M e d ia n V alue

L ogarithm ic S tandard
D eviation (B ase e)

Front tim e (tj) (p s)

0.55

Tail tim e (th) (p s)

77.5

0.58

P a ram e te r

5.5.6

S tro k e A ttra c tio n M odel

In both p ro g ra m s, th e E le c tro g e o m e tric M odel (E G M ) is used to determ ine the lightning

strike p o in t on the line. F ig u re 5.12 sh o w s a b asic concept o f this m odel for determ ining
the strik in g d ista n c e. A s th e lea d e r ap p ro ach es the transm ission line, each conductor
em its an u p w a rd lea d e r w ith a strik in g d istan ce R. I f the dow nw ard leader falls on area

A, a strik e to the sh ie ld w ire occurs. I f it falls on area B , a shielding failure occurs; if it

ends up in are a C, it strik es to earth. T he conductor, and earth striking distances used in
the p ro g ra m s are giv en by [5.13, 5.14]:

Rs = Rp = 10 / 0 65

(5 .7 )

Re = [3 .6 + 1.7 ln ( 4 3 - 7i)] 7065

fo r h < 40m

(5 .8 )

Re = 5.5 7065

fo r h > 40m

(5 .9 )

5-16

To shield wire
T o p h a se wire
k To earth
Shield Wire
Phase W ir e #

Earth

Figure 5.12 : Electrogeom etric model for determination of stroke point.

W here, Rs is th e strik in g d istan ce to the sh ield w ire, Rp is the striking distance to the
phase co n d u cto r, Re is th e strik in g d ista n c e to earth, / is the lightning im pulse current
m agnitude and, h is the h eig h t o f th e tow er.

5.6

D e t e r m in a t io n
of
L ig h tn in g
S tro k e
T e rm in a tio n
S t a t i s t i c s u s in g t h e E l e c t r o g e o m e t r i c M o d e l

In o rder to set a p p ro p riate p a ram eters o f the lightning stroke and to understand its
random b e h a v io u r fo r o v erv o ltag e calcu latio n , the lightning stroke term ination statistics
are d e te rm in e d u sin g the E lectro g eo m etric m odel (E G M ) in SIG M A -Slp and TFlash.
In S IG M A -S lp , ran d o m lig h tn in g strokes are generated w ith m agnitudes betw een 1.2kA
and 161.1kA to acco m m o d ate bo th sh ielding failure and backflash, and w ith rise tim es
in the ran g e fro m 1.2ps and 4 .3 8 p s. A total o f 20,000 lightning strokes are used w ith the
im pulse sh ap e v ary in g ran d o m ly w ith in 2000 sam ples. In TFlash, how ever, the stroke
cu rren t ran g e can be selected b etw een lk A and 300kA , and the range is divided up to
512 c u rren t b in s . In o rd er to m atch the tw o m odels as closely as possible, 32 stroke
current bins a n d a peak cu rren t range from 2.5kA to 160kA w ere selected in TFlash.
T he sam e d o u b le circu it L 3 line as described in Section 4.2 is considered in this study.

5-17

T he line is a ssu m e d to be on flat ground w ithout any external natural shielding (e.g.
trees, b u ild in g s etc.) w ith an average span o f 300m . The line is energised at 400kV w ith
a 3.3m lo n g c o m p o site in su la to r assum ed to provide sufficient creepage for 400kV
operation.

5.6.1

D istribution of Lightning Strikes to the L3 Overhead Line

using SIG M A -Slp

T able 5.4 show s th e lig h tn in g stro k e term in atio n statistics using EG M in SIG M A -Slp.
O ut o f 2 0,000 stro k es, m o re than 70% (14123) o f strokes attach to earth and 27% o f
strokes are c o lle cte d b y th e sh ie ld w ire (4827) and tow er tops (521). O nly about 3%
(529) o f the strokes are p red ic te d to hit th e p h ase conductor. O ut o f the strokes that are
collected b y p h ase c o n d u c to rs, 100% attach to the top tw o phases (Ai and C 2).
Figure 5.13 fu rth er sh o w s E G M resu lts th at help to understand the distribution o f

Table 5.4: Distribution of stroke term ination along the line using EGM in SIGMA-Slp.

% o f total
stroke
1

G round flash d e n sity

G F D (str/km2/yr)

N um ber o f stro k es c o lle cte d b y th e line

Ni (S trokes)

11.3

M edian o f th e stro k e c o lle cte d b y the line

Imed (kA )

31.4

Total stroke

S tr o k e s T o t

20000

N u m b er o f stro k es to earth

T o E arth

14123

N u m b er o f stro k e to to w e r top

To T ow er top

521

N u m b er o f stro k e to sh ie ld w ire

T o S hield w ire

4827

70.62%

26.75%
To Phase A l

254

To Phase B1

T o Phase C l

To Phase C2

275

To Phase B2

To Phase A 2

2.65%

N u m b e r o f stro k e s to p h ase conductors

5-18

lig h tning c u rre n ts resp o n sib le for shielding failure and backflashover in the line. W ith
referen ce to F ig u re 5.13a, o f those w hich hit phase conductors, the lightning current
m agnitude u p to 3 0 k A has a h igh prob ab ility o f hitting a phase conductor. A n average
current m a g n itu d e o f 2 2 .6 k A w ith a standard deviation o f 12.5kA is calculated for
strokes c a u sin g sh ie ld in g failu re in the line. It is also observed that the m agnitude o f the
stroke c u rren t c a u sin g sh ie ld in g failu re is hig h er than 50kA . T he distribution o f current
hitting to w e r to p s o r a sh ie ld w ire is show n in F igure 5.13b. As can be seen in the
figure, high m ag n itu d e c u rre n ts (up to 150kA ) are likely to hit tow er tops or a shield
w ire that could ca u se b ac k flash o v e r. H ow ever, the probability o f very high m agnitude
current h ittin g th e p h a se c o n d u c to r is less for high m agnitude strokes.

0.11
0.1

0.09
0.08
0.07
-C 0.06
re
-D 0.05
O 0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01

0
ro tn n oi
h
m in s

THr HTHr Hr Mr Mf Nr MCNr o r o mmm^ t ^ ' ^ ^ t ' i t L n m

r Hr n i n r ^ c r * THmLn r ^ a i r Hr o i n r ^ a * i Hr o i n r ^ c r > A
Current Range (kA)
a) Stroke to phase conductors

&

j?

tP

<?

tP

<1?

<$><S>

<S>A

\V

jP
V

,<P

s>y s>y

Current Range (kA)

b) Stroke to tower tops or a shield wire
F igure 5.13: D istrib u tion o f ligh tnin g stroke currents along the line (SIG M A -Slp sim ulation).

5-1 9

5.6.2

Distribution of Lightning Strikes to the L3 Overhead Line

using TFlash

The stro k e te rm in a tio n statistics obtained using the EG M in T Flash program are closely
sim ilar to the resu lts o b tain e d w ith S IG M A -S lp sim ulations. Figure 5.14 show s a
pictorial d istrib u tio n o f stro k e term in atio n for different stroke current values. A s seen in
the figure, the m a jo rity o f strokes attaching to the line term inate at the tow er tops or
shield w ire. M o re th an 9 5 % o f strokes to phase conductors, hit the top tw o phases only.

2.5kA

80kA

160kA

(a) for c u rre n t ra n g e 2 .5 kA to 160 kA

(b )fo r c u rre n t (/) = 2 .5 kA

(c) for current (/) = 30 kA

(d )fo r c u rre n t (/) =80 kA

(e )fo r current (/) = 160 kA

Figure 5.14 : Distribution o f stroke termination for different values of lightning current simulated
in TFlash.

5-20

F igure 5 .14 a lso in d ic a te s that, for this design o f line, a single shield w ire present is not
su fficien t to p ro te c t the line from direct phase strikes as currents up to 80kA m agnitude
can hit the p h a se co n d u c to rs.

5 .7

L ig h t n in g O v e r v o l t a g e s

in t h e

U p r a t e d L3 L in e

L ightning o v e rv o lta g e s p ro d u c e d in an o v erhead line result from the stroke hitting the
phase c o n d u c to rs (sh ie ld in g failu re) o r the shield w ire (backflashover). T he overvoltage
m agnitude d e p e n d s u p o n th e c h a ra c te ristic s o f lightning strokes h itting the line
com ponents. In th is se ctio n , the c o m p u te d overv o ltag es on the phase conductors due to
sh ielding failu re a n d b a c k fla sh are d e scrib ed .

5.7.1

Stroke to Phase Conductors on the Uprated L3 Line

T he o v erv o ltag e p ro d u c e d b y a p a rtic u la r stro k e to a phase conductor depends upon the

peak cu rren t m ag n itu d e , sy stem v o lta g e an d the insulation strength [5.13, 5.14]. The
peak value o f lig h tn in g o v e rv o lta g e d u e to a stroke hitting the phase conductor are
com puted for all p o ssib le lig h tn in g stro k e cu rre n t m agnitudes up to 30kA determ ined by
20,000 sta tistic a l sim u la tio n s u sin g th e E G M . T h e front tim e o f the return stroke w aves
are ran d o m ly se le c te d in th e ran g e b e tw e e n 1.2 p s and 4.38 ps. A fixed half-value tim e
o f 75 p s is c h o sen . A low c u rre n t to w e r fo o tin g resistance o f 10Q and 2002m soil
resistiv ity are a ssu m e d .
Figure 5.15 sh o w s th e o v e rv o lta g e m ag n itu d e o btained from Sigm a-S lp and T Flash
sim u latio n s fo r e ach re tu rn stro k e h ittin g the ph ase conductor. O ne can observe that the
o v e rv o ltag e d u e to s h ie ld in g failu re co u ld be around 5,000kV for a 30kA current
im pulse w h ic h is sig n ific a n tly h ig h er than the lightning overvoltage p rotection level o f
1425kV re q u ire d n o rm a lly for 4 0 0 k V system in the UK. Even for an average stroke
cu rren t m a g n itu d e (2 2 .6 k A ) th at causes sh ielding failure, the overvoltage exceeds

5-21

4 ,0 0 0 k V

an d

o n ly

im p u lse

current

m agnitudes

less than

6kA

w ould produce

o v e rv o ltag e s th a t fall w ith in the pro tectio n level o f the system . T he figure also show s
the p o ssib ility o f in su la tio n flash o v er due to shielding failure for stroke currents m ore
than 1 lk A . F ig u re 5.16 sh o w s a ty p ical o v ervoltage shape for a 22.6 kA , 4/77.5 im pulse
shape strik in g a p h a se c o n d u c to r c au sin g flashover across the insulator. T he T Flash
m odel pred icts a faste r in itial rise tim e causing early flashover resulting in low er
o vervoltage m ag n itu d e c o m p a re d w ith the S igm a-S lp m odel.

6000

O v erv o lta g e for 22.6kA

str o k e .cu rren t

5000
i

4000

j?

3000

>

2000

01

1000

.772!;

Sigm a-Slj
TFlash

No flashover
10

Flashover
15

20

25

30

Stroke C urrent Magnitude (kA)

Figure 5.15: Overvoltage for lightning stroke currents causing shielding failure.

6000

Sigma-Slp

5000

TFlash

4000
3000

2000
1000

-1000
-2000
10

11

12

13

14

15

Time (ps)

F igure 5.16: L igh tn in g o v ervoltage w avesh ap e d ue to shielding failure.

5-22

5.7.2

Stroke to Tower Top or Shield Wire on the Uprated L3 Line

T he o v e rv o lta g e m a g n itu d e o f strokes to tow ers and shield w ire in this case not only
d ep en d s u p o n th e p eak c u rre n t m ag n itu d e, system voltage and insulation strength, it is
also in flu e n ce d b y th e p a ra m e te rs such as lightning im pulse current w ave front and the
to w er fo o tin g re sista n c e s [5.13, 5.14]. In o rd er to sim plify the analysis, the overvoltages
are ca lc u la te d fo r c o n sta n t fro n t tim e o f the im pulse w aveshape in all cases for different
tow er fo o tin g re sista n c e s an d c u rren t m agnitudes. H ow ever, the im pulse front tim e
plays a sig n ific a n t ro le in d e te rm in in g the lig h tn in g strike rate (flashes/lO O km /year) to
the line [5.14]. A 4 /7 7 .5 im p u lse sh ap e is co n sid ered for the sim ulation. Figure 5.17
show s the o v e rv o lta g e m a g n itu d e s fo r stro k es term in atin g (a) at the to w er top and (b) at
m idspan. T he v a lu e s c o rre sp o n d to a c u rre n t ran g e o f lOkA to 160kA and for different
values o f to w e r fo o tin g re sista n c e up to 100Q .
From F igure 5.17, it can be seen th a t o v e r th e ran g e o f lighting current and the footing
resistance

stu d ied ,

the

o v e rv o lta g e

m a g n itu d e

on the phase conductors due to

b a c k flash o v e r can reach 4 6 0 0 k V w h e n the h ig h c u rren t lightning w ave term inates at the
tow er top a n d b a c k fla s h o v e r o c c u rs in th e line. H ow ever, the overvoltages do not
exceed 1300kV i f the fo o tin g resista n c e is lim ited to 6 0Q provided that the stroke
currents do n o t e x c ee d 130kA . T h is m ean s th at the overvoltage m agnitude w ithout
b a c k flash o v e r d o e s n o t e x c ee d the lig h tn in g im pulse w ithstand level. H igh values o f
o v erv o ltag es are p ro d u c e d in the line w h en b a c k flash o v e r occurs as the overvoltage due
to lig h tn in g su rg e in th e to w e r is tra n sfe rre d to the line conductors. T he overvoltage in
this case c o u ld be lim ite d b y c o n tro llin g the b ackflashover in the line. A typical
o v e rv o ltag e sh a p e fo r a 160 kA , 4/77.5 im pulse w ave striking shield w ire at to w er w ith
fo o tin g re sista n c e o f 8 0 H and c au sin g flash o v er across the line insulators is show n in
F igure 5.18.

5-23

5000
4500

F la s h o v e r

...........................................................
...... ^ ...... 1 0 Q

*
............................................ ............................
B

-f-......#
20**
..................... ..... .............. ................. ..........................
A *3 0_frvt

___

4000

8P

3500
3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

............................... ......- .......T............ ......x

---
- *
T
.A.
*

*
..................................................

y
............................................................ ~ __ A
1

*
I

ft
1
I I

500

>

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

t
1

*
i

i
1

ft
1

r ' i

x 4 0 ft
X 5 0 ft
6 o ft
+70Q
- 80f t
- 90f t

100 110 120 130 140 150 160

* 10 Q

Stroke C urrent Magnitude (kApeak)

(a)

Stroke to shield wire at tower

3500

10ft

.....................................................Flashover

3000

20ft
3 0 ft

2500
0>

SP
o
2

*;

4 0 ft
2000
5 0 ft
1500

6 0 ft

1000

7 0 ft

500

..

8 0 ft
9 0 ft

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100ft

100 110 120 130 140 150 160

Stroke C urrent M agnitude (kApeak)

(b)

Stroke to shield wire at midspan

Figure 5.17: O vervoltage on phase conductors for lightning stroke currents causing backflash.

6000
5000
4000
3000

2000

1000

-1000
10

15

20

30

25

Time

35

40

45

50

( lis)

F igu re 5.18: L igh tn in g overvoltage w avesh ape due to backflashover.

5-24

F igure 5 .1 7 b a lso show s th at the overvoltages are significantly less w hen the lightning
stroke te rm in a te s at m id sp an . In these cases, a m axim um overvoltage o f 1290kV is
o b serv ed fo r th e ran g e o f fo o tin g resistan ce studied and the im pulse current m agnitude
up to 150kA . T h e o v e rv o lta g e in this case is w ith in the required lim it o f lightning
im pulse w ith sta n d level. A s can be seen in the figure, the flashover in this case only
occurs at 160kA stro k e c u rre n t and 100L2 footing resistance p roducing 3033kV o f
overvoltage.
From the resu lts o f th e stu d ie s c a rrie d out w ith S IG M A -S lp and T Flash, it can be seen
that there are high o v e rv o lta g e s d u e to sh ie ld in g failure and backflash on the uprated
275kV line. F o r o p e ra tin g th e line to 4 0 0 k V , the lim itation o f lightning overvoltage up
to 1425kV w o u ld n o t be a d e q u a te b e c au se the aim is to reduce the overvoltage
w ithstand level to 1300kV o r less (C h a p te r 4) so th at the m inim um required phase-toearth clearan ce c o u ld be sa tisfie d in th e e x istin g system for uprated voltage level. A n
im provem ent in the lig h tn in g p e rfo rm a n c e o f the line through the application o f line
surge arresters is e x a m in e d in C h a p te r 6.

5 .8

C o n c lu s io n s

In this ch ap ter, an e x te n siv e e v a lu a tio n o f o v erv o ltag es produced on an L 3 line due to

sw itching p h e n o m e n a w a s p e rfo rm e d . U n d e r the w orst case scenario (sw itching event at
voltage p e a k w ith tra p p e d c h arg e), a sw itch in g im pulse overvoltage o f 3.5pu ( 1 143kV)
w as o b tain e d w h ic h e x c e e d e d the o v e rv o ltag e p rotection level o f 1050kV for a 400kV
system and ta rg e te d m a x im u m o v erv o ltag e level o f 950kV . The application o f surge
arresters w as fo u n d e ffe c tiv e for red u c in g these overvoltage levels. A m ong different
a rre ste r c o n fig u ra tio n s stu d ied , a co n fig u ratio n w ith arresters only at the line ends w as
found te c h n ic a lly an d e c o n o m ica lly feasible solution to reduce the overvoltage level to
2.0 5 p u (6 6 9 .5 k V ) at all nodes. T he reduced overvoltage level w as found sufficient for
5-25

im p le m e n tin g th e targ e te d sw itch in g im pulse w ith stan d level o f 950kV w hich requires
o nly 2 .2 m p h a se -to -e a rth c learan ce for sw itch in g overvoltage in 400kV system .
A n in v e stig a tio n o f lig h tn in g o v erv o ltag e w as perfo rm ed using tw o different standard
program s: S IG M A -slp a n d T F lash. T h e lig h tn in g stroke term ination statistics obtained
using E le c tro g e o m e tric m o d el sh o w ed th at only 3% o f the total strokes are responsible
for the sh ie ld in g failu re a n d 2 7 % o f the stroke result into backflash. In the line studied,
it w as show n th at, a lm o st 100% o f th e strokes term in atin g on phase conductors hit the
top tw o p h a ses o f the line. A n a v e ra g e cu rren t m agnitude o f 22.6kA w ith a standard
deviation o f 12.5kA w as c a lc u la te d fo r stro k es cau sin g shielding failure.
T he o v e rv o ltag e s d u e to lig h tn in g strik es w ere com puted considering separately the
cases o f stro k es h ittin g p h a se c o n d u c to rs and to w e r top / shield w ire. T he overvoltage
m agnitudes fo r d iffe re n t stro k e c u rre n t m ag n itu d es and shapes show ed that the
o vervoltage d u e to sh ie ld in g failu re fo r im p u lse current m ore than 6kA exceeds the
overv o ltag e p ro te c tio n level o f 1425kV . F o r a h ig h er value o f im pulse current w hich is
less likely to hit the p h a se c o n d u c to r, th is v alu e could reach up to 5000kV . Insulation
flashover m ay o c c u r fo r im p u lse c u rre n t m ag n itu d e s above 1 lk A .
S im ilarly, w h e n the stro k e h its th e sh ie ld w ire o r the tow er top, the overvoltage
m agnitude on the c o n d u c to r w as fo u n d less th an for the shielding failure case. E ven
though the o v e rv o lta g e in th is case can go up to 4600kV , the value can be lim ited w ithin
the o v e rv o ltag e p ro te c tio n level fo r to w e r footing resistance up to 6 0Q for m axim um
stroke c u rre n t up to 130kA . It w as show n that the overvoltage produced by a stroke
term in a tin g on th e sh ie ld w ire at m id sp a n is less than the corresponding m agnitude
current s trik in g th e sh ie ld w ire at the to w er top. In this case, for a tow er footing
resista n c e up to 1002 a n d a stroke cu rren t up to 150kA, the overvoltage m agnitudes
p ro d u ce d are b e lo w the im p u lse w ith stan d level for a 400kV system .

5-26

C h a pt e r 6
A p p l ic a t io n

of

urge

A rresters

O vervoltage C ontrol

6.1

on

for

L ig h t n in g

U p r a t e d L in e s

I n t r o d u c t io n

Faults cau sed b y lig h tn in g are th e m ain source o f line outages especially in the areas
w ith high g ro u n d flash d e n sity , h igh earth re sistiv ity and po o r shielding. A p p lication o f
line surge arre ste rs is fo u n d to be an e fficien t tool to control overvoltages due to
lightning, th ereb y , im p ro v in g the lig h tn in g p erfo rm an ce o f the tran sm issio n line.
S uitable selectio n o f a rre ste r ra tin g an d c o n fig u ratio n along the line are crucial for
achieving im p ro v ed re lia b ility o f th e line.
Line arresters used to co n tro l lig h tn in g o v erv o ltag e s are exposed to high m agnitude
lightning strikes and h av e to su rv iv e hig h en erg y discharge duty im posed by the
lightning current. In c o m p a riso n to the su b sta tio n arrester, the line arrester m ay
experience m o re e n e rg y stress. T h is is b e c a u se th e in co m in g surge to a station is lim ited
either by line in su la to r fla sh o v e r o r b y d isc h a rg e to earth. T herefore, adequate selection
o f a line a rrester also d e p e n d s u p o n a sse ssin g its e n erg y absorption capability so that it
does not fail u n d e r c o n d itio n s o f lig h tn in g strik in g either the phase co n d u cto r or the
shield w ire.
In this chapter, o p tim ise d lig h tn in g o v e rv o ltag e control by use o f surge arresters along
the line for v o lta g e u p ra tin g is c arried out. O vervoltages due to shielding failure and
backflash are a n a ly se d sep arately . In S ectio n 5.2.6 (C hapter 5), it is dem onstrated that
arresters p lac e d o n ly at line en d s are su fficien t to control sw itching overvoltages but do
not a d e q u a te ly

c o n tro l

lig h tn in g

overv o ltag es

along the

line.

U nlike

sw itching

o v e rv o ltag e s, th e co n tro l o f lig h tn in g overv o ltag e requires closely spaced surge arresters

6 -1

alo n g th e line. In o rd e r to op tim ise the n u m b er o f surge arresters, various arrester

in stallatio n c o n fig u ra tio n s alo n g the line are studied and com pared. A system atic
ca lcu latio n o f a rre s te r cu rre n ts and en erg y duty is carried out w ith single stroke cases
and also sta tistic a lly fo r g a p le ss m eta l-o x id e surge arresters installed on the line.

6 .2

S u r g e A r r e s t e r S p e c if ic a t io n

G apless m e ta l-o x id e su rg e a rre ste rs w ith the fo llo w in g specifications are used [6.1].
N om inal d isc h a rg e c u rre n t: 10 kA
Im pulse w ith sta n d c u rre n t fo r 4 /1 0 ps: lOOkA
R ated vo ltag e : 360 kV
M axim um C o n tin u o u s O p e ra tin g V o ltag e (M C O V ) : 291 kV as p er A N S I/IE E E
E nergy C ap ab ility : 7.8 k J/k V o f ra te d v o lta g e
T he V -I c h a ra c te ristic o f th e a rre ste r is m o d e lle d u sin g the equal area law [6.2] from the
data show n in T ab le 6.1.

Table 6.1: Line surge arrester discharge voltage for im pulse currents.

/(k A )

0.5

10

20

40

V (kV )

692

714

742

804

846

931

1046

6 .3

L im it a t io n

of

L ig h t n in g O v e r v o l t a g e

U sing S IG M A -S lp so ftw a re , an eig h t span L 3 line section is selected from the m iddle
o f the line a n d m o d e lle d a c c o rd in g to the pro ced u re described earlier in C hapter 5
(S ection 5.5). S in g le stro k e an aly sis is p e rfo rm ed to estim ate the overvoltage level in
the line. In th is stu d y , S IG M A -S lp is used since it has a tool to perform m ultiple studies
by a u to m a tic a lly v a ry in g d iffe re n t param eters such as tow er footing resistance, ground
flash d e n sity , in su la tio n level and surge arrester configurations. W hile in T F lash the

6 -2

stu d y n e e d s to be p e rfo rm e d by v ary in g individual param eters one by one w hich is

m uch tim e c o n su m in g . A p art from this, in the statistical sim ulations using SIG M A -Slp,
the ran d o m d istrib u tio n o f lig h tn in g stroke param eters and corresponding sim ulation
outputs can b e e a sily traced .
A range o f d iffe re n t lig h tn in g im p u lse shapes are used in sim ulating lightning strikes to
the tra n sm issio n line. In th is study, a d o u b le exponential, 4/77.5 im pulse current w ave,
as rec o m m e n d e d b y C IG R E [6.2] and IE E E [6.3], is used. C IG R E and IE E E also
reco m m en d sp e c ific p e a k v a lu e s o f lig h tn in g current for the different sim ulations: a
peak cu rren t m ag n itu d e o f less th an o r equal to 20kA under shielding failure scenario
and currents ab o v e 2 0 k A fo r b a c k fla sh o v e r scen ario s [6.2, 6.3].

6.3.1

Lim itation of O vervoltage due to Shielding Failure

A 20 kA , 4 /7 7 .5 lig h tn in g im p u lse w as ap p lied to a phase conductor Aj to sim ulate

shielding failu re in the line. F ig u re 6.1 sh o w s overv o ltag es calculated for each phase at
the struck node. A s can be seen in th e figure, a m axim um overvoltage o f 4534kV is
calculated at th e stru c k p h ase; w h ile at n o n -stru ck phases, the overvoltages are less than
a q uarter o f th is value.

5000
4500

20kA. 4/77.5 impulse

4534

4000 |

3500

3000

4
4

If

2500

>

2000 4

> 1500 {

972

...27.1...

1000 I
500 4

0
A1

B1

C2

Cl

"""I "

B2

A2

Phase

Figure 6.1: O vervoltages produced at different phases due to lightning stroke at phase A l.

6-3

T he m ax im u m o v erv o ltag e on phases at the struck tow er and neighbouring tow ers are
calcu lated w ith and w ith o u t surge arresters. R esults are com pared for three different
arrester c o n fig u ra tio n s as given below .
-

A rreste rs at e v e ry th ird to w er

A rresters at e v e ry a ltern ate to w er

A rresters at all to w e rs

Figure 6.2 sh o w s the e ffe c t o f o v erv o ltag e control by the use o f line surge arresters. As
can be seen in the fig u re, th e m ax im u m overvoltage w ith arresters applied at every third
tow er or at altern ate to w e rs in all p h ases along the line can significantly reduce the
overvoltage d u e to sh ie ld in g

failure in the line. For all arrester configurations

considered, the o v e rv o ltag e s at stru ck and n eighbouring tow ers are below the targeted
lightning im p u lse w ith sta n d level o f 1300kV required for uprating the line to 400kV .
The m axim um o v erv o ltag e at the stru c k n o d e is reduced from 4534kV to 1276.5 kV. A t
neighbouring to w e rs red u c tio n to 7 9 9 .5kV and 7 2 5 .8kV are calculated w hen arresters

20kA, 4/77.5 impul

a;
OJO
*ro
>
o>
<
>u
O
k-

LI withstan i level ( I3G )kV)

T1

T2

T3

T4

T5

T6

T7

T8

T9

Tower Num ber

No a rrester
A rresters at e v e r y altern ate to w er

* A rresters at ev e r y third tow er

A rresters at all to w ers

Figure 6.2: O vervoltage along the line due to shielding failure for different arrester configurations,
x and A marks in the figure represent presence o f arrester in the tower for corresponding arrester

configuration indicated.

6-4

are p lac e d at e v e ry th ird to w e r and every alternate tow er respectively.

W hen arre ste rs are p laced at all tow ers, no significant further reduction is obtained.
From this in itial a n aly sis, as w ith the sw itching surge control (S ection 5.2.6), the
ap p lication o f su rg e a rre ste rs at ev ery third or alternate tow er appears sufficient to
achieve the ta rg e t v a lu e o f 1300kV lightning im pulse w ithstand level. T his allow s a
reduction in the m in im u m p h a se-to -e a rth clearance requirem ents from 2.6m to 2.4m for
lightning o v erv o ltag e.
It is im portant to n o te th a t the resu lt is ob tain ed for the case w hen lightning strikes the
tow er at w h ich arre ste rs are in stalled . H ow ever, if lightning strikes at or near to a tow er
w ithout surge arresters, the arresters at neig h b o u rin g tow ers do not help in reducing
overvoltages p ro d u ce d in the stru c k no d e as show n in Figure 6.3. W ith reference to the
figure, although n e ig h b o u rin g to w e rs sh o w overvoltages below the im pulse w ithstand
level, an o v e rv o ltag e o f 4 5 3 4 k V is o b tain e d at struck node, w hich is the sam e value
w ith no surge a rresters alo n g the line. T h is m ay dem and the use o f surge arresters in all
tow ers and p h a ses, w h ich m ay n o t b e econom ical.

20kA, 4/77.5 im p u ls e * -^

5000

4500
4000
>

3500

3000

2500

arreste -s at attern, te to w ers

| 2000 O 1500

LI withstand

:vel(130p k y

1000
500

T1

T2

13

T4

T5

T6

17

T8

T9

Tower Num ber

Figure 6.3: O vervoltage along the line due to shielding failure when stroke hits phase conductor
near to the tow er without surge arrester. * indicate tower with arresters.

6-5

W ith refe re n c e to the lig htning stroke term ination statistics for the line in Section 5.6, it
is o b se rv e d th a t th e sh ie ld in g failure for this L3 tow er design w ould occur only on the
top tw o p h a ses (A 1 a n d C 2). T herefore, if arresters w ere installed at the top phases only
at all to w ers, th is sh o u ld be su fficien t to control overvoltages due to shielding failure.
Figure 6.4 sh o w s th at lig h tn in g ov erv o ltag es on the line w hen arresters are installed at
the top p h ases o n ly are sim ila r to w hen arresters are installed at all phases, and the
values are less th an th e ta rg e te d im p u lse w ith stan d level o f 1300kV. Since the lightning
strike hits o n ly th e top p h ase c o n d u cto rs in the low current range, the m axim um
o v ervoltage in the strik in g p h a se is red u c e d due to the application o f surge arresters.

20kA, 4/77.5 impu

5000
4500
4000

No a r r e s t e '
a r r e s t e r s ^ all p h a s e s a n d t o w e r s
A r r ester s; t top tw o p h a se s in al to w e r s

3500
v 3000

If
2500
o
ir. 2 0 0 0

1500

1 ,1 V M t h .s U i l l d

1000
500

T1

T3

T4

T5

T6

T8

T9

Tower Number
Figure 6.4: O vervoltage along the line due to shielding failure for arresters only in top phases.

6.3.2

Lim itation of O vervoltage due to Backflash

U nlike sh ie ld in g failu re, o v erv o ltag es due to backflash are influenced by additional
p aram eters. A s seen earlier, in p articular, tow er footing resistance plays an im portant
role. A 160kA , 4 /7 7 .5 im p u lse shape is applied to a tow er to sim ulate a high m agnitude

6-6

im p u lse th a t resu lts in a b a c k flash o v e r on the line. The m axim um overvoltages

p roduced in th e line at stru ck and neig h b o u rin g tow ers are calculated for different
values o f to w e r fo o tin g resistan ce and the results are plotted in Figure 6.5. A m axim um
overv o ltag e o f 4 6 8 5 k V at the struck to w e r is obtained for a 1002 footing resistance.
T he o v erv o ltag e s are sig n ific a n tly hig h above the targeted lightning im pulse w ithstand
level (1 3 0 0 k V ) fo r fo o tin g resista n c es greater th an or equal to 40Q , w hereas, the value
is below the w ith sta n d level for fo o tin g resistance up to 30X Therefore, for voltage
uprating, it is im p o rta n t to co ntrol th ese overvoltages for higher footing resistance
values.
The control o f o v e rv o lta g e d ue to b a c k fla sh o v e r b y use o f surge arresters for 802
footing resista n c e is sh o w n in F ig u re 6.6. T he figure show s overvoltages at struck and
n eighbouring to w e rs fo r d iffe re n t a rre ste r configurations w ith and w ithout surge
arresters on the line. A s can b e seen in the figure, considerable reduction o f overvoltage
m agnitude is o b tain e d w ith arresters at e v e ry th ird or at alternate tow ers. H ow ever, the

160kA, 4/77.5 impulse

5000
4500 4000
~

3500 -

3 000

J2

2500
Critical F ashover Vc tag& -^

1500 Impulse W ithstand Le rel (1300kV)

1000

----------- *

500

T1

T2

T3

T4

T5

T6

T7

T8

T9

1 0 0 0 90G 8 0 0 7 0 0 6 0 0 5 0 0 4 0 0 3 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0

Figure 6.5: O vervoltage along the line due to backflash for different tower footing resistance.

6 -7

160kA, 4/77.5 impul

4 .5 0 0 4 .0 0 0 <
3 .5 0 0 |

3 ,0 0 0 -

ju
(y

2 9,5 0 0 -

2,000 -

>

1 ,5 0 0 -

LI withst ind level

<430 k V ).......

1.000

500 -

T1

T3

T6

T4

T7

Tower Number
No a rrester

A rresters at ev ery third tow er

A rresters at e v e r y altern a te to w e r

A rresters at all tow ers

Figure 6.6: M aximum overvoltage along the line due to backflash for different arrester
configuration, x and marks in the figure represent presence of arrester in the tower for
corresponding arrester configuration indicated.

o vervoltages are no t b e lo w th e targ e te d w ith stan d level and also these configurations
again do no t help w h en th e strik e h its a to w e r w ithout surge arrester protection. As
presented in F igure 6.7, an o v e rv o ltag e at a struck tow er in this case equals the case
w ith no surge arresters alo n g the line.
T his is an ideal case o f a lin e on a flat terrain w here the tow er footing resistance is the
sam e. In practice, th ese are h ig h ly v ariab le, and the arresters should be located at tow er
that are h ig h er (o r at h ig h e r a ltitu d e ) and w here the footing resistance is very high.
T he results sh o w n in F ig u re s 6.5 and 6.6 correspond to overvoltage m agnitudes at the
bottom p h ase co n d u c to rs w h e re the m ax im u m overvoltage is found. The overvoltages at
the top and m id d le p h ase co n d u cto rs in this case are found to be 50% less than those o f
the bo tto m p h a ses. T h e refo re, the m axim um overvoltage w ith arresters placed only at
the b o ttom tw o p h ases in all tow ers is sim ulated, and the results are show n in Figure 6.8
and c o m p a red w ith the case w here arresters are installed at all phases in each tow er. As

6-8

160kA, 4/77.5 impulse

i i

4500

I 1

4000
3500
|

3000
2500

g 2000

1500

1000
500

r e s te r s a t

0
T4

T5

T6

T7

Tower Num ber

Figure 6.7: O vervoltages along the line due to backflash when stroke hits shield wire at tower top
without surge arrester. * indicate tower with arresters.

4/77.5 impulse

I
4500
4000
3500
|

3000
m

2500

g 2000
|

1500
1000
500

N o ; r r e ste r
A m s t e r a talL .j

Arr< s te r s a t bo to m tw o p
T4

T5

to w ers

T6

Tower Num ber

Figure 6.8: O vervoltage along the line due to backflash for arresters only in bottom phases.

seen in the fig u re, to o b tain sim ila r p erform ance as in case o f arresters in all phases and
tow ers, it is su fficie n t to p lace the arresters in the bottom phases only. H ow ever, it is
im p o rtan t to n o te th at the co n tro lled overvoltage due to backflashover in all o f the
results p ro d u c e d so far do n o t fulfil the requirem ent o f targeted overvoltage level. The

6-9

o v erv o ltag e m ag n itu d e s at the struck tow er and the tw o adjacent neighbouring tow ers
are all a b o v e th e lig h tn in g im pulse w ithstand level o f 1300kV. T herefore, from a
backflash p o in t o f view , in high footing resistance range, surge arresters are capable o f
reducing the o v e rv o ltag e levels bu t not sufficient enough to control w ithin our
requirem ents o f 1300kV fo r v o ltage uprating. It w ould, therefore, be necessary to
reduce the fo o tin g resista n c es o f the tow ers along the line to below 40f2 in addition to
installing a rre ste rs fo r v o ltag e uprating. Figure 6.9 show s the m axim um overvoltage
along the line for 402 fo o tin g resistan ces w hich are below the w ithstand level by use o f
surge arresters at the b o tto m tw o ph ases o f the line. F or a footing resistance equal to or
less than 302, th ere is no n e e d to install surge arresters as the overvoltage values are
already b elo w 1300kV .

60kA, 4/77.5 impulse

3000
2500

2000

5 1500
5 1000 500

No arre ster..............................
A rrestf r sa t bottoi i p h a ses ir all tow ers

Tower Number
Figure 6.9: O vervoltage along the line due to backflash for tower with 40Q footing resistance with
arresters at bottom phases in all towers.

6-10

6 .4

L ig h t n in g F l a s h o v e r P e r f o r m a n c e
O v e r h e a d L in e : S t a t is t ic a l A n a l y s is

of

the

U p r a t e d L3

L ig h tn in g is a m a jo r cau se o f o v erh ead line faults. B etw een 5% to 10% o f the lightningcaused fau lts a re th o u g h t to resu lt in p erm an en t dam age to pow er system equipm ent
[6.4]. T o g e th e r w ith c o m p u ta tio n o f tran sien t overvoltages, the analysis o f lightning
p erfo rm an ce, th e re fo re , is fu n d am en tal w hen d esigning new lines and for uprating
existing lines to h ig h e r v o ltag es. In th is section, a statistical stroke analysis is m ade w ith
different a m p litu d e s o f the in jected stroke cu rren t in order to estim ate the flashover
perform ance o f the u p ra te d 4 0 0 k V line. T he objective o f this study is to estim ate the
im provem ent in fla sh o v e r rate b y im p lem e n tin g surge arresters along the line. T he
investigation is c a rrie d o u t in b o th S ig m a -S lp and T F lash softw are considering shielding
failure and b a c k fla sh o v e r s e p a ra te ly in the line. T he param eters such as tow er surge
im pedance, fo o tin g resista n c e, e a rth re sistiv ity , insulation strength and the ground flash
density (G F D ) larg e ly affe c t th e fla sh o v e r rate. T he ground flash density, insulation
electrical stre n g th and to w e r fo o tin g resista n c e are the key param eters for the prediction
o f the line lig h tn in g p e rfo rm a n c e [6.4]. In this study, a low current tow er footing
resistance v a lu e is v a rie d from 10Q to 100Q keep in g the ratio o f soil resistivity to
footing re sista n c e c o n sta n t ( p/Ro = 20). T he line is assum ed to be located on flat terrain
w ith a g ro u n d fla sh d e n sity o f 1 flash p e r kilo m etre square p er year (fl/km /yr) w hich is
the m a x im u m v a lu e sh o w n for the B ritish Isles according to B S E N 62305-2 [6.5] as
show n in A p p e n d ix C. In su latio n critical flashover voltage (C FO ) is considered to be
2 0 3 5kV as p e r th e m a n u fa c tu re rs reco m m en d atio n for a 400kV com posite insulator
[6.6]. A n initial stu d y w as carried out w ith line surge arresters positioned at every tow er
and on e v e ry p h a se co n d u cto r. T his resulted in a zero flashover rate, but, practically the
c o n fig u ratio n w o u ld be to o expensive.
It is u n d e rsto o d from the E G M study (S ection 5.6), in the low current range, the
6 -1 1

lightning h its o n ly the top phase conductors o f the tw o circuits during shielding failure.
Further, from th e o v e rv o ltag e study, it w as established that the m axim um overvoltage
occurs at b o tto m p h a ses w h en the lightning strikes tow er top or the shield w ire.
C on sid erin g th e se tw o p o in ts, the follow ing configurations o f arresters, as show n in
Figure 6.10 w ere p ro p o se d fo r the analysis o f flashover rate w ith its application on the
line.
The arrester c o n fig u ra tio n s are d e fin e d as follow s:
N

N o a rre ste r

A rreste rs in T o p p h a ses (A1 and C 2) only

A rre ste r in M id d le p h a ses (B1 and B2) only

A rresters in B o tto m p h a ses ( C 1 and A 2) only

A rreste r in F o u r p h a ses ( A l , C l , C2 and A 2) only

Figure 6.10: A rrester configuration with its code. Red lines indicate arrester in the phase at all
towers along the line.

6.4.1

A nalysis in SIGM A-SIp

T able 6.2 su m m a rise s th e results obtained from the SIG M A -SIp sim ulations. The
lightning fla sh o v e r rates (flashes/lO O km /year) for different tow er footing resistances
and u n d e r d iffe re n t a rre ste r configurations are show n. A total o f 20,000 lightning

6 -1 2

strokes g e n e ra te d w ith m agnitudes betw een 1.2kA and 161.1kA and rise tim e in the
range from 1.2p.s and 4.38jns are used w ith the im pulse shape varying random ly w ithin
2,000 sam ples. F ix ed tail tim e o f 75jis as standardised in the softw are is used.
From T able 6.2, it is c le a r th at the applications o f surge arresters are a suitable m eans o f
protecting the line ag ain st lig h tn in g flashover. It can be seen that by placing arresters on
the top phases only, a ze ro sh ield in g failure flashover rate (SSFR ) is obtained. H ow ever,
this arrangem ent can

o n ly su p p ress backflashover under low footing resistance

conditions. O n the o th er hand, w ith arresters installed on the bottom phases only, a zero
backflashover rate (B F R ) is o b tain e d at the expense o f shielding failure. W hen arresters
are installed at the top an d b o tto m ph ases, both SFFR and BFR can be nullified. The
total flashover rate (S F F R + B F R ) sh o w n in T able 6.2 suggests that, in order to im prove
line lightning p erfo rm an ce, it is m o re eco n o m ical and practical to install arresters only
in the top phases at to w ers w ith low fo o tin g resistance and in the top and bottom phases
at tow ers w ith high foo tin g resista n c e as hig h lig h ted in the table.

Table 6.2: Flashover rate (flashes/1 OOkm/year) for different arrester configuration and footing
resistance (SIGMA-SIp sim ulation), (a) SFFR (b) BFR (c) Total flashover rate

Footing
R esistance

(a) S h ie ld in g F a ilu r e F la s h o v e r R a te (fl/lO O km /yr)

(A )
10

1.12

1.10

1.12

20

1.12

1.10

1.12

30

1.12

1.10

1.12

40

1.12

1.10

1.12

50

1.12

1.10

1.12

60

1.12

1.10

1.12

70

1.12

1.10

1.12

80

1.12

1.10

1.12

90

1.12

1.10

1.12

100

1.12

1.10

1.12

6-13

F o o tin g
R e sista n c e

20

30

40

50

0.03

60

0.08

0.01

70

0.12

0.04

80

0.21

0.06

90

0 .3 0

0.09

0.04

100

0 .4 4

0 .12

0.05

(ft)
10

F ooting
R esistance

(c) T o ta l F la s h o v e r R a te (fl/lO O km /yr)

N

10

1.12

1.10

1.12

20

1.12

1.10

1.12

30

1.12

1.10

1.12

40

1.12

1.10

1.12

50

1.15

1.10

1.12

60

1.20

0.01

1.10

1.12

70

1.24

0 .0 4

1.10

1.12

80

1.33

0 .0 6

1.10

1.12

90

1.42

0 .0 9

1.14

1.12

100

1.56

0.12

1.15

1.12

( ft)

6.4.2

(b ) B a c k fla s h o v e r R a te (fl/lO O km /yr)

Analysis in TFIash

T able 6.3 sh o w s th e re su lts o b tain e d from T FIash sim ulations. H ere, the sim ulations
w ere carried o u t w ith 32 d iffe re n t stro k e current range betw een 2.5kA and 160kA. The
results in th is c a se ag a in co n firm the sam e findings described un d er SIG M A -SIp
sim u latio n s. T h e m a g n itu d e o f flash o v er rate is slightly higher than th at obtained in
S IG M A -S Ip. It is b e c au se o f the d ifference in statistical sim ulation m ethod adopted by
the so ftw a re as e x p la in ed e arlier in S ection 5.6.

6-14

Table 6.3: Flashover rate (flashes/1OOkm/year) for different arrester configuration and footing
resistance (TFIash sim ulation), (a) SFFR (b) BFR (c) Total flashover rate

F o o tin g
R esistan ce

(a ) S h ie ld in g F a ilu r e F la s h o v e r R a te (fl/1 0 0 k m /y r)

(Cl)

10

1.43

1.21

1.43

20

1.43

1.21

1.43

30

1.43

1.21

1.43

40

1.43

1.21

1.43

50

1.43

1.21

1.43

60

1.43

1.21

1.43

70

1.43

1.21

1.43

80

1.43

1.21

1.43

90

1.43

1.21

1.43

100

1.43

1.21

1.43

Footing
R esistance

(b ) B a c k f la s h o v e r R a te (fl/lO O km /yr)

(Cl)

10

20

30

40

50

0.03

60

0.08

70

0.15

0.02

80

0 .26

0.0 4

90

0 .34

0.0 6

100

0.48

0.09

0.02

Footing
R esistance

(c) T o ta l F la s h o v e r R a te (fl/lO O km /yr)

(Cl)

10

1.43

1.21

1.43

20

1.43

1.21

1.43

30

1.43

1.21

1.43

40

1.43

1.21

1.43

50

1.46

1.21

1.43

60

1.51

1.21

1.43

70

1.58

0.02

1.21

1.43

80

1.69

0.04

1.21

1.43

90

1.77

0.06

1.21

1.43

100

1.91

0.09

1.23

1.43

0
6-15

6 .5

E n er g y S tress

on

S urge A rresters

B ased o n th e lig h tn in g p e rfo rm a n c e analysis carried out in previous sections, the

m ax im u m e n e rg y a b so rb e d b y a line surge arrester can be calculated usin g the p roduct
o f v o ltag e a n d c u rre n t tra c es c o m p u te d b y a trav ellin g w ave sim ulation technique as
d escrib ed in [6.7]. In th is in v estig a tio n , the in su lato r flashover is n eg lected since the
voltage m e a su re d a c ro ss the line in su la to r w h ich is protected by the surge arrester is
found to be m u ch lo w e r than the C F O o f the in su lato r string even u n d er high m agnitude
lightning strike. T h e re fo re , it is assu m e d th at the insulators do n o t flashover w hen
protected by a su rg e arrester.
In this study, a d o u b le e x p o n e n tia l, 4 /7 7 .5 im p u lse current w ave is used. In order to
evaluate the m ax im u m e n e rg y a b so rb e d b y su rg e arresters, unless otherw ise specified, a
20kA lig h tn in g stro k e h ittin g th e p h a se c o n d u c to r A1 is used for the shielding failure
case and a 160kA stro k e h ittin g th e to w e r-to p w as u se d in the b ackflashover case.

6.5.1

D is trib u tio n o f E n e rg y S tres s

Figure 6.11 sh o w s the e n e rg y stress d istrib u tio n in surge arresters installed in all phases
in the case w h en a lig h tn in g strik e h its a p h a se c o n d u c to r or a shield w ire. D ots () in
the figures re p re se n t th e p re se n c e o f a rre ste r in th at particu lar phase. W hen a low
current lig h tn in g h its a p h a se c o n d u c to r, th e en erg y ab so rb ed b y arresters at any to w er is
different. A s e x p e cte d , th e a rre ste r in sta lle d on a stricken phase absorbs the highest
en ergy c o m p a red w ith a rre ste rs on o th e r p h ases. H ow ever, w hen high current lightning
hits the sh ield w ire, it is sh o w n th a t an y tw o arresters installed at the sam e height absorb
equal energy. A lso , th e a rre ste rs in sta lle d on the bottom tw o conductors absorb m ore
en ergy than th e a rre ste rs in sta lle d on the fo u r con d u cto rs above.
In S ection 6.4, it is sh o w n th at the top phase conductors are m ore vulnerable to
sh ie ld in g fa ilu re w h ile th o se at the b o tto m phases are m ore vulnerable to backflashover.
6-1 6

60

cu

30

10

-----------------------------------------------------------S troke to phase cond u cto r

A 1-C 2

B1-B2

C1-A2

Stroke to shield w ire

A1-C2

B1-B2

C1-A2

A rre s te r P o s itio n in P h a s e

Figure 6 .1 1: D istribution o f energy stress in surge arresters installed at a stricken tower.

As show n in F ig u re 6 .1 1 , a rre ste r e n e rg y req u irem e n t can be such that the top arresters
are m ore likely to e x p e rie n c e d ire c t strik es o f low er m agnitudes w hile the low er ones
can be su b je c ted to stre sse s e q u iv a le n t to th o se c au sin g backflashover.

6.5.2

Param etric A nalysis

A p p ro p riate se le c tio n o f an a rre ste r as a fu n ctio n o f its energy stress depends upon a
n u m b er o f p a ra m e te rs. T h ese p a ra m e te rs can be classified as line param eters and
lightning stro k e p a ra m ete rs. P a ram e te rs such as arresters in neighbouring tow ers, tow er
footing re sista n c e and a n g le o f p o w e r freq u en cy voltage are considered as line
p aram eters w h e re a s stro k e peak c u rre n t m ag n itu d e, front tim e and tail tim e are
c o n sid e red as lig h tn in g stro k e p a ra m ete rs. T he single stroke analysis is carried out to
u n d erstan d the e ffe c t o f th ese p a ra m ete rs for bo th the case o f stroke hitting a phase
c o n d u c to r an d th e sh ie ld w ire.

6.5.2.1 In flu e n c e o f A rresters in Neighbouring Towers

In p rac tic e , th e e n e rg y shared by arresters at a to w er is influenced by the presence o f
a rre ste rs at n e ig h b o u rin g tow ers. T he nature o f influence o f these adjacent arresters on
the s tru c k a rre s te rs en erg y stress depends upon the position o f the lightning stroke
6 -1 7

h ittin g th e line. F ig u re 6.12 show s the energy discharged b y an arrester as a function o f

the n u m b e r o f a rre ste rs at n e ig h b o u rin g tow ers. It is found that, w hen the stroke hits the
p hase c o n d u c to r, th e n e ig h b o u rin g arresters help in sharing som e o f the duty and, hence,
this red u ces th e e n e rg y stre ss on the a rrester at the struck tow er. H ow ever, the case is
different w h e n a h ig h c u rre n t lig h tn in g stroke hits the shield w ire or the tow er top. In
this case, the e n e rg y a b so rb e d b y the arresters at the struck to w er increases w ith
increasing n u m b e r o f a rre ste rs at the ad jacen t tow ers. T his is because the current
passing th ro u g h the a d ja c e n t a rre ste rs is o f opposite polarity, and flow s back to the
striking p o in t re su ltin g into th e in crease o f energy absorbed by the arrester at the struck
tow er.
Figure 6.13 sh o w s th e e n e rg y sh a re d b y arresters at neighbouring tow ers, w hen
lightning strik es a p h a se c o n d u c to r o r a sh ie ld w ire. It can be said that w hen lightning
hits the p hase c o n d u c to r, th e n e ig h b o u rin g arresters share significant energy thereby
reducing the stress o f the a rre ste rs at strick e n tow er. C om pared to the stress o f the
arrester at strick e n to w e r (9 1 .2 k J), th e stress o f the arrester at im m ediate adjacent tow er
is m ore th an 7 5% (6 8 .6 k J). T h is v a lu e d ecreases slow ly as the distance increases. The

800

30

J.

16QJjA

25
4

kA

%
t

T
0

0 11

11

13

15

17

N u m b e r o f T o w e rs w ith A rre ste rs

Figure 6.12: A rrester energy as a function of number o f arresters at adjacent towers.

6 -18

100
90 -2 0 kA

2
>
j?
S
te

80
70
60
50
40

20
10

20
- 18
- 16 f
- 14 >

10

160'kA

- -

T o w e r n u m b e r fro m p o in t o f strik e

Figure 6.13: Energy shared by arresters at neighbouring towers. Tower 0 is the struck tower.

arrester in sta lle d at a to w e r lo cated at eig h t spans aw ay from the stricken arrester
absorbs an e n e rg y o f 2 8 .9 k J. C o n v e rsely , w h e n lightning hits the shield w ire, the
arresters in th e strick e n to w e r is h ig h ly stressed and the stresses at neighbouring
arresters are a lm o st n e g lig ib le . In this case, an arrester at a stricken tow er absorbs
16.33kJ o f e n e rg y w h e re as stre ss at the im m ed iate adjacent arrester is only 0.74 kJ.
A rresters at the far en d s (8 -sp a n s aw ay ) do n o t p lay any significant role as the arresters
absorb n e g lig ib le e n e rg y (0 .0 7 kJ).

6.5.2.2

In flu e n ce o f Tow er Fo oting R esistance

F igure 6 .1 4 a sh o w s th e e ffect o f to w e r footing resistance on energy discharge duty

w hen a lig h tn in g stro k e o f a 2 0 k A cu rren t m agnitude hits the phase co n d u cto r and
F igure 6.1 4 b sh o w s th e a rre ste r en erg y for the case w hen a 160kA lightning stroke hits
the sh ield w ire an d the to w e r fo o tin g resistan ce is varied from 10Q to 100H. In the case
o f the sh ie ld e d line, fo r a stro k e to phase conductor, the energy absorbed by the arrester
on the p h a se m a rg in a lly d e creases w ith increasing footing resistance. F or a stroke to the
sh ield w ire, h o w e v e r, a high value o f footing resistance increases the arrester energy

6-19

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30

20
10
0
20

30

40

50

60

70

T o w e r F o o tin g R e s is ta n c e [Q]
(a) S tr o k e to p h a s e c o n d u c to r

20

30

40

50

60

70

T o w e r F o o tin g R e s is ta n c e [2]
(b) S tr o k e to s h ie ld w ire

Figure 6.14: A rrester energy dependence on tower footing resistance.

discharge. A rre ste rs in sta lle d on the top p hases are m ore stressed w ith low tow er
footing re sista n c e v a lu e w h e re a s b o tto m phase arresters are m ore stressed in the case o f
high fo o tin g re sista n c e valu e. T h e resu lt assum es no flashover on the phase conductor
w ith o u t su rg e a rre s te r p ro te c tio n . H ow ever, in case o f flashover, a high value o f stroke
current is d isc h a rg e d th ro u g h a fla sh o v e r path creating less stress to arresters installed at
o th er p h ases.

6-20

6.5.2.3

In flu e n ce o f P ow er Frequency Voltage Angle

F igure 6.15 sh o w s the effect o f p o w er frequency voltage angle on arrester energy stress.
A sig n ific a n t in flu e n ce o f th is p a ra m ete r is seen on both the case o f lightning hitting the
phase c o n d u c to r an d th e sh ield w ire. W hen a stroke hits the phase conductor, the
m ax im u m e n e rg y in stru c k a rre ste r is o btained at positive peak voltage (angle = 0). In
case o f a stro k e h ittin g th e sh ield w ire, the m axim um energy is found at negative peak
voltage (an g le = 1 8 0 ). W ith c h an g e in vo ltag e angle from 0 to 180, the energy stress
on arrester in cre ase s w h e n the stro k e hits the shield w ire, but the energy discharge in
this case is ra th e r low an d is u n lik e ly to exceed the m axim um energy absorption
capability o f the arrester.

160
140

120
100
80
60
40

20
0
0

30

60

90

120

150

180

210

240

270

300

330

360

P o w e r F re q u e n c y V o lta g e A n g le in p h a s e A1 [0]

Figure 6.15: A rrester energy dependence on power frequency voltage angle at lightning strike.

6.5.2.4

In flu e n ce o f Stroke Peak Current Magnitude

Figure 6 .16 sh o w s the e ffect o f stroke peak current m agnitude on arrester energy. This
effect is e x a m in e d fo r d ifferen t to w e r footing resistances. T he energy absorbed by the
a rre ste r in cre ase s n o n -lin e a rly w ith increasing peak current m agnitude, and this is
o b tain ed for all cases o f im pact point and to w er footing resistance.

6 -2 1

100

80
60
40

20
0

-20
4

10

12

14

16

18

20

Stroke Peak Current Magnitude [kA]

(a)

S tr o k e to p h a s e c o n d u c to r

60
50
40
30

20
10
0
50

75

100

125

150

175

200

225

Stroke Peak Current Magnitude [kA]

(b )

S tr o k e to s h ie ld w ire

Figure 6.16: Influence o f stroke peak current magnitude.

6.5.2.5

In flu e n ce o f S troke F ron t Time

The effect o f im pulse front tim e for different stroke peak current m agnitudes is shown
in Figure 6.17. In the case o f lightning hitting the phase conductor, the change in front
tim e does not have any influence on the arrester energy. However, the arresters are less
stressed w ith slow er front tim e w hen lightning hits the shield wire.

6 -2 2

o>
k.
0)
c

ID

100
h-------- *-------------------*------------------ *------ ------------*------------------i ------------------ A
90
ii
ii
1i
1i
1i
_____ ,i
o n i/A
____________ 1____________
!
i
80 - .
ii
ii
V
i
i
1
1
1
70
t
i
1
T
ii
ii
m
fi1
11
i1
60
ii
ii
i
i
i
i
i
50
ii
ii
i
i
hO kA
40
ii
ii
r
------------------- r
x '
30
i
i
it
ii
ii
................................................... -1
20
ii
iii
iii
10
i
i
i
ii
ii
*
i
i
0 ----------------------1-------------------- 1--------------------1------------------- ------------------- 1------------------- 1
F r o n t T im e Qxs]
(a) S t r o k e t o p h a s e c o n d u c t o r

70
60
50
O
)
u.
0)

40

J-80Q

ID

20
10
0
0

F r o n t T im e [ps]
(b) S t r o k e t o s h i e l d w ire

Figure 6.17: Influence o f front tim e (Tail tim e = 77.5 jus).

6.5.2.6

Influence o f Stroke Tail Time

Unlike front tim e, the stroke current tail tim e has a significant influence on the energy
absorbed by line arresters as show n in Figure 6.18. The arrester energy increases with
increasing tail tim e o f the lightning im pulse.

6-23

160

...........

=T 140 4 -

120
O)
5j 100

80

60
40

25

50

75

100

125

150

Tail T im e []j.s]
(a) S t r o k e t o p h a s e c o n d u c t o r

200kA

o>

C
LU

0)

30
[120kA

20
10
0
0

25

50

75

100

125

150

Tail T im e [ps]
(b) S t r o k e t o s h i e l d w ire

Figure 6.18: Influence o f tail tim e (Front time = 4 ps).

6 .6

A r r e s t e r F a il u r e P e r f o r m a n c e

In o rd er to e stim a te th e fa ilu re rate o f arresters due to excessive en erg y absorption and

to g u aran tee th a t the a rre ste rs in sta lle d on the line have sufficient energy cap ab ility to
w ith stan d lig h tn in g strik es to the ph ase conductors or to the shield w ire, a detailed
in v estig a tio n w a s

c a rrie d

out. T o determ in e the arrester failure probability, the

in teg rated e n e rg y fo r each a rre ste r is calculated and com pared w ith the failure
p ro b ab ility c u rv e fro m E PR I rep o rt 1000461 [6.8].
T he sta tistic a l sim u la tio n m eth o d is used. To integrate the energy through the arresters
o v e r m o st o f the stro k e du ratio n , the m ethod used in T Flash softw are adopts different

6-24

sim u la tio n tim e lim its fo r stro k es to the phase co n d u cto r and the shield w ire. T hese tim e
lim its a re m u c h lo n g er th an the fla sh o v e r statistics tim e lim its (5 0 0 p s for a stroke to the
phase c o n d u c to r a n d lOOps for a stroke to the shield w ire). Figure 6.19 show s an
ex a m p le o f a ty p ic a l w a v e fo rm u se d for en erg y calcu latio n for a 20kA stroke current. In
this case, th e in su la to r fla sh o v e r is n o t tak en into account.
T he a rre s te r fa ilu re p e rfo rm a n c e is a n aly sed for the w hole line section w hen arresters
are in sta lle d on e ach p h a se an d at e v e ry tow er. T able 6.4 gives a sum m ary o f the
arrester failu re s fo r th e 3 5 k m line. It can be seen that the line is expected to be hit by
9.070 stro k e s p e r y e a r re su ltin g in an a rre ste r failure rate o f 0.018 failures p er year. A
co n sid e rab ly low v a lu e o f failu re rate is o b tain e d i.e. one arrester in the line m ay fail
every 55 to 56 y ears. S in c e th e re are h u n d red s o f arresters installed on the line, the
chances o f th e a rre ste r at th e sa m e p o in t failin g again is very low . T he table also show s
the failu re rate on each p h a se. N o risk o f a rre ste r failure for stroke term inating on the
shield w ire o r to w e r to p is o b se rv e d d e sp ite the fact th at m ore than 87% (7.904) o f the
total stro k e s hit th e to w e r to p o r th e sh ie ld w ire ev ery year. H ow ever, the m ain risk here
is a sso c ia te d w ith th e a rre ste rs at th e to p p h a se (in stalled on phases A1 and C 2) w ith
direct stro k e s te rm in a tin g on the ph ase.

25

20
For 20kA stroke current

15

Front tim e <= 3 .4 ^is

Tail tim e =j 5 6 .2 (as

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Time [ps]

F ig u r e 6 .1 9 : A t y p i c a l e q u a l p r o b a b i li t y w a v e f o r m ( 2 0 k A s t r o k e c u r r e n t ) .

6-25

T a b le 6.4: A r r ester failu re p erform an ce o f the 35km long L3 line.

D irect strik e s p e r y e a r = 9 .070 (T otal)

A rre ste r fa ilu re p e r y e a r = 0.018
D irect s trik e s p e r y e a r = 1.166 (phase)
D irect strik e s p e r y e a r = 7 .9 0 4 (sh ield w ire & tow er top)
A r r e s t e r F a ilu r e b y P h a se
-------------------------------- -

Failure From

D irec t S trik es
Per Y ear

S h ie ld Strike

Phase Strikes

A ll Strikes

A1

0 .5 7 6

0.009

0.009

B1

0 .007

Cl

C2

0 .5 7 6

0.009

0.009

B2

0 .0 0 7

A2

P h ase

F igure 6 .2 0 sh o w s th e a rre ste r failu re ra te at each to w e r along a section o f the line. The
failure rate in an in d iv id u al to w e r is v e ry low . A to w e r w ith a failure rate o f 0.001 per
y ear m ean s an a rre ste r at th at p a rtic u la r to w e r fails every 1000 years. T herefore, the
arresters c o n sid e re d in th is stu d y can o p erate at low risk o f failure. T his o f course
d ep en d s on th e a p p ro p ria te se le c tio n o f the arresters.

0.0012

0.001

g>

0.0008

0.0006

0.0004

>-

_3

V)

j= 0.0002
0
49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56 57 58 59 60 61

62 63 64 65

Tower N um ber

F igu re 6.20: A rrester failu re rate at each tow er along a section o f the line.

6-26

6 .7

C u m u l a t iv e F r e q u e n c y D is t r ib u t io n

of

A rrester E nergy

E n erg y d u tie s are c o m p u te d sta tistic a lly w ith 2,000 sim ulations for selected arrester
c o n fig u ra tio n s, a n d th e resu lts are p rese n ted in the form o f cum ulative frequency
d istrib u tio n o f a rre s te r en erg y .
T he p a ra m e tric a n a ly sis c a rrie d o u t in S ection 6.5 show ed that the energy stress on the
line a rre ste rs m a in ly d e p e n d s u p o n the tw o im p o rtan t param eters o f the lightning stroke:
peak v a lu e o f th e lig h tn in g c u rre n t an d tail tim e. T he p robability d istribution o f arrester
energy, th e re fo re , is a fu n c tio n o f p ro b a b ility d e n sity function o f the peak lightning
current an d p ro b a b ility d e n s ity fu n ctio n o f the tail tim e [6.9, 6.10]. In this study, tw oline C IG R E d istrib u tio n [6.2] is u se d to rep re sen t stroke peak current distribution.
Stroke cu rre n t w ith 77.5 p s o f tail tim e (m e d ian v alu e w ith standard deviation 0.577) is
used. T h e a rre ste r e n e rg y a lso d e p e n d s u p o n the to w e r footing resistance ( R/ t) value.
Since the a rre ste rs in th e to p tw o c o n d u c to rs o n ly are su fficien t for line section w ith low
footing re sista n c e an d a rre ste rs in fo u r c o n d u c to rs (top tw o and bottom tw o) only are
su fficien t fo r h ig h fo o tin g re sista n c e sectio n , th e follo w in g strategy for installation o f
arresters is used:

F o r Rft < 502 : A rre ste rs in p h a se A1 an d C 2 (top tw o conductors)

F o r Rf, > 5 0 Q : A rreste rs in P h ase A l , C 2, C l and A 2 (top tw o and b ottom tw o

c o n d u c to rs)

W h en tw o o r m o re a rre ste rs are in stalled , th ey are not equally stressed. T herefore, only
high e n e rg y v a lu e s are p re se n te d in term s o f cum u lativ e frequency distributions. T able
6.5 p re se n ts th e e n e rg y a sso c ia te d w ith the h ig h ly stressed arrester for a footing
resista n c e less th a n o r equal to 5 0 Q w h en arresters are installed only in top tw o
c o n d u c to rs an d T a b le 6.6 sh o w s the resu lts for footing resistance greater than 50f2 w hen
a rre ste rs a re in sta lle d in th e top tw o and bo tto m tw o conductors.
6-2 7

Table 6.5: A rrester Energy (kJ) in terms of cumulative frequency distribution for different tower
footing resistance values - Arresters in top two phases (A1 and C2)

P ro b a b ility >
10%

5%

2%

1%

0.5%

0.1%

100

0 .0 4

02.9

191.3

307.7

449.8

683.2

200

0.73

56.5

208.5

321.1

429.5

908.7

300

0 .1 7

11.4

125.2

222.6

308.1

818.4

400

1.94

30.5

165.6

258.4

414.1

641.3

500

2 .8 4

29.5

168.9

262.9

434.4

746.7

F o o tin g
R e sista n c e I

Table 6.6: A rrester Energy (kJ) in term s o f cum ulative frequency distribution for different tower
footing resistance values - Arresters in top two and bottom two phases (A l, C2, C l and A2)

P ro b ab ility >
F o o tin g
R esistan ce i

10%

5%

2%

1%

0.5%

0.1%

600

0.2 7

23.3

173.2

284.3

424.7

897.2

700

1.10

20.0

127.8

206.5

285.8

593.4

800

3 .20

54.8

172.7

244.9

340.5

700.2

900

1.86

36.8

138.9

266.2

335.3

852.4

1000

4.25

19.0

160.3

258.8

365.1

477.8

In both c ases, th e re is o n ly 0 .1 % p ro b ab ility to exceed an arrester energy d uty o f 600kJ.

A m ax im u m e n e rg y o f 9 0 8 .7 kJ is reco rd ed in T able 6.5 w hich is far b elo w the arrester
energy c a p a b ility o f 2 8 0 8 kJ. A c co rd in g to the E G M result show n in T able 5.4 (C hapter
5), the line u n d e r stu d y c o lle cts 11.3 strokes p e r year. T herefore, the p ro bability o f this
o c cu rren ce is o n ly o n c e in 88.5 years. T ables 6.5 and 6.6 show that the arresters are not
hig h ly stre sse d e v e n w h e n th ey are installed on the bottom phase conductors. A s can be
seen, in b o th c ases, o n ly 1% o f the a rrester energy is likely to exceed 10% o f the
6-28

a rre ste r e n e rg y c a p a b ility . H ere, a line a rre ste r w as chosen w ith a disch arg e class 3 as
p e r IEC 6 0 0 9 9 -4 [6 .1 1 ] a n d an e n e rg y c a p ab ility o f 7.8 kJ/kV o f rated voltage. T he
a n aly sis o f e n e rg y d u ty sh o w s th a t the arre ste rs w ith low er voltage ratin g w ith line
d isc h a rg e c la ss 2 c o u ld a lso be in sta lle d to a ch iev e the req u ired p ro te c tio n level in the
line.

6 .8

C o n c l u s io n s

In this c h a p te r, th e a p p lic a tio n o f su rg e arre ste rs for control o f lig h tn in g overvoltages

w as in v estig a ted . It w as d e m o n s tra te d th a t th e a p p lic atio n o f line surge arresters can
effe c tiv ely
m in im u m

c o n tro l

o v e rv o lta g e s

p h a s e -to -e a rth

due

c le a ra n c e

to

lig h tn in g im pulse, thereby, red u cin g the

re q u ire m e n ts.

D etailed

analysis

o f developed

o v e rv o ltag e s u n d e r d ire c t strik e s a n d b a c k fla sh o v e rs h e lp e d to o ptim ise and reduce the

n u m b er o f su rg e a rre s te r to be d e p lo y e d a lo n g the line. It w as show n that installing
arresters at th e to p p h a se s o n ly is s u ffic ie n t to co n tro l o v ervoltage due to shielding
failure b e lo w th e ta rg e te d v a lu e o f lig h tn in g w ith sta n d o f 1300kV . H ow ever, w ith this
solu tio n , th e c o n tro l o f o v e rv o lta g e s d u e to b a c k fla s h o v e r is not alw ays offered for high
fo o tin g re sista n c e o f th e to w e rs. T h e re su lts fo r b a c k flash o v e r show ed th at the
o v erv o ltag e s at th e s tru c k to w e r a n d a d ja c e n t n e ig h b o u rin g tow ers are n o t red u ced to a
sig n ifican t lev e l su c h th a t th e ta rg e te d w ith sta n d level could be ch o sen to reduce the
m in im u m re q u ire d p h a s e -to -e a rth c le a ra n c e in the u p rated line. It w as con clu d ed that
from the b a c k fla s h o v e r p o in t o f v iew , v o lta g e u p ra tin g b y use o f surge arrester is only
p o ssib le fo r lin e s w ith lo w v a lu e s o f to w e r fo o tin g resistances (up to 4 0 Q ). The
m in im u m re q u ire d c le a ra n c e o f a lin e w ith h igh to w e r footing resistan ces can only be
m in im ised u s in g su rg e a rre ste rs i f th e re is p o ssib ility o f reducing the footing resistances
to a v a lu e e q u a l to o r less th an 4 0 Q .
T h e lig h tn in g fla s h o v e r p e rfo rm a n c e an aly sis o f the p ro p o sed up rated L3 line show ed
6 -2 9

th a t th e a rre s te r c o m b in a tio n su itab le for con tro llin g lightning overvoltage is sufficient
fo r im p ro v in g th e lig h tn in g p e rfo rm a n c e o f the line. It w as show n that, installing line
a rre s te rs o n th e to p p h a se s o n ly im p ro v es sh ield in g failure flashover rate, and w hen
a p p lie d to th e b o tto m p h a se s th e y allo w im p ro v em en t o f back flash o v er rate. A dequate
s e le c tio n o f th e a rre s te r c o n fig u ra tio n in the line can significantly im prove lightning
p e rfo rm a n c e , a n d m a y re d u c e the fin an cial burden. F or the U K overhead lines,
c o n s id e rin g th e lo w lig h tn in g strik es statistics (low value o f G F D ), no additional
a rre s te r p ro te c tio n is re q u ire d fo r im p ro v in g the lig h tn in g p erform ance alone.
E n e rg y stre ss a n a ly sis o f Z n O su rg e a rre ste rs in stalled on the line w as investigated. It
w a s fo u n d th at th e e n e rg y re q u ire m e n ts on the line arresters w ere m oderate. T he energy
a b s o rp tio n stu d ie s w e re c a rrie d o u t fo r th e line and stroke p aram eters w hich are
e sse n tia l in th e s e le c tio n p ro c e ss o f line su rg e arresters. A negligible value o f arrester
fa ilu re ra te fo r lig h tn in g stro k e s te rm in a tin g on ph ase conductors (shielding failure)
w e re fo u n d . T h is is seen as th e m a in so u rc e o f th e risk o f failure. In this case, arresters
in sta lle d on o th e r p h a se s on th e sa m e to w e r an d on the sam e phases in neighbouring
to w e rs d id n o t h e lp to sh a re th e to ta l su rg e energy. N o risk o f arrester failure due to a
s tro k e te rm in a tin g on a sh ie ld w ire o r to w e r to p (backflashover) w ere observed.
T h e re fo re , th e p o s s ib ility o f a rre ste r failu re c o u ld be ignored w hile u p ratin g the line.
A n a ly s is o f e n e rg y d u ty sh o w e d th a t th e a rre ste r type selected for the p ro te c tio n o f the
lin e c o n s id e re d in th is stu d y w as ad eq u ate, th ereb y helping the red u ctio n o f the
lig h tn in g im p u lse w ith sta n d level.

6-3 0

C hapter 7
E l e c t r ic a n d M a g n e tic F ield P ro files for
U p r a te d L ines
7.1

I n t r o d u c t io n

O v e rh e ad tra n s m is s io n a n d d istrib u tio n lin es g en erate electric and m ag n etic fields in

th eir v icin ity . T h e so u rc e o f the e le c tric field is the po ten tial on the con d u cto rs and the
m ag n etic field is th e c u rre n t flo w in g th ro u g h the line. O ccu p atio n al o r pu b lic exposure
to th ese field s is o f s ig n ific a n t h e a lth c o n c e rn [7.1, 7.2] and plays a role in d efining
W idth o f C o rrid o r (W o C ) o f th e line. A c c o rd in g to N atio n al G rid [7.3], A corridor in

UK parlance is a strip o f land along a high-voltage power line where development is

restricted . E v en th o u g h th e U K c u rre n t p o lic y is n o t to have corridors, SA G E
(S ta k e h o ld e r A d v iso ry G ro u p on E L F E M F s (E x tre m e ly L ow F requency E lectric and
M ag n etic F ie ld )) say s th a t th e W o C o n a v e ra g e sh o u ld be set w h ere the m agnetic field
falls to 0 .4 p T [7.3].
T he e le c tric fie ld in te n s ity is e x p e c te d to in cre ase in a voltage u p rated line as the
clearan ces are re d u c e d to g e th e r w ith an in c re a se d level o f voltage. It is, therefore,
n e c essa ry to c a lc u la te b o th e le c tric a n d m a g n e tic fields in the u p rated line to ensure
field lim its are n o t e x c e e d e d .
T h is c h a p te r d e a ls w ith th e a n a ly sis o f e le c tric a n d m ag n etic fields in the u p rated 4 0 0 k V
L 3 line. T h e fie ld p ro file s in d iffe re n t co n d itio n s are then co m p ared w ith those o f
fields in e x is tin g L 3 2 7 5 k V lin e an d a sta n d a rd L 6 4 0 0 k V line w hich are com m on in
the U K g rid sy ste m . T h e fie ld p ro file s for u p rate d lines are co m p ared w ith the allow able
lim its o f th e E M F e x p o su re s. H o rizo n ta l an d vertical contours are show n to observe
w h e th e r th e a d d itio n a l W o C is n e e d e d for u p rate d v o ltage level.
7-1

7 .2

L im it s

on

Exposure

to

E l e c t r ic

and

M a g n e t ic F ie l d s

D ifferen t n a tio n a l a n d in te rn a tio n a l g u id elin e s are available, w h ich ad v ise on lim iting
e x p o su re to e le c tric a n d m a g n e tic field. A s in d icated in Section 2.6 (C h ap ter 2), the
In tern atio n al C o m m is s io n o n N o n -Io n iz in g R a d ia tio n P rotection (IC N IR P ) guidelines
[7.4] p ro v id e s lim its o f e x p o s u re to e le c tric an d m ag n etic fields. T h ese lim its are set as
p er the IE E E s ta n d a rd p ro c e d u re fo r m e a su re m e n t o f electric and m ag n etic field from
50H z A C p o w e r lin es [7 .5 ]. In th e U K , th e N a tio n a l R adiological P rotection B oard
(N R P B ) ad v ise s to fo llo w IC N IR P g u id e lin e s [7.6]. N atio n al G rid (N G ) w h ich ow ns
and o p erates th e tra n s m is s io n lin e s in E n g la n d and W ales; and oth er E N A m em b er
co m p an ies such as U K P o w e r N e tw o rk s, S c o ttish an d S ou th ern E nergy, S cottish P ow er
etc. follow re c o m m e n d a tio n s m a d e b y S A G E

[7.7] w hich is reco g n ised by H M

G o v e rn m e n t [7.8]. N a tio n a l G rid , th e re fo re , p u b lish e s its ow n v alu e as the lim its to

e lectric and m a g n e tic fie ld s [7.9]. F ig u re 7.1 c o m p a re s N atio n al G rid specified lim it o f
these fields fo r b o th p u b lic a n d o c c u p a tio n a l e x p o su re w ith the values recom m ended by
IC N IR P .
A s can be seen in the fig u re , th e N G lim it fo r e le c tric and m agnetic field is 9kV /m and
3 6 0 p T for p u b lic e x p o su re a n d 4 6 k V /m a n d 1 8 0 0 p T for o ccupational exposure. T hese
values are g re a te r th a n th e IC N IR P s p e c ifie d lim its o f 5kV /m and lOOpT for public
ex p o su re a n d lO kV /m a n d 5 0 0 p T fo r o c c u p a tio n a l exposure. T herefore, the electric and
the m ag n etic fie ld s u n d e r a n y o v e rh e a d lin e th a t fu lfils the IC N IR P req u irem en ts w ill
a u to m a tic ally fu lfil th e U K s u tilitie s req u irem e n ts.
T able 7.1 sh o w s ty p ic a l g ro u n d -le v e l U K field levels for a 2 7 5kV and 4 0 0 k V steel
p ylons u sed in th e U K [7 .9 , 7 .10].

7-2

ICNIRP
N ational Grid

>

2
OJ

Public Exposure

Occupational Exposure

(a) E l e c tr ic field

p
%
2
<u
IL
W
->
<U
c
%
s

2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0

National Grid

Public Exposure

Occupational Exposure

(b) M a g n e t i c field

Figure 7.1: C om parison o f N ational Grid specified electric and magnetic field limits with ICNIRP
limits at power frequency (50H z). Data source: |7.4, 7.9].

Table 7.1: Typical ground-level UK field levels from 275kV and 400kV overhead power lines [7.9,
7.10|.

M ax im u m F ie ld (u n d e r lin e)
T y pical F ie ld (u n d e r lin e)
T y pical F ield (2 5 m to sid e )

E le c tric F ie ld (k V /m )

M a g n e tic F ield (p T )

11

100

3 -5

5-10

0.2-0.5

1-2

7-3

7 .3

L in e M o d e l
F ie l d s

fo r

C o m p u t a t io n

of

E l e c t r ic

and

M a g n e t ic

F or c o m p u ta tio n o f e le c tric an d m ag n e tic fields, o v erhead lines are m o d elled by

h o riz o n tal a n d v e rtic a l c o n d u c to r c o n fig u ratio n s, co n d u cto r diam eter, b u n d le spacing
and line span. T h re e lin e s, as listed b e lo w , are u se d for com parison:

E x istin g 2 7 5 k V lin e L 3 to w e r stru c tu re o p e ra tin g at 275kV

U p ra te d 4 0 0 k V lin e L 3 to w e r stru c tu re o p e ra tin g at 400kV

E x istin g 4 0 0 k V lin e L 6 to w e r stru c tu re o p e ra tin g at 400kV

T he e x istin g 2 7 5 k V line is m o d e lle d w ith its p a ra m ete rs as ex p lain ed in C hapter 4. T he

uprated 4 0 0 k V line is m o d e lle d w ith a ch a n g e in co n d u cto r clearances to satisfy
in creasin g v a lu e o f IE C 60071

s p e c ifie d m in im u m clearance. In this m odel, the

c o n d u c to r v e rtica l c o o rd in a te s in c re a se s slig h tly d u e to a decrease in insulator length to

3.2m . T h e e x is tin g 4 0 0 k V lin e in L 6 to w e r is m o d elle d as d escrib ed in S ection 5.5
(C h a p te r 5). T h e p h a se se q u e n c e A B C -C B A is u sed . T he data u sed for the 400kV line,
co n sid ered h e re , is o b ta in e d fro m N a tio n a l G rid [7.11] as show n in A ppendix D. F o r
this line, 4 0 0 m m 2 A C S R Z e b ra c o n d u c to r w ith d ia m e te r 2 8.62m m is used. F igure 7.2
show s c o n d u c to r c o o rd in a te s o f th e u p ra te d a n d ex istin g conventional lines u sed for the
c o m p u ta tio n o f e le c tric a n d m a g n e tic field. T h e p h y sical w idth o f the up rated 400kV
line in L3 to w e r is 9 .5 m w h ic h is s ig n ific a n tly less th an the con v en tio n al 4 0 0kV line in
L6 to w e r o f w h ic h th e w id th is m o re th a n 20 .5 m .
T w o so ftw a re a re u se d to c o m p u te th e field s alo n g the line. S IG M A -S lp, w h ich w as
used e a rlie r fo r c o m p u ta tio n o f o v e rv o lta g e s a n d su rg e arrester control, is also u sed here
to c o m p u te e le c tric a n d m a g n e tic fie ld s p ro file s at m id sp an o f the line. S ince, the
S IG M A -S lp ca n o n ly p ro d u c e m id -sp a n field p ro file s, the second softw are P rg lin e-3 D
has been e x te n s iv e ly u se d [7.12]. T he so ftw are is b ased on a three dim ensional

7 -4

r ------ i------ - i 5 5 - 1 -----i

i
1i-------- 11---------i150
-*
-- -----i
i
i
J ------- 1---------i 4 5 - ' ------

"O*

r i------ -1-55--I -----i

i
i
1

i
i-------- 1-------- 150 -- -----i
i
i
-----r ------ 4 5 - '
i
i
i
------

i
i
i
i

------

i
i

i
i

"D*

-------- ----------J-3 0 - -

1
1
1
1
1
1
""C c"

5 ,-------- 1-------- 1-3 0 - '

Bk

f i t C i1

1
I* 0-

5
i

S -------- i -------- I-1 5 - .

1
1
1
1
1
1
_------- 1------ H 4 0 - . -----1
1
1
1
1
1
u------- ,-------- -----i
i
i
i
i
i
*
. n

- 6 - 4 - 2

I
i
i
I

(a) 2 7 5 k V in L3

i
1A2
------p g i - "
i

SP
1

------ 1-------- . 1 5 - .
1
1
1
1
1
1
-------- 1------ H 1 0 - , -----1
1
1
1
1
1
U ------ 1 . . .
---i
i
i
i
i
i

I
i

Distance from Tower Centre

(m)

Ca!

r r "i" "i" i 5 & - T T T T r

i i i i i i
1 1 1 1 1
kC 1 1 1 1 '
i i i i i
...............................
i i i i i
i i i i i .j
i i i - - l - - , 4 S - * - r -i i- - 1 - 1 i i i i i
i i i i i i
i i 1C21 1

c 1r - r' - ilA
*ai, - i 4 8 - - - r -I 1P-1 - 1 1i il 1i 1i 1i
1 1 1 1 1
Oi I 1 1 l J
-f- i - C r - i i i - t 3 S -> . - r
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 BC2
D 9i i i i i
.- r
-I - 10(Ui I I I I I
1 1 1 1 r
1
1
1
1 1
S
o 'k - i' - - i' - h' - -t 2 S - - - H -1----1- H - -* 5 ' ' r ! 'i i ,'
11 11 11 n i 11
K- f
H - -t 2 0 "J . - - 1 1- p . -* 1 1 1 1 1
Ml l I l I I
1 1 1 1 1
' ' ' '
11
- - I - -I - - I - - 1 5 - - - H - I - -1- H - 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
--
- -1- H --- 1- 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 a 1 1 1
u -i i- - i - a -3. . - - U-U -1- -1 - 4 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 l

1
__ 1

- 6 - 4 - 2

15

I
I
1
i
1
1

Distance from Tower Centre

(m)

(b) U p r a te d 4 0 0 k V in L3

>

-12-10-8 -6-4-2 0 2 4 6 8 1012

Distance from Tower Centre
(m)

(c) 400kV in L6

Figure 7.2: C onductor coordinates for com putation of electric and magnetic fields used for uprated
and conventional lines.

m o d ellin g o f c o n d u c to r g e o m e try w h ic h a llo w s th e analysis o f n o t only the aligned

spans b u t a lso th e c o m p le x g e o m e try o f line in tersectio n s [7.13]. For com putation o f
electric field, a 2 D m o d el o f th e c o n d u c to r u sin g M a x w e lls potential coefficient is used
[7.12]. T h e m a g n e tic fie ld is c o m p u te d b y a p p ly in g a discrete ap p roxim ation o f the
A m p e re -L a p la c e law in d iffe re n tia l fo rm [7.13]. U nless specified, results presented here
are p ro d u ce d u sin g P rg lin e 3 D so ftw are.

7.4 Computation of Electric Field

T he m ag n itu d e o f th e e le c tric field in an overh ead line depends on several line
p a ra m ete rs su c h as c o n d u c to r-to -g ro u n d clearance, height o f m easu rem en t above
ground, c o n d u c to r p h a se se q u en c e and th e bun d le arrangem ent, its d iam eter and num ber
o f su b -c o n d u c to rs in a b u n d le. A c o n d u c to r w ith a sm aller d iam eter at the sam e voltage
level p ro d u c e s h ig h e r e le c tric field at th e co n d u cto r surface resu ltin g in h ig h er potential
g rad ie n ts in th e su rro u n d in g area. H o w ev er, this produces low m agnitude electric fields

at g ro u n d lev el. T h e situ a tio n rev erses w ith a large overall bundle d iam eter w hich
p ro d u ce s s m a lle r p o te n tia l g rad ie n ts aro u n d the surface o f the conductor.

7.4.1

E lectric Field Profiles at Different Positions along the Line

E lectric filed p ro file s a re c o m p u te d fo r tw o d ifferent locations along the line (i) at

m idspan and (ii) at to w e r p o sitio n . T h e m ag n itu d e o f the field profile is different at
d ifferen t h e ig h ts a b o v e th e g ro u n d , and the field intensities increase on approach
to w ards th e c o n d u c to r. In th e se stu d ie s, a m ax im u m electric field intensity o f 2.73kV /m
is co m p u ted at th e g ro u n d level at m id sp a n for the uprated L3 4 00kV line. T his value
increased m a rg in a lly fo r th e n e x t few m ete rs above ground. V alues o f 2.75kV /m and
2 .91kV /m are c a lc u la te d re sp e c tiv e ly at lm and 2m above ground. T herefore, to account
for h u m an e x p o su re in th e lo w e r g ro u n d level, the electric fields are com puted at a
height o f 1m ab o v e th e g ro u n d as p e r th e IE E E stan d ard procedure for m easurem ent o f
electric and m ag n e tic fie ld s [7.5].
F igure 7.3 sh o w s th e c a lc u la te d e le c tric field p ro files at m idspan under uprated and
co n v en tio n al lines. T h e re su lts p ro d u c e d u sin g both P rgline3D and SIG M A -Slp
softw are sh o w e d e x a c tly th e sam e p ro file s. T h e calcu lated m axim um electric field for

-4 - .0

275kV in L3
'r ~ Uprated" 4(J(Tk"V frf C?

r.0-

4 0 9 k V m -b 6 --..............

-fre-5 0

-4 0

-3 0

-20

-10

10

30

40

Distance from Tower Centre (m)

F igure 7.3: E lectric field p rofiles at m idspan under uprated and conventional line at lm above the
grou n d.

7 -6

the e x istin g L3 2 7 5 k V line, th e u p rated L3 400 k V line and the existing L6 400kV line
are 1.92, 2 .75 a n d 3 .6 5 k V /m resp ectiv ely .
A s e x p e cte d , th e e le c tric fie ld p ro files in Figure 7.3 show that the up rated 400kV line
has th e sa m e fie ld c o rrid o r as th e ex istin g co n v entional 275kV line (before uprating) as
both lines h a v e th e sa m e m a x im a and m in im a positions. B oth lines have m axim um field
in tensity at 6 .5 m a w a y fro m the c en tre o f the tow er. It is because the conductor
sep aratio n s re m a in th e sa m e w h ile u p ratin g the line. H ow ever, the electric field under
the up rated line is g re a te r th a n th e ex istin g 275 k V line, w hich can be explained by the
increase in v o lta g e level in th e sy stem . T h e in crease in voltage level results in an
increase o f th e m a x im u m e le c tric fie ld b y 43% . T he field pro d u ced by the uprated line
(2.7 5 k V /m ) is, h o w e v e r, still lo w e r th an th e IC N IR P specified m axim um lim it (5kV /m )
for public e x p o su re. C o m p a re d to th e e x istin g 4 0 0 k V system w ith L6 tow er structure,
the uprated 4 0 0 k V line u sin g th e L3 to w e r has a low er m agnitude, and is confined
w ithin a n a rro w e r co rrid o r.
Figure 7.4 sh o w s th e e le c tric field p ro file at to w e r position. H ere, the disturbance in
electric field p ro file d u e to m eta l stru c tu re is ig n o re d and only the effect o f the height o f

1-6

-1-.4

275kV in L3
^ ^ I f p r a f e c r 400R\77n 13
r4 0 0 k V -io l6 -----------

-0:6-0 :4 -

-5 0

-4 0

-3 0

-20

-10

40

Distance from Tower Centre (m)

F igure 7.4: E lectric field p rofiles at tow er position under uprated and conventional lines at lm
ab ove th e g rou n d .

7-7

the c o n d u c to rs at th e to w e r a tta ch m e n t p o int is assessed. A ll other conditions rem ain the

sam e as at m id sp a n . A t th e to w e r p o sitio n , the electric field profiles at lm above ground
level in all th e lin es c o n sid e re d follow the sam e pattern as at the m idspan. C om pared
w ith the fie ld in te n s ity a t m id sp a n , the m ax im u m electric field at the tow er position is
low er in m a g n itu d e (0 .7 , 1.1 an d 1.5kV /m for L3 275kV line, uprated L3 400kV line
and, L6 4 0 0 k V line re sp e c tiv e ly ). F ig u re 7.5 com pares electric field profiles at lm
above g ro u n d level at m id s p a n an d at to w e r p o sition for uprated L3 400kV line. T he
differen ce in e le c tric field , in th is case, is due to the difference in conductor height
(because o f sag ) at tw o d iffe re n t p o sitio n s. F o r the sam e line, the hig h er conductor
produces lo w e r e le c tric fie ld m a g n itu d e s at g ro u n d level near to line but show s higher
m agnitudes a w a y fro m th e line.
Figure 7.6 c o m p a re s th e fie ld in te n sity 2 5 m aw ay from the centre o f the line. V alues
com puted are at 1m a b o v e g ro u n d at m id sp a n and at a tow er location. It can be seen that
the field m a g n itu d e s o f 0 .2 5 k V /m at m id sp a n and 0 .36kV /m at the tow er position falls
w ithin the ty p ical U K lim it (0 .2 - 0 .5 k V /m ) as show n before in T able 7.1 and are m uch
low er th an

the

c o rre sp o n d in g v a lu e s o f 0.86

and 0.76kV /m

respectively for a

at midspan
at tow er
-

2.0

1-5

-0-.5-

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

10

30

40

50

Distance from Tower Centre (m)

Figure 7.5: C om parison o f electric field profiles at lm above ground at midspan and at tower
position for uprated L3 400kV line.

7-8

 tow dr

2 7 5 k V in L3

midspan
T ypical e le c tric field
fo r 2 7 gkV and; 4 0 0 kV
l i n e UK

U prated 4 0 0 k V in L3

4 0 0 k V in L6

I-------- 1
0.1

0.2

0 .3

0 .4

0 .5

0 .6

0 .7

0 .8

0 .9

Electric Field (kV/m)

Figure 7.6: Electric field m agnitude at 25m aw ay from the centre o f the line trail (lm above
ground level) for L3 275kV , uprated L3 400kV and L6 400kV line.

co n v en tio n al 4 0 0 k V line. T h e re fo re , th e p ro p o se d u p ra te d lin e produces significantly

low er electric fie ld s c o m p a re d w ith a c o n v e n tio n a l L6 lin e at th e sam e voltage.

7.4.2

Effect of C o n d u cto r-to -G ro u n d C learance

T he u prated 4 0 0 k V line w ith th e p ro p o se d 3 .2 m in su la to r strin g w ill have a m inim um

p h a se-to -g ro u n d c le a ra n c e o f 12.3m . A s sh o w n e a rlie r in T a b le 4.4 (C hapter 4), the
m in im u m re q u ire d g ro u n d c le a ra n c e fo r a 4 0 0 k V sy stem in the U K and N orthern
Ireland is 7 .3 m . T h e a v a ila b le c o n d u c to r-to -g ro u n d c le a ra n c e in the system m ay
decrease d u e to an in c re a se in c o n d u c to r sag a ffe c te d b y su rro u n d in g tem perature and
flow o f c u rre n t. T h is v a ria tio n in g ro u n d c le a ra n c e also affe c ts the electric field profiles
u n d e r the line. F ig u re 7.7 sh o w s th e e le c tric fie ld p ro file o f th e up rated line at m idspan
for d iffe re n t c le a ra n c e s to g ro u n d . F ie ld p ro file s are sh o w n fo r 8m , 10m and 12 m
ground c le a ra n c e w h ic h sa tis fy th e re q u ire d m in im u m clearan ce. T he co m p u tatio n s are
done at lm a b o v e g ro u n d u s in g S IG M A -S lp softw are.
A s e x p e c te d , th e e le c tric field m ag n itu d e is g rea ter fo r lo w er values o f ground
c learan ce. M a x im u m fie ld in te n sitie s o f 6.31, 4 .16 and 2 .9 1 k V /m are found for 8, 10

7-9

"

C learance = 8 m
C learance = 10m

' v ~Crearance = 1 2 m

-5 0

-4 0

-3 0

-20I

-10

10

20

30

40

Distance from Tower Centre (m)

Figure 7.7: Electric field profile at midspan for different conductor-to-ground clearance. Values
computed at lm above ground (SIG M A -Slp Sim ulation).

and 12m g ro u n d c le a ra n c e resp e c tiv e ly . T he electric field intensity o f 6.31kV /m at

m inim um clea ra n c e level (8 m ) c o n sid e re d w o u ld breach the m axim um perm issible lim it
(5kV /m ) o f IC N IR P fo r p u b lic ex p o su re . H o w ev er, this value is w ithin the lim it o f N G
sp ecificatio n (9 k V /m ).
T he field in te n sity can o n ly b e lim ite d b e lo w IC N IR P lim it for phase-to-ground
clearance o f 9 .1 m in w h ic h case the field in ten sity o f 4.92kV /m is obtained. A t this
clearance lev el, th e c o n d u c to r w ill h a v e 10.2m m id sp an sag. T he line is m odelled w ith
m id sp an sag o f 7 .0 5 m . T h e refo re, the co n d u cto rs are only allow ed for further sag up to
ap p ro x im ate ly 3m to a c c o u n t fo r ch an g e in co n d u cto r tem perature. H ow ever, the field
intensities are w ith in th e N G sp e cifie d lim it and w ill not exceed 7kV /m for m inim um
required g ro u n d c le a ra n c e (7 .3 m ) fo r a 4 0 0 k V system .

7.4.3

Electric Field Contours

It is also im p o rta n t to d e te rm in e field levels along the transm ission line corridor to help
un d erstan d th e W o C c o v e re d b y the electric field. H orizontal contours o f equi-level
electric field lin es w ith in a span at lm above ground and vertical contours at tow er

7-10

p o sitio n are p lo tte d fo r u p rated and ex istin g lines. Figure 7.8 show s the electric field
co n to u rs w ith in a 3 0 0 m span at lm above the ground level for uprated and conventional
lines c o n sid e re d as d e sc rib e d e a rlie r in this chapter. It can be seen th at the m axim um
field a p p e ars in a re la tiv e ly n a rro w strip around the m idspan w here th ere is m axim um

50
E [k v /m ]

275kV in L3
30

10

-20

rH

50

100

200

150

250

300

D istance along the Span (m)

50
E [k V /m ]

Uprated 409kV in L3
30

20
-2.002.00-1 .00

-20
-30
-40
50
100

50

150

200

250

300

Distance along the Span (m)

400kV in L6

[k V /m ]

40
30

20

2 .0 0

00
-10

- 3 . 0 0 -------

2.00-

-30

-50
50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Distance along the Span (m)

F igure 7.8: E lectric Field con tou r alon g a span for uprated and existing lines at lm above ground.

7-11

sag. A t th e to w e r p o sitio n , re la tiv e ly lo w m a g n itu d e fields appear b u t spread over a

w id e r area. W h ile u p ra tin g the e x istin g 2 7 5 k V line, it is seen that the w idth o f the line
c o rrid o r a ffe c te d b y e le c tric field in te n s itie s is slightly increased. C o n sidering typical
U K field le v e ls (0 .2 k V /m - 0.5 k V /m ) a t 2 5 m aw ay from the line, the up rated line
electric field c o v e rs a p p ro x im a te ly 6 m ( 3 m in each side o f the line) additional w idth o f
corridor. In th e c a se o f th e u p rate d lin e , 0 .2 k V /m o f electric field appears 30.5m aw ay
from the lin e c e n tre w h e re a s at 2 7 5 k V v o lta g e level, the sam e field appears only at
27.5m aw ay. H o w e v er, th e w id th o f c o r r i d o r w ith electric fields in the uprated 400kV
line is still less th an th e w id th o f c o r r id o r w ith electric fields in a conventional 400kV
line. T h e fig u re sh o w s th a t th e c o n v e n tio n a l 4 0 0 k V line w ith L6 tow ers has typical
electric field lev e ls up to 80m (4 0 m in e a c h s id e ) o f co rrid o r w idth.
T he v ertical c o n to u rs o f th re e lin es s tu d i e d h e re are sh o w n in Figure 7.9. Since, the
electric field o c c u p ie s w id e r a re a n e a r t h e to w e r, the contours at the tow er cross section
v ertical p lan e is sh o w n . T h is d ia g ra m a l s o s u p p o rts the additional w idth covered by
electric field as a c c e p te d p re v io u s ly f o r u p r a t i n g th e ex istin g 275kV line. It can be seen
that the h ig h e r m a g n itu d e e le c tric fie ld a p p e a r s o n ly n e a r to the conductor. In the case o f
the u p rate d lin e, less th an 5 0% (2 k V /m ) o f th e IC N IR P lim it (5kV /m ) o f electric field
appears at 8m a b o v e g ro u n d . T h is d e m o n s tr a te s that, th ere is no risk to public exposure
in any c irc u m sta n c e s. F u rth e r, an e le c tr ic fie ld o f 3k V /m m agnitude only is found 8m
aw ay from th e c o n d u c to r. T h e v e rtic a l c o n to u r o f u p rated line show s a less extensive
electric fie ld th a n th a t o f th e 4 0 0 k V s y s te m w ith L 6 construction.

7-12

275kV in L3

55
50
45

40

'

00
H
<u

33

-5 0

-3 0

-20I

-1 0

10

20

50

Width o f C orridor (m)

80

Uprated 4e0kV in L3

55

E TkV /m ]

50
45

00

-5 0

-4 0

-3 0

-20

-10

20

30

40

50

Width o f C orridor (m)

4O0kV in L6
50
45
40
35

X 20
10
-5 0

-3 0

-20

-1 0

10

20

30

50

Width o f C orridor (m)

Figure 7.9: Electric field contour at tower cross section vertical plane.

7 .5

C o m p u t a t io n

of

M a g n e t ic F ie l d

T he m ag n e tic fie ld p ro file s and th e ir contours for the uprated 400kV line are com pared
w ith th at o f th e e x istin g 2 7 5 k V line w ith L3 construction and the 400kV line w ith L6
c o n stru ctio n . In o rd e r to d e te rm in e the requirem ent o f additional W oC (determ ined by
m ag n etic field ), th e m ag n e tic field p rofiles at its horizontal contours are com puted at lm
above g ro u n d level. A cc o rd in g to N ational G rid [7.14], the highest rated transm ission

7-13

lines in th e U K can carry m ore than 4000A o f current per circuit and an approxim ate
av erag e o f 7 0 0 A p e r p h a se is found in a typical circuit. In the follow ing studies, a
cu rren t m a g n itu d e o f 10 0 0 A in each phase is assum ed for the com putation o f m agnetic
field.

7.5.1

M agnetic Field Profiles at Different Positions along the

Line

T he m ag n etic field p ro file s are co m p u ted at m idspan and at a to w er position. For the
uprated 4 0 0 k V line, a m a g n e tic field in ten sity o f 7 .1 p T is com puted at ground level.
T he values o f 8 .3 p T , 9 .9 p T a n d 12 .0 p T are found respectively at lm , 2m and 3m above
the ground. T h e se v a lu e s are far less than the m ax im u m lim it o f lOOpT specified by
IC N IR P for p u b lic ex p o su re.
Figure

7.1 0

sh o w s

m ag n e tic

field

p ro file s

at m idspan under the uprated

and

conventional lines. T h e m a x im u m v a lu e s o f m agnetic field are respectively 8.5, 8.3 and

1 1.4pT fo r c o n v e n tio n a l 2 7 5 k V line w ith L3 construction, uprated 400kV line w ith L3
c o nstruction a n d c o n v e n tio n a l 4 0 0 k V line w ith L6 construction. T he result confirm s
that there is o n ly a sm all v a ria tio n in m agnetic field profile w hile uprating existing
275kV line to 4 0 0 k V . A s th e cu rren t ratin g w as not changed, the slight increase in

2r.Q

275kVin L3
UpLaled.4 QQkyjD.L3

400kVin L6

U.

-2:0

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

10

20

30

40

50

Distance from Tower Centre (m)

F igu re 7.10: M agn etic field p rofiles at m idspan under uprated and conventional lines at lm above
the grou n d .

7-14

c o n d u c to r h e ig h t fo r the up rated line results in a slightly low er m agnetic field strength

for a g iv en h e ig h t co m p a red w ith the original 275kV line. The uprated line produced a
low er m a g n e tic field c o m p a red w ith the conventional L6, 400kV line assum ing the
sam e c u rre n t lo ad in g .
Figure 7.11 sh o w s the m ag n e tic field pro file at a tow er position. C om pared w ith the
field at m id sp a n , th e m a g n e tic field at to w e r p o sition is low er due to the increase in
co n d u cto r h eig h t. V a lu e s o f 3 .1 p T , 3 .0 p T and 5 .0 p T are com puted for conventional
275kV , u p rate d 4 0 0 k V a n d c o n v e n tio n al 400 k V lines respectively.
Figure 7.12 c o m p a res the field in te n sity at 25m aw ay from the tow er in horizontal
direction. V alu es are c o m p u te d at lm ab o v e g round at m idspan and at tow er position. In
this case, the m ag n e tic field o f the u p rated line is w ithin the typical U K field lim its (1 2 pT ). T he field m a g n itu d e o f 1 .4 9 p T at m id sp a n and 1.02pT at tow er node is obtained
w hich again is lo w e r th an th e c o rre sp o n d in g o f 3 .5 p T and 2.25 p T for a conventional
L6 4 0 0kV line.

275kV in L3
-Uprated. 4 0 0 kV m 13
400kV in L6

2:0

-5 0

-4 0

-3 0

-20

1-0

-10

20

30

40

50

Distance from Tower Centre (m)

Figure 7.11: M agnetic field profiles at tower node under uprated and conventional lines at lm
above the ground.

7-15

i
to\}ver

27 5k V in L3

midspan

iT ypical rh a g n etic
rariGje fo r UK

11

11
I

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

L3

I_________ !_

11

400k V in L6

[
i
i
i
H------------- 1--------------1------------- 1------------- 1
------------- 1------------- 1--------------1----------

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

Magnetic Field (pT)

Figure 7.12: Magnetic field at 25m aw ay from the centre o f the line trail.

7.5.2

Effect of C onductor-to-G round Clearance

T he effect o f variation in c o n d u c to r-to -g ro u n d clearan ce for m ag n etic field u n d e r the

uprated 400kV line at m idspan is sh o w n in F igure 7.13. M agnetic field m ag n itu d es are
show n for 8m , 10 and 12m g ro u n d clearan ces. A s expected, the m ag n etic field
m agnitude is higher for low er g ro u n d clearan ce. M a x im u m fields o f 19.0, 12.5 and
8 .6 p T are found for 8, 10 and 12m g ro u n d c learan ces resp ectiv ely . E v en fo r the lo w est

Clearance=& m ___
j clearance = 4 0 m - -

6-14

- C learance=T2tti ~ ~

10- -

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

10

30

40

Distance from Tower Centre (m)

Figure 7.13: M agnetic field profile at midspan for different conductor-to-ground clearance. Values
computed at lm above ground (SIG M A -Slp Simulation).

7 -1 6

c le a ra n c e lev el (8 m ) co n sid e red here, the m ag n etic field is considerably less than the
m a x im u m p e rm issib le lim it (lO O pT) o f IC N IR P public exposure. T herefore, from
m ag n etic

fie ld p o in t o f v iew , p ro p o sed up ratin g o f 275kV line should not be

p ro b le m atic .

7.5.3

M a g n e tic Field C o n to u rs

As d e scrib ed e a rlie r, th e m ag n e tic field m ag n itu d e is an im portant factor to determ ine

the W oC . In o rd e r to fin d m ag n e tic field levels on a transm ission line corridor,
horizontal c o n to u rs o f e q u i-lev e l m ag n e tic field lines w ithin a span and vertical
contours at m id sp a n are p lo tte d fo r u p ra te d and conventional lines. Figure 7.14 show s
the m ag n etic filed c o n to u rs w ith in a sp an at lm above the ground for uprated and
co nventional lines c o n sid e re d in th is study. U n lik e electric field contours, the m axim um
m agnetic field m a g n itu d e a p p e ars o v e r a rela tiv e ly w id er strip around the m idspan
w here th ere is m a x im u m sag a n d th e se fie ld reg io n s at to w er p o sition occupy narrow
corridor. T h e m a g n e tic fie ld reg io n sh rin k s w h e n the conductor height is increased. It is
to be n o ted th a t th e m ag n e tic field in th e u p rate d line does not require any additional
W oC . A s can b e seen in th e fig u re, th e W o C o ccu p ied b y m agnetic field along a span in
uprated 4 0 0 k V line is th e sam e as th a t o f 2 7 5 k V line before uprating. In b oth the cases,
the m ag n e tic fie ld o f 1 p T ap p e ars to be a p p ro x im ately at a distance 30m aw ay from the
line cen tre an d d o e s n o t e x c e e d th e ty p ic a l U K field level o f 1 - 2 p T at 25m aw ay from
the line. F u rth e r, W o C o f the u p rate d line is lo w er than that o f a conventional 400kV
line w ith L6 c o n stru c tio n .
F igure 7.15 sh o w s th e co n to u rs o f m ag n etic field m agnitudes in a vertical plane at
m id sp an . It is c le a r th a t o n ly th e low m ag n itu d e m agnetic fields are seen by the public
w h ich its e lf is w ith in the safe lim it. A value o f lOOpT appears to be at approxim ately
2 .5 m a w a y fro m c o n d u cto rs. H ow ever, these fields can only be exposed to skilled
7-1 7

p erson (o cc u p a tio n a l e x p o su re ) fo r w h ich the safety lim it is

5 0 0 jllT

as per IC N IR P.

T h erefo re, from th e m ag n e tic field p o in t o f view , there is no risk o f public and
o ccu p atio n al e x p o su re fro m th e line.

275kV in L3

oe
0
43

-60

M
50

100

150

200

250

300

Distance along the Span (m)

Uprated 490kV in L3

00
60
43

M
-00
50

150

100

200

250

Distance along the Span (m)

400kV in L6

100

60

-60
+j

-80
100
50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Distance along the Span (m)

Figure 7.14: M agnetic field contour along a span for uprated and conventional lines.

7-18

6(3

275kV i n

55

L3

B[|lT]

30
25
20

-50

-3 0

-20

-10

20

30

50

Width o f C orridor (m)

55

U p ra te d 490kV in

L3

40

H
X

-5 0

-40

-3 0

-10

-20

10

20

50

Width o f C o rrid o r (m)

60
55

400kV in

L6

50

45

+->
20

-5 0

-4 0

-3 0

-20

-1 0

10

20

40

50

Width o f C orridor (m)

Figure 7.15: M agnetic field vertical plane contour at midspan.

7 .6

C o n c l u s io n s

A g ro w in g c o n c e rn o v e r electric and m ag n etic field effects to public health is one o f a

n u m b er o f issu e s th a t n e e d to be a d d re sse d w h en obtaining new w ayleave perm ission
for the c o n s tru c tio n o r m o d ific a tio n o f overh ead lines. T herefore, uprating the existing
lines sh o u ld a lso be e x a m in ed for the risk o f increasing the intensity o f such fields w hen
7-19

e ith e r in c re a sin g line v o ltag e a n d /o r current ratings. T he electric and m agnetic field
p ro file s o f a 2 7 5 k V line u p rated to 4 0 0kV w ere com puted to en su re th at the field
in te n sitie s a re w ith in the lim its ad o p ted by national and in ternational standards. The
E M F u n d e r th e

u p ra te d

L 3 4 0 0 k V

line w as com pared w ith the fields u n d er

c o n v e n tio n al 2 7 5 k V L 3 and 4 0 0 k V L 6 line constructions.

It w as fo u n d th a t the m a x im u m electric field strength increases b y 43 % (1 .9 2 k V /m to
2.7 5 k V /m ) b y in c re a sin g th e v o lta g e level from 2 7 5 k V to 400kV . H o w ev er, this value
is still b e lo w th e re fe re n c e levels ad v ise d b y IC N IR P and N G . A s expected, no
sig nificant c h a n g e in m a g n e tic field p ro file w as seen. T he electric and m ag n etic field
strength in th e u p rate d 4 0 0 k V L 3 sy stem w as fo u n d to be low er th an the co nventional
400kV L 6 line. A n e le c tric field o f 2 .7 5 k V /m at m id sp an ( lm a b o v e ground) fo r the
uprated line is 2 5 % less th an fo r th e c o n v e n tio n al 4 0 0 k V L 6 line, w hereas, m agnetic
field o f 8.3 p T fo r the u p rate d line is 2 7 % less.
The electric field at lm a b o v e g ro u n d fo r c o n d u c to r sag bey o n d 10.2m (or phase-toground c le a ra n c e b e lo w 9 .1 m ) b re a c h e d th e IC N IR P lim it o f 5kV /m . T o conform to this
lim it, the u p ra te d line w o u ld req u ire h ig h tem p e ra tu re low sag conductors. H ow ever, the
m ax im u m e le c tric field up to the m in im u m lim it o f allow able g ro u n d c learan ce (7.3m )
for a 4 0 0 k V sy ste m is w ith in th e N G lim it fo r p u b lic exposure (9kV /m ).
T he e le c tric a n d m a g n e tic field co n to u rs sh o w n h e lp e d to u n d erstan d th e W o C covered
by th ese field s. T h e m a g n e tic field co n to u rs show ed no requirem ent o f ad d itio n al W oC
w hen u p ra tin g th e 2 7 5 k V line to the 400kV .

7 -2 0

C h a pt e r 8
G

eneral

D is c u s s io n s , C o n c l u sio n s
W

and,

F uture

ork

In this rese a rc h w o rk , te c h n ic a l issu es for voltage uprating o f overhead transm ission

lines are m e th o d ic a lly in v e stig a te d . A co m m o n L3, 275kV line in the existing U K
tran sm issio n sy ste m is c o n s id e re d as a case stu d y for uprating to the next voltage level
o f 4 0 0 k V sy stem . T h e re s e a rc h in v e stig a tio n concen trated on identifying the factors that
govern an o v e rh e a d lin e d e sig n fo r v o lta g e u p ratin g purposes. T hese include the
physical lo ca tio n a n d s p a c in g s o f c o n d u c to rs, the type and the length o f insulators, and
overvoltage

p ro te c tio n

m e a su re s.

M o re

im p ortantly,

the

recom m endations

and

sp ecificatio n s o f c u rre n t n a tio n a l an d in te rn atio n a l standards w ere carefully considered.

W here ap p lic ab le , c o n s tra in ts d u e to p ra c tic a l lim itatio n s w ere considered.
C o n sid erin g a c a se o f a 2 7 5 k V line, se v era l o p tio n s for uprating overhead transm ission
lines w ere in v e stig a te d . T h e se in clu d e s th e su b stitu tio n o f existing insulator strings w ith
a co m p o site p o ly m e ric in su la to r to p ro v id e h ig h creepage and the use o f m o d em
p ro tectiv e d e v ic e to c o n tro l o v e rv o ltag e s in the system such that the m inim um required
clearan ces as p e r th e IE C 60071 fo r 4 0 0 k V sy stem are satisfied. A reverse concept o f
red u cin g the m in im u m re q u ire d c le a ra n c e s b y controlling sw itching and lightning
o v erv o ltag e le v e ls in th e sy ste m w as p ro p o sed . It w as show n that the application o f Z nO
surge a rre ste rs on th e lin e can e ffe c tiv e ly red u ce the overvoltage level in the system
w hich allo w s th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f the lo w er values o f IEC standard sw itching and
lig h tn in g im p u lse w ith s ta n d levels. A s a result, it is possible to use com pact conductor
c o n fig u ra tio n s b y re d u c in g a ir clearan ces for the uprated voltage level. It w as also
sh o w n th a t th e u se o f a p p ro p ria te c o n fig u ratio n o f line surge arresters can optim ise the

8 -1

n u m b e r o f su rg e a rre ste rs alo n g the line w ith o u t com prom ising the sy ste m s targeted
p e rfo rm a n c e a n d th e re b y red u c in g the financial burden. S atisfactory lightning and
sw itc h in g p e rfo rm a n c e o f the line in u p rated voltage level w as obtained. T he electric
and m a g n e tic fie ld m a g n itu d e s w ere sh o w n to be com parable to those o f the line before
uprating.
T he e x te n siv e lite ra tu re rev ie w carrie d out prim arily in this research highlighted
d ifferent te c h n iq u e s u se d w o rld w id e for o v erh ead transm ission and distrib u tio n line
uprating. It w as fo u n d th a t th e n e e d fo r u p ratin g o v erhead lines w as first encountered in
the m id fifties, fo llo w e d b y sev eral cases o f line u p rating to increase p o w er transfer
capability. T h e e x te n siv e re v ie w o f in d iv id u al line uprating cases from various parts o f
the w orld re v e a le d th at, in the m a jo rity o f th e cases, the line p o w er transfer capability
w as in creased b y in c re a sin g its c u rre n t ratin g . V ery few projects o f voltage uprating o f
lines w ere re a lise d as th is is u n d e rsto o d to be ex p en siv e due to the need for increasing
the cap acity o f te rm in a l su b sta tio n s.
T here are tw o m a jo r tec h n ica l issu es id en tified w hich need to be addressed w hile
co n sid erin g v o lta g e u p ra tin g o f o v e rh e a d lines: O ne is the larger conductor air clearance
req u irem en ts to be sa tisfie d at th e h ig h e r v o lta g e level com pared w ith the existing line
structure, a n d th e o th e r o n e is to assess th e insu latio n level required to w ith stan d the
o v e rv o ltag e s d u e to p o w e r fre q u e n c y and tran sien t surges. The recom m endations m ade
by d iffe re n t n a tio n a l a n d in te rn atio n a l standards such as IEC, IEEE, B S E N , E N A T S etc.
w ere e x te n siv e ly c o n sid e re d to id en tify k e y actions for uprating an existing 2 7 5kV line
w ith L3 to w e rs to a 4 0 0 k V system . R eco m m en d atio n s m ade b y E P R I and C IG R E
g u id elin e s w e re a lso ta k e n into acco u n t to b u ild a strong technical foundation for the
p ro p o se d te c h n iq u e fo r v o lta g e uprating.
C u rren t p ra c tic e fo r a ir clearan ces in high voltage transm ission netw orks adopts the

8 -2

h ig h e st re c o m m e n d a tio n s o f IEC 60071, and in som e cases, w ith an extra m argin for
se c u rity o f su p p ly . T h e se clearan ces are u su ally m ore than sufficient for a 1050kV
sw itc h in g im p u lse w ith sta n d level and a 1425kV lightning im pulse w ith stan d level. In
th e p ro ce ss o f u p ra tin g an o v e rh e a d line, there is flexibility from IEC 507 to reduce the
sw itc h in g im p u lse w ith sta n d level to 850kV an d the lightning im pulse w ith stan d level
to 1050kV . S u ch re d u c tio n s h av e the p o tential to develop com pact overhead line
co n fig u ratio n s o r o ffe r s ig n ific a n t fle x ib ility w h en v o ltage-uprating line. T he solutions
so u g h t in th is re se a rc h in v e stig a tio n aim to keep existing tow er structures and uprate the
o p eratin g v o lta g e to h ig h e r levels th ro u g h the replacem ent o f in su lato r strings and
control o f sw itc h in g a n d lig h tn in g o v e rv o ltag e s introducing extensive use o f Z inc-O xide
surge arresters.
E ven tho u g h it w as fo u n d th a t the c o n d u c to r ph ase-to -p h ase clearances at transm ission
level are d o m in a te d so le ly b y th e s w itc h in g o vervoltage level, the phase-to-earth
c learan ce re q u ire m e n t o f th e w ith sta n d v o ltag e com binations for 400kV system
c o n sid ered h e re w e re fo u n d d ic ta te d e ith e r b y lightning overvoltages o r have equal
influence

o f b o th

sw itc h in g

an d

lig h tn in g

overvoltages. T he influence o f each

o v e rv o ltag e in a lin e w as fo u n d d e p e n d e n t on the set o f lightning and sw itching

o v e rv o ltag e lev els to b e c o n sid e re d for the line design process. In o rd er to m eet the
req u ired

in su la tio n

level

fo r

h ig h e r

voltages,

additional

creepage

requirem ents

d e p e n d in g u p o n th e site p o llu tio n level u p to 3720m m w as calculated for the L3 line

case study.
F o r the L3 lin e c o n sid e re d h ere, it w as found th at the phase-to-earth clearance under
still air c o n d itio n o n ly is in su fficien t. H ow ever, all other clearances such as phase-tog ro u n d an d p h a se -to -p h a se are su fficien t enough for 400kV system operation. U nder
w in d lo ad , th e re d u c e d clearan ces due to in su lato r sw ing up to 35 w as also found

8-3

w ith in th e a c c e p ta b le lim its for all ty p es o f overvoltages considering th at the clearance

re q u ire m e n ts u n d e r w in d load red u ces b y a facto r o f 0.7 com pared w ith the clearance in
still a ir c o n d itio n . In o rd e r to sa tisfy the additional phase-to-earth clearance requirem ent
for 4 0 0 k V sy ste m , a 3 .2 m in su la to r w ith m inim um creepage o f 12096m m w as found
ap p ro p riate. T h e u se o f c o m p o site p o ly m eric insulators w as pro p o sed as one o f the
options fo r u p ra tin g th e c a se stu d y line. T he ch aracteristics such as high m echanical
strength, lig h t w e ig h t, h y d ro p h o b ic ity , low cost and th eir excellent p erform ance under
p o lluted e n v iro n m e n t can m e e t th e req u irem e n t o f additional creepage for voltage
uprating. T h is te c h n iq u e can sa tisfy th e req u irem en t o f IEC specified phase-to-earth
clearance fo r 4 0 0 k V sy stem .
H ow ever, such a sh o rt p o ly m e ric in su la to r w ith the required creepage length is not
readily a v a ilab le as a sta n d a rd p ro d u c t fro m m anufacturer. A n alternative solution to
satisfy the c o n stra in ts p ro b le m is th ro u g h th e co n tro l o f the stresses to w hich the line is
subjected to. T h e re fo re , in ste a d o f d e v e lo p in g techniques to satisfy the required
m inim um c le a ra n c e , it is p ro p o se d to u se th e lo w er com bination o f lightning and
sw itching o v e rv o lta g e w ith sta n d lev els so th a t the m inim um required clearances for
400kV sy stem c o u ld be red u c e d . In th e U K , 4 0 0 k V system is designed for lightning and
sw itch in g w ith sta n d lev el o f 1425kV a n d 1050kV respectively, and these voltage level
require a ir c le a ra n c e s o f at 2 .6 m . F ro m the analysis carried out in this w ork, it w as
d em o n stra ted th a t a sy ste m w ith a lig h tn in g im pulse w ithstand level o f 1300kV and
sw itch in g im p u lse w ith sta n d level o f 9 5 0kV can be adequately p ro tected w ith 2.4m air
clearan ces, a n d in a c c o rd a n c e w ith IEC 60071 recom m endations. A dopting such
a p p ro ach fo r th e u p ra tin g o f the L3 line w o u ld not require any structural m odification o f
the to w ers. F o r fu rth e r secu rity , the use o f line surge arresters w ould ensure adequate
and e ffic ie n t co n tro l o f b o th sw itch in g and lightning overvoltages.

8 -4

T h e a p p lic a tio n o f d iffe re n t line surge arrester configurations for sw itching overvoltage
c o n tro l sh o w e d th a t th e a rresters o nly at the line ends can reduce the overvoltage level
b elo w the ta rg e te d w ith sta n d level o f 950kV . H ow ever, the control o f lightning
o v e rv o ltag e s n e e d s in -d e p th stu d y o f the arrester location. In the case o f shielding
failure, a rre ste rs at th e to p tw o p h a ses on ly o f the line are sufficient to control the
o v e rv o ltag e s to w ith in th e ta rg e te d v alu e o f 1300kV . O n the other hand, overvoltages
due to b a c k fla s h o v e r are in flu e n ce d b y the to w er footing resistance value, and the
arresters a lo n e c o u ld n o t co n tro l the o v erv o ltag es to w ithin the lim its for high tow er
footing re sista n c e v a lu e s. H en ce, it is n e c essa ry to identify the po ssib ility o f reducing
the fo o tin g re sista n c e v a lu e b e fo re u n d e rta k in g voltage uprating o f the line. This
in vestigation has sh o w n th a t u p to a 4 0 0 fo o tin g resistance, deploying surge arresters at
the bottom p h a se c o n d u c to rs o n ly w a s su fficie n t to control the lightning overvoltage
w ithin the ta rg e te d lim it.
The line a rre ste r a p p lic a tio n an a ly sis h as re v e a le d th at the top conductors are prone to
shielding failu re strik es w h ilst th e b o tto m c o n d u c to rs are m ore likely to be subjected to
b a c k flash o v e r lig h tn in g su rg es. A lth o u g h the arresters at the top tw o phases only are
su fficien t to p ro te c t th e lin e ag a in st lig h tn in g h av in g low footing resistance values, this
co n fig u ratio n a lo n e w a s n o t e ffe c tiv e fo r h igh fo o tin g resistance values, as it cannot
pro tect the lin e fro m b a c k fla s h o v e r o c c u rrin g at the bottom phase conductors. In this
case, a rre ste rs at to p tw o a n d b o tto m tw o con d u cto rs w ere required.
D istrib u tio n o f e n e rg y stre ss in su rg e arresters along the line show ed th at the class-3
a rre ste r c h o se n in th is stu d y w as n o t h ig h ly stressed. O nly 1% o f the overvoltage
scen ario s is lik e ly to e x c ee d 10% o f the arrester energy capability and, therefore,
n e g lig ib le risk o f a rre ste r failu re w as ob serv ed due to the shielding failure.
T h e in te n sity o f e lectric an d m ag n etic fields around the lines w ere considered as the

8-5

p rim a ry e n v iro n m e n ta l concern. T he effect o f increasing the voltage rating o f the line
and p o s s ib le c h a n g e o f co n d u c to r heig h ts on electric and m agnetic field profiles w ere
o b serv ed . It w a s d e m o n s tra te d th at the m agnetic field profiles for the u p rated line did
not hav e a n y s ig n ific a n t c h an g e co m p a red to the original 275kV operation, and w as
found to be b e tte r th a n th e c o n v e n tio n al 4 0 0 k V line w ith L6 to w er structure. E ven
though the e le c tric fie ld in te n sity w as found to be h ig h er than that o f the line before
uprating, th e v a lu e s are w ith in the IC N IR P specified lim its and are lo w er than the
c o n v en tio n al 4 0 0 k V sy ste m . It w as fo u n d th at the uprated 400kV line required no
additional w a y le av e .

8.1

Future W o rk

In this th esis, im p o rta n t te c h n ic a l issu e s fo r vo ltag e up ratin g w ere addressed. H ow ever,

the financial issu e is a n o th e r im p o rta n t p a ra m e te r th at plays a k ey role in the decision
m aking p ro cess. F u rth e r to th is in v e stig a tio n , the stu d y could be extended to address
such issues. T w o im p o rta n t p o in ts c o u ld be considered. First, the u p rating is associated
w ith the p e rfo rm a n c e a n a ly sis o f th e line to be u p rated w hich is d irectly associated w ith
the cost. T h e re fo re , th e c o st o f u p ra tin g an e x istin g line could be com pared w ith the cost
o f b u ild in g a n e w line. S e c o n d , th e c o m p a riso n o f cost versus benefits o f u p ratin g is
essential.
T o g e th er w ith th e stu d y o f o v e rh e a d tra n sm issio n line uprating, it w o u ld be b en eficial to
study the v o lta g e u p ra tin g fo r low v o lta g e d istrib u tio n system s. D ifferen t approaches for
u p ratin g lo w v o lta g e lin e s are req u ired , e sp ec ially for a line w ith w o o d poles w here pin
in su lato rs are g e n e ra lly used. T he au th o r has done som e o f the basic analysis in this part
o f the w o rk th e re su lts o f w h ich w ere p u b lish e d in a conference paper, as show n in
A p p e n d ix E. H o w e v er, in d ep th analysis o f this p art o f voltage u p rating could be subject
to fu tu re w o rk .
8 -6

REFERENCES
CHAPTER 1
1.1

E IA , In te rn a tio n a l E n e rg y O u tlo o k 2 0 0 9 , E n e rg y Inform . A dm in., U .S . D ept, o f

E n erg y , W a sh in g to n D C , U S A , R ep. D O E /E IA -0 4 8 4 (2 0 0 9 ), M ay 2009.

1.2

IE A , K e y W o rld E n e rg y S tatistics 2 0 0 9 , In tern atio n al E nergy A g e n c y , P aris,

F rance, 20 0 9 .

1.3

Guidelines fo r Increased Utilization o f Existing Overhead Transmission Lines,

C IG R E W G B 2 .1 3 , B ro c h u re 353, A ug. 2008.

1.4

H. G riffith s an d N . P illin g , E a rth in g , in Advances in High Voltage Engineering ,

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1.5

N G , 2 0 0 7 G re a t B rita in S ev en Y e a r S ta te m e n t, N atio n al G rid, W arw ick , U K ,

M ay 2007.

1.6

J. M. F e rg u so n an d R. R. G ib b o n , O v erh ead T ran sm issio n L ines R efu rb ish m e n t a n d D e v e lo p m e n ts , IEE Power Eng. Journal , vol. 8, no. 3, pp.
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1.7

S. B utler, U K E le c tric ity N e tw o rk s: T h e N a tu re o f U K E lectricity T ran sm issio n

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S cience, T e c h n o lo g y a n d M e d ic in e , U niv. L o n d o n , U K , Sep. 2001.

1.8

N G , N a tio n a l E le c tric ity T ra n sm iss io n S y stem S even Y e a r S tatem en t, N atio n al

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1.9

E N S G , O u r E le c tric ity T ra n sm issio n N etw o rk : A V isio n for 2 0 2 0 , E lectricity

N e tw o rk S tra te g y G ro u p , U K , R ep. E N S R G 2 0 0 9 -0 2 6 , Jul. 2009.

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S trategic

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S ta te m e n t, N a tio n a l G rid , W a rw ic k , U K , Ju l. 2009, vol. I.
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2003, p p . 1 004-1009.
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pore. IEEE/PES T&D Conf. and Expo., A tlan ta, G A , U S A , O ct.-N ov. 2 0 0 1 , pp.
39 1 -3 9 6 .
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U S A , N o v . 2000.

1.15 T. M . S ek ili an d G. U . M artin ez U p ratin g D ouble-C ircuit T ransm ission Lines

115 k V to 2 3 0 k V , in Sargent & Lundy Transmission & Substation Conf.,
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In c re a sin g th e C a p a c ity o f O v erh ead L ines in the 400kV S panish T ran sm issio n
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Meeting, M o n tre a l, C a n a d a , Ju n . 2006.
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CHAPTER 2
2.1

Oxford Paperback Dictionary, Thesaurus, and Wordpower Guide, C. Soanes et

al., Ed. O x fo rd , U K : O x fo rd U n iv e rsity Press, 2001.

2.2

S. R. R o g e t, A Dictionary o f Electrical Terms, 4

S o n s, L td ., 1944.

2.3

Guidelines for Increased Utilization o f Existing Overhead Transmission Lines,

C IG R E W G B 2 .1 3 , B ro c h u re 353, A ug. 2008.

ed. London: Sir Isaac P itm an &

2.4

I. A lb iz u , A. J. M azo n , and I. Z am ora, M ethods for Increasing the R ating o f

O v e rh e a d L in e s, proc. IEEE Russia PowerTech Conf., St. P etersburg, R ussia,
Ju n . 2 0 0 5 .

2.5

S. N a ra in , D. M u ftic, B. Jaco b s, and P. N aidoo, U prating o f 275kV L ines to

4 0 0 k V as P a rt o f a C o n tin g e n c y P lan for G eneration In tegration, in IEEE/PES
T&D Conf. and Expo. : Latin America , C aracas, V enezuela, A ug. 2006.

2.6

J. G. H a n so n , U p g ra d in g T ra n sm issio n L ines, proc. IEEE/PES T&D Conf.,

D allas, U S A , Sep. 1991, pp. 824-827.

2.7

E. L. C. L a rso n , M . B ro sc h at, an d R. L. T hom pson, T ransm ission L ine U prating

115-kV to 2 3 0 -k V E le c tric a l an d S tructural D esign, IEEE Trans. Power App.
Syst., vol. P A S -8 6 , no. 5, pp. 5 3 9 -5 4 6 , M ay 1967.

2.8

Transmission Line Uprating Guide, D o cu m en t no. 1000717, E PR I, Palo A lto, CA ,

U S A , N ov. 2000.

2.9

Management o f Existing Transmission Overhead Lines , C IG R E W G B 22.13,

B ro ch u re 175, 2000.

2.10 How OH Lines are Re-designed fo r Uprating / Upgrading Analysis o f the

Answers to the Questionnaire , C IG R E W G B 2.06, B rochure 294, Jun. 2006.
2.11 A. M eier, T ra n sm issio n a n d D istrib u tio n , in Electric Power Systems: A
Conceptual Introduction. N e w Je rse y , U S A : W iley-Interscience, 2006, ch. 6, pp.
144-194.
2.12 R. N. N ay ak , Y . K. S e h g a l, a n d S. S en, E H V T ransm ission L ine C apacity
E n h a n c em e n t th ro u g h In cre a se in S u rg e Im p ed an ce L oading L evel, in IEEE
Power India Conf., N e w D elh i, In d ia, A pr. 2006.
2.13 J. R. D aco n ti an d D. C. L aw ry , In c re a sin g P o w er T ran sfer C ap ab ility o f E xisting
T ra n sm issio n L in e s, proc. IEEE/PES T&D Conf. and Expo., D allas, U S A , Sep.
2003, pp. 1 004-1009.
2.14 D. F. S h a n k le, In c re m e n ta l V o lta g e U p ra tin g o f T ransm ission L ines, IEEE
Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. P A S -9 0 , no. 4, pp. 1791-1795, Jul. 1971.
2.15 Insulation Co-ordination - Part 1: Definitions, Principles and Rules, International
E le c tro te c h n ic a l C o m m is s io n S ta n d ard IE C 60071-1, 2006.
2.16 Overhead Line Clearances, E n e rg y N e tw o rk A ssociation, L ondon, U K , T echnical
S p e c ific a tio n 4 3 -8 , Issu e 3, 2004.
2.17 Overhead Electrical Lines Exceeding AC 45kV - Part 1: General Requirements Common Specifications, B ritish S tandard B S E N 50341-1, 2001.
2.18 Overhead Electrical Lines Exceeding AC 45kV - Part 3: Set o f National
Normative Aspects, B ritish S tan d ard B S E N 50341-3, 2001.
2.19 Insulation

Co-ordination

Part

2:

Application

Guide,

International
iii

E le c tro te c h n ic a l C o m m issio n S tandard IEC 60071-2, 1997.

2 .2 0 M . G . C o m b e r a n d L. E. Z affanella, A udible N o ise, in Transmission Line
Reference Book 345kV and Above , P alo A lto, CA , U SA : E PR I, 1975, ch. 6, pp.
192-238.
2.21

E N S G , O u r E le c tric ity T ra n sm issio n N etw ork: A V ision for 20 2 0 , E lectricity

N e tw o rk S tra te g y G ro u p , U K , R ep. E N S R G 2009-026, Jul. 2009.

2.22 T. K a v a n a g h a n d O . A rm stro n g , A n E valu atio n o f H igh T em p eratu re L ow Sag

C o n d u c to rs fo r U p ra tin g the 2 2 0 k V T ran sm issio n N etw ork in Irelan d , in 45th Int.
Univ. Power Eng. Conf., C ard iff, U K , A ug.-S ep. 2010.
2.23 Guide fo r Upgrading RUS Transmission Lines , R ural U tilities Service, U S D ept,
o f A g ric u ltu re , R U S B u lle tin 1724E -203, D ec. 1994.
2.24 R. B a ld ic k a n d R. P. O N eill, E stim ates o f C om parative C osts for U prating
T ra n sm issio n C a p a c ity , IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 961-969,
A pr. 2009.
2.25 S. J. P ie m o t a n d J. L eah y , M a x im iz e th e C ap acity o f Y o u r T ransm ission L ines,
proc. IEEE/PES T&D Conf. and Expo., A tlan ta, U S A , O ct.-N ov. 2001, vol. 1, pp.
391-3 9 6 .
2.26 M . J. T u n sta ll, S. P. H o ffm a n n , N . S. D erb y sh ire, and M . J. Pyke, M axim ising
the R a tin g s o f N a tio n a l G r id s E x istin g T ran sm issio n L ines using H igh
T e m p e ra tu re , L o w S ag C o n d u c to r, CIGRE Session, P aper 22-202, Paris, 2000.
2.27 R. S te p h en a n d D. M u ftic, D e te rm in a tio n o f the T herm al R ating and U prating
M e th o d s fo r E x istin g L in e s, CIGRE Session, P ap er 22-305, Paris, 2000.
2.28 A. L. T u k a c h in sk y , U p ra tin g o f P o w er T ran sm issio n L ines in Israel E lectric
C o rp ., proc. The 21st IEEE Conv. o f the Elec. and Electron. Engineers in Israel,
T e l-A v iv , Israel, A pr. 2 0 0 0 , pp. 3 1 4 -3 1 7 .
2.29 M . B ro sc h a t, a n d R. C la y to n , C o m p actio n T echniques A p p lied to
S u b tra n s m is s io n L in e U p ra tin g 4 1 .6 k V to 1 15k V , IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst.,
vol. P A S -1 0 0 , no. 4, pp. 1959-1965, A pr. 1981.
2.30 T. K ik u c h i, W . O b a, Y . K o jim a, Y. A sano, and S. M atsui, C om pact
T ra n sm iss io n L in e s fo r In cre a sin g V oltag e w hile K eeping E x istin g E qu ip m en t
In ta c t, CIGRE Session, P a p e r 2 2 /3 3 /3 6 -0 3 , P aris, 1998.
2.31

R. S te p h e n , D e s c rip tio n an d E v alu atio n o f O ptions R elating to U p ratin g o f

O v e rh e a d T ra n sm iss io n L in e s, CIGRE Session, P aper B 2-201, P aris, 2004.

2.32 S. P. H o ffm a n n a n d A . M . C lark, T he A pproach to T herm al U p ratin g o f

T ra n sm iss io n L ines in th e U K , CIGRE Session, P aper B 2-317, Paris, 2004.
2.33

E. C. (R u sty ) B asco m III et al., T ran sm issio n S ystem s, in Standard Handbook

fo r Electrical Engineers, 15th E dition, D. G. Fink and H. W . B eaty, Eds. N ew
Y o rk , U S A : M c G raw -H ill, 2006, sec. 14.

2 .3 4 R. B h a tta ra i, A. H ad d ad , H. G riffiths, and N. H arid, V oltage U p ratin g o f

O v e rh e a d T ra n sm issio n L in e s, in 45th Int. Univ. Power Eng. Conf., C ardiff, U K ,
A u g .-S e p . 2010.
2.35

Conductors fo r the Uprating o f Overhead Lines , C IG R E W G B 2.12, B rochure

2 4 4 , A pr. 20 0 4 .

2.36 J. M . F e rg u so n an d R. R. G ibbon, O verhead T ran sm issio n L ines R e fu rb is h m e n t a n d D e v e lo p m e n ts, IEE Power Eng. Journal, vol. 8, no. 3, pp.
109-118, Ju n . 1994.
2.37 Considerations Relating to the Use o f High Temperature Conductors, C IG R E
W G B 2 .0 3 , B 2 .1 2 , B 2 .1 1, B ro c h u re 331, 2007.
2.38 I. T. D o m in g u e s, J. C. R. L o p es, R. R o q u elan e, S. C abral, and S. U eda, U prating
o f T ra n sm iss io n L in e s - R e c o n d u c to rin g A C S R by C onductors T herm o-resistant
T A C S R an d T A C IR (In v a ria b le ), in IEEE/PES T&D Conf. and Expo: Latin
America, S ao P a u lo , B ra z il, N o v . 2004.
2.39 I. Z a m o ra et al ., H ig h -te m p e ra tu re C onductors: A S olution in the U p ratin g o f
O v e rh e ad T ra n sm iss io n L in e s, proc. IEEE Porto Power Tech Conf., Porto,
P o rtu g al, Sep. 2001.
2.40 E. M a te e scu , D. M a rg in e a n , G . G h e o rg h ita , E. D ragan, St. I. A. G al and C. M atea,
U p ra tin g a 2 2 0 k V D o u b le C irc u it T ra n sm issio n Line in R om ania; Study o f the
P o ssib le S o lu tio n s, T e c h n ic a l a n d E c o n o m ic C o m p ariso n , proc. IEEE Bucharest
Power Tech Conf., B u c h a re st, R o m a n ia , Ju n .-Ju l. 2009.
2.41 F. R. T h ra sh Jr., A C S S /T W - A n Im p ro v ed C o n d u cto r for U p g rad in g E xisting
L ines o r N e w C o n s tru c tio n , proc. IEEE T&D Conf., N ew O rleans, U S A , Apr.
1999, v ol. 2, pp. 8 5 2 -8 5 7 .
2.42 IEEE standard fo r Calculating the Current-Temperature o f Bare Overhead
Conductors , IE E E S ta n d a rd 738, 2006.
2.43

Thermal Behaviour o f Overhead Conductors, C IG R E W G 22.12, B rochure 207,

2002 .

2.44 M . L. L u, G . P frim m e r, a n d Z. K ieloch, U pgrading and E x istin g 138kV

T ra n sm iss io n L in e in M a n ito b a , in IEEE/PES General Meeting , M ontreal,
C a n a d a , Ju n . 2 0 0 6 .
2.45 B. C a u z illo , L. P a ris, an d G. P iro v an o , A m p acity A ssessm ent o f O v erhead Line
C o n d u c to rs as a C o m p ro m ise B etw een S afety and D ereg u lated M arket
R e q u ire m e n ts , CIGRE Session, P a p e r 22-206, Paris, 2002.
2.46 Probabilistic Determination o f Conductor Current Ratings , W G 22.12, E lectra
N o. 164, F eb. 1996.
2.47 C. F. P ric e an d R. R. G ib b o n , Statistical A pproach to T herm al R ating o f
O v e rh e a d L in es for P o w er T ran sm issio n and D istrib u tio n , IEE Proc. C
Generation, Transmission and Distribution, vol. 130, no. 5, pp. 245-256, Sep.

1983.
2.48 F. S o to , D. A lv ira , L. M artin , J. L atorre, J. L um breras, and M . W agensberg,
In c re a sin g th e C a p a c ity o f O v erh ead L ines in the 400kV S panish T ransm ission
N e tw o rk : R eal T im e T h erm al R a tin g s, CIGRE Session , P aper 22-211, Paris,
1998.
2.49 P. M . C a lla h a n a n d D. A . D o u g lass, A n experim ental E valuation o f a T herm al
L in e U p ra tin g b y C o n d u c to r T em p eratu re and W eath er M o n ito rin g , IEEE Trans.
Power Del., vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 1960-1967, O ct. 1988.
2.50 R. J. C a rrin g to n , N e w T e c h n o lo g ie s for T ran sm issio n Line U p ra tin g , proc.
IEEE 8 Int. Conf. on T&D Construction, Operation and Live-Line Maintenance,
O rlan d o , U S A , A p r. 1998, pp. 311-318.
2.51 T. O. S e p p a et al ., U se o f O n -lin e T en sio n M onitoring for R eal-tim e T herm al
R atin g s, Ice L o ad s a n d O th e r E n v iro n m e n ta l E ffects, CIGRE Session, P aper 22102, P aris, 1998.
2.52 C. M e n sa h -B o n su a n d G . T. H e y d t, O v erh ead T ran sm issio n C onductor Sag: A
N ovel M e a su re m e n t T e c h n iq u e a n d the R elatio n o f Sag to R eal T im e C ircuit
R a tin g s, Electric Power Components and Systems, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 61-69,
2003.
2.53 L. A. S. P ilo tto , E n h a n c e m e n t o f T ran sm issio n C ap ab ility P ow er P oint
P re se n ta tio n in NSF/EPR1 Workshop on Urgent Opportunities fo r Transmission
System Enhancement, P a lo A lto , C A , U S A , O ct. 2001.
2.54 J. H. M . F e rn a n d e s et al., E le c tro n o rte and the C hallenge o f L ong-distance
T ra n sm issio n in B ra z il, CIGRE Session, P ap er B 2 -1 11, Paris, 2008.
2.55 National Electrical Safety Code 2007 Edition, IE E E S tandard C 2-2007, 2006.
2.56 Insulation Co-ordination - Part 4: Computational Guide to Insulation Co
ordination and Modelling o f Electrical Networks, International E lectrotechnical
C o m m is s io n S ta n d a rd IE C 6 0 0 7 1 -4 , 2004.
2.57 Overhead Electrical Lines Exceeding AC lk V up to and Including AC 45kV,
B ritish S ta n d a rd B S E N 5 0 4 2 3 , 2005.
2.58 Relevant Electrical Standards, Issue 1, N atio n al G rid, W arw ick, U K , Jan. 2006.
2.59 T. M . S e k ili a n d G . U . M a rtin e z U p ratin g D ouble-C ircuit T ran sm issio n Lines
115kV to 2 3 0 k V , in Sargent & Lundy Transmission & Substation Conf,
C h ic a g o , IL , U S A , N o v . 1982.
2 .60 K. D. S im p so n U p ra tin g T ran sm issio n L in es, in Sargent & Lundy Transmission
& Substation C onf, C h icag o , IL, U S A , N ov. 1990.
2.61

M . B ro sc h a t, T ra n sm issio n L ine U p ratin g 115kV to 230kV - R eport on

O p e ra tin g P e rfo rm a n c e , IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PA S -91, no. 2, pp.
5 4 5 -5 4 8 , M ar. 1972.
vi

2.62 O . L. S. d e P a iv a an d M . S. F ilho, R ev iew in g 10 Y ears o f O p eratin g E xperience

w ith C o m p o site In su lato rs at C H E S F , in World Congress & Exhibition on
Insulators, Arresters & Bushings, C rete, G reece, M ay 2009.
2.63 A. N o u ra i, A . J. F. K eri, an d R. M arsico, U pgrade-L oops: A pparatus and M ethod
fo r In c re a sin g E le ctric a l C learan ces o f E nergized C o n ductors, IEEE Trans.
Power Del., vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 1836-1841, O ct. 1997.
2.64 Selection and Dimensioning o f High Voltage Insulators Intended fo r Use in
Polluted Conditions , In te rn atio n a l E lectrotechnical C o m m issio n Standard
IE C 6 0 8 1 5 , 2008.
2.65 C. E. W illia m so n , T ra n sm issio n L ine D ev elo p m en ts up to 150 kV in E astern
A u stra lia , proc. Int. Conf. on Overhead Line Design and Construction: Theory
and Practice, L o n d o n , U K , N ov. 1988, pp. 173-177.
2.66 S. N. T iw a ri, G. K. S in g h , a n d A. S. B in S aroor, M ultiphase P o w er T ran sm issio n
R esearch - A S u rv e y , Electric Power System Research, vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 207215, Sep. 1992.
2.67 W . C. G u y k e r an d D . F. S h a n k le, 138-kV S ix-P hase U p ratin g o f a 138-kV
D o u b le -C irc u it L in e , IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. P A S -104, no. 9, pp.
25 4 7 -2 5 5 4 , Sep. 1985.
2.68 S. C. N o g a le s et al., H T L S a n d H V D C S o lu tio n s for O verhead L ines U p ratin g ,
in 1I th Spanish-Portuguese Conf. on Elect. Eng., Z aragoza, Spain, Jul. 2009.
2.69 A. C lerici, L. P aris, a n d P. D a n fo rs, H V D C C o n v ersio n o f H V A C L ines to
P rovide S u b stan tial P o w e r U p g ra d in g , IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 6, no. 1, pp.
3 2 4 - 3 3 3 ,Jan . 1991.
2.70 J. L u n d k v ist, I. G u tm a n , a n d L. W e im ers, F easib ility Study for C o n verting
38 0kV A C L ines to H y b rid A C /D C L in e s, in EPRIs High-Voltage Direct
Current & Flexible AC Transmission Systems Conf., W estm inster, C O , U S A ,
N ov. 2009.
2.71

H. R a h m a n an d B. H . K h a n , P o w e r U p g ra d in g o f T ran sm issio n L ine by

C o m b in in g A C - D C T ra n sm iss io n , IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 22, no. 1, pp.
4 5 9 -4 6 6 , F eb. 2007.

2.72 Advice on Limiting Exposure to Electromagnetic Fields (0-300GHz), N ational

R ad io lo g ic al P ro te c tio n B o ard , C h ilto n , U K , vol. 15, no. 2, 2004.
2.73 IC N IR P , G u id e lin e s fo r L im itin g E x p o su re to T im e-varying E lectric, M agnetic,
and E le c tro m a g n e tic F ie ld s (U p to 300 G H z ), Health Phys., vol. 74, no. 4, 1998.
2 .74 S. N in isto , C o u n c il R e c o m m e n d a tio n o f 12 July 1999 on the L im itatio n o f
E x p o su re o f th e G e n e ral P u b lic to E lectro m ag n etic Fields (0 H z to 300 G H z),
Official Journal o f the European Communities, 1999/519/E C , Jul. 1999.
2.75 N a tio n a l G rid. EMF's.info: Electric and Magnetic Fields [O nline]. A vailable:
h ttp ://w w w .e m fs . in fo /R e la te d + Issu es/lim its/U K /
vii

2.7 6 Electric and Magnetic Fields - The Facts, E nergy N etw orks A ssociation, L ondon,
U K , Jan . 2007.
2.77 F. K ie sslin g , D. H u ssels, C. Ju erd en s, and J. R uhnau, U p g rad in g H igh-V oltage
L in es to In c re a se th e ir C a p a c ity and M itigate E nvironm ental Im p acts, CIGRE
Session , P a p e r 2 2 -2 0 8 , P aris, 1998.
2.78 J. W . S im p so n a n d V . E. O g o ro d n ik o v , C onversion o f 115kV L ines to 230kV
and S u b s e q u e n t O p e ra tio n at V o ltag es up to 2 6 2 k V , CIGRE Paper 407 , Paris,
1958.
2.79 P. S. D ean et al., In su la tio n T est for the D esign and U p ratin g o f W ood-P ole
T ra n sm issio n L in e s, IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PA S -85, no. 12, pp.
1258-1267, D ec. 1966.
2.80 L. C. W eb er, E. C . G la ss, a n d G. W . A lexander, A pplication o f S tatistical
M eth o d s in the D e sig n a n d U p ra tin g o f W o o d -P o le T ran sm issio n L in es, IEEE
Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. 84, no. 8, pp. 725-732, A ug. 1965.
2.81

P o w erS erv e, P ro p o se d L ism o re to M u llu m b im b y E lectricity N etw o rk U p g rad e,

P o w erS erv e A u stra lia , T h o rn to n , Q L D , A u stralia, Rep. M P 0048-001, R ev 2, M ar.
2008.

2.82 T ra n sG rid C o rp o ra te B u sin e ss U n it, A n n u al R ep o rt 2 0 0 9 , T ransG rid, Sydney,

N S W , A u stra lia , 2 0 0 9 .
2.83 T ran sG rid , N e w S m all T ra n sm iss io n N e tw o rk A sset - U prating o f S ydney W est
132kV F a u lt In te rru p tio n C a p a b ility , T ra n sG rid , Sydney, N S W , A ustralia, Dec.
2006.
2.84 T ra n sG rid , N e w S m all T ra n sm iss io n N e tw o rk A sset - U prating o f 966 A rm idale
- K o o lk h a n 132kV T ra n sm iss io n L in e , T ran sG rid , Sydney, N S W , A ustralia,
N ov. 2005.
2.85 G. C h a rc o sse t a n d M . L o isel, U p ra tin g o f a 30kV O verhead L ine to 90k W f proc.
lCfh Int. Conf. on Electricity Distribution, B righton, U K , M ay. 1989, v o l.3, pp.
262.
2.86 I. Z a m o ra , A . J. M a z o n , R. C riad o , C. A lo n so , and J. R. Saenz, U prating usin g
H ig h -te m p e ra tu re E le c tric a l C o n d u c to rs, in 16th Int. Conf. and Exhibition on
Electricity Distribution, A m ste rd a m , N e th erlan d s, Jun. 2001.
2.87 C. H. B a y fie ld , U p g ra d in g the A n g lo -S c o ttish In terconnection, IEE Power Eng.
Journal, v o l. 8, no. 4, pp. 161-167, A ug. 1994.
2.88 A. V . R ic h a rd so n , U p g ra d in g the A n g lo -S co ttish Interconnection - K eynote
A d d re ss & P ro je c t O v e rv ie w , proc. IEE Colloquium on Upgrading the AngloScottish Interconnector, L o n d o n , U K , A pr. 1994, pp. 1/1-1/6.
2.89 N G , P ro p o se d S p e n n y m o o r to N o rto n 4 0 0 k V O verhead L ine - E nvironm ental
S ta te m e n t, N a tio n a l G rid , W arw ick , U K , Jul. 2009, vol. I.

2 .9 0 S a rg e n t & L undy. Transmission Line Uprating Services and Current Projects,

L e a fle t [O n lin e]. A vailable: http://w w w .sargentlundy.com /pow er-delivery/lineu p ra te .h tm l

CHAPTER 3
3.1

Insulation Co-ordination - Part 1: Definitions, Principles and Rules, International

E le c tro te c h n ic a l C o m m issio n S tan d ard IEC 60071-1, 2006.

3.2

Insulation

Co-ordination

Part

2:

Application

Guide,

International

E le c tro te c h n ic a l C o m m issio n S tan d ard IE C 60071-2, 1997.

3.3

Insulation Co-ordination - Part 4: Computational Guide to Insulation Co

ordination and Modelling o f Electrical Networks , International E lectrotechnical
C o m m issio n S ta n d a rd IE C 6 0 0 7 1 -4 , 2004.

3.4

Overhead Electrical Lines Calculation o f the Electrical Component o f Distance

between Live Parts and Obstacles - Method o f Calculation, International
E le ctro te c h n ic a l C o m m is s io n S ta n d a rd IE C 61865, 2001.

3.5

Overhead Electrical Lines Exceeding AC 45kV - Part 1: General Requirements Common Specifications, B ritish S ta n d ard B S E N 50341-1, 2001.

3.6

Overhead Electrical Lines Exceeding AC 45kV - Part 3: Set o f National

Normative Aspects, B ritish S ta n d a rd B S E N 50341-3, 2001.

3.7

Overhead Electrical Lines Exceeding AC lk V up to and Including AC 45kV,

B ritish S ta n d a rd B S E N 5 0 4 2 3 , 2005.

3.8

Live Working - Minimum Approach Distances fo r A.C. Systems in the Voltage

Range 72.5kV to 800kV - A Method o f Calculation, International E lectrotechnical
C o m m issio n S ta n d a rd IE C 6 1 4 7 2 , 2004.

3.9

Selection and Dimensioning o f High Voltage Insulators Intended fo r Use in

Polluted Conditions - Part 1: Definitions, Information and General Principles,
In te rn a tio n a l E le c tro te c h n ic a l C o m m issio n S tandard IEC 60815-1, 2008.

3.10 Selection and Dimensioning o f High Voltage Insulators Intended fo r Use in

Polluted Conditions - Part 2: Ceramic and Glass Insulators fo r A.C. Systems,

In te rn a tio n a l E le c tro te c h n ic a l C o m m issio n S tandard IEC 60815-2, 2008.
3.11

J. D. B ro w n , J. J. L aF o rest, K .W . P riest, C. J. T ruax, and D. D. W ilson,

In su la tio n D e sig n - G e n e ral C o n c e p ts, in Transmission Line Reference Book
345kV and Above, P alo A lto , C A , U S A : E PR I, 1975, ch. 9, pp. 281-295.

3 .12 U H V A C T ra n sm issio n C o m m ittee - P o w er System W G , C haracteristics o f

U H V A C T ra n sm issio n S y stem , C R IE P I R eport, Japan, 1982.
3.13 L.

P a ris

an d

R.

C o rtin a,

S w itching

and

L ightning

Im pulse

D ischarge

C h a ra c te ris tic s o f L arge A ir G aps and L ong Insulator S trings, IEEE Trans.

Power App. Syst., vol. P A S -8 7 , no. 4, pp. 9 4 7 -9 5 7 , A pr. 1968.

3.14 T. U d o , S w itc h in g S urge a n d Im pulse S p ark o v er C h aracteristics o f L arge G ap
S p a c in g s a n d L o n g In su la to r S trin g s, IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. 84, no.
4, pp. 3 0 4 -3 0 9 , A p r. 1965.
3.15 L. P aris, In flu e n c e o f A ir G ap C h aracteristics on L in e-to-G round S w itching
S urge S tre n g th , IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PA S-86, no. 8, pp. 936-947,
A ug. 1967.
3.16 Y. W a ta n a b e , S w itc h in g S u rg e F la sh o v e r C h aracteristics o f E x trem ely L ong A ir
G a p s, IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PA S -86, no. 8, pp. 933-936, A ug.
1967.
3.17 G. C a rra ra a n d L. T h io n e , S w itc h in g S urge Strength o f L arge A ir G aps : A
P hysical A p p ro a c h , IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. P A S -95, no. 2, pp. 512524, M ar. 1976.
3.18 S. V e n k a tesa n , R. R a sh e d d in , R. B h a tta rai, A . H addad, N . H arid, and H. G riffiths,
S ig n ifica n c e o f S w itc h in g Im p u lse B re a k d o w n V oltage C haracteristics in
V oltage U p ra tin g , proc. XVII Int. Conf. on Gas Discharge and Their Applicat.,
C ardiff, U K , Sep. 2 0 0 8 , pp. 3 5 3 -3 5 6 .

CHAPTER 4
4.1

Electrical Parameters and Impedance Characteristics o f Plant, Lines and Cables,

N ational G rid , W a rw ic k , U K , T ech. G u id a n c e N o te T G N (E )166, Issue 2, Feb.

2002 .
4.2

M . J. T u n stall, S. P. H o ffm a n n , N . S. D e rb y sh ire , and M . J. Pyke, M axim ising

the R a tin g s o f N a tio n a l G rid s E x istin g T ra n sm issio n Lines u sin g H igh
T e m p era tu re , L o w S ag C o n d u c to r, CIGRE Session, P aper 22-202, P aris, 2000.

4.3

Line Profile - 275kV Overhead Transmission Line, XL Route, N atio n al G rid,

W arw ick , U K , N o v . 20 0 7 .

4.4

Conductors fo r Overhead Lines - Round Wire Concentric Lay Stranded

Conductors, B ritish S ta n d a rd B S E N 5 0 182, 2001.

4.5

Specification fo r Aluminium Conductors and Aluminium Conductors, SteelReinforced - For Overhead Power Transmission - Part 2: Aluminium
Conductors, Steel-Reinforced, B ritish S tan d ard B S 215-2, 1970.

4.6

Design Document fo r 275kV Suspension Insulator Set, L3 Towers, N ational G rid,

W a rw ic k , U K , O ct. 2007.

4.7

Insulator and Conductor Fittings fo r Overhead Power Lines - Part 2:

Specification fo r a Range o f Insulator Fittings, B ritish Standard BS 3288-2, 2009.
x

4.8

Insulators and Fittings fo r 275kV Lines, E n erg y N etw o rk A ssociation, L ondon,

U K , T e c h n ic a l S p e c ifica tio n 4 3-115, Issue 1, 1997.

4.9

O verhead Electrical Lines Exceeding AC 45kV - Part 1: General Requirements

Common Specifications , B ritish S tan d ard B S E N 50341-1, 2001.

4.1 0 Overhead Electrical Lines Exceeding AC 45kV - Part 3: Set o f National

Normative Aspects, B ritish S tan d ard B S E N 50341-3, 2001.
4.11

Guidelines fo r Increased Utilization o f Existing Overhead Transmission Lines,

C IG R E W G B 2 .1 3 , B ro c h u re 353, A ug. 2008.

4.12 R. R a s h e d in , H. G riffith s, N . H arid , and A. H addad, U p rating the E lectrical

C a p a c ity o f an E x istin g T ra n sm issio n L ine - 275kV to 4 0 0 k V , in 16th Int. Symp.
on High Voltage Eng., C ap e T o w n , S o u th A frica, A ug. 2009.
4.13 Selection and Dimensioning o f High Voltage Insulators Intended fo r Use in
Polluted Conditions Part 1: Definitions, Information and General Principles,
In te rn a tio n a l E le c tro te c h n ic a l C o m m issio n S tandard IEC 60815-1, 2008.
4.14 R. H a c k a m , O u td o o r H ig h V o lta g e P o ly m eric In su lato rs, proc. Int. Symp. on
Electrical Insulating Materials, T o y o h a sh i, Japan, Sep. 1998.
4.15 S. M . R o w la n d , Y . X io n g , J. R o b e rtso n , and S. H offm ann, A ging o f Silicone
R u b b e r C o m p o site In su la to rs o n 4 0 0 k V T ran sm issio n L ines, IEEE Trans.
Dielectr. Electr. Insul., vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 130-136, Feb. 2007.
4.16 L ilin g O rie n t P o w e r C o. L td. (C h in a). Composite Insulator [O nline]. A vailable:
FT P :
h ttp ://w w w .p o w e rin su la to r.c o m /list.a sp ? id = 2 0 1
File:
polym er/silicone
ru b b e r lo n g ro d (su sp e n sio n ) in su la to r, p d f
4.17 HVCE High Voltage Creepage Extenders - A Remedy fo r Pollution Flashover
o f Insulators, T y c o E le c tro n ic s E n e rg y D iv isio n , O ttobrunn/M unich, G erm any,

2002 .
S. G o ru r, H ig h -V o lta g e T ra n sm issio n , in The Electrical Engineering
Handbook, W . K . C h e n , E d. L o n d o n , U K : E lsev ier A cad. P ress, 2005, ch. 5, sec.

4.18 R.

V I, p p . 7 3 7 -7 4 8 .
4 .19 Insulation
Co-ordination - Part 2: Application Guide,
E le c tro te c h n ic a l C o m m is s io n S ta n d ard IE C 60071-2, 1997.

International

4 .20 IEEE Guide fo r Improving the Lightning Performance o f Transmission Lines,

IE E E S ta n d a rd 1243, 1997.
4.21

Controlled Switching - Buyer's & Application Guide, 3rd ed., A B B , L udvika,

S w e d e n , 2 0 0 9 -0 4 .

4 .22 M . S a n a y e -P a s a n d , M . R. D ad ash zad eh , and M . K hodayar, L im itation o f

T ra n s m is s io n L ine S w itc h in g O v erv o ltag es using Sw itchsync R elay s, in Int.
Conf. on Power System Transients, M o ntreal, C anada, Jun. 2005.

xi

4.23

K. F ro e h lic h et al., C o n tro lled C lo sin g on Shunt R eactor C om pensated

T ra n sm issio n L ines - P art I: C lo sin g C o n tro lled D evice D e v e lo p m e n t, IEEE
Trans. Power Del., vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 734-740, A pr. 1997.

4 .2 4 H. S e y e d i, M . S an a y e -P a sa n d , and M . R. D adashzadeh, A p p lica tio n o f

T ra n sm iss io n L in e S u rg e A rresters to R educe S w itching O v e rv o lta g es, in Int.
Conf. on Power System Transients, M o ntreal, C anada, Jun. 2005.
4.25 R. B h a tta ra i, A . H a d d a d , H. G riffith s, and N . H arid, V o ltag e U p ratin g o f
O v e rh e a d T ra n sm iss io n L in e s, in 45th Int. Univ. Power Eng. Conf., C ardiff, U K ,
A u g .-S e p . 2010.

CHAPTER 5
5.1

S. S ad o v ic, R. Jo u lie , S. T a rtier, an d E. B rocard, U se o f L ine Surge A rresters for

the Im p ro v e m e n t o f th e L ig h tn in g P e rfo rm a n c e o f 63kV and 90kV S hielded and
U n sh ield ed T ra n sm iss io n L in e s, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 12, no. 3, pp.
1232-1240, Jul. 1997.

5.2

J. A. M a rtin e z a n d F. C a stro -A ra n d a , L ig h tn in g P erform ance A nalysis o f

O v erh ead T ra n sm issio n L in es u sin g the E M T P , IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol.
20, no. 3, pp. 2 2 0 0 -2 2 1 0 , Ju l. 20 0 5 .

5.3

L. S te n stro m an d M . M o b e d jin a , L im ita tio n o f S w itching O vervoltages by use o f

T ra n sm issio n L ine S u rg e A rre s te rs , in CIGRE SC3 3 Int. Conf, Z agreb, C roatia,
1998.

5.4

H. S ey ed i, M . S a n a y e -P a sa n d , a n d M . R. D adashzadeh, A p p licatio n o f
T ra n sm issio n L ine S u rg e A rre ste rs to R ed u ce S w itching O v erv o ltag es, in Int.
Conf. on Power System Transients, M o n tre a l, C anada, Jun. 2005.

5.5

K. Je o n g -B o o , S. E u n g -B o , a n d S. Je o n g -W o o n , S w itching O v erv o ltag e A nalysis

and A ir C le a ra n c e D e sig n on th e K E P C O 7 6 5 k V D ouble C ircuit T ran sm issio n
S y stem , IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 381-386, Jan. 2000.

5.6

J. A. T a rch in i a n d W . G im en e z , L ine S urge A rrester S electio n to Im prove

L ig h tn in g P e rfo rm a n c e o f T ra n sm issio n L in es, proc. IEEE Bologna PowerTech
Conf, B o lo g n a , Italy , Ju n . 2003.

5.7

S. V e n k a tesa n , A . H a d d a d , H. G riffith s, N . H arid, and M . A lbano, R e d u c in g A ir

C le a ra n c e R e q u ire m e n ts fo r V o ltag e U p ratin g o f O verhead L ine b y use o f Line
S urge A rre s te rs , proc. IEEE Conf. on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric
Phenomena, V irg in ia B e a c h , U S A , O ct. 2009.

5.8

Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP) Theory Book, B o n n ev ille P ow er

A d m in istra tio n , P o rtla n d , U S A , 1986.

5.9

J. R. M arti, A c c u ra te M o d e llin g o f F req u en cy -D ep en d en t T ran sm issio n L ines in

E le c tro m a g n e tic T ra n sie n t S im u la tio n s, IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol.
xii

P A S -1 0 1 , no. l , p p . 147-157, Jan. 1982.

5.10 High Voltage Surge Arresters - Buyers Guide, 5.1 ed., A B B , L udvika, Sw eden,
2 0 0 7 -0 4 .
5.11

Insulation

Co-ordination

Part

2:

Application

Guide,

International

E le c tro te c h n ic a l C o m m is s io n S tan d ard IE C 60071-2, 1997.

5.12 Insulation Co-ordination - Part I: Definitions, Principles and Rules, International
E le c tro te c h n ic a l C o m m is s io n S tan d ard IE C 60071-1, 2006.
5.13 IEEE Guide fo r Improving the Lightning Performance o f Transmission Lines,
IE E E S ta n d a rd 1243, 1997.
5.14 Guide to Procedures fo r Estimating the Lightning Performance o f Transmission
Lines , C IG R E W G 3 3 .0 1 , B ro c h u re 63, O ct. 1991.
5.15 Handbook fo r Improving Overhead Transmission Line Lightning Performance,
D o c u m e n t no. 1 0 0 2 0 1 9 , E P R I, P alo A lto, C A , U S A , D ec. 2004.
5.16 SIGMA Sip - Version 2.1 : Software fo r the Determination o f Transmission and
Distribution Line Electrical Performance (User Manual), Sadovic C onsultant,
B o u lo g n e, F ra n ce , 2 0 0 5 .
5.17 T F lash U s e r s G u id e , E P R I, P a lo A lto , C A , U S A .
5.18 I. S. G ra n t et al., A S im p lifie d M e th o d fo r E stim atin g L ig h tn in g Perform ance o f
T ra n sm issio n L in e s, IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. P A S -104, no. 4, pp.
9 1 8 -9 3 2 , Ju l. 1985.
5.19 J. T. W h ite h e a d et al., E stim a tin g L ig h tn in g P erfo rm an ce o f T ransm ission Lines
II - U p d a te s to A n a ly tic a l M o d e ls , IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 8, no. 3, pp.
12 5 4 -1 2 6 7 , Ju l. 1993.
5.20 A. F. Im e c e et al., M o d e lin g G u id e lin e s for F ast F ront T ra n sie n ts, IEEE Trans.
Power Del., v o l. 11, no. 1, pp. 4 9 3 -5 0 6 , Jan. 1996.
5.21 J. A . M a rtin e z -V e la s c o a n d F. C astro -A ran d a, M o d elin g o f O verhead
T ra n sm iss io n L in e s fo r L ig h tn in g S tu d ies, in Int. Conf. on Power System
Transients, M o n tre a l, C a n a d a , Jun. 2005.
5.22 J. A. M a rtin e z a n d F. C a stro -A ra n d a, M o d elin g O v erh ead T ran sm issio n Lines
fo r L in e A rre s te r S tu d ie s , in IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting,
C o lo ra d o , U S A , Ju n . 2004.
5.23 T. H a ra a n d O . Y a m a m o to , M o d ellin g o f a T ran sm issio n T o w er for L ightningS u rg e A n a ly s is , IEE Proc. Generation, Transmission & Distribution, vol. 143,
n o .3, p p .2 8 3 -2 8 9 , M a y 1996
5.24 A. J. E rik s s o n a n d K. H. W eek, S im plified P rocedures for D eterm ining
R e p re se n ta tiv e S u b statio n Im p in g in g L ig htning O v erv o ltag es, CIGRE Session,
P a p e r 3 3 -1 6 , P aris, 1998.
xiii

5.25 U. S a v a d a m u th u , K. U d ay ak u m ar, and V . Jayashankar, M o d ified D isruptive

E ffe c t M e th o d as a M e asu re o f Insu latio n Strength fo r N o n -sta n d a rd L ightning
W a v e fo rm s , IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 510-515, A pr. 2002.
5.26 P. C h o w d h u ri et al ., P a ram e te rs o f L ig h tn in g S trokes : A R e v ie w , IEEE Trans.
Power Del., vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 3 46-358, Jan. 2005.

CHAPTER 6
6.1

High Voltage Surge Arresters - Buyer's Guide, 5.1 ed., A B B , L u d v ik a, Sw eden,

2 0 0 7 -0 4 .

6.2

Guide to Procedures fo r Estimating the Lightning Performance o f Transmission

Lines , C IG R E W G 3 3 .0 1 , B ro c h u re 63, O ct. 1991.

6.3

P. C h o w d h u ri et al., P a ra m e te rs o f L ig h tn in g Strokes : A R e v ie w , IEEE Trans.

Power Del., vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 3 4 6 -3 5 8 , Jan. 2005.

6.4

T. S h o rt, A p p lic a tio n o f th e IE E E G uide for Im p ro v in g the L ightning

P e rfo rm a n c e o f E le ctric P o w e r O v e rh e ad D istrib u tio n L ines (S td. 1410-1997),
p rep a re d fo r IEEE PES T&D C onf, N e w O rleans, U S A , A pr. 1999.

6.5

Protection Against Lightning - Part 2: Risk Management, B ritish Standard B S E N

6 2 3 0 5 -2 , 2 0 0 6 .

6.6

L ilin g O rie n t P o w e r C o. L td. (C h in a). Composite Insulator [O nline]. A vailable:

FTP:
h ttp ://w w w .p o w e rin s u la to r.c o m /lis t.asp?id= 201 File:
p o lym er/silicone
ru b b e r lo n g ro d (su s p e n s io n ) in su la to r, p d f

6.7

Handbook fo r Improving Overhead Transmission Line Lightning Performance,

D o c u m e n t no. 1 0 0 2 0 1 9 , E P R I, P a lo A lto , C A , U S A , D ec. 2004.

6.8

Transmission Line Surge Arrester Impulse Energy Testing, D ocu m en t no.

1 000 4 6 1 , E P R I, P a lo A lto , C A , U S A .

6.9

J. A . T a rc h in i a n d W . G im en e z , L ine Surge A rrester S e lectio n to Im prove

L ig h tn in g P e rfo rm a n c e o f T ra n sm issio n L in es, proc. IEEE Bologna PowerTech
Conf, B o lo g n a , Italy , Ju n . 2003.

6.10 S. S a d o v ic , R. J o u lie , S. T artier, an d E. B rocard, U se o f L ine S urge A rresters for

th e Im p ro v e m e n t o f th e L ig h tn in g P erfo rm an ce o f 63kV and 9 0 k V S hielded and
U n s h ie ld e d T ra n sm iss io n L in e s, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 12, no. 3, pp.
1 2 3 2 -1 2 4 0 , Ju l. 1997.
6.11

Surge Arresters - Part 4: Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters without Gap fo r A.C.

Systems, In te rn atio n a l E lectro tech n ical C o m m issio n Standard IEC 60099-4, 2004.

xiv

CHAPTER 7
7.1

In d e p e n d e n t A d v is o ry G ro u p on N o n -io n isin g R adiation, P o w er F requency

E le c tro m a g n e tic F ield s, M e la to n in and the R isk o f B reast C an cer, H ealth
P ro te c tio n A g e n c y , U K , R ep . R C E -1 , Feb. 2006.

7.2

Establishing a Dialogue on Risk from Electromagnetic Fields , D ept, o f P rotection

o f th e H u m a n E n v iro n m e n t, W o rld H ealth O rganization, G eneva, Sw itzerland,

2002 .
7.3

N a tio n a l G rid . E M F s.info: Electric and Magnetic Fields [O nline]. A vailable:

h ttp :// w w w . e m f s . in fo /R e la te d + Issu e s/S A G E /first/co rridorw idth.htm

7.4

IC N IR P , G u id e lin e s fo r L im itin g E x p o su re to T im e-v ary in g E lectric, M agnetic,

an d E le c tro m a g n e tic F ie ld s (U p to 300 G H z ), Health Phys ., vol. 74, no. 4, 1998.

7.5

IEEE Standard Procedures fo r Measurement o f Power Frequency Electric and

Magnetic Fields from AC Power Lines , IE E E S tan d ard 644-1994, 1995.

7.6

Advice on Limiting Exposure to Electromagnetic Fields (0 - 300 GHz), N ational

R a d io lo g ic a l P ro te c tio n B o a rd , O x fo rd sh ire , U K , vol. 15, no. 2, 2004.

7.7

S A G E , S u p p o rtin g P a p e rs to th e F irst In terim A ssessm ent: P ow er L ines &

P ro p erty , W irin g in H o m e s an d E le ctric a l E q u ip m en t in H om es, R. K.
P a rtn e rsh ip L td ., C a stle C a ry , U K , A pr. 2007.

7.8

Government Response to the Stakeholder Advisory Group on Extremely Low

Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields (ELF EMFs) (SAGE) Recommendations,
H
M
G o v e rn m e n t,
UK,
O ct.
2009.
P u blished
online:
h ttp ://w e b a rc h iv e .n a tio n a la rc h iv e s.g o v .u k /+ /w w w .d h .g o v .u k /e n /P u b lic h e a lth /H e a l
th p ro te c tio n /D H _ 4 0 8 9 5 0 0 .

7.9

N a tio n a l G rid . E M F s.info: Electric and Magnetic Fields [O nline]. A vailable:

h ttp ://w w w . e m f s . in fo /R e la te d + Is s u e s /lim its/U K /

7.10 Electric and Magnetic Fields - The Facts, E n erg y N etw orks A ssociation, L ondon,
U K , Jan . 2 0 0 7 .
7.11 Electrical Parameters and Impedance Characteristics o f Plant, Lines and Cables,
N a tio n a l G rid , W a rw ic k , U K , T ech. G u id an ce N ote T G N (E )166, Issue 2, Feb.

2002 .
7.12 M . A lb a n o , M a n u a le P rg lin e a 3 D (Italian V e rsio n ), 2006.
7.13 M . A lb a n o , R . B e n a to , a n d R. T uri, P redictive A nalysis o f E nvironm ental
M a g n e tic F ie ld s G e n e ra te d b y M u ltip le P o w er L ines, proc. IEEE Bologna
PowerTech C onf, B o lo g n a , Italy, Jun. 2003.
7.14 N a tio n a l G rid . E M F s.info: Electric and Magnetic Fields [O nline]. A vailable:
h ttp ://w w w .e m f s .in fo /S o u rce s+ o f+ E M F s/O v e rh ea d + p o w e r+ lin es/F actors/C urrent/

xv

A p p e n d ix A
F lo w C hart

M o n t e C a r l o S im u l a t io n M e t h o d F o r
L ig h t n in g P e r f o r m a n c e

of

Specify
T otal num b er o f sim ulation (Nlolal)
M axim um sim ulation tim e (tmnr)

G enerate rand o m coordinate o f vertical

return stroke

G en erate ran d o m p aram eter o f return stroke

Im p lem en t E lectro g eo m etric M odel and

extract point o f im pact

E xtract co n d u c to r coordinates

E xtract p aram eters o f insulators and footing

resistan ce

N=N+ 1

S tart sim u latio n t = 0

P erfo rm tim e d o m ain sim ulation

t = t + At

Yes

F lashover?
No
No

Y es
R ep o rt flash o v er rate progress

P rocedure
C onverge?

No

No

Y es

es

O btain flashover rate and stop

xvi

A p p e n d ix B
EPRI S t r o k e A t t r a c t i o n M o d e l D e s c rib e d in T F la s h U s e r
G uide
(Ref: TFlash U ser Guide)
T h e E P R I m o d el first c a lc u la te s a stroke striking distance for the current being
sim u lated fro m th e fo rm u la:

S tro k e D istance = 1 .3 4 / 0 65 H 0 6
W here, H is g ro u n d in te rc e p t h e ig h t
T his takes into a c c o u n t th a t w ires fa rth e r ab o v e the gro u n d can accum ulate m ore charge
and connect to a d o w n w a rd lea d e r at a g rea ter d istance. T he channel location is then
shifted in to w a rd the line to sim u late th e attrac tio n cau sed b y the charge induced on the
w ires due to th e d o w n w a rd leader. T h e facto rs in th is shift are:

/ C hannel L ocation \ 0'5

A ttra c tio n fa c to r = 1 ( ----------------J
/ Channel L o c a tio n \0125
x fact0r = I ---------- 300-----------)
( N W ire s \ 0-25
nw ires fa c to r = I 1
/ M a x H e i g h t \ 0-25
m a x h e i g h t f a c t o r = ( -----------J

current f a c to r = 1

\ 0'5

W here:
C h a n n e l L o c a tio n = th e o rig in al X -co o rd in ate o f the channel
N w ire s = the n u m b e r o f w ires on the to w e r
M a x H e ig h t = the h ig h e st p o in t on the to w er
I = th e stro k e c u rre n t

X V ll

S h ifte d C h a n n e l = C h a n n e lL o ca tio n x ( l- ( x facto r x nw iresfactor x m ax h eig h tfacto r x

c u rre n tfa c to r x a ttra c tio n factor))
T he in te rse c tio n o f th e sh ifted ch an n el w ith a curve that is the S trokeD istance above
and b ey o n d th e o u tsid e to w e r w ires in the right o f w ay is calculated. T he closest w ire to
this in tersectio n p o in t is th en found.
N ext the g ro u n d in te rc e p t h e ig h t is calculated.

The ground slope and obstruction

locations are u se d to d e te rm in e th e h e ig h t o f the ground at the shifted channel location.

Then the e q u a tio n s b e lo w are u se d to calc u la te the intercept height above that point.
If the to w er m a x im u m h e ig h t is b e lo w 4 0 m

Rg = 3.6 + 1.7 lo g ( 4 3 h e ig h t )
else

Rg = 5.5
Then the g ro u n d in te rc e p t h e ig h t is:
Rq

ground s tr k h t = x S tro k e D istance

If this is ab o v e th e h e ig h t fo r th e w ire in tercep t found above the stroke is assum ed to

strike the g ro u n d in ste a d o f th e w ire.

xviii

A p p e n d ix C
L ig h t n in g F l a s h D e n s it y t o G r o u n d (N g ) P e r S q u a r e
K i l o m e t r e P e r Y e a r f o r t h e B r it is h Is le s (B S E N 62305-2)

-200

200

U)0

600

National Grid Eastings |km)

NOTE 1 Tm* jgn tm n g d en sity map w a s com p iled by E A Technology Lid. from data accum uateo over 10 years
n o t e 2 A linear interpolation s n o u d o e u se d to determine the value of the ugntmng flash density. N Tor a
location b etw een tw o con tou r >lne*.

A p p e n d ix D
C o n d u c t o r C o o r d in a t e s o f O v e r h e a d L i n e s :
( W it h r e f e r e n c e t o T a b l e D 1 ) [R e f : N a t io n a l G r id ]

* Earth wire.
i

Bundle cemre, allowing for sag

G ro u n d s u r f a c e

^77^7*7777777777777777777777777777777777.

XX

Table D1: Conductor Coordinates (Including Sag) of

Overhead Line Designs (Ref: National Grid)
Tower
design
L132
L4
L4/1
L4M
(L4 sag)
L4M
(L4/1
sag)
L7
L7/1
L7/2
L3
L3/1
L3/2
L3/2R
L2
L2
L2/1
L2/1R
L2/2
L2/2R
L2/3
I 2/4
I2
I 2/1
L2/1R
L2/2
L2/2R
L2/3
L2/4
L2/5
L2/6
LG
LG/1
L6
L6/1
L6/2
L6
L6H
L6M
L6/1
Ltj/2
L5/2K
lm n
L6/4
L6/5
L8

Operating
Voitaoe

lisulatkxi
Voltaqe

132 kV
132 kV
132 kV

132 kV
132 kV
132 kV

132 kV

L
Z

L
H
L

3 74
2 80
2 00

46 5
420
4.20

3.74
320
320

18.26
18.20
19.07

14.22
14.54
16.12

10.55
10.79
12.37

22.78
22 73
23 79

132 kV

2 80

4.20

320

18.29

14.54

10.79

2273

132 kV

132 kV

2.00

420

3.20

19.07

16.12

12.37

23 79

132 kV
132 KV
132 kV
2/5 kV
275 kV
275 kV
275 kV
132 kV
275 kV
275 kV
275 kV
275 kV
275 kV
275 kV
275 kV
4m kV
4m kV
400 kV
400 kV
400 kV
400 kV
400 kV
400 kV
400 kV
132 kV
132 kV
275 KV
275 kV
275 kV
400 kV
400 kV
400 kV
400 kV
4UU kV
4UU kV
4UU kV
400 kV
400 kV
132 kV

132 kV
132 kV
132 kV
2/5 kV
275 kV
275 kV
275 kV
132 kV
275 kV
275 kV
*00 kV
275 kV
400 kV
275 kV
275 kV
400 kV
40ft kV
400 kV
400 kV
400 kV
'00 kV
'00 kV
'00 kV
400 kV
400 kV
400 kV
400 kV
400 kV
400 kV
400 kV
400 kV
400 kV
400 kV
4uo kV
4U0 kV
4uo kV
400 kV
400 kV
400 kV

2L
Z
2Z
2L
A
2U
2U
2Z
2Z
2C
2C
2RB
2RB
2T
2S
27
?C
2C
2RB
2RB
2T
2S
2CP
2M
4Z
2Z
4Z
2Z
2A
4Z
4Z
4Z
2Z
2A
2A
2KB
2RW
3A
2Z

L
L
L
L
K
K
K
L
L
L
L
K
K
K
K

3 12
3 12
312
4 03
403
4.03
4 03
5 48
548
5.48
5 48
5 48
5 48
548
5 48
5 48
5 48
5 48
548
5 48
548
5.48
548
5 48
G.93
G.93
6 93
6 93
6 93
6 93
6 93
6 93
6 93
693
6.93
6 93
6 93
6 93
5 94

470
470
470
4.26
426
426
426
5.71
5.71
5.71
5.71
571
571
571
5 71
5 71
5 71
571
5.71
571
5.71
5.71
571
571
10.10
10.10
10.16
10.16
10.16
10.16
10.16
10.16
10 16
10.16
10.16
10.16
10.16
10.16
8.53

348
3 48
3.48
45/
457
4.57
4.57
6.09
6 09
6.09
609
6.09
6.09
60 9
6 09
6 09
6 09
6 09
6.09
6.09
60 9
609
6.09
609
8 33
8.33
8.33
83 3
83 3
8.33
833
83 3
833
833
8.33
833
833
833
6.70

18.48
18.02
20.06
24.3/
24.34
25.21
25.21
27.18
28.57
29.02
29.02
29.86
28.54
30.00
29 82
27 24
27 70
27.70
28.54
28.54
28.68
28.50
29.36
27.48
32.20
32.20
32.26
3Z26
33.50
32.26
3Z26
32.26
32.26
33.50
33.50
3 4 /2
33.50
33.49
30.01

14.06
13.60
15.64
18.28
18.25
18.12
18.12
18.41
20.80
21.25
21.25
22.09
20.77
22 23
22 05
19 47
18 93
19.93
20.77
20.77
20.91
2G.73
21.59
20.02
21.79
21.79
21.79
21.79
23.03
21.79
21.79
21.79
21.79
23.03
23.03
24.25
23.03
23.02
20.57

10.35
9.89
1 .93
12.19
12.16
13.03
13.03

22.59
22.59
24 27
30.22
30.88
30.88
30 88
34.94
34 94
35.60
35 60
35.60
35.60
35.60
35 60
34 94
35 60
35 60
35.60
35.60
35.60
35.60
35.60
35.60
44.04
43 09
44.04
43.09
44 04
43 09
43.09
43.09
43.09
44 04
44.04
43.09
44.04
44.04
39.77

1
1
L
K
K
K
K
K
K
Z
Z

z
Z
K

z
z
z
z
K
K

z
K
K
L

r.57
12.95
13.41
13.41
14.25
12.93
14.39
14 21
1' 63
12 09
12.09
12.93
12.93
13.07
12.89
13.75
12.13
12.95
12.95
12.95
12.95
14.19
12.95
12.95
12.95
12.95
14.19
14.19
15.41
14.19
14.13
12.57

K ev to C o n d u c to r s
H = H orse
K = K eziah
U = U pas
S = S o rb u s
C P = C o m p a c t 35

L=
Z =
T =
A =

L ynx
Z eb ra
T o tara
A rau caria

F = Fibral
C = C ollybia
R B = R ubus
R W = R edw ood

xxi

A p p e n d ix E
C IRE D

20th International Conference on Electricity Distribution

Prague, 8-11 June 2009

__________________________________________________________

A P P L IC A T IO N O F S U R G E A R R E S T E R S F O R L IG H T N IN G P R O T E C T IO N O F 33K V
W O O D P O L E D IS T R IB U T IO N L IN E S

R. BH A TTA RA I
Cardiff University - U K
BhattaraiR@Cardiff.ac.uk

N . H A R ID
C ardiff U niversity - U K
H aridN@ C ardiff.ac.uk

A. H A D D A D
Cardiff University - UK
Haddad@Cardiff.ac.uk

arrester configurations and presented in terms o f cumulative

frequency distribution.

ABSTRACT
Line surge arresters may be applied in high lightning
activity areas for the protection o f uprated/compact lines
that have a lower basic insulation level. In this paper, a
lightning protection study considering the application o f
surge arresters was conducted on a compact 33kV
overhead wood pole distribution line. Different arrester
configurations and spacing were investigated in open
ground and naturally shielded ground and compared with
the results obtainedfrom an unprotected line. The variation
in lightning protection level due to application o f surge
arresters at poles with unearthed and earthed crossarm
structures was examined. The surge arrester energy duties
were computed statistically.
IN TR O D U C TIO N
Lightning is considered to be a major cau se o f supply
interruption on overhead distribution lines. There are
numerous methods suggested by several researchers in the
past for the protection o f overhead distribution lin es against
lightning [1-3]. A m ongst th ose, surge arrester protection o f
the line is o f more interest as it can protect the line from
both direct strikes and induced o vervoltages.
Surge arresters always act to lim it the lightning overvoltage
below the flashover voltage o f the insulation. In this study,
the protection o f a three-phase, 33k V w ood pole distribution
line was measured in terms o f its lightning perform ances
(flashes/lOOkm/year) using a statistical approach. For this
purpose, the software p ackage S igm a-S lp , that has been
developed to determine lightning protection o f distribution
and transmission lines, particularly, considering application
o f surge arresters, w as used. T h is softw are m akes use o f
multiphase travelling w ave m ethod for the com putation o f
electromagnetic transients alo n g the line and M onte Carlo
statistical method together w ith E lectrogeom etric M odel
(EGM ) to determine stroke term ination on the line [4].
In order to estimate the flash over rate with and without
surge arresters, statistical stroke analyses w ere carried out
with different am plitudes o f injected strike current. T w o
different cases were considered: the line in open ground and
in naturally shielded ground. T h is study also aim s to show
the improvement in lightning protection level due to
crossarm earthing at the p o le w here arresters are connected.
To demonstrate the line arresters energy capability, its
energy duty was com puted statistically for appropriate

CIRED2009 Session 2

H. GRIFFITHS
C ardiff University - UK
GriffithsH@ Cardiff.ac.uk

Paper No 0947

SIM U L A T E D LINE M O DEL

T he simulated line has a construction with all the
specifications o f 33kV overhead power lines from Scottish
Power L 20 document [5]. It considers a three-phase stout
class w ood pole overhead distribution line, having a pole
height o f 9m and an average span length o f 90m . For the
structure, a 2.5m steel crossarm, a 0.75m crossarm strut and
an 80m m insulator bracket (only for the central phase
insulator) are used. The pole structure and conductor
geom etries are shown in Fig. 1.
T he line is strung with ACSR D ingo conductors o f 150mm2
nominal area. A mid-span sag o f 1.55m was assumed for a
50C conductor temperature which is sufficient to produce a
m inimum clearance o f 5.8m above ground.
A single 33kV porcelain pin insulator with 185kV critical
flashover voltage (CFO) was used. The line was assumed to
be located on flat terrain with ground flash density o f 1
flash/km 2/year.
For lightning protection o f the line, gapless metal oxide
surge arresters with a nominal discharge current o f lOkA, a
M axim um Continuous Operating V oltage (M COV) o f 32
kV and an energy capability o f 3.6kJ/kV were used. Table 1
show s the volt-current characteristic o f the arrester used.
The p ole was m odelled without top branches where it is
represented by a sim ple propagation elem ent which has a
surge impedance equal to the pole surge impedance, a
propagation length equal to the pole height and a
propagation speed equal to the velocity o f light (3 0 0 m/ps).
| _ 1.2m

l.2m ]

0.5m

9m

9.3m

Fig. 1. A 33kV, three-phase distribution line in wood pole showing

conductor geometries

xxii

CI RED

20,h International Conference on Electricity Distribution

Prague, 8-11 June 2009

___________ Paper 0947

Table 1 : Surge arrester volt-current characteristic

1 (kA)
V (kV)

1
93.0

2.5
98.6

5
104.2

10

20

112.0

127.2

A non-linear footing resistance m odel was used, keeping the

ratio between soil resistivity and the p o le low -frequency
resistance equal to 10 in all cases. A total lin e length o f 10
spans was used. In the sim ulation, cou p lin g matrices w ere
connected at the two line ends to avoid reflections. Each
simulated span section w as further d ivid ed into 2 0 small
sections to enable strokes at a number o f points along the
span. For all cases, 2 0 0 0 transient sim ulations were
performed statistically with random lightning strikes having
magnitudes between 1.2 and 161.1 kA and rise tim es in the
range between 1.2 and 4 .3 8 p s. A Fixed tim e to half-value o f
75ps was assumed. In each statistical sim ulation,
electrogeometric m odelling w as carried out on 3 spans.

LIG H TN IN G P R O T E C T IO N S T U D Y
Overhead distribution lines are likely to have different kinds
o f nearby objects along their right o f w ay. T h ese objects
may provide natural shielding to the overhead line and to
som e extent help protect the line from lightning. In order to
recommend appropriate arrester configuration in each case,
an open ground and two cases o f naturally sh ield ed ground
were studied separately. Fig. 2 illustrates tw o typical ca ses
o f naturally shielded ground considered in this study.
It was observed that the surge arrester earth terminal
connection plays a major role in determ ining the protection
level o f the line. T w o cases w ere c lo se ly exam ined. C ase 1:
Unearthed Crossarm (Isolated surge arrester earthing) and
Case 2: Earthed Crossarm (N on -isolated surge arrester
earthing).
In Case 1, the surge arrester earthing terminal was
considered to be earthed with an insulated earthing cable
isolated from the w ood pole and metal crossarm structure.
In Case 2, it was considered to be con n ected to the steel
crossarm strut earthed with a bare conductor passing along
the surface o f the w ood p ole structure. T o sim ulate these
two cases, two parameters w ere varied.
The surge impedance o f the w ood p ole in a distribution line
is very large, and when a bare earth conductor is placed
along its surface (Case 2), the value considerably reduces.
Using values calculated in the literature [6], p o le surge
impedances o f 4 6 4 5 Q and 2 2 4 Q w ere adopted in C ase 1
and Case 2 respectively. T he other important parameter that
varies in each case is the C FO o f the flashover path. In
Case 1, the w ood pole has high surge im pedance with an
unearthed crossarm, and flashover can take place only

between phases. The weakest flashover path is between

phase conductors through the crossarm. The total CFO o f
this path w as calculated using the extended CFO-added
method recom m ended by the IEEE Std. 1410-2004 [1] as
follow s.
C FO rotai = CFOins + 0.45C FO ins
(1)
= [185 + (0.45 x 185)] kV = 2 6 8 .2 5 W
CFOins is the C FO o f a 33kV pin insulator.
In C ase 2, sin ce the crossarm is earthed, the flashover path
is sim ply b etw een the phase conductor and the earthed
crossarm. T herefore, the pin insulator alone provides the
total CFO for the flashover path (185kV ).

E lectrogeom etric m odelling (EG M )

EGM studies were performed to identify the stroke
distribution along the line so that appropriate arrester
configuration and spacing could be selected. To represent
stroke distribution in flat ground, a m odified two-line
CIGRE stroke distribution [7] was chosen with downward
leaders approaching the line vertically.
The striking
distance to lin e conductor ( Rc) and earth (Re), in this case,
w as com puted as [8]

Rc = \ 0 I 65

(2)

Re = [3.6 + 1 .7 1 n ( 4 3 - /i) ] /0'65for/t < 4 0 m

(3)

where / is the lightning impulse current magnitude and h is

the average conductor height.
Fig. 3 sh o w s a summary o f EGM carried out with 20,000
stroke sam p les on the simulated line for open ground and
tw o types o f shielded ground. It clearly show s that the two
outer phase conductors receive more than 85% o f strikes
hitting line conductors in open ground. However, in the
naturally shielded ground, where height o f the shielding
object is at least equal to the height o f the conductor, more
than 88% o f the strikes hitting the line conductors are
collected by only one outer phase (phase A in this case).
This study presents critical information for selection o f
surge arrester configuration on the line. It is important to
note that the tw o outer phases in open ground and one outer
Shield
0.0*

44.0*

Phase B
14.3*
Phase C

41.7*
a. Open Ground

Phu.se A
88.2*

Phase I)

CIRED2009 Session 2

Paper No 0947

Phase A
88.9*

Phase

11.0*

10.5*

Phase C

Phase C

0.8*

a. Shield Ground 1
b. Shield Ground 2
Fig. 2. Two cases o f naturally shielded ground

Phase A

0 .6 *

b. Shield Ground I
c. Shield Ground 2
Fig. 3. Results of EGM for an open ground and two different cases of
naturally shielded ground (% of strikes)

xxiii

CI RED

20th International Conference on Electricity Distribution

Prague, 8-11 June 2009

___________ Paper 0947

phase in naturally shielded ground must be considered in

order to gain substantial lightning protection o f the line.

Table 2 : Lightning performance of the line in open ground for different

arrester configurations
Arrester
Configurations

Surge arrester p rotection

In distribution lines, surge arresters can protect lines against
both direct lightning strikes and lightning induced voltages.
The induced voltage flashover rate depends upon the CFO
o f the flashover path. In unprotected lines, the induced
voltage flashover rate is n eg lig ib le com pared with the direct
strike flashover rate for C FO o f nearly 2 0 0 k V or m ore [2].
The effect o f the induced flashover can a lso be n eglected
when the surge arresters are separated by less than three
spans along the line [ 1 ]. In this study, both co n d itio n s w ere
satisfied and, therefore, the effect o f induced overv o lta g e is
ignored.
Fig. 4 shows the flashover perform ance o f the lin e w ithout
surge arresters. It is obvious that the natural sh ield in g helps
to protect the line. W e can see that the natural shield in g
considered in this case can provide m ore than 50%
protection to the line. It can also be observed that for the
line without surge arresters, an earthed crossarm d o e s not
make any significant difference to its lightning performance.
However, this is not true w hen surge arresters are used to
protect the line, as described in the follow in g sectio n s.

Open ground
Table 2 presents the lightning perform ance o f the line in
open ground for four different arrester con figu ration s
selected based on the EGM study. It can be seen that
arresters connected to an unearthed crossarm (isolated surge
arrester earthing) cannot provide sign ifican t protection
unless if they are installed on each phase and at ev ery pole.
The EGM study show s that, in open ground, m ore than 85%
o f the direct strikes on phase conductors hit the tw o outer
phases only. This m eans that installing arresters o n the two
outer phases should provide at least 85% protection to the
line but, in this case, only about 28% protection to the line
is achieved. On the other hand, with the earthed crossarm
(non-isolated surge arrester earthing), the co n d itio n is
different, and installing arresters on the tw o outer phases
only can provide more than 85% protection to the line.
When the crossarm is not earthed, the flash over path could
not be protected by arresters placed on on ly o n e phase.
Even when lightning strikes the phase where a surge arrester

Uncanbetl Crosm nn
B I urthoU Cross arm

Total Flashover Rate (flashes/1 OOkm/year)

V
V
Unearthed
8.79
5.79
7.65
0.03
6.33
Crossarm
Earthed
4.94
8.97
0.00
1.29
4.67
Crossarm
mark indicates surge arrester on the phase at every pole
mark indicates surge arrester on the phase at every alternate pole

is installed, flashover occurs between that phase and the

phase without arrester. It is also important to observe that
arresters installed on each phase and at every pole could not
provide full protection to the line against lightning. Few
flashovers were recorded when high-current lightning hits
the phase conductor. Here, the overvoltage magnitude
produced between phases due to high-current lightning
strikes was more than the CFO o f the defined flashover path
resulting into flashover between the phases. Fig. 5 shows a
typical overvoltage shape exceeding CFO when a highcurrent im pulse strikes phase conductor/! at different points
along a span.
W ith the earthed crossarm, the surge arresters are in parallel
with the flashover path and, hence, give better protection
than the case with unearthed crossarm. A 100% protection
could be achieved with arresters on all phases and poles.
Installing arresters at alternate poles is not necessary for all
cases, since it does not provide better protection to the line.

Naturally shielded ground

T able 3 show s lightning performance o f the line for two
different cases o f naturally shielded ground in the cases o f
four different arrester configurations selected based on the
EGM study. This case also agrees with the previous
findings. In both cases, installing the arrester on one phase
only at all p oles with earthed crossarm can provide 85%
protection to the line. Installing arresters on phases A and B
at all p oles can give more than 96% protection against
lightning. Even though an earthed crossarm does not make
any difference to the line lightning performance when not
protected, it is shown that it is advantageous to earth the
crossarm and connect the arrester earth terminal to it to
obtain better lightning protection.
350 :
325
300
275 u
250
* 225 i
g. 200
# 175

CFO r 268.25 kV
W

Strike position
0m from pole
----- 9m torn pole
----- 18m (Tom pole

75
50
25 f

0
0

10

It

12

27m (ram pole

36m from pole

13

14

IS

Time (micro sec.)

Open Ground

Shield (.ro u n d I

Shield Ground 2

Fig. 4. Rashover performance o f the line without surge arrester in

different ground conditions

CIRED2009 Session 2

Paper No 0947

Fig. 5. Overvoltage measured between phase conductors A and C at

pole with unearthed crossarm. (A 160kA, 2/75 impulse current applied
to phase A. Arresters installed on each phase and at every pole)

xxiv

CIRED

20th International Conference on Electricity Distribution

Prague, 8-11 June 2009

____________Paper 0947

Table 3 : Lightning performance of the line in two cases of naturally

shielded ground for different arrester configurations
Arrester
Configurations

T otal F lash o v e r R ate (flashes/lO O km /year)

tTJ

Shield
Ground
2

Shield
Ground
1

Unearthed
0.02
4.15
3.50
3.59
3.84
Crossarm
Earthed
4.17
0.00
0.54
0.16
0.64
Crossarm
Unearthed
0.02
4.25
3.45
3.55
3.94
Crossarm
Earthed
0.00
4.26
0.15
0.58
0.69
Crossarm
mark indicates surge arrester on the phase at every pole
mark indicates surge arrester on the phase at every alternate pole

SU R G E A R R E S T E R E N E R G Y D U T IE S
Surge arrester energy duties w ere com puted statistically
with 2000 sim ulations for selected arrester configurations
that provided better protection for the line. O nly high
energy values are presented in terms o f cum ulative
frequency distributions. W hen tw o or more arresters are
installed, they are not equally stressed. T able 4 sh ow s the
energy associated with the highly stressed arrester in open
ground, and Table 5 show s this energy in the ca se o f
naturally shielded ground. In both cases, with earthed
crossarm, arresters installed on all three phases are stressed
with around 300kJ o f energy with a probability o f 0.05% .
Since the line receives around 9 strokes/lOOkm/year in open
ground and 4.1 strokes/lOOkm/year in shielded ground, the
probability o f this situation to occu r per 100km is only once
in 222 years in open ground and 4 8 7 years in naturally
shielded ground. The tables clearly show that the arresters
are not highly stressed even if the line is protected in open
ground with two arresters on the outer phases and in
naturally shielded ground with o n ly one arrester. A s can be
seen, in both cases, the probability o f arrester energy
exceeding its maximum energy capability ( 1 15.2kJ) is less
than 2%.
It can be seen that in case o f unearthed crossarm , arresters
on all three phases can only g iv e 2% energy duty that is
below the energy capability o f the arrester used in this
study. For other arrester configurations (tw o or one arresters
only), the energy duty is 10%, w hich indicates high
probability o f arrester failure on the line. Compared with the
case o f arresters on all phases, the m axim um energy
absorbed by the arrester is also ex cep tio n a lly high.
Table 4 : Arrester energy (kJ) in terms of cumulative frequency
distribution for open ground (High energy values)
Earthed Crossarm
Probability (%)
0.05
0.5
1
2
5
10
20

Table 5 : Arrester energy (kJ) in terms of cumulative frequency

distribution for naturally shielded ground 1 (High energy values)

Unearthed Crossarm

t _ |_ f
299.2
178.1
130.5
98.2
65.6
47.1
31.1

CIRED2009 Session 2

429.6
180.4
134.1
103.1
66.0
48.2
29.7

284.2
153.0
127.6
96.0
65.7
47.0
30.2

9615.9
3150.2
2003.7
1231.2
317.8
98.1
38.1

Paper No 0947

Prob.
(%)
0.05
0.5
1
2
5
10
20

Earthed Crossarm

Unearthed Crossarm

t_ L _ l

U Lf

298.5

516.5

575.2

316.2

192.0
163.2
121.6
54.4
8.5
0.0

183.7
145.9
112.6
87.7
63.0
0.0

244.0
204.5
123.7
90.0
69.1
42.9

186.1
152.2
115.1
89.7
20.9
0.28

Yi_i
7419.9
1303.7
711.8
341.2
197.2
70.14
37.07

13133.7
3056.8
1448.3
795.6
231.9
89.4
43.3

C O N C L U SIO N
Surge arrester protection o f a 33kV w ood pole distribution
line was investigated. It was shown that adequate selection
o f surge arrester configuration can protect the line
effectiv ely against lightning. Arresters connected to earthed
crossarm s allow better protection o f the line compared with
the case o f unearthed crossarms. Arrester failure probability
is low in the earthed crossarms case. Adequate overvoltage
line protection can be provided with surge arresters installed
on the tw o outer phases in the case o f a line in open ground
or with a sin gle surge arrester in the case o f a line in
naturally shielded ground.

A ck n ow led gm en t
T he authors w ish to thank Engineering and Physical
S cien ces Research C ouncil (EPSRC ) for financial support.

REFERENCES
[1] IEEE Std. 1410-2004, IEEE Guide for improving the
lightning perform ance o f electric power overhead
distribution lin es.
[2] T. E. M cDerm ott, T. A . Short and J. G. Anderson, 1994,
Lightning protection o f distribution lines, IEEE Trans,
on Power Delivery, vol. 9, 138-152.
[3] J. M cD aniel, 2 0 0 6 , Lightning protection o f distribution
lines: T hings to consider for a reliable design,

2005/2006 IEEE PES Transmission and Distribution

Conference and Exhibition, D allas, U S A , 1229-1232.
[4] S adovic Consultant, 2005, SIGMA Slp-Version 2.1,
Software fo r the Determination o f Transmission and
Distribution Line Electrical Performance, User
Manual, Sadovic consultant, B oulogne, France.
[5] Scottish Power, 1996, Distribution Specification-L20
fo r Overhead Lines, Issue 1.
[6] M. Solaim an and S. Kato, 2 0 0 5 , Surge characteristics
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mom ent, Proceedings o f the XIVthInt. Symposium on
High Voltage Engineering, B eijing, China, pp. B -40.
[7] Y. A. Wahab, Z. Z. Abidin and S. Sadovic, 2003, Line
surge arrester application on the quadruple circuit
transmission line, Proceedings o f the IEEE PowerTech
Conference, Bologna, Italy, vol. 3.
[8] IEEE Std. 1243-1997, IEEE Guide for improving the
lightning performance o f transmission lin es.